Chapter 1: Data processing and information

Data and information:

Data:

Collection of text, numbers and symbols

It has no meaning on its own

Information:

Processed data; It is data that has structure and context

It has a meaning to it

Data + meaning & context = information

Data sources:

Direct data source:

Data is collected from an original source; no need to request data from a third party

Data is new and never existed before

Data is collected for a specific task and is used for that specific task

Methods of collecting direct data:

 Questionnaire
 Interview
 Data logging and sensors
 Observations
 Survey

Advantages:

 Accurate
 Relevant (up to date)
 Original source of data is known; trusted data
 Only data that is needed is collected; no extra data
 Can sell this data to other organisations
 Less chance of sampling bias

Disadvantages:

 Time consuming; data may be obsolete when data collection

is complete
 Expensive as companies may be hired to collect data
 May have to purchase data logging equipment
 Difficult to process statistical data
 Sample size may be small; less accuracy
 Indirect data source:

Data is collected from a third party

Data is old and already exists

Data is collected for a specific task BUT is not used for that specific task

Methods of collecting indirect data:

 Electoral register
 Organisations collecting personal data & then selling this data to
other organisations

Advantages:

 Data is immediately available

 Less expensive and time consuming
 Data likely to be collected from large samples
 Can gather data that may not be possible to gather by
yourself
 Data can be of higher quality as they have already been
processed

Disadvantages:

 Some data may be extra

 Some required data is absent
 Original source of data is not known; not as trusted
 Data may be obsolete
 Sampling bias

Quality of information:

 Accuracy
Information needs to be accurate
 Relevance
Information needs to relevant to its purpose
There shouldn’t be any extra and irrelevant information
 Age
Information must be up to date
 Level of detail
Information needs sufficient detail
Not too much or too little
 Completeness of the information
All required information must be provided
 (Data can be encrypted when stored on
storage mediums or sent across networks)
Encryption:

The process of scrambling data so that it can’t be understood

It is encrypted using an encryption key

If the hacker intercepts it, it is meaningless

The intended user decrypts it using a decryption key

The need for encryption:

 It is needed when sending or storing sensitive personal data

 Data sent across networks can be intercepted by hackers
 Data stored on storage mediums can be stolen or lost
 Encryption makes data difficult/impossible to read if it is accessed by
unauthorized users

Methods of encryption:

Symmetric encryption:

 Only uses a single private key

 This private key is shared between the sender and recipient
(This can be sent by post or email; can be intercepted)
 The private key is used for both encryption and decryption

Advantages:
 Can encrypt and decrypt large amounts of data quickly
 Easy to use
 Less processing power needed
Disadvantages:
 Private key transportation; can be intercepted
 May not use digital certificates

Asymmetric encryption (aka public key cryptography):

 It uses a private and public key

 The public key is used for encryption
Public keys are provided
 The corresponding private key is used for decryption
by digital certificates
after identifying the user  The public key is known by anyone; private key is kept private
 Anyone with the public key can encrypt data; only private key holders
A digital certificate is
unique to each user can decrypt

When encrypted data is Advantages:

needed, the recipient’s  More secure as it uses two different keys
computer will request the
digital certificate from
 Key transportation problem eliminated
the sender  Uses digital certificates
Disadvantages:
 Slow
 If private key is lost, data can’t be decrypted
 Requires more processing power
 Cannot verify if public key belongs to sender
 Encryption protocols:

Two types:

1. Secure Socket Layer (SSL)

Sites which have SSL Establishes an encrypted link between a client and a server
have “https” and a 2. Transport Layer Security (TLS)
padlock 🔒
Also establishes an encrypted link between a client and a server
It allows 2 users to send
data securely It encrypts data sent over networks to ensure that eavesdroppers
and hackers are unable to see what you transmit
SSL is older than TLS,
but they’re both often TLS and SSL are security protocols that provide security of communication in
referred to as SSL
a network

Both protocols use both symmetric and asymmetric encryption

Advantages:
 Encrypts data
 Provides confidentiality, integrity and authentication (CIA)
 Prevents phishing
 Allows online payments
 No need specialised software
 Has a digital certificate
Disadvantages:
 May slow down sites as it uses server resources
 Proxy caching problems
 Expensive to buy and setup trusted SSL certificate
 SSL certificates expire; needs renewal

Client-server communication:

It functions using SSL/TLS

 The client requests the digital certificate from the server

(Digital certificate is checked for validity)
 SSL/TLS creates an authenticated session by using the public key
found in the digital certificate
 Client and server perform an SSL/TLS handshake
 The client then uses the server’s public key (asymmetric encryption) to
encrypt a symmetric key
 The symmetric key is sent to the server
 The server then uses its own private key (asymmetric encryption) to decrypt
the symmetric key
 The client and server then communicate using that symmetric
encryption keys (because its faster than asymmetric encryption)
Uses of encryption:

Hard disk encryption:

 Can use either symmetric or asymmetric encryption

 It scrambles all the data in the disk except the operating system
 Requires an encryption key to encrypt
 Requires a decryption key/password to decrypt
 When data is written to a disk, it can be automatically encrypted
using encryption software; when it is read from the disk the software
automatically decrypts
 The hard disk stays encrypted should it be moved to another
computer
 This protects data if it is accessed unauthorised people

Advantages:
 Users without decryption permissions cannot access files; they
receive restricted access notification
 Users with decryption permissions are able to access files
without any restrictions
 Disk stays encrypted; even if moved to a different computer
 Any files can be encrypted
Disadvantages:
 If decryption password is lost, access to files are lost
 If O.S fails, access to files are lost
 If O.S is reinstalled, data is deleted

HTTPs:

 Hypertext transfer protocol secure

(Same as client-server communication)
(Advantage and disadvantage same as encryption protocols)

Email encryption:

 Uses asymmetric encryption

 Public key used to encrypt attachments and text
 Private key used for decryption
 If intercepted by hackers/email providers, data is meaningless
 The sender and recipient both send each other a digitally signed
message
 This digital certificate signature can be added to personal contacts
 The presence of this digital signature means the email was actually
sent by the sender and not spoofed
 Advantages:
 As technology becomes more sophisticated, so do hackers;
encryption is needed
 Email & passwords are insufficient security
 Email providers don’t normally encrypt email messages
 The email provider server may not be secure
Disadvantages:
 Hackers can still intercept and delete emails
 Managing digital certificates is complex and time consuming

Checking the accuracy of data:

Validation:

Checking that data entered is reasonable and sensible

It doesn’t check if data is correct

Presence check:

 Ensure that data is entered

 If data is entered, it’s valid
 If data isn’t entered, an error pops up

Range check:

 Ensures that data is within a defined range

 It has two boundaries – maximum and minimum

Limit check:

 Ensures that data is within a defined range

 It has one boundaries – either maximum or minimum

Type check:

 Ensures that data is entered in the correct data type

 E.g. age must be entered with an integer

Format check (aka picture check):

 Ensures that data follows a specified pattern

 E.g. dates must follow dd/mm/yyyy format

Length check:

 Ensures that data is of a defined length

 E.g. phone numbers must have a certain length of integers

Lookup check:

 Ensures that data exists in a list

 E.g. gender can only be “Male” or “Female”
 Consistency check:

 Compares data in a column with another column in the same row to

see if they both match
 E.g. gender is “Male” so the person’s title should be “Mr”

Check digit:

 A check digit is a number added to the end of an ID number

 When an ID number is first created, an algorithm is performed on it
to generate a check digit
 When this ID number is used somewhere, the same algorithm is
performed on it, and the result must match the check digit
 If result = check digit, data is valid, else its invalid

Verification:

Checking that the data entered has been copied correctly from the data source

It doesn’t check if data is correct

Visual checking:

 Compares data with another copy (doesn’t mean its correct)

 Visually checking the entered data against the source document
 Its carried out by the user
 Enables users to see if they made any mistakes

Double data entry:

 Data is entered twice and compared to each other to see if they

match
 Its carried out by the computer
 The computer will alert the user to any mistakes made

Hash total:

 Used for inputting new data

 Hash total is a number produced by adding all numbers in a column,
e.g. adding all ID numbers together
 After data is input, the numbers in a column is recalculated and is
compared to the hash total
 If the two totals are different, then a mistake has been made either
during calculating the hash total or inputting data

Control total:

 It’s similar to hash total

 The hash total may not have any meaning
 Control total has some useful meaning

 E.g. a hash total of the ID numbers has no meaning. A control total

of the number of products in a delivery to a shop has some meaning
 Parity check:

Used to find errors during data transmission

2 types: even parity and odd parity

Even parity:

 Each byte contains 8 bits

 7 bits are data bits and the remaining 1 bit is a parity bit
 Each bit is checked one by one
 The total number of 1’s in the 7 data bits must be even
 If it’s odd, then the parity bit is set to 1 to make the total number of
1’s even, else it remains as 0
 After data transmission, if the number of 1’s are not even then there
has been an error in the data transmission

(Odd parity check does the same, except it uses odd number of 1’s instead of even)

Checksum:

 Used to find errors during data transmission

 Algorithms done on a file results in a checksum
 If a hacker messes with a file or disguises a malicious file as a
genuine file then a different checksum will be generated

The need for both validation and verification:

 It’s possible to enter incorrect data that is valid

Transposition errors are flipped  It’s also possible to verify incorrect data
numbers/letters… you write 89  Using both validation and verification, the chances of entering incorrect data
instead of 98
are reduced
Transcription error is writing the
 Common errors when copying data are transposition and transcription errors
wrong thing
 Verification would pick up transposition and transcription errors; validation
might not

Data processing:

Batch processing:

 Data is collected in batches

 They are all processed at once at a later time without any operators; it is
Master files store data which is
more permanent in nature
automated

Transaction files stores data that Uses:

is used to update the master file.
It’s more temporary in nature  Payroll
 Customer orders
Process:

 Any updates needed to be made to the master file are stored in the
transaction file
 Transaction file is validated
 Transaction file is sorted so that it’s in the same order as the master
file
 The batch process moves through the transaction files and finds the
corresponding record in the master file with the same primary key
 Transaction file and master file are merged
 This continues until all records in the master file have been copied to
the new version

Process algorithm:

For each line in transaction file

Repeat

Read next record in master file

Until transaction file ID matches master file

ID

Master file total for current record = master

file total + transaction file value

Next line in transaction file

Advantages:

 Can be scheduled to run at times when demand for computer

recourses are less
 Can process large volumes of data at once
 No need expensive hardware
 Lower operation costs as lesser need for operators
 Automated; no transposition and transcription errors

Disadvantages:

 Delay as data is not processed until the specific time period

 Errors cannot be corrected until the batch process is complete
 Users cannot stop the operation; have to wait till execution is
complete
 Execution time can be lengthy
Online processing:

 An interactive processing where data is input by the user and feedback is

given in the form of outputs
 A user communicates directly with a computer
 Processing data is stored in RAM
 When a user changes this data, the computer will automatically update and
re-process
 No transaction will be processed until the previous transaction is complete
(Users constantly use the system to input data)

Uses:

 Electronic funds transfer

 Online stores
 Automatic stock control
 Electronic data exchange
 Business to business buying and selling

Advantages:

 Easy for online transactions

 Process is automatic – no need human supervision
 Quick responses
 Errors are revealed immediately; can be acted on
 Requires expensive hardware

Disadvantages:

 Requires up to date anti-virus software

 Incorrect information can pass validation and verification
 Danger of hackers targeting personal data
 Needs stable server so that it’s not affected by high traffic
 If electricity supply to servers are disturbed, server downtimes can
occur
Real-time processing:

 When data is input into the computer, it produces an output immediately

 Similar to online processing; real-time uses sensors rather than human input

Uses:

 Air traffic control

 Central heating system
 Air conditioning system
 Guidance systems
(The output of central heating, air conditioning and guidance systems affects the input)

Advantages:

 Can do jobs that humans cannot

 Information is always up to date
 There is no delay in data processing
 Ideal for processing large amounts of data
 Errors can be found and be acted on immediately

Disadvantages:

 Needs complex computer systems and sensors

 Requires computers resources all the time
 Cannot usually process large volumes of data at once like batch
processing
 System failure/downtime can cost a lot
 Chapter 2: Hardware and software
Mainframe computers:

Powerful computers serving several terminals

Designed to be used by thousands of simultaneous users

Uses:

 Census
 Transaction processing
 Batch processing
 Industry statistics
 Consumer statistics

Characteristics:

 RAS (reliability, availability and serviceability)

Hot-swap: replacing  Hardware must be able to self-check and recover automatically
components while the system is  Software must be able to be updated quickly and easily
still running
 The system must be continuously available
 It must also be possible to hot-swap hardware without shutting down the
system
 Maintenance downtime must be as short as possible
 Longevity
 Mainframes are very expensive; need to be useful for several years
 Ability to upgrade by adding more processors & memory
 Heat maintenance
 Requires cooling system
 Either air cooling or liquid cooling
 Security
 There should be controlled access, allowing only authorised users to use the
system
MIPs are often used in terms of  Software for monitoring threats
MIPs per unit cost  Performance metrics: MIPS
MIPs are not accurate:  Millions of instructions per second
 Can be unreliable as the complexity of instructions can vary according to which
 Workload mix; random
recourse requirements
benchmark program is used
 Memory and cache sizes;  MIPs are used with integers
more memory and cache  Measures performance of computers running application softwares
affects performance
 Does not take into account input/output speeds & activity
 Input and output activity;
lot of activity leads to less  Volume of input, output and throughput
efficient use of processors;  Fault tolerance
tasks are suspended for
input/output interruptions
 Operating system
to be processed  Type of processor
 Advantages:

 Can perform hundreds of MIPs

 Usually don’t have server downtime
 Reliable, available and serviceable
 Fault tolerance
 Can run different operating systems; can handle different types of database
 More secure than most other types of computer as they use complex
encryption systems

Disadvantages:

 Very expensive (can use cloud instead)

 Expensive software
 Support specialists required
 Occupies large space
 Generates lots of heat; cooling systems expensive

Supercomputers:

Large computers with parallel processing to complete highly complex tasks quickly

Designed to carry out large numbers of complex calculations

They are run at maximum power to process data

Uses:

 Quantum mechanics
 Weather forecasting
 Climate research

Characteristics:

 Longevity
 Supercomputers are very expensive; need to be useful for several years
 Ability to upgrade by adding more processors & memory
 Heat maintenance
 Requires cooling system
 Either air cooling or liquid cooling
 Performance metrics: FLOPS
 Floating point operations per second
 Can be unreliable as the complexity of instructions can vary according to which
benchmark program is used
 Measured by the >quadrillions in floating point numbers
 Used where complex calculations are executed
 Does not take into account CPU clock speed, bus speed and amount of RAM
 Fault tolerance
 Operating system
 Type of processor
 Advantages:

 Can perform hundreds of FLOPs, very fast

 Fault tolerance
 Can run different operating systems; can handle different types of database
 Environment friendly; provides virtual testing environment, such as for
testing nuclear weapons

Disadvantages:

 Very expensive
 Expensive software
 Support specialists required
 Occupies large space
 Generates lots of heat; cooling systems expensive
 Requires large and fast storage drives

System software:

Programs needed to operate a computer system

Operating system:

 The software that manages the hardware

 After BIOS loads, O.S is the first software that will load
 O.S sits between hardware and application softwares and manages any
communication between them

Operating system tasks:

 Allocating memory to software

 Sending data to hardware
 Responds to input
 Opening and closing files

Device drivers:

 Manages specific hardware models

 Without device drivers, the hardware won’t work
 Device drivers are installed after hardware is plugged in via USB port
 It sits between O.S and hardware
 It tells the O.S how to communicate with hardware
 Handles the translation of requests between hardware and computer

Translators:

Translates a program written in high level programming language into machine code
that a computer can understand

High level programming language = source code

Machine code is stored inside a file called executable file

 Compilers:

 A program that translates source code into machine code all at once
 It creates an executable file
 As it is an executable file, it can only run on the operating system for
which the compiler has compiled it for
(E.g. a program compiled for windows won’t work on macOS)
 After compilation is complete, the compiler produces an error
message (if any) to help programmers debug the program

Interpreters:

 It translates source code into an intermediate stage one line at a

time and then executes that line
 It reports on errors as lines of source code are entered
 The translated program can run on any operating system
 In order for the translated program to run on any operating system,
the interpreter has to be resident in computer memory

Linkers:

 Source code consists of several modules

 Each module will be compiled into a separate object file
 Linkers combine all these separate object files into one executable file
Not all modules are always needed, so linkers are able to select which modules to combine

Utility software:

A program that performs maintenance on a computer system

It manages system resources

Anti-virus:

Deals with threats such as adwares, malwares and viruses

 Anti-virus monitor detects changes in files behaviour

 It scans the computer to make sure it isn’t infected with a virus
 It may quarantine or disinfect infected programs
 User asked if to delete the infected programs or not

Backup:

 Creates a second copy of data that are in storage

 Can uses these copies to restore original data in case data is lost or
destroyed
 Backup softwares asks user the frequency of backups
 Asks the user the type of backup and if you wish to restore/verify the backup
 Data compression:

 Encoding data using fewer bits than the original

 Can be either lossy or lossless
 Lossless compression reduces number of bits by identifying repeated
patterns; no information is lost
 Lossy compression reduces number of bits by identifying unnecessary
information; information is lost
 File size is reduced

Disk defragmentation:

 It is the rearranging of files stored on a disk

 Organises the contents of the disk into the smallest number of fragments
 Brings defragmented files together
 Attempts to create larger regions of free space
Read/write heads are the
slowest moving parts in HDD
 Data retrieval is made easier and quicker when the hard drive’s read/write
heads have to move less for a defragmented file

Structure of a hard disk:

 Hard disks consists of several

platters
 Each platter has its own
read/write head
 The read/write heads move
across the platters; it only stops
to read data from or write data
to the surfaces
 Each platter is divided into
several tracks
 Each track is divided into sectors
 Tracks in the same position in all platters form cylinders

Disk formatting:

 Prepares disk for initial use

 Organises the tracks on a disk into sectors
 Formatting used disks erases all data
 First stage is low level formatting followed by partitioning followed by high
level formatting

File management:

 File-copying utilities creates a new file which has the same content as an
existing file
 Deleting files removes a file from a computer's file system
 Deleting utilities deletes locked files permanently
Custom written software and off-the-shelf software:

Custom written software:

Software that is written especially to meet the requirements of a client

Advantages:

 It meets client’s requirements

 No unnecessary features
 It does not have to be adapted for use
 Programmers are available to make any changes/rectify bugs
 Programmers will ensure that it is compatible with the existing
hardware and software

Disadvantages:

 Expensive
 Testing is limited to what the programmers think is required
 Support is limited to the team of programmers only
 Can take a long time to develop the software
 There will be a lot of bugs as it has not been tested so thoroughly

Off the shelf software:

General purpose software available to a large market

Software can be purchased

Advantages:

 Immediately ready for use

 Development cost is shared by all customers; cheap
 Rigorously tested by developers; less likely to have any bugs
 May get upgrades by developers when patches are released
 Wide range of support

Disadvantages:

 Has to be adapted for use

 Has unnecessary features
 Call centres support may not be able to solve problems specific to
businesses
 May not be compatible with existing hardware and software
 Have to buy a licence

Proprietary software:

 Owned by an individual or a company

 Major restrictions on its use
 The source code is kept secret
 Software vendor explains the terms and conditions of use in an end-user licence agreement
 Covered by copyright; provides legal basis to establish exclusive rights
Open source software:

 Free and openly available

 Source code is published; user can modify & share it
 Not protected by copyrights

User interfaces:

It is the communication between the user and the computer

Command line interface:

Uses commands that need to be typed

Advantages:

 Can be faster if user is experienced

 Does not take up much hard disk space
 Does not need much memory
 Does not need a powerful processor
 Can perform complex operations that other interfaces cannot

Disadvantages:

 Need to remember commands

 Need to typed: slower
 Errors can easily be made
 Has to be in a specific syntax for it to work
 Needs specialist knowledge as help facilities are not helpful

Graphical user interface (GUI):

Uses WIMP- windows icons menus pointer

Advantages:

 User friendly
 No commands to remember
 Easier and faster
 Exchange data between applications
 Help facilities

Disadvantages:

 Takes up more hard disk space

 Uses more memory
 Needs powerful processor
 May be slower for experienced programmers to use
Dialogue interface:

Uses speech to communicate with a computer

Advantages:

 Can be used by uses with physical disabilities

 Allows contactless control; suitable in cars
 No need physical interface; can be used with a distance
 Quicker than typing

Disadvantages:

 Background noise
 Speech impediment, e.g. stuttering
 Computers ability to detect different accents/voices
 Cannot understand commands in any format; needs specific
commands
 May require training to use

Gesture based interface:

Recognized human motion

Advantages:

 Can be used by disabled users… e.g. eye tracking

 Fast to use and learn
 Can be used by people with speech impediment
 Gestures can be taught through manuals
 Can be used to prevent spread of germs

Disadvantages:

 Less effective when there is background movement

 Some gestures may not be socially acceptable
 Some gestures may be unintentional yet still initiate a
response
 Needs physical interface; cannot be used while driving
 Requires line of sight; sensors needs to be calibrated
 Chapter 3: Monitoring and control
Sensors:

 An input device that automatically collects data about a physical environment

 Removes the need for manual monitoring
 Data from sensors are input into a computer (microprocessor) and any actions
necessary are done
Types of sensors:
Advantages:
 Light/UV
 24/7  Temperature
 More frequent readings  Pressure
 More accurate and consistent readings  Humidity
 No need human labour; less costs  Moisture
 Can work in dangerous conditions  Sound
 Infrared
Disadvantages:  Touch
 Electromagnetic field
 Initial cost is high
 Proximity
 Dirt and grease may affect performance  pH…
 Can give anomalous result if sensor is faulty

Calibration:

 The process of testing and modifying a sensor to make sure that it is taking the
correct readings
 To make sure that data collected by a sensor is accurate, it is calibrated

Importance of calibration:

 Accuracy of sensors fall after a period of time due to constant use

 Regular calibration maintains accuracy of sensors
 Other devices within a monitoring system may deteriorate over time
resulting in a need for recalibration

How to calibrate a sensor:

There are 2 methods –

1. Calibration reference
 The calibration reference is a sensor that is known to be calibrated
 The reading from a sensor is compared to the calibration reference
sensor to see if both readings are same
2. Physical reference
 A ruler can be used to see if an object that should trigger a proximity
sensor does so from the correct distance
 Characteristic curve:

Each sensor has a characteristic curve (a graph)

This graph maps out the sensor’s response in comparison to an ideal response

There are 3 main results given by sensors:

1. Offset
 Sensor readings are higher or lower than ideal reference
2. Sensitivity
 Sensor readings change over a range at a different rate to the ideal
reference
3. Linearity
 Sensor readings are directly proportional to the ideal reference

Types of calibration:

1. One point calibration

 Used to correct an offset calibration curve
 Sensor partly reads correctly; just too high or low
 Can be calibrated based on a single reading to bring reading closer to
ideal reference
Process:
I. Take reading with sensor
II. Compare sensor reading with ideal reference
III. Subtract sensor reading from ideal reference to get offset
IV. Add the offset to every sensor reading to get calibrated value
2. Two point calibration
 Used to correct an offset and sensitivity calibration curve
 It rescales sensor reading
 More accurate than one point calibration
Process:
I. Take two different sensor readings (from the extremes: lowest and highest reading)

II. Compare sensor reading with ideal reference

Range=highest – lowest
III. Calculate range of sensor reading and ideal reference
IV. Use formula:
(𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)⨉ 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = + 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

3. Multipoint calibration
 Similar to two point calibration; just uses more than two readings
 Increases accuracy
 Can calibrate non-linear sensors

(Same process as two point calibration)

 Monitoring system:

A system that collects data and stores it for later use

The main components in a monitoring system are sensors

Sensor uses:

 Light sensors to measure level of light in greenhouse

Types of sensors:  Weather stations use temperature sensors to measure ambient temperature
Temperature sensors also used to measure greenhouse temperature
 Light/UV
 Pressure sensors to measure atmospheric pressure
 Temperature
 Pressure  Humidity sensors to measure absolute and relative humidity
 Humidity  Moisture sensors to measure water content of soil
 Moisture
 Sound sensors in burglar alarm systems to detect the level of sound an intruder
 Sound
 Infrared might make
 Touch  Infrared sensors to detect movement of human bodies in burglar systems
 Electromagnetic field  Touch sensors incorporated within detection devices used to measure fluid levels (e.g.
 Proximity cooling water level in nuclear power plants)
 pH…
 Electromagnetic field and ultrasonic sensors in car parking systems
 Proximity sensor in smartphones to switch off screen display when phone is held
near to the ear
 pH sensor to measure pH of soil

Also used in weather station, water pollution and environmental monitoring

Control system:

A system that collects data and sends it to computer for analysis

May result in action being taken

The main components in a control system are sensors, microprocessors and actuators

Microprocessor:

 An integrated circuit used in control systems

 Processes instructions
 Performs mathematical calculations

Advantages:

 Easily programmed to do several tasks

 Small in size
 Fast at moving data between memory locations
 Low power consumption

Disadvantages:

 Size of data they can hold is limited

 Can overheat due to demanding performance
 No internal memory
 Expensive
Actuator:

 A type of motor used to move and operate another device

 It operates the actions to be performed in control systems
 Can be hydraulic, pneumatic or electric

Advantages:

 High performance speeds

 Pneumatic actuators are relatively cheap
Also safe and easy to use
Fire and explosion proof
Low technical requirements
 Hydraulic and electric actuators are fairly quiet

Disadvantages:

 Fluids can leak in hydraulic actuators

 Pneumatic actuators are noisy
 Hydraulic and electric actuators are expensive

Sensor, microprocessor and actuator process:

 Sensor collects data

 Analogue data is converted into digital data using ADC – analogue to digital
converter
 Data is sent to microprocessor
 The microprocessor compares this data with pre-set values
 If reading is not within this pre-set limit, signals are sent to actuators ; else
no action is taken
 Actuators makes the device function to bring it within pre-set limits
Algorithm and flowcharts can be made based on this process

This process can be modified for any control system use ↓

Control system uses:

 Greenhouse
 Central heating / air conditioning
 Burglar alarms
 Traffic control (traffic lights)
 Car park barriers
 Smart homes
 Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks
 Chapter 5: eSecurity
Personal data:

Data that can be used to identify a living person

Why personal data should be kept confidential:

 Prevent identity theft

 Prevent fraud
 Prevent blackmail
 Scams
 Misuse of personal data can hinder future job opportunities
 Prevent theft of banking details
 Keep your home address a secret so no crime can happen against you
Personal data MUST NOT be given to anyone

