POLYNOMIALS

POLYNOMIALS


A. INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF POLYNOMIALS
(a) General Terms
(i) Constant : A symbol having a fixed numerical value is called a ‘constant’
e.g. ‘2’ has a definite value. So, it is a constant
(ii) Variable : A symbol which takes on various numerical values is called a ‘variable’.
e.g. x,y .......
(iii) Coefficient : In the product of a constant and a variable, each is called the coefficient of the
other.
e.g. In 6x, 6 is the coefficient of x.
(iv) Algebraic expression : Combination of constants and variables with (+), (–), (), () is called an
‘Algebraic expression’.
e.g. 17 – x, 3x2 – 4x + 12, etc.
(v) Equation : Two expressions combined with equality symbol (=) is called an equation
e.g. 17 – x = 0, 3x2 – 4x + 12 = 2x2 – 3x. etc.
(vi) Degree of an expression : The highest number of times the variable is present in the terms of
an expression is the degree of an expression.
(b) Types of Polynomial
An algebraic expression f(x) of the form f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 +...........+ anxn, where a0, a1,
a2,............,an are real numbers and all the index of ‘x’ are non-negative integers is called a
polynomial in x.
• Identification of Polynomial :
For this, we have following examples :
(i) 3 x2 + x – 5 is a polynomial in variable x as all the exponents of x are non negative integers.
(ii) 3 x2 + x – 5x is not a polynomial as the exponent of second term ( x = x1/2) is not a non
negative integer.
5 5
(iii) 5x3 + 2x2 + 3x – + 6 is not a polynomial as the exponent of fourth term – is not non–
x x
negative integer.

• Degree of the Polynomial :

Highest index of x in algebraic expression is called the degree of the polynomial, here a0, a1x,
a2x2,............., anxn, are called the terms of the polynomial and a0, a1, a2,.........., an are called various
coefficients of the polynomial f(x).
For example:
(i) p(x) = 3x4 – 5x2 + 2 is a polynomial of degree 4
(ii) q(x) = 5x4 + 2x5 – 6x6 – 5 is a polynomial of degree 6
(iii) f(x) = 2x3 + 7x – 5 is a polynomial of degree 3.
• Different Types of Polynomials :
Generally, we divide the polynomials in the following categories.

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(i) Based on degrees : There are four types of polynomials based on degrees. These are listed
below :
 Zero degree polynomial : Any non-zero number (constant) is regarded as a polynomial of
degree zero or zero degree polynomial. i.e. f(x) = a, where a  0 is a zero degree polynomial,
since we can write f(x) = a as f(x) = axo.
 Linear Polynomial : A polynomial of degree one is called a linear polynomial. The general form
of linear polynomial is ax + b, where a and b are any real constant and a  0.
 Quadratic Polynomial : A polynomial of degree two is called a quadratic polynomial. The
general form of a quadratic polynomial is ax2 + bx + c, where a 0.
 Cubic Polynomial : A polynomial of degree three is called a cubic polynomial. The general
form of a cubic polynomial is ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a 0.
Biquadratic (or quartic) Polynomials : A polynomial of degree four is called a biquadratic
(quartic) polynomial. The general form of a biquadratic polynomial is ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e,
where a 0.
NOTE : A polynomial of degree five or more than five does not have any particular name. Such a
polynomial usually called a polynomial of degree five or six or ....... etc.

(ii) Based on number of terms

There are three types of polynomials based on number of terms. These are as follows :
  Monomial : A polynomial is said to be a monomial if it has only one term. e.g. x, 9x 2, 5x3 all are
monomials.
x
  Binomial : A polynomial is said to be a binomial if it contains two terms. e.g. 2x2 + 3x, + 5x3,
2
– 8x3 + 3, all are binomials.
5
  Trinomials : A polynomial is said to be a trinomial if it contains three terms. e.g. 3x3 – 8x + ,
2
5 – 7x + 8x9, 7 x10 + 8x4 – 3x2 are all trinomials.
NOTE : A polynomial having four or more than four terms does not have particular name. These are
simply called polynomials.

(c) Operation on polynomials


(i) Arithmetic operations over polynomials
(I) Addition : Addition of all like terms in given polynomials gives the sum of polynomials.

(II) Subtraction : The difference between the like term in given polynomials is known as subtraction
of the given polynomials.

(III) Multiplication : multiply each term of the multiplicand by each term of the multiplier and take the
algebraic sum of the products. This gives the product of the given polynomials.
(d) Division algorithm for polynomial


If p(x) and g(x) are any two polynomials with g(x)  0, then we can find polynomials r(x) and q(x)
such that p(x) = g(x) × q(x) + r(x)
i.e. Dividend = (Divisor x Quotient) + Remainder
where r(x)=0 or degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).


