SETTHEORY

As eti
sac oll
ecti
onofdi stinctobj
ect
s.As etmustbewelldef
ined.Thismeansthatour
descri
ptionoftheel ementsofas eti
sclearandunambiguous.Forexample,SetT={
tal
l
students}isnotas et,becausepeopl
etendt odi
sagreeaboutwhat‘tall
’means.An
exampleofawel l-defineds eti
s
T={
Letter
sintheEnglishal
phabet
}
S={
Oddwhol enumber sles
sthan10}
,
M={Book,Penci
l,Pen}

Thes etTofEngl i
shalphabetmaybevi ewedast hesetofl
etter
softheEngl i
shlanguage;
thes etMi sasetofwr i
tingmat eri
als
.Therecouldalsobeasetofnaturalnumber s
,etc.
Sos etscanconsistofelement sofvari
ousnatures:peopl
e,physi
calobj
ects,numbers,
signs,othersets
,etc.I
nas et
,orderdoesnotmat ter.
Exampl e:{Book,Penci
l,Pen}={ Pen,Book,Pencil
}

Specif
icat
ionofs ets
Therearethreemai nwaystospeci
fyaset:
(1)Li
stnotation:Thi
sinvol
vesl
ist
ingal
lit
smember s.
Itiss
uit
ableonl
yforf
ini
tesets
.In
thisc
asewel i
stnamesofelementsofaset,
separ
atethembyc ommasandenclos
e
theminbr aces:
Examples:{1,12,45}
(2)Predi cat enot ation:I nvolvess tat i
ngapr oper tyofi t
selement s
;
Exampl e:
{x|xi sanat ur alnumberandx<8}
Readi ng:“ thes etofal lxs ucht hatxi sanat uralnumberandi slessthan8”
Sot hes ec ondpar toft hi snot at i
oni sapr oper tyt hemember softhes ets hare(a
condi ti
on
orapr edicat ewhi chhol dsf ormember soft hiss et )
.
Otherexampl es:
{x|xi sal et terofRus sianal phabet }
{y|yi sas tudentofUMas sandyi sol dert han25}
Gener alf orm:
{x|P( x)},wher ePi ss omepr edi cat e( condition, pr operty)
.
Thel anguaget odes cr ibet hes epr edi catesisnotus uallyfi
xedinas trictway.Buti ti
s
knownt hatunr estrictedl anguagec anr esulti npar adoxes.Exampl e:{x|xx} .However ,
notever ythingt hatl ooksont hes ur facelikeapr edicatecanactuallybec onsideredto
beagooddef i
ningc ondi ti
onf oras et.
Rec ursiver ul es.(Alwayss afe.)Exampl e–t hes etEofevennumber sgreaterthan3:
a)4E
b)ifxE, thenx+2E
c)not hingel sebel ongst oE.
Thef irstrul eist hebas isofr ec ursion, thes ec ondonegener atesnewel ement sfromt he
element sdef i
nedbef or eandt het hi rdr ul
er estrictsthedefinedsett otheelement s
gener atedbyr ulesaandb. Thet hirdr ules houl dal waysbet here;somet imesi npractic
e
i
t
i
slef
timpl
ici
t.I
t’
sbes
twhenyou’
reabegi
nnert
omakei
texpl
ici
t.

CommonTer msinSet
Element
Theelementofas etoftendenotedby∈r efer
stotheobjectsormembersinaset.The
elementsofanysetoftenshares omesi
mi l
archaract
eri
sti
cs.
LetS={a,b,c}
“a”i
ssai
dt obe“anelementof ”setSbecauseiti
spartofthatset
.Symboli
cal
ly,a∈S.
Thenegationoftheelementc anbedenotedbyt omean“notanelementof”(
e.g.dS)

Subs
et
Thes ubs etofagi vens etAi sacertai
ns etBc omposedoft heelement sofAonly(not
nec es
s aril
yalloft hem) .
ItisdenotedbyBA. SetBisapr opers ubs
etofAi fandonlyif
(i
ff)ever yelementofBi salsoanel ementofAandBA. Propers eti
sdenotedbyBA
(Caution:s ometimesi susedt hewaywear eus i
ng.).Bothsignscanbenegat edusing
thes l
as h/t hrought hes i
gnasi nt omeanBi snotasubs etofA
Exampl es:{a,
b}{d,a,b,
e}and{ a,b}
{ d,
a,b,
e},{a,
b}{a,
b},but{a,b}{a,
b}.
Not ethatt heempt ysetisas ubsetofeveryset Af
. oreverys etA.Also,
bec ar
eful
aboutt hedi ff
erenc ebetween“ memberof ”and“ s
ubsetof”!

As t
atementabouts
ubs
etsc
anal
sober
ewr
itt
enasas
ent
enc
eus
ingt
hewor
d‘al
l’
.For
example,
{
owl
s}{
bir
ds} mean ‘
Allowl
sar
ebi
rds
.’
s
{mul
ti
plesof4}{
even mean ‘
Allmul
ti
plesof4ar
eeven.
’
number
s } s
{
rec
tangl
es}{
rhombus
es} mean ‘
Notal
lrec
tangl
esar
erhombus
es.
’

Theyc
anal
sober
ewr
itt
enus
ingt
hewor
ds‘
i
f…t
hen’
.Forexampl
e,
{
owl
s}{
bir
ds} mean ‘
I
fac
reat
urei
sanowl
,theni
tisabi
rd.
’
s
{mul
ti
plesof4}{
even mean ‘
I
fanumberi
samul
ti
pleof4,
theni
tiseven’
:
number
s } s
{
rec
tangl
es}{
rhombus
es} mean ‘
I
faf
igur
eisar
ect
angl
e,t
heni
tmaynotbea

s s
quar
e.’

Super
set
Asetisasupersetifi
tcontai
nsalltheel
ementsi
nanot
hersetinaddit
iontoother
el
ement s.
Ifseteveryel
ementi nsetAarei
nsetBandAB,
s etBisthesupers
etofsetA
whil
es etAisthepropersubsetofB.

