ABA Visual Packet

RBT Version 6.1

William Slusser MS, BCBA, COBA

Content Page #
Breaking Down Exam Questions 1
The Six Attitudes of Science 2
What is a behavior? 3
Primary Types of Behaviors 4
Emit, Elicit, and Evoke 5
US, UR, NS, CS, CR 6
Respondent Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning 7
Two, Three, and Four Term Contingencies 8
SD vs MO 9
MOs, SDs, and S-Deltas 10
MOs 11
Independent and Dependent Variables 12
Confounding vs Extraneous Variables 13
Treatment Drift, Observer Drift, Measurement Bias, Reactivity 14
Functions of Behavior 15
Discriminated Avoidance vs Free Operant Avoidance Behaviors 16
Prioritizing Target Behaviors 17
Evaluating Social Significance of Target Behaviors 18
Stimulus class vs Response class 19
Rule-Governed vs Contingency-Shaped Behaviors 20
Concept Formation 21
Simple vs Conditional Discrimination 22
Part of a Graph 23
Types of Graphs 24
Data Path Trend, Level, and Variability 25
Behavior Contrast 26
Accuracy, Reliability, Validity 27
Details of Reinforcers 28
Identifying Effective Reinforcers 29
Reinforcement vs Punishment 30
Negative Punishment 31
Automatic Reinforcement 32
Punishment vs Extinction 33
Schedules of Reinforcement 34
Basic Schedules of Intermittent Reinforcement 35
Basics on Compound Schedules of Reinforcement 36
Thinning intermittent Reinforcement Schedules 37
Differential Reinforcement 38
DRL and DRD 39
DRH, DRD, and DRL Subtypes 40
DRD Subtypes 41
Differential Negative Reinforcement (DRNA and DRNI) 42
Measurements 43
Time Delay, Inter-Response Time, Latency, and Duration 44
Interval Recording 45
Designs (2 Pages) 46 - 47
Sequence Effect vs Multiple Treatment Interference 48
Extinction Burst, Spontaneous Recovery, Resistance to Extinction 49
Irreversibility 50
Direct vs Indirect Assessments 51
ABC Continuous and Narrative Recording 52
Verbal Operates 53
Duplic vs Codic 54
Point-to-Point Correspondence vs Formal Similarity 55
More on Point-to-Point Correspondence 56
Basics on Chaining 57
Behavior Chain vs Task Analysis 58
Forward Chaining 59
Total Task Chaining 60
Backward Chaining 61
Backward Chaining with Leap Aheads 62
Stimulus Prompts 63
Stimulus Prompt Removal 64
Response Prompts 65
Response Prompt Removal 66
Response Blocking vs Planned Ignoring 67
Prompt Dependence 68
5 Teaching Methods (2 Pages) 69 - 70
Group Contingencies 71
Premack Principle and High-Probability Request Sequence 72
Basics of Token Economy 73
Token Economy 74
Behavior Contracts 75
Time-Out Procedures 76
Habituation, Habilitation, Adaptation, Deprivation, Satiation 77
All Things Contrived 78
Stimulus Control, Discrimination, Generalization 79
More on Generalization 80
Promote Generalization 81
Basics of Self-Management 82
More on Self-Management 83
Primary Source AKAs (Cooper) 84
Primary Source AKAs (Miltenberger) 85
Main sources of information:

Chandler, L. K., Dahlquist, C. M. (07/2012). Functional Assessment: Strategies to Prevent and

Remediate Challenging Behavior in School Settings, 3/e. Retrieved from
https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781256844907

Cooper, John O., Timothy Heron, William Heward. Applied Behavior Analysis, 2/e. Pearson
Learning Solutions, 07/2012. VitalBook file.

Miltenberger, R. G. (20110512). Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures, 5th Edition

[VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from
https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781285311012

Other sources are noted direct on their respective pages

Version 6.1, created on August 12, 2020

This file was designed for the purpose of being a study aid for the Registered Behavior
Technician (RBT) exam (based on the 2th edition task list) and should not be used as a sole
resource for studying.

This file and its content are property of William Slusser MS, BCBA, COBA. This file and its
content was initially distributed free of charge, but please ask for permission before further
reproduction or distribution ([email protected]). THANKS!
Page 1

Breaking Down Exam Questions

1. Examine the scenario EXACTLY AS IT IS WRITTEN

Do not add or omit anything

2. Examine the scenario for KEY INFORMATION

Information which is not present is not present for a reason

3. Examine what the question IS ACTUALLY ASKING

What? Who? How? Why? When? Where?