(i) If r(x) = 0, g(x) is a factor of p(x)



(ii) If deg(p(x)) > deg(g(x)), then deg(q(x)) = deg(p(x)) –deg(g(x))



(iii) If deg(p(x)) = deg(g(x)), then deg(q(x)) = 0 and deg(r(x)) < deg(g(x))

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POLYNOMIALS

(i) Value of a Polynomial :

The value of a polynomial f(x) at x =  is obtained by substituting x =  in the given polynomial and
is denoted by f().
Consider the polynomial f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6,
If we replace x by – 2 everywhere in f(x), we get
f(– 2) = (– 2)3 – 6(– 2)2 + 11(– 2) – 6
f(– 2) = – 8 – 24 – 22 – 6
f(– 2) = – 60 .
So, we can say that value of f(x) at x = – 2 is – 60.
(ii) Zero or Root of a Polynomial :
The real number  is a root or zero of a polynomial f(x), if f( = 0.
Consider the polynomial f(x) = 2x3 + x2 – 7x – 6,
If we replace x by 2 everywhere in f(x), we get
f(2) = 2(2)3 + (2)2 – 7(2) – 6 = 16 + 4 – 14 – 6 = 0
Hence, x = 2 is a root of f(x).
(iii) Remainder Theorem:
Let ‘p(x)’ be any polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one and a be any real number and If
p(x) is divided by (x – a), then the remainder is equal to p(a).
(iv) Factor Theorem:
Let p(x) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1 and ‘a’ be a real number such that
p(a) = 0, then (x – a) is a factor of p(x). Conversely, if (x – a) is a factor of p(x), then p(a) = 0.

Example.1


Find the sum of the following : P(x) = 4t3 – 3t2 + 2, Q(x) = t4 – 2t3 + 6 and R(x) = t3 + 4t2 – 4


Sol. P(x) = 4t3 – 3t2 + 2

Q(x) = t4 – 2t3 + 6
R(x) = t3 + 4t2 – 4
P(x) + Q(x) + R(x) = t4 + 3t3 + t2 + 4
Example.2


Subtract g(x) from f(x) where f(x) = 2 + x 2 + 4x3, g(x) = x4 + x2 + 3x + 5.



Sol. f(x) = 4x3 + x2 + 0.x + 2 = 0.x4 + 4x3 + x2 + 0.x + 2

g(x) = x4 + 0.x3 + x2 + 3x + 5
f(x) – g(x) = (0.x4 + 4x3 + x2 + 0.x + 2) – (x4 + 0x3 + x2 + 3x + 5)
f(x) – g(x) = ( 0 – 1)x4 + (4 – 0) x3 + (1 – 1) x2 + (0 – 3) x + (2 – 5)
= – x4 + 4x3 + 0. x2 – 3x – 3 = – x4 + 4x3 – 3x – 3.
Example.3
Multiply : (x2 – 5x + 2) by (3x2 + 2x – 5)
Sol. We have x2 – 5x + 2
x 3x2 + 2x – 5
__________________
3x4 – 15x3 + 6x2
+ 2x3 – 10x2 + 4x
– 5x2 – 25x + 10
____________________________
3x4 – 13x3 – 9x2 + 29x – 10
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

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Example.4
If p(x) = x2 – 2x + 1 and q(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 2x – 1. Find p(x)  q(x) and check the degree of p(x)  q(x)
Sol. p(x)  q(x) = (x2 – 2x + 1)  (x3 – 3x2 + 2x – 1)
= x2(x3 – 3x2 + 2x – 1) – 2x(x3 – 3x2 + 2x – 1) + 1 (x3 – 3x2 + 2x – 1)
= (x5 – 3x4 + 2x4 + 2x3 + 6x3 + x3 – x2 – 4x2 – 3x2 + 2x + 2x – 1
= x5 – 5x4 + 9x3 – 8x2 + 4x – 1
The degree of p(x)  q(x) is ‘5’
Example.5
What must be added to 3x3 + x2 – 22x + 9 so that the result is exactly divisible by 3x2 + 7x – 6.
Sol. Let p(x) = 3x3 + x2 – 22x + 9 and q(x) = 3x2 + 7x – 6
We know if p(x) is divided by q(x) which is quadratic polynomial then the remainder be r(x) and
degree of r(x) is less than q(x) or Divisor.
By long division method
x 2
3x 2  7x  6 3x 3  x 2  22x  9
 3x3 
7x 2  6x

6x 2  16x  9
2
 6x 
  14x 

12
2x  3
Hence if in p(x) we added 2x + 3 then it is exactly divisible by 3x2 + 7x – 6.
Example.6
What must be subtracted from x3 – 6x2 – 15x + 80 so that the result is exactly divisible by x2 + x – 12.
Sol:  Let p(x) = x3 – 6x2 – 15x + 80 so that it is exactly divisible by q(x) = x2 + x – 12.
We know if p(x) is divided by q(x) which is quadratic polynomial then the remainder be r(x) and
degree of r(x) is less than q(x) or Divisor.
By long division method
x 7
x  x  12 x  6x 2  15x  80
2 3

 x3  x 2  12x
 7 x 2  3x  80
 7x2  7 x  84
4x  4
Hence, if in p(x) we subtract 4x – 4 then it is exactly divisible by x2 + x – 12.
Example.7
4
If x = is a root of the polynomial f(x) = 6x3 – 11x2 + kx – 20 then find the value of k.
3
Sol. f(x) = 6x3 – 11x2 + kx – 20 
3 2
4 4 4 4
  f    6   – 11   k   – 20  0
3 3 3 3
64 16 4k
 6 – 11  – 20  0
93 9 3
 128 – 176  12k – 180  0
 12k  128 – 356  0 
  12k  228
 k = 19.
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Example.8
If x = 2 & x = 0 are two roots of the polynomial f(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 + ax + b. Find the values of a and b.
Sol. f (2) = 2 (2)3 – 5 (2)2 + a (2) + b = 0
 16 – 20 + 2a + b = 0
 2a + b = 4 ...(i)
f (0) = 2 (0)3 – 5 (0)2 + a (0) + b = 0
 b=0
Put b = 0 in eq. (i)
 2a + 0 = 4
So, 2a = 4
 a = 2.
Hence, a = 2, b = 0.