Powers et
s
Thesetofalls
ubs et
sofasetAiscal
ledthepowersetofAanddenot A)or
edas(
A
sometimesas2.
Forexample,fA={
i a,b}
,(A)={,{a}
,{b}
,{a,
b}}
.
Fromtheexampl eabove:a∈A; {a}A; {a}∈(A)
A; A; ∈( A); ( A)
TypesofSet s
1.Empt y(Nul l)Set :Thisisas etwi thnoelement s .
Itisdenotedbyor{ }.Theempt yset
,
isas ubsetofanys et:∅ ⊂A. Nat ur al
lyalsosetA⊂A.
Thet wopr i
nc ipalr ulesoft hes etal gebraare
2.Uni versalSet :As etthatc ont ainsallobjectsintheuniverseIti
sdenot edbyΩ
3.Singletons et:Thi sisas etwi thonl yoneel ement .ForexampleA={ 2}
4.Ident i
tys et:Twos et
sar eident icalifandonl yiftheyhaveexactl
yt hes amemember s.
SoA=Bi ffforever yx, x∈A⇔ x∈B.
Forexampl e,{ 0,2,4}={ x|xi sanevennat uralnumberl essthan5}
Thenumberofel ement sinas etAi scall
edt hecardinali
tyofA,writ
ten| A| .The
cardinalit
yofaf initesetisanat ur alnumber .I
nfiniteset
salsohavecar di
nal i
tiesbut
they
arenotnat uralnumber s.
4.Fi
nit
es et
:Afini
tesetissuchthatal
lit
selementscanbeli
s t
ed.Alltheset
swehave
seensofarhavebeenfini
tesets
, meani
ngthatwec anli
stal
ltheirelements
.Her
eare
twomor eexamples:
A={ wholenumbersbetween2000and2005}={ 2001,2002,2003,2004}
B={
whol
enumber
sbet
ween2000and3000}={
2001,
2002,
2003,
…,2999}
Thethr
eedots‘…’
inthesecondexamplestandfort
heother995numbersintheset.
We
coul
dhaveli
stedthemall,
buttosavespacewehaveuseddotsinst
ead.Thi
snotati
on
canonl
ybeusedifiti
scompletel
yclearwhatitmeans
,asinthi
ssit
uati
on.
5.I
nfi
nit
eset:Asetcanal
sobeinfini
te–allt
hatmattersist
hatiti
swel
ldef
ined.Aset
i
sinfi
nit
eifal
lit
selementcannotbeexhaust
ivel
yli
sted.Herear
etwoexamplesof
i
nfi
niteset
s:
A={
evenwhol
enumber
s}={
0,2,
4,6,
8,10,
…}
B={
whol
enumber
sgr
eat
ert
han2000}={
2001,
2002,
2003,
2004,
…}
Boththesesetsarei
nf i
nitebecausenomatt
erhowmanyel ement
swelist
,thereare
alwaysmoreelement sinthesetthatar
enotonourlist
.Thisti
methedots‘…’havea
sli
ghtl
ydiff
erentmeani ng,bec
ausetheyst
andforinf
init
elymanyelementsthatwe
couldnotpossi
blyli
st,nomat t
erhowmuc hwetried.
5.
Dis
joi
nts
et:Twos
etsAandBar
esai
dtobedi
sj
ointi
fthet
wos
etshavenoel
ement
s
i
nc ommon.TheVenndiagramforsuchset
swillc
ont
ains
eparat
esetwithinthe
uni
vers
alsetdi
agram.Forexample,gi
vensetA={1,
2,3,
4}andB={ 5,
6, 7,8},
thet
wo
set
saredi
sjoi
nt.

BasicOper at i
ons
TheUni onofs ets
Theuni onoft woormor es ets,denotedby“ ”,isalltheelementsthatareinatl eastone
ofthes et s
. LetAandBbear bitr
arysets.Theuni onofAandB, writ
tenasAB, ist
he
setwhos eel ement sar ejustt heelement sofeitherAorBorbot hAandB. Inthe
predic
at enot ati
ont hedef i
nitionis
AB=def{x| xAorxB}
Exampl e1. LetA={ 1,2, 3},B={ 1,4,5}andC={ 6,7} ,t
hen
AB={ 1,2, 3,4,5}
AC={ 1,2, 3,6,7}
BC={ 1,4, 5,6,7}
(AB)C={ 1,2,3,4,5, 6,7}
AA=A
A=A=A={ 1, 2}.
TheInt ersec tionofs ets
Theinter sec ti
onoft woormor esets,denotedby“ ” ,i
sthesetofelement stheyallhave
incommon. Theintersec ti
onofKandL, writenKL,
t ist
hes etwhos eel
ement sare
simultaneous lyinbot hKandL. Inthepredicatenot ati
onthedefini
tionis
KL=def{ x| xKandxL}
Exampl e2. LetK={ 2,3}, L={ 1,4,5,7}andM={ 3,5, 6,7}
,then
KL=
KM ={ 3}
LM ={ 5,7}
(KL)M =
KK=K
K=K=
SetofDi f
ferenc e
Setdi
fferenc eoft wos etsisthecollect
ionofel
ementsi
nones ett
hatarenotint
he
other
.Itisthes etofdiff
erencebet weens et
sAandBdenotedbyA\ BorA–B.Thi
sseti
s
alsoc
al l
edr elativec omplement:thec omplementofBr
elat
ivetoA.Thepredi
cat
e
notat
iondef inest hisoperati
onasf oll
ows:
A–B=def{ x| xAandxB}
Exampl e3:Us ingt heprevioussetsA,BandCi nexampl
e1)
A\B={ 2,3}
B\A={ 4,5}
A\C={ 1,2,3}
C\A={ 6,7}
B\C={ 1,4,5}
C\B={ 6,7}
A\
A=
A\
=A
\A=
Not
e:A\
BB\
A;t
hisappl
iest
oal
lot
hers
etofdi
ff
erenc
e