How personal data can be kept confidential

 Strong passwords
 Encrypt personal data
 Firewall & Anti-virus
 Biometrics
 Only visit websites that have SSL
 Don’t open email attachments from a stranger
 Remove geotags from photos posted on social media
 Use secure privacy controls
 Report and block suspicious users
 Use a VPN

How personal data can be collected:

1. Phishing 3. Vishing
2. Smishing 4. Pharming
Phishing:

Fraudsters send emails which seems to be authentic pretending to be from a

bank/organisation. The emails provide a link to a bogus website

 It uses the internet

 It relies on the user clicking the link in the email
 Requires the user to enter personal details
 Tries to obtain personal details

Prevention:

 Never give out personal details through an email

 Don’t respond to any emails from strangers
 Real emails will address you by your name; fake ones will
address you generically, e.g. Dear Mr/Sir
 Report any phishing activity
 Don’t click on .exe file attachments
 Check the domain of the email… [email protected] is fake
 Check for spelling and grammar mistakes
Smishing:

Strangers send text messages

The user is asked to phone a number/ reply to the text/ click on a link.

It is basically “phishing” but uses SMS instead of emails

 Attacks your smartphone

 It relies on the user clicking the link in the SMS
 Requires the user to enter personal details
 Tries to obtain personal details

Prevention:

 Never give out personal details through text messages

 Ignore texts from strangers
 Don’t phone the number or click on a link
 Report and block any smishing activity
 If the text messages say something like “dear user, OMG U
HAVE WON A FERRAARRI” then it is smishing.
 Check for spelling and grammar mistakes

Vishing:

Fraudsters call victims or redirects calls to them

The victim is told that there is fraudulent activity in their account and they
need to provide their personal details to resolve this issue

It is basically “phishing” but uses phone calls instead of emails

 Uses VOIP
 Fraudsters use psychology to trick victims
 Relies on user giving out their personal details over the phone
 Tries to obtain personal details

Prevention:

 Never give out personal details through phone calls unless

you know that the caller is legitimate
 Hang up on phone calls you think are suspicious
 Report caller’s contact to police
 Verify caller’s identity
 If the caller asks you to transfer money to a bank account,
it’s most probably vishing
 Pharming:

Installing a malicious code on a computer

Uses Domain Name Server
(DNS) cache poisoning This code redirects the user to a bogus website even if they typed the website
address correctly
This exploits vulnerabilities in
the DNS and diverts internet The website seems to be authentic but belongs to the fraudster.
traffic headed for a real server
to a bogus one  It uses the internet
 It is automatic
 Requires the user to enter personal details
 Tries to obtain personal details

Prevention:

 Check the website address to see if it is correct

 Make sure the website has a SSL (HTTPs)
 Don’t download .exe files
 Use up to data anti-pharming and antispyware
 Use a firewall
 Use a VPN when using public Wi-Fi

Malware:

Short form of malicious software

It is a software that is designed to damage a computer

Types of malwares:

 Virus  Spyware  Malicious bot

 Trojan  Adware  Ransomware
 Worm  Rootkit
Virus:

A software that replicates itself automatically

It infects computer files by attaching to them and replicating

Use:

 Corrupt and disrupt data

 Sabotage
 Collect personal data

Consequences

 Computers connected in a network can all be infected

 Personal data stolen; fraud
 Email spam
 Damage hard disks
 Taking control over the machine
 Preventions:

 Use up to date anti-virus

 Use a firewall
 Don’t open attachments from emails unless you know who the
sender is
 Scan external storage devices for virus
 Don’t download pirated software
 Download software from reputable sites

Trojan:

A software that disguises itself as a legitimate software

Mostly downloaded from infected emails and websites

It looks harmless as it is disguised

When Trojan file is opened, it releases another type of malware, e.g. virus…

Use:

 Damage and steal data

 Sabotage
 Spy – industrial espionage
 May give remote access to unauthorized people

Consequences

 May disable the operating system

 Files can become infected
 Personal Data is stolen; fraud

Preventions:

 Download software from reputable sites

 Don’t run files that you deem suspicious
 Don’t open email attachments from strangers
 Use up to date Antivirus and firewall

Worm:

A software that replicates like a virus

But unlike a virus, it doesn’t need to attach to files to cause damage

Worms take Downloaded from infected email attachments and websites
advantage of
operating system
vulnerabilities
Use:

Update operating  Sabotage

system to make
them less  Infect large number of computers in a network
vulnerable  Fill up all free space in a hard disk
 May give remote access to unauthorized people
 Consequences

 Computer starts to run slowly

 Hard disk space rapidly decreases
 Clogs up bandwidth; slows down network
 Data is erased

Preventions:

 Keep operating systems up to date

 Use up to date Anti-virus and firewall
 Disconnect computers from networks when resources aren’t needed
 Don’t download .exe file attachments
 Check the domain of the email… [email protected] is fake

Spyware:

A software used to gain personal details – it’s a spy

Example of spyware is key logger

Key logger records the keystrokes and sends this back to the hacker

Spywares are downloaded unknowingly when using the internet – such as pop up
advertisements or downloading free apps

Use: Cookies are files stored on a

person’s computer through a
web browser each time they
 Gain personal details visit a website
 Targeted marketing by reading cookies
They store information about
the user
Consequences
They can see if a user has visited
 Personal Data is stolen; fraud a website before; can be used to
monitor internet activity
 Annoying ads
 Industrial espionage

Preventions:

 Download software from reputable sites

 Don’t click on links in pop up advertisements
 Always read terms & conditions when installing software
As sometimes you can agree to download spyware
 Use up to date anti-spyware
 Use on screen keyboards when entering sensitive data, e.g. credit
card numbers

Adware:

A software used for displaying targeted ads on your computer

It reads cookies to know your browsing habits

Can be unknowingly downloaded with legitimate softwares

 Use:

 Targeted marketing

Consequences

 Slows down the computer

 Irritation from annoying pop ups

Preventions:

 Make sure adwares aren’t given permission to be installed when

downloading softwares
 Use ad blocker
 Use adware removal software
 Use up to date anti-malware

Rootkit:

A software that enables a person to gain administrator access to a victim’s computer

Allows remote access to your computer by unauthorized people

Downloaded when a victim’s password is cracked, or when a computer’s vulnerable

security is exploited or via an infected USB

Use:

 Spy
 Unconsented remote access
 Gain personal details
 Crime and cyber attacks

Consequences

 Additional malwares can be included with the rootkit

 Personal Data is stolen; fraud
 Can use computer systems to commit cyber-attacks; Possibility of getting swatted

Preventions:

 Strong passwords
 Download software from reputable sites
 Don’t insert a random USB into a computer
 Keep operating system up to date, or re-install it

Malicious bot:

An automated bot that can infect a computer system

They are like worms: they can replicate and spread themselves

Downloaded through infected email attachments and softwares

 Use:

 Spam bot
 Zombie bot
 Chatter bot
 File sharing bot

Consequences

 Spam bots bombard inboxes with spam mail

 Zombie bots form botnets (bot networks) to launch attacks on
organisations
 Chatter bots pretend to be humans on sites in order to get personal
data
 File sharing bots can offer download links for an infected file download
Preventions:

 Don’t click on and download .exe file attachments

 Check the domain of the email… [email protected] is fake
 Download software from reputable sites
 Never give personal details when chatting
 Use anti-malware and firewall

Ransomware:

A software that restricts a user’s access to their computer and files

Usually asks victim to pay ransom to regain access; if not paid then data may be
deleted forever

Ransomwares can either lock the system or encrypt all the files

Ransomwares enters a computer in a similar way to Trojan (infected emails and websites)

Use:

 Take control over a computer system

 Locks or encrypts all files
 Hacker demands a ransom

Consequences

 Can lose valuable data

 Losing money – further exploited if ransom is paid; blackmail

Preventions:

 Download software from reputable sites

 Don’t run files that you deem suspicious
 Don’t open email attachments from strangers
 Use up to date Antivirus and firewall
 Backup data or use cloud storage
 Chapter 6: The digital divide
What is the digital divide:

 It is the divide between people and regions that have access to aspects of modern
technology and information, and those with restricted or no access
People with physical and
mental disabilities This technology includes phones, TVs, computers and internet
constitute to the digital
divide
 It is also the divide between those who have skills, knowledge and abilities to use
these technologies and those who don’t
 The digital divide can also exist because of the availability of high and low
performance computers as well as wireless connections

Where digital divide exists between:

 People in urban and rural areas The effects of digital divide in all
 Tech educated and tech uneducated people areas include inequality of access
to all types of internet services
 Old and young people
 More and less industrially developed areas/countries
 Socio-Economic groups

The divide between countries (developed and developing) is called the global digital divide

The quality and price of connection to the internet varies between countries

People in urban and rural areas:

Causes:

 Concentration of people in urban areas is greater; broadband providers have

Broadband is a method larger customers base in cities
of high level traffic data
 Expensive to install broadband infrastructure in rural areas
transmission
Broadband providers can profit faster by implementing advanced infrastructure in urban areas
 Poor internet connection in rural areas

Effects:

 Reduced online entertainment

 May not be able to use some online services; isolation

Reducing digital divide:

 Setting up cyber cafes in rural areas

 Improve rural broadband infrastructure
 Use satellite technology for internet connection
Tech educated and tech uneducated people:

Causes:

 Lack of access to technology

 Tech uneducated don’t have skills, knowledge and abilities to use technology
 No interest in using technology
 Lack of understanding of the relevance and benefits of broadband
technology

Effects:

 Miss out on online opportunities, such as online shopping

 Some services are entirely online; needs education to use

Reducing digital divide:

 Teaching programmes to implement education for free or cheaply

 Encourage development and use of broadband applications; encourages
people to learn how to use technology

Old and young people:

Causes:

 Young people grew up with technology; older people feel they are too old
and may be unwilling to learn
 Older people may have no interest in using technology
 Older people may lack confidence in using technology as they witnessed the
world before the invention of technology; may prefer to use older and more
“comfortable” methods, such as postal services or libraries instead of the
internet

Effects:

 Older people may stick with using older norms, which is increasingly
becoming outdated
 As people become older, their mobility decreases; not being able to use
technology may make them feel isolated

Reducing digital divide:

 Community teaching programmes to teach older people how to use

advanced technology
 Develop less sophisticated user friendly technology for older people
More and less industrially developed countries:

Causes:

 Less industrially developed countries cannot afford to invest as much in

technology as more industrially developed countries
 Not all countries can keep up with constant changes in technology
 Broadband infrastructure is very unequally distributed worldwide
Majority of broadband infrastructure is spread among few countries
 Some countries have low performance computers, and obtaining technical
assistance and digital services is hard

Effects:

 Online business; developing countries is put at an competitive and economic

disadvantage as less international customer base
 High price of poor internet connection quality in developing countries
 Education; there is a lot information on internet

Reducing digital divide:

 Use satellite technology for internet connection

 Providing overseas aid to poor countries to purchase technology
 Reduce prices of technology
 Government promoting possible local businesses in hopes of receiving
foreign investments in infrastructure

Socio-economic groups:

Causes:

 The poor cannot afford to buy high performance hardware and good
internet connection
 The poor cannot afford education needed to learn new technology
 Lower income people are buying smartphones, but there are rising data
plans (mobile data - 4G) prices

Effects:

 Students who cannot afford devices have an education disadvantage

 Lack of internet connection at home means underprivileged students don’t
have access to online learning resources

Reducing digital divide:

 Giving cheap computers to school children from poor backgrounds

 Schools offering technology training for kids and parents
 Subsidy to purchase hardware for poor people
 Spare computer stocks in schools for those without computers
 Recycling and donating technology
 Chapter 7: Expert systems
Components of an expert system:

 User interface
 Knowledge base
 Knowledge base editor
 Inference engine
 Explanation system

User interface:

 How the user interacts with the expert system

 Can be through keyboard, touchscreen, etc.
 Presents questions to and receives answers from the user

Knowledge base:

 Contains a database of organized facts about a particular subject provided

Factual knowledge is knowledge by many experts
that is widely accepted by experts
 Also contains the rule base
Heuristic knowledge is knowledge
acquired through personal  The rule base contains the IF, AND, OR and THEN rules to follow to produce
experience an output
 Experts usually provide two types of knowledge: factual knowledge and
heuristic knowledge

Knowledge base editor:

 A software that enables engineers to edit facts and rules within the
knowledge base

Inference engine:

 Makes judgement and reasoning

 Uses the knowledge base together with the rule base to make a decision
 The methods used to stimulate reasoning involves the use of forward
chaining, backward chaining or a combination of both

Forward chaining:

 Starts with available data

 Uses inference rules to extract more data until a goal is reached
 The inference engine searches the inference rules until it finds one
where the “IF” statement is known to be true
 When such rule is found, the inference engine uses the “THEN” rule
to cause the addition of new information
 This process is repeated until a goal is reached
 Because the data entered determines which rules are used, this
method is called data-driven
 Backward chaining:

 Starts with a list of goals and works backwards

 The inference engine searches the inference rules until it finds one
which has a “THEN” part that matches a desired goal
 If the “IF” rule is known to be true, then it is added to the list of goals
 Because the list of goals determine which rules are used, this method
is called goal-driven

Explanation system:

 Explains to a user the chain of reasoning used to arrive at a particular

conclusion

Advantage & disadvantage of using expert systems:

Advantages:

 Can answer questions you don’t know

 Does not forget to ask questions
 Accurate and consistent
 Cheap to use; can be used at any time
 More expert than a single expert as many experts made the knowledge base

Disadvantages:

 Lack of common sense

 Lack senses; cannot detect body language
 The system relies on the components being correct
 Expensive to design and build
 Need to train operators to use IT; expensive
 Needs maintenance

How are expert systems used?