4. Examine the scenario from a 4 TERM CONTINGENCY point of view

MO -> Antecedent -> Behavior -> Consequence
(do not forget about the results of the consequence / future behaviors)

5. Examine each answer

Provide explanations for “Why is this answer ‘more correct’ than the others?”

6. Apply ethical guidelines to EVERY SCENARIO

Ethics is not explicitly on the task list but should be applied to every scenario

7. Avoid overthinking
Questions are written strategically, literally, and objectively

8. Classify the scenario and question

Is it about self-management, behaviors, data analysis, client observation,
supervision, ethics, etc.? This will help you eliminate irrelevant answers.

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Page 2
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What is a behavior? What is not a behavior?

According to Skinner, a behavior is “the movement of an organism or of its parts in a frame of

reference provided by the organism or by various external objects or fields”
(Skinner, 1938, p. 6)
OR
According to Johnston & Pennypacker, a behavior is “portion of an organism’s interaction with
its environment that is characterized by detectable displacement in space through time of some
part of the organism and that results in a measurable change in at least one aspect of the
environment” (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993a, p. 23).
HOWEVER!!
According to Cooper “Behavior is the activity of living organisms. Human behavior is everything
people do, including how they move and what they say, think, and feel” (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 25).

The “Dead Man Test”

Odgen Lindsley designed the “Dead Man Test” to assistance schools in deciding if they were
measuring actual behaviors or states of being (like sitting quietly). The “Dead Man Test”
includes BOTH overt and covert behaviors as “behaviors”.

According to Cooper and “Dead Man Test”

Behaviors Not behaviors
(A dead man can’t…) (A dead man can…)
Cry when sad – Overt Not pay attention
Walk to work– Overt Get wet in the rain
Sweat during a test– Overt Sit quietly
Think about a song – Covert* Not paying a phone bill
Feel hungry – Covert* Bleed
*Skinner and Johnston & Pennypacker do not consider covert behaviors as “behaviors” because
there is no observable or measurable interaction with the environment.
(differences in the definition of “behavior”)

REMEMBER: THE LACK OF A BEAHVIOR IS NOT A BEHAVIOR!!

The client did not turn in his homework = NOT A BEHAVIOR!
(A dead man can “not turn in homework”)
The client verbally and physically refused to turn in his homework = BEHAVIOR!

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Page 4
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Emit, Elicit and Evoke

Respondent Behaviors -> Controlled by antecedent stimuli -> Elicited

Involuntary / Reflexive
“The bright light elicited the behavioral response of closing eyes”

Operant Behaviors -> Controlled by consequences (history) -> Emitted / Evoked

Voluntary / Function
“The client emitted the target behavior to gain access to his favorite toy”

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Page 6

Unconditioned Stimuli, Unconditioned Responses, Neutral Stimuli,

Conditioned Stimuli, and Conditioned Responses
(US, UR, NS, CS, CR)
Term Abbreviation Basic Meaning Real world examples
A stimulus which elicits an Bright light (US) ->
Unconditioned Stimulus US
automatic response/reflex. Close eyes (UR)
A response/behavior which is with
Unconditioned Response UR the organism from birth and do Smell of food (US) ->
not need to be taught Salivation (UR)
A stimulus which doesn’t elicit a Hearing a tone
Neutral Stimulus NS
specific or any behavior (before conditioning)
A stimulus which was previously Seeing a light (CS) ->
neutral but as a result of Salivation (CR)
Conditioned Stimulus CS
conditioning, elicits a conditioned
response. Hearing a tone (CS) ->
A response elicited by a stimulus Close eyes (CR)
Conditioned Response CR
after conditioning. (after conditioning*)
*See Respondent Conditioning for more information

Term Abbreviation Basic Meaning Real world example

Deprivation or satiation
of food, water, sleep,
physical activity,
The organism values the reinforcer
oxygen, and sex.
from birth and does not need to be
Unconditioned Uncomfortable
UMO taught. Appropriate behaviors to
Motivating Operation temperatures such as
access reinforcement may still
being too hot or too
need to be taught.
cold. Increasing or
decreasing in pain
stimulation.
The organism values the reinforcer
only after being taught.
Conditioned Motivating Appropriate behaviors to access
CMO
Operation reinforcement may need to be
taught as well.