Compl ements et
Thec omplementofas etA, wri
ttenasA,
isthesetconsi
sti
ngofeverythi
ngnotinA.In
predicatenot
at i
on
A=def{x| xA}
Youmaywantt oask,wher edotheseotherelementscomef r
omwhi chdonotbelongto
A?In
thi
sc aseiti
spr es
umedt hatthereexi
stsauniverseofdi
scoursec
all
eduni ver
sals
etas
disc
us sedearl
ierinthi
sc hapter,andal
lothersetsaresubset
softhi
ss et
.
Thenwehave
A=defU–A
Exampl
e4:Gi
vent
heuni
ver
sals
etU={
1,2,
3,4,
…,20}andA={
2,3,
5,6,
8,11}
A
={1,
4,7,
9,10,
12,
13,
14,
15,
16,
17,
18,
19,
20}
Car
tes
ianpr
oduc
tset
TheCar
tes
ianpr
oduc
tsetAxBoft
hes
etsAandBi
sthes
etofal
lor
der
edpai
rs(
a,b)
whereaAandbB
AxB={
(a,
b)|
aAbB}
Exampl
e:Gi
vent
hats
etsA={
1,2}
,B={
a,b,
c}
AxB={
(1,
a),
(1,
b),
(1,
c),
(2,
a),
(2,
b),
(2,
c)}
BxA={
(a,
1),
(1,
b),
(1,
c),
(2,
a),
(2,
b),
(2,
c)}

SetAlgebra
Thereareanumberofgener
alprinci
plesabouts
etalgebrawhi
chfol
lowthetheoret
ic
operat
ionsofs
etaswellasi
tssubsets,el
ements,
etc
. Thecommonprinc
ipl
esofset
algebr
aareasfol
lows:
1.
Idempot
entr
ule
AA=A
AA=A

2.
Commut
ati
ver
ule
AB=BA
AB=BA

3.
Ass
oci
ati
ver
ule
(
AB)C=A(
BC)
(
AB)C=A(
BC)

4.
Dis
tri
but
iverul
e
A(BC)=( AB)(
AC)
A(BC)=( AB)(AC)

5.
Ident
ityr
ules
A=A
AU=A
AU=U
A=

6.Complementr
ules
AA =A
AA =
(A
)=A
A\B=AB

7.DeMorgan’
srul
e
(AB)=AB
(AB)=AB

8.
Cons
ist
enc
yrul
e
ABiffAB=B
ABiffAB=A

9.
Absor
pti
onr
ule
A(AB)=A
A(AB)=A

VennDi agram
VennDi agramisthedi
agrammaticalrepresentati
onofsetsoperationswit
haviewto
solvingit
salgebr
aicpr
oblems.
Di agramsmakemat hemati
cseasierbecauset
heyhel
pus
tos eethewholesit
uat
ionataglance.TheEngl is
hmat hematic
ianJ ohnVenn
(1834–1923)beganusi
ngdiagr
amst orepresentsets.Hi
sdiagramsar enowcall
edVenn
diagrams.
Inmos tprobl
emsi nvolvings ets,iti
sc onvenienttochoosealargersetthatc ontai
nsall
oftheelement si
nal lofthes etsbeingc ons
idered.Thisl
argersetiscall
edtheuni ver
sal
set,andisusuall
ygivent hes ymbolE. InaVenndi agram,theuniversalseti
sgener al
ly
drawnasal argerectangl e,andt henot hersetsarerepresent
edbyc ircl
eswi thi
nthis
rect
angle.Forexampl e,ifV={ vowel s
},wec ouldchoosetheuniversalsetasU={ l
ett
ers
ofthealphabet}andal lthel ettersofthealphabetwoul dthenneedt obepl aced
somewher ewithinther ec t
angl e,asshownbel ow.
Representi
ngs ubsetsonaVenndi agram
Whenweknowt hatM isasubsetofT,weplacethec i
rcl
erepres
entngSi
i nsi
dethe
cir
clerepr
es ent
ingT.Forexample,letS={0,1,2},andT={0,1,2,3,
4}ThenSi
. sa
subsetofT,asil
lustr
atedintheVenndi agr
ambel ow.

Uni
onofs
et

I
nter
sec
tionofs
et

SetofDi
ff
erenc
e
Inallsor
tsofsit
uati
ons
,wec l
assi
fyobjec
tsi
ntoset
sofsi
mil
arobj
ectsandcountt
hem.
Thisprocedur
eisthemostbasi
cmot i
vati
onforl
ear
ningt
hewholenumbersand
learni
nghowt oaddandsubtr
actthem.
Suc
hcount
ingqui
ckl
ythr
owsups
ituat
ionst
hatmayatf
irs
tseemc
ont
radi
ctor
y.
‘
LastJune,ther
ewer
e15wi
ndydaysand20r
ainydays
,yet5dayswer
enei
therwi
ndy
norrai
ny.’
Howc anthi
sbe,whenJ
uneonl
yhas30days
?AVenndi
agr
am,
andt
hel
anguageofs
ets
,
eas
ilysor
tsthi
sout.
LetW bethesetofwindydays ,
andRbet hesetofrai
nydays
.LetEbet
hes
etofdaysi
n
J ThenW andRt
une. ogetherhaves i
ze25,s
ot heover
lapbet
weenWandRis10.
;The
Venndiagramopposi
tedisplaysthewholesi
tuati
on.