Example. 9
Find the remainder, when f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 2x – 4 is divided by g(x) = 1 – 2x.
Sol. f(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 2x – 4
Let, 1 – 2x = 0
2x = 1
1
x=
2
 1
Remainder = f  
2
3 2
 1  1  1  1
f   =   – 6   2  – 4
2 2 2 2
1 3
= –  1– 4
8 2
1– 12  8 – 32 35
= – .
8 8
Example.10
The polynomials ax3 + 3x2 – 13 and 2x3 – 5x + a are divided by x + 2 and if the remainder in each
case is the same, find the value of a.
Sol. p(x) = ax3 + 3x2 – 13 and q(x) = 2x3 – 5x + a
When p(x) & q(x) are divided by x + 2
Let x+2=0 x = – 2.
 Remainder are same.
So, p (– 2) = q(– 2)
 a (– 2)3 + 3 (– 2)2 – 13 = 2 (– 2)3 – 5 (– 2) + a
 – 8a + 12 – 13 = –16 + 10 + a
5
 – 9a = – 5  a= .
9
Example.11
If f(x) = x4 – 2x3 + 3x2 – ax + b is a polynomial such that when it is divided by x – 1 and x + 1, the
remainders are respectively 5 and 19. Determine the remainder when f(x) is divided by (x – 2).
Sol. When f(x) is divided by (x – 1) and (x + 1) the remainders are 5 and 19 respectively.
 f(1) = 5
 14 – 2(1)3 + 3(1)2 – a(1) + b = 5
 1–2+3–a+b=5
 –a+b=3 ...(i)
and f(–1) = 19
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 (–1)4 – 2(–1)3 + 3(–1)2 – a (– 1) + b = 19

 1 + 2 + 3 + a + b = 19
 a + b = 13 ...(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
We have a = 5 and b = 8
So, f(x) = x4 – 2x3 + 3x2 – 5x + 8
The remainder when f(x) is dividing by (x – 2) is equal to f(2).
f(2) = 24 – 2(23) + 3(2)2 – 5(2) + 8
= 16 – 16 + 12 – 10 + 8
= 10.
Example.12
The polynomials ax3 + 3x2 – 3 and 2x3 – 5x + a when divided by (x – 4) leaves remainder R1 & R2
respectively then find the value of ‘a’ if 2R1 – R2 = 0.
Sol. Let f(x) = ax3 + 3x2 – 3 and g(x) = 2x3 – 5x + a
R1 = f(4) = a (4)3 + 3 (4)2 – 3
R1 = 64 a + 45.
R2 = g(4) = 2 (4)3 – 5 (4) + a
= 128 – 20 + a
= 108 + a.
Given : 2R1 – R2 = 0
2 (64 a + 45) – (108 + a) = 0
128 a + 90 – 108 – a = 0
127 a = 18
18
a= .
127
Example.13
Show that x + 1 and 2x – 3 are factors of 2x3 – 9x2 + x + 12.
Sol. To prove that (x + 1) and (2x – 3) are factors of 2x3 – 9x2 + x + 12 it is sufficient to show that p(–1)
3
and p   both are equal to zero.
2
p (– 1) = 2 (– 1)3 – 9 (– 1)2 + (– 1) + 12 = – 2 – 9 – 1 + 12 = – 12 + 12 = 0.
3 2
3 3 3 3 27 81 3
And, p   = 2   – 9       12 = –   12
2 2 2 2 4 4 2
27 – 81  6  48 – 81  81
= = = 0.
4 4
 Hence, (x + 1) and (2x – 3) are the factors 2x3 – 9x2 + x + 12.

Example.14
Find the values of a and b so that the polynomials x3 – ax2 – 13x + b has (x – 1) and (x + 3) as
factors.
Sol. Let f(x) = x3 – ax2 – 13x + b
Because (x – 1) and (x + 3) are the factors of f(x),
 f(1) = 0 and f(– 3) = 0
f(1) = 0
 (1)3 – a(1)2 – 13(1) + b = 0
 1 – a – 13 + b = 0
 – a + b = 12 .... (i)
f(–3) = 0
 (– 3)3 – a(– 3)2 – 13(– 3) + b = 0
 – 27 – 9a + 39 + b = 0

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 – 9a + b = –12 ....(ii)
Subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i)
(– a + b) – (– 9a + b) = 12 + 12
 – a + 9a = 24
  8a = 24
  a = 3.
Put a = 3 in equation (i)
– 3 + b = 12
  b = 15.
Hence, a = 3 and b = 15.
Example.15
If ax3 + bx2 + x – 6 has x + 2 as a factor and leaves a remainder 4 when divided by (x – 2), find the
values of a and b?
Sol. Let p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + x – 6 be the given polynomial.
Now, (x + 2) is a factor of p(x).
p(– 2) = 0
a(– 2)3 + b(– 2)2 + (– 2) – 6 = 0
– 8a + 4b – 2 – 6 = 0
– 8a + 4b = 8 .... (i)
It is given that p(x) leaves remainder 4 when it is divided by (x – 2).
p( 2) = 4
a(2)3 + b(2)2 + (2) – 6 = 4
8a + 4b + 2 – 6 = 4
8a + 4b = 8 .... (ii)
Add equation (i) & (ii)
– 8a + 4b + 8a + 4b = 8 + 8
8b = 16 b = 2.
Put b = 2 in equation (i)
– 8a + 4(2) = 8
– 8a + 8 = 8
– 8a = 0 a = 0.
Hence, a = 0 and b = 2.