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Page 7
Respondent conditioning vs Operant Conditioning
Respondent Behaviors = “Respond” to a stimulus
Respondent Conditioning
Abbreviations
US = Unconditioned Stimulus, UR = Unconditioned Response
NS = Neutral Stimulus
CS = Conditioned Stimulus, CR = Conditioned Response

An example of respondent conditioning is the Pavlov’s dog experiment.

Before conditioning = The food is presented (US) and salivation occurs (UR). Next, the tone is presented (NS) and
salivation doesn’t occur
UR No UR
US NS

During conditioning = The food (US) and the tone (NS) is presented at the same time, or nearly the same time, and
salivation occurs (UR).
UR
US NS

After conditioning = Once the food (US) and the tone (NS) are paired/conditioned, remove the food (US) and present
only the tone (previously a NS) and salivation occurs. The tone (now a CS) now elicits the same behavior as the food (US)
thus the behavior when the tone alone is presented is a CR (it has been taught and is under the control of the CS).
UR CR
US CS

Operant Behaviors = “Operate” according to the consequence

Operant Conditioning
Abbreviations
A = Antecedent Stimulus (SD), B = Specific Behavior, C = Consequence

You see a red traffic light (A) You stop your car (B) You don’t get in an accident (C) You continue to stop at red
traffic lights

Receiving reinforcement (or punishment) is contingent on performing a specific behavior when the antecedent stimulus
is present.

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Page 8
Two, Three, and Four Term Contingencies

2 Term Contingency = Looks at an antecedent stimulus and the behavior which follows it.

Antecedent Unconditioned
Unconditioned
Behavior Response (UR)
Stimulus (US)
Food is Food is
Eat the food ALSO You salivate
presented presented

3 Term Contingency = Looks at an antecedent stimulus, the behavior which follows the antecedent, and the
consequence which follows the behavior.

Antecedent Consequence
Behavior
Food is No longer
Eat the food deprived of
presented
food

4 Term Contingency = Looks at the motivating operation, the antecedent stimulus, the behavior which follows the
stimulus, and the consequence which follows the behavior.

Motivating Antecedent Consequence

Operation Behavior
Food is No longer
Food Eat the food deprived of
presented
deprivation food

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 Page 9
Discriminative Stimulus (SD) vs Motivating Operation (MO)
Q: What is an SD?
A: A change in the environment which signal the availability of reinforcement.
It DOES NOT MEAN you have immediate access to reinforcement (i.e. delayed reinforcement / you must meet a contingency first) nor
does it mean the object or action is reinforcing to you in that moment (but could be reinforcing in the future).

Q: What is an MO?
A: An internal or external event which makes a specific stimulus or behavior more/less valuable based on the present situation.
It DOES NOT MEAN reinforcement is actually available.

Situation What’s the MO? What’s the SD?

While walking down the street, you witness a car accident at a nearby The car accident Finding your phone
intersection. You get your phone out and dial 911. (Adds value to calling 911) (Signals you are able to get help)

You are driving home from work and smell something delicious. Since Food deprivation / being hungry Smelling the food
it is nearly dinner time, you are hungry. You stop and get food. (Adds value to getting food) (Signals you are able to get food)
You have a fear of public speaking but you have to present a Fear of public speaking Given the option to delay your
quarterly report to your co-workers and supervisors today. Just as (Adds value to avoiding the situation) presentation.
you’re walking into the conference room, you see someone else (Signals you are able to avoid the aversive
situation)
setting up their presentation. Your supervisor asks you if you want to
present today or should they let the other person present instead.
You finished your meal at a restaurant and the waiter asks you if you You already ate and are full Being given the bill
want desert. You say “no” because you’re full. The waiter brings you (Lessens the value of food) (Signals you are able to leave and do something
else)
the bill and you leave.
You are driving on the highway and notice a gas station with really low You don’t need gas Seeing low gas prices
gas prices. You look at your gas gauge and see you don’t need gas so (Lessens the value of getting gas) (Signals you could have spent less on gas)
you continue driving.
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Page 10
MOs, SDs, and S-Deltas
Motivating Operations (MO) = are events (internal or external) which make specific stimuli or behaviors more/less valuable based on the
present need.

• Establishing Operations (EO) = are a type of motivating operation events which make specific stimuli or behaviors more valuable
based on the present need.