SOLVI
NGPROBLEMSUSI
NGAVENNDI
AGRAM
Keepi
ngcountofelementsofset
s
Befor
esol
vingproblemswithVenndi
agr
ams
,weneedt
owor
kouthowt
okeepc
ountof
theel
ementsofoverlappi
ngsets
.
Theupperdi
agr
amt
other
ights
howst
wos
etsAandBi
nsi
deauni
ver
s etE,
als wher
e
A|
| B|
=6and| =7,
wi
th3el
ement
sint
hei
nter
sec
tionAB.
Sol
vingproblemsbydrawingaVenndi agram
Manycount i
ngprobl
emsc anbesolvedbyidentifyi
ngthes etsinvolved,t
hendrawi ngup
aVenndiagramtokeept r
ackofthenumber sint hedi
fferentregionsofthediagram. To
sol
veproblemusingVenndiagrams,fi
rsti
dentifythesetsinvolved;thenconstructa
Venndiagr
amt okeeptrackofthenumbersint hediff
erentregi onsofthedi
agram.
Example1:Atravelagents ur
veyed100peopletofindouthowmanyoft hemhad
vi
s i
tedthec
iti
esofMel bourneandBr i
sbane.
Thir
ty-onepeopl
ehadvisi
tedMelbour
ne,
26peoplehadbeent oBrisbane,and12peoplehadvisi
tedbot
hcit
ies
.Dr awaVenn
diagramtofi
ndthenumberofpeopl ewhohadvisit
ed:
aMel
bour
neorBr
isbane
bBr
isbanebutnotMel
bour
ne
conl
yoneoft
het
woc
iti
es
dnei
therc
ity.
Solut
ion
LetM bethes
etofpeoplewhohadvisi
tedMelbour
ne,andletBbet
hes etofpeopl
ewho
hadvisi
tedBr
isbane.
Lettheuni
ver
salsetEbethesetofpeopl
esur
veyed.
Thei
nfor
mat
iongi
veni
ntheques
tionc
annowber
ewr
itt
enas
M|
| =31,
|B|
=26,
|MB| E|
=12and| =100.
Henc
enumberi
nMonl
y=31–12
=19
andnumberi
nBonl
y =26–12
=14.
(
a.)Numbervi
si
ti
ngMel
bour
neorBr
isbane=19+14+12=45.
(
b.)Numbervi
si
ti
ngBr
isbaneonl
y=14.
(
c.)Numbervi
si
ti
ngonl
yonec
ity=19+14=33.
(
d.)Numbervi
si
ti
ngnei
therc
ity=100–45=55.
Example2:Gi
venthefol
lowings
ets
:A={evennumber
sbelow10}
;B={ pri
menumbers
below10};C={oddnumbersbet
weenbel
ow10};U={al
lposi
ti
vei
ntegersfr
om1to10},
(
a.)Dr
awaVenndi
agr
amt
orepr
esent
(
b.)Li
stallt
heelementsi
nt hef
ollowingset
s(i
.)AB( i
i.
)AC( i
ii
.)BC( i
v.)AB
C(v.
)AB( vi
.)AC(vii
.)BC( vii
i.
)ABC( ix.
)A
(x.
)B
(xi
.)C(xi
i.
)(AB)(
xii
i.
)(B
C)(xi
v.)(
ABC) 
(xv.)(
ABC) 

Solut
ion
(a.
)TheVenndiagr
am:Si
ncenoevennumberi
sanoddnumber,ther
ewi
llbeno
i
nteract
ionbet
weenAandC;hence,t
herec
anbenoint
erac
tionamongt
het hr
ees
etsA,
BandC.

(
b).
(i.
)AB={
2,3,
4,5,
6,7,
8} (
ii
.)AC={
1,2,
4,6,
8,9}
(
ii
i.
)BC={
1,2,
3,5,
7,9} (
iv.
)ABC={
1,2,
3,4,
5,6,
7,8,
9}
(
v.)AB={
2} (
vi.
)AC=
(
vii
.)BC={
3,5,
7} (
vii
i.
)ABC=
(
ix.
)A
={1,
3,5,
7,9,
10} (
x.)B
={1,
4,6,
8,9,
10}
(
xi.
)C
={2,
4,6,
8,10} (
xii
.)(
AB)
={
1,9,
10}
(
xii
i.
)(BC)
={
1,2,
4,6,
8,9,
10} (
xiv.
)(ABC)
={
10}
(
xv.
)(ABC)
={
1,2,
3,4,
5,6,
7,8,
9,10}
Example4:Gi
venthesetdiagr
ambel
ow,
findt
heval
ueofxandwr
itet
her
ealval
uesof
theel
ementsofeachs
et .
EXERCISES
1.Usedotstohel
plis
teachset,
andstatewhetheri
tisf
ini
teori
nfi
nit
e.
iA={
. evennumbersbetween10000and20000}
ii
.B={ whol
enumbersthataremult
iplesof3}
2.I
fthesetSineachparti
sfi
nit
e,wri
tedown| S|.
 i.S={ primes }
iiS={
. evenpr imes }
iii
.S={ evenpr imesgr eatert han5}
iv.S={ whol enumber sles sthan100}
3.LetFbet hes etoff racti
onsi ns i
mpl es
tformbet ween0and1t hatcanbewr i
ttenwit
h
asingle-digitdenomi nator.FindFand| F|.
4.Givent hes etsA={ 0,1,4, 5}andB={ 1,4}:Dr awaVenndiagramofAandBus ingthe
universalsetU={ 0,
1, 2,…,8} .
5.Lettheuni versalsetbeE={ whol enumber slessthan20}
,andl et
A={ squaresl essthan20}
B={ evennumber slessthan20}
C={ odds quar eslessthan20}
a.DrawAandConaVenndi agram, andplacet henumbersinthec orr
ectregions.
b.DrawBandConaVenndi agram, andplacet henumbersinthec orr
ectregions.
c.ShadeABonaVenndi agr am, andplacethenumber sinthecor r
ectregions.
d.ShadeABonaVenndi agr am, andplacet henumbersinthec orr
ectregions

6.Twent
y-f
ourpeoplegoonhol
idays.
If15goswi
mming,12gof
ishi
ng,and6donei
ther
,
howmanygos wimmingandfi
shing?DrawaVenndi
agramandf
illi
nthenumberof
peopl
einal
lfourregi
ons.