1. Classify the following polynomials based on number of terms.

(a) x+3 (b) x2 + x + 2 (c) x3 + 1 (d) 8x3
3 2
x x
(e) 7x2 + 8x + 3 (f) (g) x  (h) x2  x  3
12 2
2. Classify the following polynomials based on their degree.
x
(a) 3x2 + 4x (b) 2x 3  3 (c) 7x + 2 (d) 5x2
2
(e) x 3  2x 2  1 (f) x3 – 1 (g) 8x + 3

3. Find zeroes of the following polynomials

(a) 7x – 14 (b) 8x + 1 (c) x2 – 5x – 6 (d) 2x2 + 3x + 1
4. Divide 6x2 + 13x + 16 by 2x + 3 and find the quotient and remainder.
5. The polynomial 5x2 + 7x + 3 is divided by x – 2. Find the remainder by using remainder theorem.
6. Examine whether (a – 1) is a factor of a3 – 3a2 + 3a – 1.

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Answers
1. (a) binomial (b) trinomial (c) binomial (d) monomial
(e) trinomial (f) monomial (g) binomial (h) trinomial
2. (a) quadratic (b) cubic (c) linear (d) quadratic
(e) cubic (f) cubic (g) linear
1 1
3. (a) x=2 (b) x (c) x = –1 or 6 (d) x   or  1
8 2
4. q = 3x + 2, r = 10 5. 37 6. Yes it’s a factor


B. ALGEBRAIC IDENTITIES
Some important identities are :
(i) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(ii) (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
(iii) a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)
(iv) (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
(v) a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
(vi) a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)
(vii) (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b)
(viii) (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3ab (a – b)
(ix) a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ac)
Special case : if a + b + c = 0 then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc.
Value Form :
(i) a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 – 2ab, if a + b and ab are given.
(ii) a2 + b2 = (a – b)2 + 2ab, if a – b and ab are given.
(iii) a + b =  a  b 2  4ab , if a – b and ab are given.
(iv) a – b =  a  b 2  4ab , if a + b and ab are given.
2
1  1 1
(v) a2 + =  a   – 2, if a + is given.
a2  a a
2
1  1 1
(vi) a2 + 2
=  a   + 2, if a – is given.
a  a  a
(vii) a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab (a + b), if (a + b) and ab are given.
(viii) a3 – b3 = (a – b)3 + 3ab (a – b), if (a – b) and ab are given.
3
1  1  1 1
(ix) a3  =  a   – 3  a   , if a + is given.
a3  a   a  a
3
1  1  1 1
(x) a3  3
=  a   + 3  a   , if a – is given.
a  a  a a
(xi) a4 – b4 = (a2 + b2) (a2 – b2) = [(a + b)2 – 2ab](a + b) (a – b).

NOTE : (i) (xn – an) is divisible by (x – a) for all the values of n.

(ii) (xn – an) is divisible by (x + a) and (x – a) for all the even values of n.
(iii) (xn + an) is divisible by (x + a) for all the odd values of n.
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Example.16
a2  ab b2 b2  bc  c 2 c 2  ca  a2
 xa   xb   xc 
 b   c   a  1
x  x  x 
a2  ab  b2 b2  bc  c 2 c 2  ca a2
 xa   xb   xc 
Sol.  b   c   a 
x  x  x 
a2  abb2 b2 bc c 2 c 2  ca a2

= xa b   xb  c   xc a  
= xa
3
 b3
 x  x 
b3  c 3 c 3  a3

3
 b3 b3  c 3  c 3  a3
= xa = x0 = 1.

Example.17
Expand :
2
 1  2
(i)  2x 


3x 
(ii) 3x 2
 5y 
2
1 1 
(iii)  2x  3y  2x  3y  (iv)  a  b  1
4 2 
2
 1  2  1  1 4 1
Sol. (i)  2x   = (2x) – 2(2x)   + 2
= 4x2 – + 2 .
 3x   3x  3x  3 9x
(ii) (3x2 + 5y)2 = (3x2)2 + 2(3x2)(5y) + (5y)2 = 9x4 + 30x2y + 25y2
(iii) ( 2 x – 3y)( 2 x + 3y) = ( 2 x)2 – (3y)2 = 2x2 – 9y2
2 2 2
1 1  1   1  2 1   1   1  1 
(iv)  a  b  1 =  a  +   b  +(1) + 2  a    b  + 2   b  (1) + 2(1)  a 
4 2  4   2  4   2   2  4 
1 2 1 2 ab a
= a + b +1– –b+ .
16 4 4 2

Example.18
Simplify :
 1  1  2 1   4 1 
(i)  x  x   x  x  x  2   x  4 
   x  x 
(ii)  2x  y   2x  y   4x 2
 y2 
(iii) (x + y – 2z) – x – y – 3z +4xy
2 2 2 2

 1  1  2 1   4 1   2 1   2 1   4 1 
Sol. (i) x  x  x  x  x  2  x  4  = x  2  x  2  x  4 
   x  x   x  x  x 
 2
 1    1   4 1  4 1 
= (x 2 )2   2    x 4  4 = x  4  x  4 
  x    x   x  x 
2
 1 
= (x4)2 –  4 
x 
1
= x8 – .
x8
(ii) (2x + y)(2x – y)(4x2 +y2) = [(2x)2 – (y)2](4x2 + y2)
= (4x2 – y2)(4x2 + y2) = (4x2)2 – (y2)2 = 16x4 – y4.