Examples: Depravation of food makes food more valuable. See a house on fire makes yelling “Fire!” more valuable. Being low on

fuel in your car makes going to the gas station more valuable.

• Abolishing Operations (AO) = are a type of motivating operation events which make specific stimuli or behaviors less valuable based
on the present need.

Examples: Food less valuable after eat. Going to a car dealership is less likely after just buying a new car

Discriminative Stimuli (SD) = are stimuli (changes in the environment) which signal the availability of reinforcement.

Example: Seeing a gas station sign when need fuel for your car.

S-Deltas (SΔ) = are stimuli (changes in the environment) which signal the unavailability of reinforcement.

Example: Seeing a “Closed” sign on the door of your favorite restaurant when you are hungry.

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 Page 11

Motivating
Operation (MO)

Current Moment
Future
Estabilishing Abolishing
Operation (EO) Operation (AO) Function-Altering
Effects
-INCREASES -DECREASE

‘
Value-Altering Behavior-Altering Value-Altering Behavior-Altering
- INCREASES - INCREASE the - DECREASES - DECREASE the
value of reinforcer rate of Bx value of reinforcer rate of Bx

Evocative Effect Abative Effect

Examples:

Value-Altering (EO): When you are hungry, food has high value in the moment

Value-Altering (AO): After you eat, food has low value in the moment

Behavior-Altering (EO): When you are hungry, you take the long way home to get the food

Behavior-Altering (AO): After you eat, you go directly home and not stop to get food

Function-Altering: You work out at the gym too hard and experience muscle pain, so you engage in behaviors in the current moment to
decrease that pain (take medication). You taking medication is the behavior-altering effect. In the future, you will reduce the behavior that
led you to the pain in the first place (working out to hard). Your future reduction of working out is a function-altering effect.

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Page 12
Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent Dependent Confounding

Variables Variables Variables

Independent Variables: The factor in an experiment which is manipulated while all other factors are held constant. Multiple independent
variables can be manipulated but should be manipulated only one at a time.

Examples: Treatment, Time, Environment, Setting Events, SDs,

Dependent Variables: The factors in an experiment which are measured. Multiple dependent variables can be measured at the same time.

Examples: Rate, Frequency, and Duration of Behavior(s), Rate of Skill Acquisition, Percent of Correct Responding

Functional Relation: When an experiment yields measurements which indicate that a change in independent variable reliably produces a
specific change the dependent variable AND the specific change in the dependent variable was not like a result of other factors
(confounding variables).

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Functions of Behavior
All behaviors have a purpose / have a function

There are two basic ways of thinking about functions of a behavior

Two Categories Four Categories

Functions
Attention

Access Escape / Avoidance

(To get something) (To get something removed) Tangile

Functions

Access to attention Escape or avoidance Escape / Avoidance

or a reaction of an activity or task

Sensory
Access to a tangible Escape or avoidance
item of social situations

Escape or avoidance
Access to an activity of sensory
stimulations

Access to sensory
stimulation

Access to automatic
reinforcement

Access to control of
a situation

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Page 16

Discriminated Avoidance vs Free-Operant Avoidance Behaviors

A behavior emitted in the presence of a signal which delays or prevents the onset of an aversive
Discriminated Avoidance
stimulus or condition, which results in reinforcement (avoidance being the reinforcer).

Example: I look at the clock and notice I am going to be late for work. I call my boss and tell him
I’m running late. He said he appreciates the call and I won’t be in trouble. From then on, every
time I’m running late, I call him and avoid getting in trouble.

A behavior emitted any time prior onset of an aversive stimulus or condition which delays or
Free-Operant Avoidance prevents the onset of the aversive stimulus or condition, and results in reinforcement (avoidance
being the reinforcer).

Example: I go to the gas station to get gas for my lawn mower, to avoid running out of gas while
mowing. I didn’t check the mower and don’t actually know if I need gas for it at this very moment
but I know I will need gas at some point. Better to be safe than sorry.

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Prioritizing Target Behaviors
9 questions to ask

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 Page 18
Evaluating the Social Significance of Target Behaviors

Yes No

1. Will the behavior be reinforced in the person’s daily life?

2. Is the behavior a necessary prerequisite for a useful skill?

3. Will the behavior increase the person’s access to environments in which other important behaviors can be learned or used?

4. Will the behavior create situations where others will interact with the person in a more appropriate and supportive manner?