7.I
nac er
tainschool ,
therear
e180pupi lsi
n100l evel;110pupil
sstudyFrenc
h,88study
Germanand65s tudyIndones
ian.If40pupil
sstudybot hFrenchandGerman,38study
Germanonl y.
Findt henumberofpupi l
swhos tudy:
(a.
)Al
lthreelanguages ( b.)I
ndonesianonly(c.)Noneofthelanguages
(d.
)Atl
eas tonelanguage (e.
)Eitheroneortwooft hethr
eelanguages.
8.Inafrui
tfeastamong200s tudent
s,88chosetoeatdur
ians,73atemangoes ,
and46
ateli
tchis
.34ofthemhadeat enbothduriansandmangoes,16hadeatenduriansand
li
tchi
s,and12hadeat enmangoesandl i
tchis
,whil
e5hadeat enal
l3frui
ts.Determi
ne,
howmanyoft he200student
sat enoneofthe3frui
ts,
andhowmanyat eonlymangoes?
9.Inac l
assof120s t
udent
snumber
ed1t o120,al
levennumber edst
udentsoptfor
Physi
cs,thos
ewhos enumbersar
edivi
si
bleby5optf orChemis
tryandthosewhos e
numbersaredivi
si
bleby7optf
orMat
h.Howmanyoptfornoneofthethr
eesubjec
ts?
10.Ofthe200c andi
dateswhower eint
erviewedforaposi
tionatacallc
enter,
100hada
two-wheel
er,70hadac redi
tcardand140hadamobi lephone.40ofthem hadbot
h,a
two-wheel
erandac r
editcar
d,30hadbot h,acr
editcar
dandamobi lephoneand60had
both,atwowheel erandmobi l
ephoneand10hadal lthr
ee.Howmanyc andi
dat
eshad
noneofthethree?
11.I
nagr oup,25pers
onsliketeaorc
off
ee,oft
hes
e15l
iket
eaand6l
ikebot
hcof
fee
andtea.
Howmanyl ikecof
fee?
12.I
nas urveyof40studentsi
nac l
ass,
10weref ondofhavi
ngpineapplejui
ce,15were
fondoforangejui
ceand7l i
kedtohavebothpi
neappleaswellasorangejuic
e.Findhow
manys t
udentsweretakingnei
therpi
neapplej
uic
enororangejui
ce.
13.I
nas ur
vey,Sam foundthat38peopl
elikedproduc
tA,36l i
kedproductB,and39
li
kedpr
oductC.If24peopl
elikedbot
hproductsAandB,20peoplel
ikedproduc
tsCand
A,18peopl
elikedproductBandC,and9l ikedal
lthethr
eeproducts.Fi
ndhowmany
li
kedpr
oductConly?
14.Inagr oupof60students,25pl
ayt ablet
ennis,16doswi
mmingand22pl
aycri
cket
,8
playtabletennisanddos wimming,6pl aycr
icketanddoswimmi
ng,5pl
aytabl
etenni
s
andc r
icket,and12studentsdonotplayanyoft hesegame.
Find:
(a)howmanypl
ayt
abletenni
s,dos
wimmi ngandplaycr
icket
?
(b)Howmanypl
aytabl
etenni
sbutnotcri
cket?
(c)Howmanypl
ayt
abletenni
sandcri
cketbutnotdoswimming?

SEQUENCEANDSERI
ES

Asequenc eorprogr ess

ionisalis
tofnumber sinaspecif
iedorder.I
tisast
ringofnumbers
fol
lowingaparticularpattern,
andt heel
ement sofasequencear ecall
ed“
terms”.I
magine
yoursel
fatapi z zahut .Youhav eplac
edanor derandy ouror dernumberis282.So
current
lytheyares ervi
ngt heordernumber275. Sohowmanyor dersdoyouthi
nkwi l
lbe
servedbeforey ournumber ?Yes ,si
xordersmor ebec aus
ey ouar einas equence.To
understandthi
sbet ter,l
etuslearnaboutthesequencesandseries.
Cons
idert
hes
equenc
ebel
ow:

[
1,3,
5,7,
9,11……]

Wec ansaythi
sissequencebecaus
eweknowt hattheyar
et hecoll
ec t
ionofoddnatur
al
numbers.Herethenumberoft ermsinthes equencewil
lbei nfi
nite.Suc
has equence
whic
hc ont
ainstheinf
ini
tenumberofter
msi sknownasani nfi
nit
es equence.
Butwhatif
weputanendt othenumbersasshownbelow
[
1,3,
5,7,
9,11….
.
131]

I
f131i sthelastterm ofthi
ssequence,wec ans aythatthenumberoft
ermsi nt his
sequencei
scountabl
e.Soinsuchas equenceinwhichthenumberofter
msiscountable,
theyarecaledf
l i
nitesequences
.Afinitesequencehasaf i
nit
enumberofter
ms .Soas
disc
ussedear
li
erhere1istheter
m,3i stheter
ms ois5,
7,…..

Ex
ampl
e:I
dent
if
ythes
equenc
eoft
hef
unc
tionn(
n+3)

Whenn=1, 1(1+3)=4
n=2,2(2+3)=10
n=3,3(3+3)=27
So,
thes
equencefort
hef
unc
tionn(
n+3)i
s4,
10,
27…
Fromt heexampl
eabove,
thef
ir
stt
erm(a1)i
s4,
thesecondter
m( a2)i
s10,
ands
oont othe
th
n t er
m(an)
.Addi
ngagivennumberofter
ms(saythefi
rst100t er
ms)i
nasequenceis
calledser
ies
.

Seri
esisthesum ofsequenc es
.Theseri
esisfi
nit
eorinfi
nit
edependi
ngtowhetherthe
sequenceinv
olv
edisf i
niteorinfi
nit
e.Seri
esaredenot
edbys i
gma( )
,whi
chindic
ates
thatthesummati
onisinvolved.
TypesofSequenc
es
T
her
ear
evar
ioust
ypesofs
equenc
eswhi
char
euni
ver
sal
lyac
cept
ed.

 Ar
ithmet
ics
equenc
e:I
nanar
ithmet
ic(
li
near
)sequenc
ethedi
ff
erenc
ebet
weenany
t
woc
ons
ecut
ivet
ermsi
scons
tant
.

 Quadr
ati
cSequenc
e:Aquadr
ati
csequenc
eisas
equenc
eofnumber
sinwhi
cht
he
s
econddi
ff
erenc
ebet
weenanyt
woc
ons
ecut
ivet
ermsi
scons
tant
.