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(iii) (x + y – 2z)2 – x2 – y2 – 3z2 + 4xy

= x2 + y2 + (– 2z)2 + 2(x)(y) + 2(y) (– 2z)+ 2(– 2z)(x) – x2 – y2 – 3z2 + 4xy
= x2 + y2 + 4z2 + 2xy – 4yz – 4zx – x2 – y2 – 3z2 + 4xy
= z2 + 6xy – 4yz – 4zx.
Example.19
Evaluate :
(i) (107)2 (ii) (94)2 (iii) (0.99)2
Sol. (i) (107)2 = (100 + 7)2
= (100)2 + (7)2 + 2 ×100 × 7
= 10000 + 49 + 1400
= 11449
(ii) (94)2 = (100 – 6)2
= (100)2 + (6)2 – 2 × 100 × 6
= 10000 + 36 – 1200
= 8836
(iii) (0.99)2 = (1 – 0.01)2
= (1)2 + (0.01)2 – 2 × 1 × 0.01
= 1 + 0.0001 – 0.02
= 0.9801
Example.20
1  1  1  1 
If x2 + 2
= 23, find the values of  x   ,  x   and  x 4  4 .
x  x  x  x 
1
Sol. x2 + = 23 …(i)
x2
1
 x2 + + 2 = 25 [Adding 2 on both sides of (i)]
x2
2
 1 1
 (x2) +   + 2  x  = 25
x x
2
 1
 x   = (5)
2

 x
1
 x+ =5
x
2
 1 1
x   = x + 2 – 2
2

 x x
2
 1
  x   = 23 – 2 = 21
 x
 1
  x  x  =  21 .
 
2
 2 1   4 1 
x  2  = x  4 + 2
 x   x 
2
 4 1   2 1 
 x  4  = x  2  – 2
 x   x 
 4 1 
 x  4  = (23) – 2 = 529 – 2
2

 x 
 4 1 
  x  4  = 527.
 x 
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Example. 21
1 2 2 2
Prove that : a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca =  a  b   b  c   c  a 

2 
Sol. Here, L.H.S. a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca
1
= 2a2  2b2  2c 2  2ab  2bc  2ca 
2 
1 2
=
2 
(a  2ab  b2 )  (b2  2bc  c 2 )  c 2  2ca  a2 
  
1 2
= (a  b)2  (b  c)2   c  a   = RHS Hence Proved.
2 
 

Example.22
If a + b + c = 9 and ab + bc + ca = 23, then find the value of a2 + b 2 + c2.
Sol. (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
(9)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(23)
a2 + b2 + c2 = 81 – 46
a2 + b2 + c2 = 35.
Example.23
Expand :
3
 1 2  3
(i)    (ii)  4  3x 
 3x 5y 
3
 1 2 
Sol. (i)   
 3x 5y 
3 3
 1   2   1   2   1 2 
=   –  5y  –3       
 3x     3x   5y   3x 5y 
1 8 2  1 2 
= 3
– 3
–   
27x 125y 5xy  3x 5y 
1 8 2 4
= – 3
– 2
+
27x 3
125y 15x y 25xy 2
(ii) (4 + 3x)3
= (4)3 + (3x)3 + 3(4)(3x)(4 + 3x)
= 64 + 27x3 + 36x (4 + 3x)
= 64 + 27x3 + 144x + 108x2
Example.24
Simplify :
3 3
 2  2
(i) (3x + 4)3 – (3x – 4)3 (ii) x    x  
 x  x
Sol. (i) (3x + 4)3 – (3x – 4)3
= [(3x)3 + (4)3 + 3 (3x) (4) (3x + 4)] – [(3x)3 – (4)3 – 3 (3x) (4) (3x – 4)]
= [27x3 + 64 + 36x (3x + 4)] – [27x3 – 64 – 36x (3x – 4)]
= [27x3 + 64 + 108x2 + 144x] – [27x3 – 64 – 108x2 + 144x]
= 27x3 + 64 + 108x2 + 144x – 27x3 + 64 + 108x2 – 144x
= 128 + 216x2.
3 3
 2  2
(ii) x   + x  
 x   x

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3 3
2 2  2 2 2  2
= x3 +   + 3(x)   3
 x  x  + x –  x  – 3(x)  x  x  x 
x x        
8 12 8 12
= x3 + 3
+ 6x + + x3 – 3 – 6x +
x x x x
24
= 2x3 + .
x
Example.25
Evaluate :
(i) (1005)3 (ii) (997)3
Sol. (i) (1005) = (1000 + 5)
3 3

= (1000)3 + (5)3 + 3 (1000) (5) (1000 + 5)

= 1000000000 + 125 + 15000 (1000 + 5)
= 1000000000 + 125 + 15000000 + 75000
= 1015075125.
(ii) (997)3 = (1000 – 3)3
= (1000)3 – (3)3 – 3 × 1000 × 3 × (1000 – 3)
= 1000000000 – 27 – 9000 × (1000 – 3)
= 1000000000 – 27 – 9000000 + 27000
= 991026973.
Example.26
1 1
If x – = 5, find the value of x3 – 3 .
x x
1
Sol. We have, x – =5 ...(i)
x
3
 1
 x   = (5) [Cubing both sides of (i)]
3

 x
1 1  1 1  1
 x3 – – 3x   x   = 125  x3 – – 3  x   = 125
x 3 x  x x3
 x
1  1
 x3 – 3
– 3 × 5 = 125 [Substituting  x   = 5]
x  x
1 1
 x3 – 3
– 15 = 125  x3 – = (125 + 15) = 140.
x x3