5. Is the behavior a cusp or pivotal behavior?

6. Is the behavior age appropriate?

7. Is there a desirable or adaptive behavior will replace the behavior being targeted for reduction or elimination?

8. Does the behavior represent the actual problem/achievement goal (vs being indirectly related)?

9. Are we targeting the actual behavior of interest and not just the person’s verbal behavior(s)?

10. Will there be target behavior(s) selected to produce the desired results or state (if the goal is not a specific behavior)?

Totals ->

Source: Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (07/2012). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2/e Vitalsource [VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from
https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781256844884

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Page 19
Stimulus class vs Response class
Key points: Examples:
A group of stimuli which evoke or A small picture of a dog, a large picture of a dog, an actual dog = evokes the client to say “Dog”
abate the same (Feature Stimulus Class)
Stimulus class
behavior/response
May physically differ Lettuce, corn, broccoli, carrots = evokes the client to say “Vegetables”
(Arbitrary Stimulus Class)
Key points: Examples:
A group of behaviors/responses Warm a meal in the oven, warm a meal on the stove, warm a meal in the microwave
which have the same effect on the
Response class
environment Open a bag by cutting it with scissors, open a bag by ripping it, open a bag by popping it
Topography may differ
Signing the answer to a question, singing the answer to a question, yelling the answer to a question

Shaping within response topography class vs Shaping across response topography class
Key points: At first, Jim throws the ball two feet. After a week of practice, Jim now throws the ball five feet. After
Topography stays the same a month of practice, Jim is able to throw the ball twelve feet.
Shaping within
Dimension of behavior is shaped
response topography
(Increase of decrease in duration,
class
rate, magnitude, etc.)

Key points: At first, Jim throws the ball under hand but his behavior is shaped to throwing the ball overhand.
Topography changes
Shaping across
Behaviors are in the same
response topography
response class
class

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Page 20

Rule-Governed vs Contingency-Shaped Behaviors

Term Basic Definition(s) Examples
Behavior is under the control of a verbal
(vocal, written, signed) stimuli/description
of the contingency (a rule) and not
Jim seeing a speed limit sign. Jim slows down because he does not want to get a speeding ticket
experiencing the contingency.
and have to pay a fine. (The behavior doesn’t have to occur to be aware of the contingency;
speeding = ticket, not speed = no ticket)
A behavior which is bound or limited by a
Rule-Governed specific set of rules or consequences.
Behavior(s) I am putting together a playhouse my daughter received as a birthday gift. I have to follow the
directions in order to put it together correctly. (The behavior doesn’t have to occur to be aware of
The behavior does not have to occur for the
the contingency; follow directions = together correctly, not follow the directions = not together
contingency to be learn.
correctly)
Changes in behavior due to deadlines are
Sarah’s school project is due tomorrow morning. Per the project rubric, if she turns the project in
considered rule-governed behaviors because
late she will lose 10 points every day it’s late. She spends all night putting the final touches on it.
the time before the deadline in an SD
The next morning she turns in her project and received full points on her project a few days later.
(reinforcement is available) while the time
(The behavior doesn’t have to occur to be aware of the contingency; complete project on time =
after the deadline is an S-Delta
no points deducted, complete project late = points are deducted. Also reinforcement is delayed)
(reinforcement is not available).

Reinforcement is often delayed.

Contingency- Behavior is under the control of a
Tim traveled to another country for vacation. While there, he unknowingly exceeded the speed
Shaped contingency and not a verbal (vocal, written,
limit while driving. He was pulled over by the police, received a ticket and had to pay a fine. Now
Behavior(s) signed) stimuli/description of the
Jim now watches his speed more carefully.
contingency (a rule).
(The behavior change occurred after receiving a consequence, thus making contingency known)
A behavior which is shaped through one or
Sarah wants to earn extra recess time at school but she doesn’t know what she can do to earn it.
more contingencies. The behavior change
She tries several different things; emptying the trash, sweeping the floor, and cleaning the
occurs as a result of the contingency.
windows. She noticed every time she swept the floor, the teacher would give her extra time at
recess. She began to only sweep the floor.
Reinforcement is often delivered
(Contingency was only known after several behaviors occurred)
immediately (within 0-60 seconds).

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Page 21
Concept Formation
Definition from Cooper, Heron, and Heward:
A complex example of stimulus control that requires stimulus generalization within a class of stimuli and
discrimination between classes of stimuli (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 692).