 Geomet
ricSequenc
e:Ageomet
rics
equenc
eisas
equenc
eofnumber
swher
eeac
h
term aftert hefi
rstisfoundbymul tiply
ingt hepr eviousonebyaf ix
ed,non- zer
o
numberc all
edthec ommonr atio.
Fibonac ci
Sequenc e:Thespec i
alt hi
ngaboutt heFi bonaccisequenc ei
sthatthef i
rstt
wo
termsar efixed.Whenwet alkaboutt het er ms,thereisagener alrepres
entationof
theset ermsins equencesands er i
es.At ermi susual l
ydenot edasanhere‘n’isthe
th
nt ermofas equence.FortheFi bonac c
i s
equenc e,thefi
rsttwot ermsarefixed.The
fi
rstter misasa1=1anda2=1. Nowf r
omt het hi
rdt ermonwar ds,everyter
mof
thisFibonacci s
equencewi l
lbec omet hesumoft hepr evioustwot erms.
Soa3wi
llbegi
venasa1+a2
Therefor
e,1+1=2.
Simi
lar
ly,
a4=a2+a3
∴1+2=3
a5=a3+a4
∴2+3=5
Ther
efor
eifwewanttowri
tetheFi
bonac
cis
equenc
e,wewi
llwr
it
eitas
,[1,1,2,3,
5…].
So,i
ngener
al,wecansay
,
an=an-1+an-2
wher
etheval
ueofn≥3.
Thi
ssequenc
ewi
llnotbedi
scus
sedi
ndet
ailher
ebeyondt
hispoi
nt
Arit
hmet i
cProgres s
ion
Anar ithmeti
cpr ogres
sion(A.P.
)orar it
hmet i
cs equenceisas equencei nwhichthe
dif
ferencebet weenanyt wocons ec
uti
vet er
msi sc ons
tant.
Thediff
erencebetweenthe
consecutivetermsi sknownast hecommondi fferencedenotedbyd.Todet ermi
neifa
sequenc eisi
nA. Pornot ,f
ir
stprovethatthedif
ferencebetweentheconsecuti
veter
msis
c
ons
tant
.So,
d=a2–a1s
houl
dbeequalt
oa3–a2ands
oon.
Gi
venthesequence3,5,7,
9,11,…
d=5–3=2equal sto7–5=2
Gi
venanot
hers equenc
e20,10,0,-
10,
-20,
-30
d=10–20=-
10equal
sto0–10=-
10…equal
sto-
30–(
-20)=-
10

ntht
ermofanAr it
hmet i
cProgr
ess
ion
Saythet
ermsa1 a2a3……anar
einA.
P.I
fthef
ir
stt
ermi
s‘a’
andi
tsc
ommondi
ff
erenc
eis‘
d’
.
T
hen,
thet
ermsc
anal
sobeex
pres
sedasf
oll
ows
,
2ndt
erma2=a1+d=a+d=a+(
2-1)d
3rdt
erma3=a2+d=(
a+d)+d=a+2d=a+(
3-1)
d
l
ikewi
s ntht
e, erman=a+(
n-1)d
T
her
efor
e,wec
anf
i hentht
ndt ermofanA.
Pbyus
ingt
hef
ormul
a,
a+(
an=( n-1)
d,wher
en=12,
3,…

ani
scal
ledt
hegener
alt
ermofanAP

Sumofnt ermsinanAr i
thmeti
cPr ogression
Thesumoffirs
tnt ermsofanA.P.canbec alculatedusingtheformul
a
n
S= [ 2a+(n-1)d]
, wheren=1,2,3, …
2
WhereSisthesum, nisthenumberoft ermsi ntheA.P, ai
sthefir
stt manddi
er sthe
commondiffer
ence.
Whenweknowt hef i
rstt
erm,aandt helastterm, l
,ofanA.P.Then,t
hes umofntermsi
s
n
S= *( a+l )
2

Pr
oper
tiesofAr
ithmet
icPr
ogr
ess
ions

 I
fthes
amenumberi
saddedors
ubt
rac
tedf
romeac
hter
mofanA.
P,t
hent
he
r
esul
ti
ngt
ermsi
nthes
equenc
ear
eal
soi
nA.
Pwi
tht
hes
amec
ommondi
ff
erenc
e.

 I
feac
hter
minanA.
Pisdi
videdormul
ti
pli
edwi
tht
hes
amenon-
zer
onumber
,then
t
her
esul
ti
ngs
equenc
eisal
soi
nanA.
P

 Thr
eenumberx
,yandzar
einanA.
Pif2y=x+z
t
h
 As
equenc
eisanA.
Pifi
tsn t
ermi
sal
inearex
pres
sion.

 I
fwes
elec
tter
msi
nther
egul
ari
nter
valf
romanA.
P,t
hes
esel
ect
edt
ermswi
llal
so
bei
nAP
 a1+an=a2+a 1=.
n- .
.=ak+an-k+1

and

an=½(
an-1+an+1)

Exampl
es1:I
fthel
astt
erm l=15,
d=-
1andn=13i
nanA.
P,whati
sthef
ir
stt
erm?
Soluti
on:
Giventhel
astt
ermwhi
chi
sthentht
erm(
an)oft Pl=15,
heA. d=-
1,n=13.
Weneedt
o
fnda.
i

Us
ingan=a+(
n–1)d,
wec
anf
inda.
15=a+(13–1)-
1
15=a–12
a=27

Example2:Foranessaywri
ti
ngc ompeti
ti
on,atot
aloff
ourentri
esrecei
vedacashpri
ze.
Thefi
rstpri
zewasN3000.Eachpriz
eisN400les
sthanthefi
rstpri
ze.Whatwasthetot
al
sumofc as
hgivenouttost
udentsfort
heessaywri
tingcompeti
ti
on?

Soluti
on
Giventhedata,
n=4,a=3000andd=–400.
n
Usingthefor
mulaS= [ 2a+( 1)
n- d]
,wec anc
alc
ulat
ethet
otalc
ashgi
venoutt
owi
nner
s.
2
4
S= [ 2(3000)+( 1)(-400)
4- ]=2*[(6000)+(
3)(-
400)]
2
=9600
Henc
e,at
otals
umofN9,
600washandedouti
ncas
htowi
nner
s.