Example.27
Find the products of the following expression :
(i) (4x + 3y) (16x2 – 12xy + 9y2)
(ii) (5x – 2y) (25x2 +10xy + 4y2)
Sol. (i) (4x + 3y) (16x2 – 12 xy + 9y2)
= (4x + 3y) [(4x)2 – (4x) × (3y) + (3y)2]
= (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) [Where a = 4x, b = 3y ]
= a3 + b3
= (4x)3 + (3y)3 = 64x3 + 27y3.
(ii) (5x – 2y) (25x2 + 10xy + 4y2)
= (5x – 2y) [(5x)2 + (5x) × (2y) + (2y)2]
= (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2) [Where a = 5x, b = 2y]
= a3 – b3
= (5x)3 – (2y)3
= 125x3 – 8y3.

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Example.28
Find the product of following expression :
(i) (3x – 4y + 5z) (9x2 + 16y2 + 25z2 +12xy – 15zx + 20yz)
(ii) (2a – 3b – 2c) (4a2 + 9b2 + 4c2 + 6ab – 6bc + 4ca)
Sol. (i) (3x – 4y + 5z)(9x2 + 16y2 + 25z2 + 12xy –15zx + 20yz)
Let, a = 3x, b = – 4y, c = 5z
= (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ca)
= (a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc)
= (3x)3 + (– 4y)3 + (5z)3 – 3(3x)(– 4y)(5z)
= 27x3 – 64y3 + 125z3 +180 xyz
(ii) (2a – 3b – 2c)(4a2 + 9b2 + 4c2 + 6ab – 6bc + 4ca)
Let x = 2a, y = – 3b, z = – 2c
= (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
= (x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz)
= (2a)3 + (– 3b)3 + (– 2c)3 – 3(2a)(– 3b)(– 2c)
= 8a3 – 27b3 – 8c3 – 36abc
Example.29
If a + b + c = 9 and ab + bc + ac = 26, find the value of a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc.
Sol. We have a + b + c = 9 ...(i)
 (a + b + c)2 = 81 [On squaring both sides of (i)]
 a + b + c + 2(ab + bc + ac) = 81
2 2 2

 a2 + b2 + c2 + 2 × 26 = 81 [ ab + bc + ac = 26]
 a2 + b2 + c2 = (81 – 52)
 a2 + b2 + c2 = 29.
Now, we have
a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc
= (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ac)
= (a + b + c) [(a2 + b2 + c2) – (ab + bc + ac)]
= 9 × [(29 – 26)]
= (9 × 3) = 27.
Example.30
3 3 3

Simplify :
a 2
 b2   b 2
 c2   c 2
 a2  .
3 3 3
a  b  b  c   c  a 

Sol.      
Here, a2  b2  b2  c 2  c 2  a2  0
3 3 3
  a  b   b  c   c  a 
2 2 2 2 2 2
= 3 a 2
 b2  b2
 c2  c 2
 a2 
Also,  a  b    b  c   c  a  0
3 3 3
 a  b  b  c    c  a  = 3  a  b  b  c   c  a 

=
 
3 a2  b2 b2  c 2 c 2  a2  
3  a  b  b  c  c  a 
3  a  b  a  b b  c b  c  c  a c  a 
=
3  a  b  b  c  c  a 
=  a  b  b  c  c  a  .

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Example.31
Prove that : (x – y)3 + (y – z)3 + (z – x)3 = 3(x – y) (y – z) (z – x).
Sol. Let (x – y) = a, ( y – z) = b and ( z – x) = c.
Then, a + b + c = (x – y) + (y – z) + ( z – x) = 0
a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
or (x – y)3 + (y – z)3 + (z – x)3 = 3 (x – y) (y – z) (z – x).
Example.32
Find the value of (28)3 – (78)3 + (50)3.
Sol. Let a = 28, b = – 78, c = 50
Then, a + b + c = 28 – 78 + 50 = 0
a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc.
So, (28)3 + (–78)3 + (50)3 = 3 × 28 × (–78) × 50 = – 327600.

1. Expand : (2x + 3y – 2z)2.

2. If a + b = 7 and ab = 12, find the value of a3 + b3.

1 1
3. If a   5 then a 2  2 is equal to ?
a a
1 1
4. If a   4 then a 3  3 is equal to ?
a a
5. If p – q = 9, prove that p3 – q3 – 27pq = 729.