 User interface asks questions

 User enters answer to the user interface
 The inference engine uses the knowledge base as well as the rule base to stimulate
reasoning to find possible diagnoses
 Reasoning can be either forward chaining, backward chaining or a combination of
both
 Inference engine compares symptoms to those in the knowledge base
 Inference engine also uses rule bases of IF, AND, OR and THEN
 Possible diagnoses are output to the user interface
 Explanation system produces reasons for the diagnoses and is output to the user
interface
 Chapter 8: Spreadsheets
Formula vs function:

 Formula is a statement written by the user to perform a calculation

 Formula can be simple or complex
 Function is also a formula, but is predefined with software
 Instead of having type a formula, function acts as a shortcut
 Both represent mathematical operations
 Both can use cell reference
 Both aren’t visible in CSV format

Absolute cell reference:

 Absolute cell reference is when the cell reference stays constant but the cell referred
to it is changing
 Locks in the reference to a specific cell regardless of where the formula is replicated
 Useful when you want to maintain a consistent reference to a specific cell

Relative cell reference:

 Relative cell reference is when the cell reference changes when the cell it is referred
to is changing
 When formulas are replicated, the cell reference in the formula will be adjusted to
reflect the new location of the formula
 Useful when you want to apply the same formula to difference cells within a
spreadsheet, and have the cell references automatically adjusted to reflect the new
location of the formula

Validation rules:

(Click here)

Testing spreadsheets:

You would need to create a test plan –

 Make a table with the columns: test, test data, actual result, expected result and
comments on comparison of actual result
 Test data can be normal, abnormal and extreme
 Test (all) functions/validation rules by changing some values in the table
 Calculate the expected result using a calculator
 Run each test
 Identify if there are any differences between the actual results and expected results
Sorting data:

 Arranging data so that it appears in either ascending or descending order

 If sorting is to be done on multiple columns, then custom sorting is used
 To use custom sorting, you will select the entire table and use “sort by” followed by
which column, and followed by order (ascending or descending)
 If a second custom sort is needed, then a new level is added (same process ↑)

Pivot tables:

Used to summarize and display large amounts of data in a meaningful way

 To create a pivot table, go to insert tab and select pivot table

 Select the data to be used, and it will create a blank pivot table
 Click and drag fields you want to summarize into rows, columns and values
 Further filters can be added
 With the pivot table, a pivot chart can be created (normally from insert tab)

Macros:

Used to automate repetitive or complex operations, saving time and improving efficiency

 Record a macro
 Then carry out the tasks to automate how you normally would while the macro is
recording
 Stop recording the macro
 Assign a button to the macro
 To run the macro, press the button you have assigned the macro to, and the task you
carried out will be executed automatically and quickly

Advantages of spreadsheet:

 Easy to use and get solutions immediately

 Easy to store data
 Easy to perform mathematical operations
 Easy to create complex formulas or can use functions easily
 Graphs and charts can represent visual data

Disadvantages of spreadsheet:

 Becomes difficult to manage as work gets more complex

 Only good for creating one time analysis, but becomes problematic as data grows
and evolves over time
 Formulas may need to be modified as new rows and columns are added
 Chapter 9: Modelling
What if analysis:

Type of scenario analysis that allows you to explore the potential outcome of different
hypothetical situations

It involves changing one or more variable, and how these changes affects the outcome

Two types:

I. Scenario manager
 Predicting the result of changing data
 Go to data tab, select what-if analysis and click scenario manager
 Add a new scenario
 Select which cell value to change
 Then type the value you want to replace the cell value with
 When scenario is shown, any outcome that changed will be seen
II. Goal seek
 Finds the input value for a target value you want
E.g. how many products to be sold to get a profit of $5,000

 Go to data tab, select what-if analysis and click goal seek

 Input the target value you want to return in a set cell
 Enter the cell reference of the input value that the spreadsheet can
change to reach the target

Characteristics of modelling software:

 Absolute and relative cell reference makes sure you only increment the parts of the
formula you need
 Cell protection makes sure the cells you want aren’t changed by accident
 User interface to input values into the model
 Macros makes it easier to automate repetitive and complex tasks
 Automatic calculation when values are changed
 Conditional formatting to highlight specific values matching a criteria
 Graphs to detect trends
 What if analysis –scenario manager and goal seek
The need for computer models:

 Avoids safety problems

 Environmental friendly
 Cuts costs as you don’t have to pay as much money for workers/building structures
 Can obtain results in a short period of time
 Re-designing computer models is cheaper that building new real life redesigns
 Researchers will have the tools to simulate scenarios that are hard to observe irl
 Models can make predictions more accurately

However:

 Researchers will need to know how to apply simple and complicated modelling
techniques
 Models cannot always recreate a real world experiment
 Researchers will need specialist knowledge of (field of study related to question) to carry out test
efficiently
 Not every variable may be included in the model, leading to inaccurate results
 Training costs money
 Over simplification of assumptions ≈ reduced training time ≈ false sense of security

Effectiveness of computer models:

Advantages:

 Spreadsheets models can do complex calculations

 Formulas are recalculated automatically, speeding up the use of the model
 Data can be entered accurately because of computer-based verification and
validation
 Graphs will automatically change as values are changed
 Spreadsheets can automatically download data to provide data in the fields

Disadvantages:

 To account for many variables requires complex formulas which needs

experts who are expensive to hire
 May not have sufficient data to make a model
 Requires large processing memory – expensive
 Producing an effective model may be time consuming
 May require additional software which may be expensive to buy
 May be vulnerable to unauthorized access and manipulation
 Chapter 10: Database and file concepts
Data types:

I. Text III. Numeric (integer, IV. Date

II. Alphanumeric decimal, currency or V. Time
percentage) VI. Boolean

Relationships:

One-to-one relationship:

 Both tables have only one record on either side of the relationship

One-to-many relationship:

 A table contains individual records that each relate to many records in the related
table

Many-to-many relationship:

 Both tables have many records on either side of the relationship

 Many-to-many relationships are created by breaking it down into 2 one-to-many
relationships
 Both tables are connected via a third “join table”
 The “join table” contains the foreign keys that are linked to their primary keys in the
2 tables, joining it together

Flat file database:

 Consists of a single table

 Contains many fields, with duplicate date – data redundancy

Advantages:

 Simple to design
 Easy to use; sorting and filtering is simple
 Requires little design knowledge
 Information can be added as necessary

Disadvantages:

 Data redundancy
 Very little security
 When two flat files are merged, relevant data needs to be copy pasted
 When two or more flat files contain same fields, if data is changed in one
then the other has to be manually updated – hard to update
Relational database:

 Incorporates a number of tables with methods for the tables to work together
 Designing a relational database depends on the ability to establish a relational
model which describes how data is organised, in terms of data structure, integrity,
querying, manipulation and storage
 Has primary and foreign keys to create a link

Advantages:

 No data redundancy
 Better security and easier to update
 Records can easily be joined by the indexed values
 Integrity constraints can be established to ensure that table relationships are
valid

Disadvantages:

 Designing requires more planning than flat file databases

 Time consuming to setup
 Requires more processing power for complex queries
 Reduction in computer performance if many tables are created

Key fields:

Primary key:

 A unique field that enables you to identify every record in a table

 Can be automatically indexed A table can only
have one
Foreign key: primary key but
many foreign
keys
 Used to link tables together and create a relationship
 It is a field in one table linked to the primary key in another table

Compound key:

 A primary key that combines more than one foreign key to make a unique
value
Referential integrity and its importance:

 Foreign keys have matching values in their corresponding primary key

 Referential integrity uses these to prevent the deletion of records
 It alerts the user if he tries to delete a record which is related to another one
 Queries will fail if relationships don’t match
 If a table is relying on the keys in another table, then relationships between the two
can be lost if bad data is entered into one location
 Referential integrity is used to ensure foreign key values are valid

Creating a query without query wizard:

 Go to query design
 Select the table
 Select fields to be used
 (What questions tells you to do: sort, show, criteria, etc.)
Reports are created
 Save and run the query from queries

Creating a query using query wizard:

 Go to query wizard
 Click on simple query wizard
 Select the table and fields to be used
 Assign a name to the query
 Go to query design view (and do what questions says; sort, show, criteria, etc.)
 Save and run the query

Static parameter query:

 A fixed query
 Every time the query is run, it searches for the same data
 If different data is to be searched, the user would have to go to query design view
and change data criteria
 For example, to get gender, you would have to put criteria as either “M” or “F”

Dynamic parameter query:

 Used to search for different values each time it is run

 Can type in different data each time
 Every time the query is run, a dialogue box appears asking the user to type the
required data
 This saves the time of redesigning the query every time different data is required
 For example, to get gender, you would have to put criteria as [appropriate prompt].
When the query is run, a dialogue box will appear; type either M or F
 Dynamic parameter queries require more technical knowledge
Data entry form:

 Text boxes
 Data entry boxes must be just as long
enough to fit data
 Must take into account data type –
Boolean requires radio buttons
whereas date requires drop down
menu
 White space
 The 3 buttons on the bottom (help,
save and reset) are free marks
 Fields that must be filled in should
have an * after the field name, e.g. Name *

Switchboard:
(Appropriate title)
Format →

Normalization:

4 types of normal forms:

I. Unnormalized form (UNF):

 Non atomic data
 Repeating data groups
 Data redundancy
 May not have a primary key
II. First normal form (1NF):
 Atomic data
 No repeating data groups
 Must have primary key
III. Second normal form (2NF):
 Must be in 1NF
 Must be no partial key dependencies
IV. Third normal form (3NF):
 Must be in 2NF
 Must be no transitive (non-key) dependencies
 Advantages:

 Any change to one record is instantly made to any related records

 No data duplication; smaller file size; less storage costs
 Less data errors; less chance of storing incorrect copies of data
 Easy to modify table as there is less data to modify
 Enforces referential integrity

Disadvantages:

 More tables need more relationships to be designed; time consuming

 Atomic data may not always be the best solution, such as date of birth can
be separated into day, month and year; serve no purpose
 Level of detail may be lost if data is stored as codes
 More tables; setting up queries is hard; more complex queries; longer to run
 Can end up with more tables than unnormalized database; hard to keep
track of data
 Requires expertise; need to pay for outside training

Data dictionary:

(TABLE NAME)
Field Name Field Type Field length Format Type of Key Validation

(number of records)

File formats:

Open source file format:

 Can be used by anyone Interoperability: allows

data to be shared and
 Aka free file format; free to use, modified and distributed used across different
 Can be used by both open source and proprietary software softwares

 Not covered by copyrights Transparency: source

code can be inspected,
to gain trust in using the
Open source formats are needed because of its interoperability, long term software
accessibility, transparency and it is free

Proprietary file format:

 File format owned by an individual or an company

 Cannot be used freely, modified or distributed without owner permission
 Format source code is kept secret
 Covered by copyrights Proprietary file formats are
not usually interoperable
 Generic file format: It allows data to be shared and
used across different
softwares
 Can be open source or proprietary
 It is designed to interoperable with different application softwares
Generic file formats are needed because of its interoperability, accessibility and
compatibility (and sometimes cost if they are open source)

Indexed sequential access:

With sequential access,
 A mixture of sequential access and direct file access → records are accessed
sequentially in the order they
 A set of hash tables called indexes contain "pointers" into the records
were entered in
 The index is a pointer to where the record is stored on a disk
Rerecords are read one by one
 An index value is generated until a match is found

 Records can be found randomly using an index, without searching the entire file
 Indexes can be searched, allowing the database to access the records it needs only
 Searches uses an index; narrows down the records to be searched
E.g. if u need a word beginning with G, all words beginning with A-F are ignored

 Then that section of the file is searched sequentially to find the record required

Direct file access:

 A method of accessing a file based on its physical location on a storage device

 Each file is assigned a unique physical location on the storage device
 When a record needs to be accessed, the system uses the file's physical location to
read or write the data directly from the storage device

Hierarchical database management system:

 Uses several one-to-many relationships

 Uses a tree structure
 Links a number of secondary child records to one primary parent record Sophisticated data
management is
 It’s not a versatile system → accommodated by more

 It is limited by using only one type of relationship – confined to specific usage flexible models

Primary
parent record

Secondary child Secondary child Secondary child

record record record
Management information system (MIS):

Features:

 Computer based system that provides tools to organise, evaluate and

manage company departments
 Provides past, present and prediction information
 Includes software that helps decision making
 Includes the hardware resources of a system
 Includes many data resources, such as databases
 Includes decision support system, people management and project
management applications
 Companies can identify strengths and weaknesses due to reports

Use:

 Provides past, present and prediction information

 Helps in decision making
 MIS manager analyses business problems, and designs applications to solve
it
 Helps with project management
 Managers use MIS to gather information about aspects of the company,
such as sales, revenue, profit…
 To create charts on these aspects, and spot trends
 To create reports on these aspects, and compare it with previous reports to
spot trends and evaluate company performance

Advantages of database:

 Normalisation available through multiple tables

 Data and referential integrity is built in
 Queries and reports are easy to make
 Data from database can be exported to spreadsheets

Disadvantage of database:

 Requires skills; needs training

 Structuring data so it is easy to manipulate can be time consuming and complex
 More complicated than just using spreadsheets
 Not as easy to copy past data blocks