Exampl e3:Findt hesumoff i

rst50naturalnumbers.
Soluti
on
n
Usingthefor mula,S= *( a+l )whenthelastter
m( 50)i
sknown,wecanf
indthesum.
2
50
=S= *( 1+50)=[ (25)*(51)]=1275
2
Theref
or e,
sumoff i
rst50naturalnumbersis1275
Exampl e4:The7t htermand10t htermsofanAPar e10and25. Fi
ndt
hefirs
ttermand
thecommondi fference.
Soluti
on
Whenn=7, an=10
Fromt heformul aan=a+( n–1)d
a+( 7–1)d=10
a+6d=12 ……………………………………………………………………………. .
(i
.)
Whenn=10, an=25
a+(10–1)d=25
a+9d=25 ………………………………………………………………………………( i
i)
Solv
ingequat ions(i
)and(i
i)si
multaneousl
ybys ubst
it
uti
on
Fromequat ion(i)
,
a=10–6d ………………………………………………………………………………( i
ii
)
substi
tutef orai nequat
ion(i
i)
(10–6d)+9d=25
10+3d=25
d=5
Substit
utingf ordi nequati
on(ii
i)
a=10–6( 5)
a=- 20
Thef i
rsttermi s-20andthecommondi f
ferenc
ei s5

Exercis
es
1.The4t htermand7t htermsofanAPar e10and22. Findt he12thterm
2.Fi ndt hefi
rstter
moft heari
thmet i
cs equenc e{
an}ifthec ommondi ff
erenceis4and
a4+a8+a12+a16=224.
3.{ an}isanarithmeticprogressi
onwi t
hanon- zer
oc ommondi ff
erence.Thesumofal l
termsbet weent hefourthandt hefourteenthis77.Findt henumberoft hetermof
thes equencethatisequalto7.
4.Thepr oductofthet hi
rdandt hesixthtermsofanar i
thmet i
csequenc eis406.The
nintht er
moft hes equencedivi
dedbyt hefourthtermgi vesaquotientof2anda
remai nderof6.Findthefirs
ttermandt hec ommondi fferenceofthearithmetic
sequenc e.

Geomet
ricPr
ogr
ess
ion
Ageomet ri
cprogressionisasequenc einwhi chanyel ementaf tert hef i
rsti
sobt ainedby
multiplyi
ngt hepr ecedingelementbyac ons t
antc alledt hec ommonr ati
owhi chis
denot edbyr.Also,thegeomet ri
cpr ogressi
oni st hes equenc einwhi chthefir
stt ermis
nonz eroandeac hc onsecuti
vetermi sder i
vedbymul t
ipl
yingt hepr ecedi
ngt erm bya
fi
xedquant it
y.Forexampl e,
thesequenc e1, 2,4,8,16,32…i sageomet ri
csequenc ewitha
commonr atioofr=2.Her ethes ucceedingnumberi nthes er i
esi sthedoubl eofi t
s
precedingnumber .Inot herwords,when1i smul t
ipliedby2i tr es ult
sin2.When2i s
multipli
edby2i tgi v
es4.Likewise,when4i smult i
pli
edby2weget8ands oon.So,we
cans aythattherati
ooft hetwocons ecuti
vet ermsi nthegeomet rics eri
esisconstant.

TheGeneralFormofaGeomet r
icProgressi
on
n-
1 n
Thegener
alformofaGPisa1,a1r
,a1r
²,a1r³
,………,a1r ,a1r

Gener nth)Ter
al( mofaGeomet r
icPr
ogressi
on
I
fwerepr
esenteacht
ermofGeometr
icProgr
ess
ions
uchasa1,
a2,
a3,
a4….am,
….an ac
cor
dingt
othef
ir
stt
erma1,
thent
het
ermsi
nthegeomet
ri
cser
ieswi
llbeas
fol
lows,

a1=a1
a2=a2r
a3=a2r=(a1r)r=a1r²
a4=a3r=(a2r²)r=a1r
³
t
h
Likewis
e,then t er
mwil
lbe
n-
1
an=ar

CommonRatioofaGeometri
cProgres
s i
on
Wegetthec
ommonr at
ioofgeometr
icseri
esbydi
vi
dinganynumberbyi
tspr
ecedi
ng
number
:

a
r= n
an-1

Pr
operti
esofCommonRat i
o(r)
 Thevalueoft hec ommonr ati
odet er
mineswhet herthes equenc eisincreasi
ngor
decr
easing.
 Posi
ti
ve:Thec ommonr ati
orbei ngposi
ti
vel eadst othef i
rs tterm ofGPbei ng
posi
ti
veandt husGPt obeposit
ive.
 Negati
ve:Thec ommonr at
iorbei ngnegativeleadstot hefirstterm ofGPbei ng
posi
ti
veandt husGPt obenegative.
 r>1indicatesthatt heGPhasexponent i
algrowthtowardspos i
tiveinfi
nit
y.
 r<-1indicatest hattheGPhasexponent i
algrowtht owar
dsinfinityinthealter
nati
ng
si
gn.
 I
fthevalueofrl iesbetween-1and1, t
henGPhasexponent i
aldec aytowards0.

Geomet
ricProgr
essi
onSum
Tofi
ndt
hes umoffi
rstnt
ermofaGPweus
ethef
oll
owi
ngf
ormul
a:
n
a(
1-r)
Sn= ,
forr<1
1-r
or
n
a(
r-1)
Sn= ,forr>1
r-
1
wher
er≠1.
Her
eni
sthenumberoft
erms
,a1i
sthef
ir
stt
ermandri
sthec
ommonr
ati
o.

Proper
tiesofGeomet
ricProgressi
on
Thefol
lowingar
ethepropert
iesofG.P:

 I
fwemult
ipl
yordivideanon-
zeroquanti
tytoeac
hter
moftheG.P,
thent
he
r
esul
ti
ngs
equenc
ei sals
oinG.Pwit
ht hesamecommondi
ff
erenc
e.
 Reci
procalofal
lthet
ermsinG.Pal
sofor
maG.P.
 Ifal
lthetermsinaG.Par
erais
edtothesamepower
,thent
henews
eri
esi
sal
soi
n
G.
P.
 I
fy²=x
z,t
hent
het
hreenon-
zer
oter
msx
,yandzar
einG.
P
t
h t
h
Example1:The6 t
ermofaG.
P.i
s32andi
ts8 t
ermi
s128,
thenf
indt
hec
ommonr
ati
o
oftheG.
P.
Sol
uti
on:
T6=32andT8=128
⇒ar
5=32………………………………………………………………….
.(i
)and
⇒ar
7=128……………………………………………………………….
.
..(
ii
)
Di
vidi
ng(
ii
)by(
i)
,wehave
2
r=4
r=2
Example2:Thesumofafewter
msofanyrati
oseri
esis728,i
fthecommonr
ati
ois3
andthelas
ttermis486,
thenwhatwi
llbet
hefir
stter
mofs eri
es?
Sol
uti
on:
ntht
ermofs
eri n−1
es=ar =a(
3)n−1
=486……………………………………….
.(i
)
Sumofnt
ermsofs
eri
esi 3n−1)/[
sSn=a( 3−1]=728(
sinc
er>
1)…………….
(ii
)
Fr
om(
i)
, 3n/3)=486
a(
a3n]=3×486=1458
[
a3n=1458……………………………………………………………………….
.(i
ii
)
Fr
om(
ii
),a3n−a=728*2
=a3n–a=1456
Subs
tit
uti ora3ni
ngf n(i
ii
i)
1458−a=1456
a=2