Answers
1. 4x2 + 9y2 + 4z2 + 12 xy – 12 yz – 8 xz 2. 91 3. 23
4. 52


C. FACTORIZATION
To express a given polynomial as the product of polynomials, each of degree less than that of the
given polynomial such that no such a factor has a factor of lower degree, is called factorization.
(a) Factorization by taking out the common factor :
Working Rule: When each term of an expression has a common factor, divide each term by this
factor and take out as a multiple.
(b) Factorization by grouping :
Working Rule:Sometimes in a given expression it is not possible to take out a common factor
directly.However, the terms of the given expression are grouped in such a manner that we may
have a common factor.This can be factorized as discussed above.
(c) Factorization by making a perfect square :
Working Rule : a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
(d) Factorization the difference of two squares :
Working Rule: a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)

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(e) Factorization of a Quadratic Polynomial by Splitting the Middle Term :

Working Rule:
Case 1: Polynomials of the form x2 + bx + c
we find integers p and q such that p + q = b and pq = c. Then,
x2 + bx + c = x2 + (p + q)x + pq
= x2 + px + qx + pq
= x(x + p) + q(x + p)
= (x + p)(x + q)
Case 2: Polynomials of the form ax2 + bx + c
we find integers p and q such that p + q = b and pq = ac. Then,
pq
ax2 + bx + c = ax2 + (p + q) x +
a
= a2x2 + a(p + q)x + pq
= ax(ax + p) + q(ax + p)
= (ax + p)(ax + q)

(f) Factorization of an algebraic expression as the sum or difference of two cubes

Working Rule: (i) a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
(ii) a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)
(g) Factorization of an algebraic expression of the form a3 +b3 + c3 – 3abc :
Working Rule: a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ac)
Special case : if a + b + c = 0 then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc.

Example.33
Factorize :
(i) 2a (x + y) – 3b (x + y) (ii) x(x + y)3 – 3x2y(x + y)
(iii) 8(3a – 2b)2 – 10(3a – 2b)
Sol. (i) 2a (x + y) – 3b (x + y)
= (x + y) (2a – 3b).
(ii) x(x + y)3 – 3x2y(x + y)
= x(x + y) [(x + y)2 – 3xy]
= x(x + y) [x2 + y2 + 2xy – 3xy]
= x(x + y) [x2 + y2 – xy]
= x(x3 + y3).
(iii) 8 (3a – 2b)2 – 10 (3a – 2b)
= 2 (3a – 2b) [4 (3a – 2b) – 5]
= 2 (3a – 2b) [12a – 8b – 5].
Example.34
Factorize :
1 2
(i) x2  2
 2  2x  (ii) (x2 + 3x)2 – 5 (x2 + 3x) – y (x2 + 3x) + 5y
x x
2
1 2  1  1  1  1 
Sol. (i) x2   2  2x  =  x   – 2  x   =  x    x   2 .
x2 x  x  x  x  x 
(ii) (x2 + 3x)2 – 5 (x2 + 3x) – y (x2 + 3x) + 5y
= (x2 + 3x) (x2 + 3x – 5) – y (x2 + 3x – 5)
= (x2 + 3x– 5) (x2 + 3x– y).

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Example.35
Factorize :
(i) 4 (x – y)2 – 12 (x – y) (x + y) + 9 (x + y)2 (ii) 2a2 +2 6 ab + 3b2
(iii) 25x2 + 4y2 + 9z2 – 20xy – 12yz + 30xz
Sol. (i) 4 (x – y)2 – 12 (x – y) (x + y) + 9 (x + y)2
Let, x – y = a & x + y = b
= 4a2 – 12ab + 9b2
= (2a)2 – 2(2a)(3b) + (3b)2
= (2a – 3b)2
= [2(x – y) – 3(x + y)]2
= [2x – 2y – 3x – 3y]2
= [– x – 5y]2.
(ii) 2a2 +2 6 ab + 3b2
2 2
= 2a  2  2a  3b   3b 
2
= 2a  3b  .
(iii) 25x2 + 4y2 + 9z2 – 20xy – 12yz + 30xz
= (5x)2 + (– 2y)2 + (3z)2 + 2(5x)(–2y) + 2(–2y)(3z) + 2 (3z)(5x)
= (5x – 2y + 3z)2.
Example.36
Factorize :
(i) x8 – y8 (ii) x4 + 5x2 + 9 (iii) x4 + 4x2 + 3 (iv) x4 + x2y2 + y4
Sol. (i) x –y
8 8

= (x4)2 – (y4)2
= (x4 + y4)(x4 – y4)
= (x4 + y4) [(x2)2 – (y2)2]
= (x4 + y4) (x2 + y2 )(x2 – y2)
= (x4 + y4) (x2 + y2 )(x – y)(x + y).
(ii) x4 + 5x2 + 9
= (x2)2 + 5x2 + (3)2
= (x2)2 + 6x2 + (3)2 – x2
= (x2 + 3)2 – (x)2
= (x2 + 3 + x) (x2 + 3 – x).
(iii) x4 + 4x2 + 3
= (x2)2 + 2(2)x2 + (2)2 – 1
= (x2 + 2)2 – (1)2
= (x2 + 2 + 1)(x2 + 2 – 1)
= (x2 + 3)(x2 + 1).
(iv) x4 + x2y2 + y4
= (x2)2 + 2.x2.y2 + (y2)2 – x2y2
= (x2 + y2)2 – (xy)2
= (x2 + y2 + xy)(x2 + y2 – xy).
Example.37
Factorize :
(i) x2 + 6 2 x + 10 (ii) 5 5 x2 + 20x + 3 5
5 1
(iii) 2x2 – x+ (iv) 7(x – 2y)2 – 25 (x – 2y) + 12
6 12
Sol. (i) x2 + 6 2 x + 10 = x2 + 5 2 x + 2 x + 10
= x(x + 5 2 ) + 2 (x + 5 2 ) = (x + 5 2 )(x + 2 )

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(ii) 5 5 x2 + 20x + 3 5 = 5 5 x2 + 15x + 5x + 3 5