Stimulus used during teaching

SD Response

Vocal
Evokes
“Dog”

(i.e. This is a dog)

Novel stimulus generalization within class

Response

Vocal
“Dog”

(i.e. ALL of these are dogs)

Stimulus discrimination across classes

Response

Vocal
“Not Dog”

(i.e. NONE of these are dogs)

Conclusion: A variety of stimuli within the same class, but not a variety of stimuli which are outside the
class, control the response behavior.

The concept of “dog” has been taught because the student’s response behavior (saying “dog”) is evoked
by multiple stimuli of the same class (generalization) and is not evoked by multiple stimuli of the
different class (discrimination).

Definition Source: Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (07/2012). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2/e. Retrieved from
https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781256844884

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Page 22
Simple vs Conditional Discrimination
Match-to-sample:
Client is given a field of three shapes, containing a red square, a blue triangle, and a green circle.
You present a sample (SD), a blue triangle. The client selects the identical blue triangle from the field. The client receives
reinforcement.

Sample Field

Simple Discrimination:
3-term contingency = Discriminative Stimulus (SD) -> Behavior / Response -> Consequence

Client is given a field of three shapes, containing a red square, a blue triangle, and a green circle.
During the first trial, you present a sample (controlling stimulus), a blue triangle. The client selects the identical blue triangle
from the field (taught behavior). The client receives reinforcement. During the second trial, you then present another sample
(novel stimulus), a red square.
The client does not select the blue triangle, but instead selects the red square from the field. The client receives
reinforcement.

Sample Field

Trial #1

Sample Field

Trial #2

Conditional Discrimination:
4-term contingency = Conditional Stimuli -> Antecedent Stimuli -> Behavior / Response -> Consequence

You have a green light and a red light. You teach the client to select the identical shape to the sample when the green light is on
and to select anything BUT the identical shape to the sample when the red light is on. You present the client with a field of
three shapes, containing a red square, a blue triangle, and a green circle. During the first trial, you turn on the green light and
present the sample, a blue triangle. The client selects the identical blue triangle from the field. The client receives
reinforcement. During the second trial, you turn
on the red light and present the sample, a red square. The client again selects the blue triangle from the field. The client
receives reinforcement.

Sample Field

Trial #1

Sample Field

Trial #2

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Data Path Trend, Level, and Variability
Data Path Trends

No Trend

Data path trend can be determined by calculating the split-middle line / trend line of the data Note: “Gradual” and “steep” can also be used to describe downward
trends as well

Data Path Level

Data path level can be determined by:
Creating a mean line
High Level
- Calculating the average of all the
data points
For data points: 2, 2, 3, 3, and 3
Moderate Level (2+2+3+3+3) = 13 / 5 = 2.6
Creating a median line
- Finding the center of all the data
points
Low Level
For data points: 2, 2, 3, 3, and 3
2 2 2 3 3; median/center = 2
NOTE: Use mean line to determine level if
data contains outliers!

Data Path Variability and Stability

No Variability Low Degree High Degree Stable Variable a Variable

of Variability of Variability Upward Trend Downward Trend Upward Trend
(VERY stable) (High Degree of Stability) (Low Degree of Stability)
Note: “Stable” can also be used to describe downward trends as well

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Page 26

Behavior Contrast
Behavior Contrast = When changes in behavior outside the training environment to be the opposite of the changes produced in the training environment.

IMPORTANT NOTE:
Behavior contrast considers to be a side effect punishment.
Behavior contrasts typically occur across settings but can also occur across individuals.

Examples of what behavior contrast data looks like.

Intervention implemented in Setting #1 at Trial #1 Intervention implemented in Setting #2 at Trial #8

10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Bx in Setting 1 Bx in Setting 2 Bx in Setting 1 Bx in Setting 2

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Accuracy, Reliability, and Validity
Accuracy = How closely the collected or observed value falls to the true value.
Reliability = How closely the collected or observed values fall to each other after the measurement has been repeated
multiple times.
Validity = The relationship between the collected or observed value and how it relates to what was intended to measure
and the reasons why it was being measured.

Note: This information is based on Cooper, Heron, Heward’s 2012 book

titled Applied Behavior Analysis, 2nd edition. Some other sources use the
terms “Reliability” and “Validity” interchangeably.