Exampl e3:Finds umoft

hef
irs
t5t
ermsoft
heG.
P2,
8,32,
…
Solution:
a=2
r=8/ 2=4
n=5
a( 1)
n
r-
Sn= ,forr>1
r-
1
2( 1)
5
4-
=
4-1
 2( 1)
5
4-
=
3
=682
Henc
etherequi
reds
umi
s682

Exerc
ises
1.Fi
ndt heproduc toft
hefir
stfi
vetermsofaGP, i
fitsthi
rdt
ermis4.
th th
2.Fi
nd9 andn t ermofaG. P4,
16,64…
9 1 8 2 7 3 6 9
3.Fi
ndt hevalueofmi f,(
10)+2( 11)( 10)+3(
11)( 10)+4(11)(10)+…+(
11)=
9
m(10)

Harmoni cProgress ion

AHar monicPr ogres si
on(HP)isas equenc eofr ealnumber sdeterminedbyt aki
ngt he
reci
procalsofthenon- zer
oarithmet i
cpr ogr ession.Inotherwor d,asequenceissaidto
beinahar moni cpr ogressi
oni
ft hereciproc alofi tstermsformanar i
thmetic
progres
sioni .
e.thes equencea1,a2,a3,a3,a4, a5,…,anisahar monicprogressi
onifthe
1 1 1 1 1 1
sequence , , , , , …, i sanar it
hmet i
cpr ogress
ionorvi c
ever s
a.
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 an
Harmoni cMean:Har monicmeanisc alculatedast her ec
iprocalofthearit
hmet i
cmean
ofthereciprocals.Thef or
mulat ocalculatet hehar monicmeani sgivenby:
n
Har
moni
cMean=

[
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + +… .
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 ]
Wher
e,
a1,
a2,
a3,
a3,
a4,
a5,
…,anar
etheval
uesandni
sthenumberofval
uespr
esent
.

ThenthtermoftheHarmonicProgr
ess
ion
Ifa1anda2ar he1stand2ndt
et ermofaharmoni
cpr
ogr
ess
ion,
t hent
hent ermofaHP
i
sgi venby:
1
Tn=
a+(
n-1)d
Wher
e
“
a”i
sthef
irs
tter
mofA.
P
“
d”i
sthec
ommondi
ff
erenc
e
“
n”i
sthenumberoft
ermsi
nA.
P
1
Si
ncea=
a1
 1 1 a1- a2
Andt
hec
ommondi
ff
erenc
e(d)= – =
a2 a1 a1a2

1 a1a2
Ther
efor
e,Tn= =
1 a-a a+(n-1)a1-
a2
+(
n-1) 1 2 2
a1 a1a2
HarmonicPr
ogres
sionSum
I
f1/a,1/
a+d,1/
a+2d,….
,1/a+(
n-1)di
sgivenasharmoni
cprogress
ion,
thefor
mul
ato
fi
ndthesumofntermsintheharmoni
cprogres
sioni
sgivenbythefor
mula:
Sumofnt
erms
,

Wher
e,
1
Sn= l
d
n
{2a+(2n-
2a-d
1)
d
}
“
a”i
sthef
irs
tter
mofA.
P
“
d”i
sthec
ommondi
ff
erenc
eofA.
P
“
ln”i
sthenat
urall
ogar
ithm

Example1:Det
ermi he4thand8tht
net ermoft
hehar
moni
cpr
ogr
ess
ion6,
4,3,
…
Solut
ion:
Gi
vent
heH.
P=6,
4,3
Thear ithmet i
cpr ogressi
onf r
omt hegi
venH.Pis
A.P=⅙, ¼,⅓, ….
Her e, a2-a1=a3- a2=1/ 12=d
So, i
nor dertof indt he4tht ermofanA. P,
usethefor
mula,
Thent ht ermofanA. P=a+( n-1)d
Her e, a=⅙, d=1/ 12
th
Tof indt he4 t er m, n=4
a4=( ⅙)+( 4-1)( 1/12)
=( ⅙) +(3/12)
=( ⅙) +( ¼)
=5/ 12
Simi larly,
th
8t er mofanA. P=( ⅙)+(8- 1)(1/
12)
=( ⅙) +(7/12)
=9/ 12
SinceH. Pisther eciprocalofanA. P
The4tht ermofanH. P=1/ 4thtermofanA.P=12/5
th th
The8 t ermofanH. P=1/ 8t ermofanA.P=12/9=4/3

Exampl
e2:
Comput
ethe16tht
ermofHPi
fthe6thand11tht
ermofHPar
e10and18r
espec
tivel
y.
Sol
uti
on:
TheH.
Piswr
itt
eni
nter
msofA.
Par
egi
venbel
ow:
6tht
ermofA.
P=a+5d=1/
10……………………………………………………….
(i)
t
h
11 t
ermofA.
P=a+10d=1/
18…………………………………………………….
(ii
)
Sol
vingt
het
woequat
ions
,
a=13/
90,
andd=-
2/225
Tof
ind16tht
erm,
a+15d=(
13/
90)–(
2/15)=1/
90
Thus
,the16tht
ermofanH. 16tht
P=1/ ermofanA.
P=90
Ther
efor
e,he16tht
t ermoft
heH.
Pis90.

Exerc
ises
1.Thes econdandt hefi
f t
ht er
moft hehar monicprogress
ionis3/14and1/10.
Compute
t
h
thesumof6t hand7 t er
moft heser i
es.
2.Thes umoft herecipr
oc al
softhefir
s t11termsint heharmonicprogr
ess
ionser
iesi
s
110.Determinethe6t ermsofthehar monicprogressi
onseries
111
3.Det erminethe7thand15thtermoft heharmonicpr ogr
ession , , ,…
642