= 5x ( 5 x + 3) + 5 ( 5 x + 3) = (5x + 5 )( 5 x + 3) = 5 ( 5 x + 1) ( 5 x + 3)
2
5 1 24x  10x  1
(iii) 2x2 – x+ =
6 12 12
1 1 1
= (24x2 – 4x – 6x +1) = [4x(6x – 1) – 1(6x –1)] = (6x – 1)(4x – 1).
12 12 12
(iv) 7(x – 2y)2 – 25 (x – 2y) + 12
Let, x – 2y = a = 7a2 – 25a + 12
= 7a2 – 21a – 4a + 12 = 7a(a – 3) – 4(a – 3) = (a – 3)(7a – 4) = (x – 2y – 3)(7x – 14y – 4)
Example. 38
What are the possible expressions for the dimensions of the cuboid whose volume is 3x2 – 12x.
Sol. Volume of cuboid = 3x2 – 12x = 3x ( x – 4)
Possible dimensions are :
Length = 3 unit, Breadth = x unit and Height = ( x – 4) unit.

Example.39
Factorize :
(i) 27a3 + 125b3 (ii) (a – 2b)3 – 512b3
1 2
(iii) x9 – y9 (iv) a3   2a 
a3 a
Sol. (i) 27a3 + 125b3
= (3a)3 + (5b)3
= (3a + 5b) [(3a)2 + (5b)2 – (3a) (5b)]
= (3a + 5b) [9a2 + 25b2 – 15ab].
(ii) (a – 2b)3 – 512b3
= (a – 2b)3 – (8b)3
= (a – 2b – 8b) [(a – 2b)2 + (8b)2 + (a – 2b)(8b)]
= (a – 10b) [a2 + 4b2 – 4ab + 64b2 +8ab – 16b2]
= (a – 10b) [a2 + 52b2 + 4ab]
(iii) x9 – y9
= (x3)3 – (y3)3
= (x3 – y3) [(x3)2 + x3y3 + (y3)2]
= (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2) (x6 + x3y3 + y6]
1 2
(iv) a3  3  2a 
a a
1  1
= a3  3
 2a  
a  a
 1  1   1
=  a   a2  1  2  – 2a  a 
 a  a   
 1  1 
=  a   a2  1  2  2 
 a  a 
 1  1 
=  a   a2  2  1 .
 a  a 

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Example.40
0.87  0.87  0.87  0.13  0.13  0.13
Prove that : = 1.
0.87  0.87  0.87  0.13  0.13  0.13
0.87  0.87  0.87  0.13  0.13  0.13
Sol.
0.87  0.87  0.87  0.13  0.13  0.13
Let 0.87 = a and 0.13 = b

a3  b3 a  b   a2  ab  b2 
= = = a + b = 0.87 + 0.13 = 1.0
a2  ab  b2 a2  ab  b2
Example.41
Factorize :
(i) 2 2a3  8b3  27c 3  18 2abc (ii) (2x – 3y)3 + (4z – 2x)3 + (3y – 4z)3
(iii) p3 (q – r)3 + q3 (r – p)3 + r3 (p – q)3
3
Sol. (i) 2 2a3  8b3  27c 3  18 2abc =  2a   (2b)3  ( 3c)3  3( 2a)(2b)(3c)
2
=  2a  2b  3c   2a  2
  2b    3c  
2
 
2a  2b    2b  3c    3c   
2a 

=  2a  2b  3c   2a 2
 4b2  9c 2  2 2ab  6bc  3 2ac 

(ii) (2x – 3y)3 + (4z – 2x)3 + (3y – 4z)3
Let a = 2x – 3y, b = 4z – 2x and c = 3y – 4z
So, (2x – 3y)3 + (4z – 2x)3 + (3y – 4z)3 = a3 + b3 + c3
Now, a + b + c = 2x – 3y + 4z – 2x +3y – 4z = 0
So, a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc = 3(2x – 3y) (4z – 2x) (3y – 4z).
(iii) p3 (q – r)3 + q3 (r – p)3 + r3 (p – q)3
Let x = p(q – r), y = q(r – p), z = r(p – q)
So, p3 (q – r)3 + q3 (r – p)3 + r3 (p – q)3 = x3 + y3 + z3
Now, x + y + z = p(q – r) + q(r – p) + r(p – q) = pq – pr + qr – qp + rp – rq = 0
So, x3 + y3 + z3 = 3xyz = 3p(q – r) q(r – p) r(p – q) = 3pqr(q – r)(r – p)(p – q).
Example.42
If p = 2 – a, then find the value of a3 + 6ap + p3 – 8.
Sol. p=2–a
a+p–2=0
Now, a3 + 6ap + p3 – 8 = a3 + p3 + (–2)3 – 3(a)(p)(–2)
= (a + p – 2) (a2 + p2 + 4 – ap + 2p + 2a) = (0)(a2 + p2 + 4 – ap + 2p + 2a) = 0.


1. Factorize: x2(xy + 5) – 2y2(xy + 5)

2. Factorize: 3x2 + 8x + 4

3. Factorize: 2a + 4b – ac – 2bc
4. Factorize: 27a3 – b3 + c3 + 9abc.

5. Factorize: 32x3 – 4d3

Answers
1. (xy + 5) (x2 – 2y2) 2. (x + 2) (3x + 2) 3. (2 – c) (a + 2b)
4. (3a – b + c) (9a2 + b2 + c2 + 3ab + bc – 3ac) 5. 4 (2x – d) (4x2 + 2xd + d2)

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