Accurate: NO
(Data points fall far from the true value)
Reliable: YES
(Data points fall consistently near each other) Accurate: YES
Valid: YES (Data points fall near the true value)
(Measurement measures what it is intended to measure) Reliable: YES
(Data points fall consistently near each other)
Valid: YES
(Measurement measures what it is intended to measure)

Accurate: NO
(Data points fall far from the true value) Accurate: POSSIBLE
Reliable: NO (True value cannot be determined with this measurement alone)
(Data points do not fall consistently near each other) Reliable: YES
Valid: YES (Data points fall consistently near each other)
(Measurement measures what it is intended to measure) Valid: NO
(Measurement doesn’t measure what was intended to measure)
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Details of Reinforcers
Reinforcers = A stimulus that when presented as a consequence, as a result of a specific behavior,
increases responding in the future.

Primary reinforcers = Stimuli (Tangible objects, activities, or privileges) which are reinforcing to the
person from birth and do not need to be conditioned, paired, or taught.

AKAs: unlearned reinforcer and unconditioned reinforcer

Examples: Food, Water, Warmth, Sleep, Oxygen, Sex, etc.

Secondary reinforcers = Stimuli (Tangible objects, activities, or privileges) which are reinforcing to the
person but first need to be conditioned, paired, or taught.

AKAs: learned reinforcer and conditioned reinforcer

Examples: Toys, Electronics, Movies, Games, Books, etc.

Generalized conditioned reinforcers = Stimuli which are used to purchase backup reinforcers. The
stimuli can also have reinforcing value.

Examples: Tokens, Money, etc.

Backup reinforcers = Stimuli (primary or secondary reinforcers) which are “purchased” in exchange for
generalized conditioned reinforcers in a token economy.

Unconditioned negative reinforcers = Stimuli which when removed, serve as reinforcement. Like
primary reinforcers, the removal of the stimulus is reinforcing to the person from birth and do not need
to be conditioned, paired, or taught.

Examples: Shock, Extremely High/Low Temperatures, Loud Noises, Pressure Against the Body, Intense
Light, etc.

Conditioned negative reinforcers = Stimuli which when removed, serve as reinforcement. Like secondary
reinforcers, the removal of the stimulus is reinforcing to the person but first need to be conditioned,
paired, or taught.

Examples: Nagging, Traffic, etc.

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Identifying Effective
Reinforcers

Stimulus Preference Reinforcer

Assessment Assessment

Free-Operant Concurrent Progressive Ratio

Ask Trial-Based Methods Multiple Schedules
Observation Schedules Schedules

Paired Stimulus Single Stimulus

Ask significant others Offer a Pre-Task Contrived Free- Naturalistic Free-
Ask the person Multiple Stimulus (AKA: Successive
Choice Operant Observation Operant Observation (AKA: Forced Choice) 2 or more
Choice)
contingencies of
reinforcment 2 or more
operating component
Multiple Stimulus independently and schedules of
Open ended Open ended Giving the person Multiple Stimulus simultaneously for 2 reinforcement for a Requirements for
WITHOUT
questions to the questions to the who will be receiving Free access to the WITH Replacement Stimuli are presented or more behaviors single response, with reinforcement
Free access to a set Replacement
person who will be people who know the reinforcer a enitre enviroment of one at a time in a only one component increase
receiving the of reinforcers systematically over
the person will be choice between a set reinforcers Two stimuli random order. schedule (FI, FR, VI,
reinforcer receiving the of items presented at a time Compares high VR) in effect at any time independent of
reinforcer preference stimulus given time. the client's behavior.
Array of 3 or more Approachs / to low preference
Array of 3 or more
"Which would you "What do you want EVERY stimuli Rejections are stimulus
stimuli
work for?" "Which would to earn for doing the COMBINATION OF recorded for each
he/she work for?" task?" Both measure STIMULI is presented stimulus.
Item chosen remains MATCHING LAW
amount of time Item chosen
DIRECT in the array
spent with each removed in the array
INDIRECT DIRECT Each stimulus should
stimulus
be presented more
Unchosen items are
Unchosen items than once
replaced with new
remain in the array
items

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Positive Negative

Stimulus is added and as a result, Stimulus is removed and as a result,

Reinforcement future behavior is increased future behavior is increased
(Escape or Avoidance)

Stimulus is added and as a result, Stimulus is removed and as a result,

Punishment future behavior is decreased future behavior is decreased

Future behavior is increased Future behavior is decreased

Stimulus is applied Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment

Stimulus is removed Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment

When something is ADDED but is still negative reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement = the removal of a stimulus which increases the future frequency, rate, and/or duration of the behavior.

Example: Bill was bitten by a mosquito and now his arm itches. He applies cream to alleviate the itching. The application of the cream
successfully alleviates the itching; the next time he is bitten by a mosquito he applies the cream immediately.

Bx
MO Antecedent Behavior Consequence Result
Function
Bill got bitten by a
…applies cream to …cream successfully Applies the cream
mosquito … (Adds …now his arm
alleviate the alleviates the Escape the itching immediately next
value to the anti- itches…
itching…. itching… time
itch cream)
Adding the cream to
Negative Reinforcement
remove the itch
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Negative Reinforcement
Escape vs Avoidance
Escape When an emitted behavior provides alleviation (an “escape”) from a current aversive stimulus or
condition, which results in an increase in the frequency of the behavior in the future.

Example: You are stuck in traffic on the highway. You take the second exit you see and make it to work
on time. The next time you are stuck in traffic, you take the first exit you see.

Avoidance When an emitted behavior delays or eliminates (to “avoid”) a future anticipated aversive stimulus or
condition, which results in an increase in the frequency of the behavior in the future.

Example: You watch the news before heading to work. The news reports heavy traffic on your typical
highway route. You take the city streets instead. The next day, you take the city streets as well.

Antecedent (A) Consequence (C)

Aversive stimulus is Escape Aversive stimulus is
presented removed

Math homework is Math homework is

presented Behavior (B) removed

Client asks to do Frequency of the

something different behavior is increased
in the future

Behavior (B)
Aversive stimulus is Aversive stimulus is Reinforcement
anticipated avoided
Arriving home with Avoidance Math homework is
math homework delayed
presented
Antecedent (A) Consequence (C)
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Automatic Reinforcement and Punishment

Automatic Reinforcement = A consequence of a behavior which provides immediate

reinforcement (increases or maintains the behavior in the future) without the need for another
person to deliver the reinforcer.

KEY POINTS: Automatic Reinforcement…

• …can (but not always) occur when the subject is alone.

o A client picking their skin while alone could function as automatic reinforcement
(sensory situation) or attention seeking (wanting someone to stop them).
• …includes Positive Automatic Reinforcement and Negative Automatic Reinforcement.
o Positive: A stimulus is added to the environment
o Negative: A stimulus is removed from the environment

WARNING!! Automatic reinforcement is VERY easy to overgeneralize! Repetitive behaviors like

hand-flapping and verbal scripting are NOT ALWAYS automatic reinforced even if the client is
alone!! Repetitive behaviors and behaviors which occur while the client is alone CAN HAVE other
functions besides automatic reinforcement.

Automatic Punishment = A consequence of a behavior which provides immediate punishment

(decreases the behavior in the future) without the need for another person to deliver the
punisher.

KEY POINTS: Automatic Punishment…

• …can (but not always) occur when the subject is alone.

• …includes Positive Automatic Punishment and Negative Automatic Punishment.
o Positive: A stimulus is added to the environment
o Negative: A stimulus is removed from the environment

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Is it Punishment or Extinction?
Reinforcement vs. Punishment vs. Extinction

Reinforcement Procedure = An event where the addition (positive) or removal (negative) of a

stimulus results in an increase in the future frequency, rate, and/or duration of the behavior.

EXAMPLE: The client is given his favorite toy every time he cleans his room independently.
With this contingency, he now cleans his room more often than before. (Positive Reinforcement)

Punishment Procedure = An event where the addition (positive) or removal (negative) of a

stimulus results in a decrease in the future frequency, rate, and/or duration of the behavior.

EXAMPLE: The client’s favorite toy is removed when even he engages in hitting behaviors. With
this contingency, he now is hitting people less often. (Negative Punishment)

Extinction Procedure = A non-event (i.e. lack of reinforcement) which results in a decrease in

the future frequency, rate, and/or duration of the behavior.

EXAMPLE: The client engages in hitting behaviors to get the person’s attention. The person
ignores him and he doesn’t receive the attention he desires. He now is hitting people less often
because it is no longer providing reinforcement.

NOTE: Behavior is still allowed to occur but maintaining reinforcement is no longer present.
You CANNOT put a behavior which has not been previously reinforced on extinction.

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Schedules of Reinforcement
Most Reinforcement is not given Most
Least Reinforcement is given Least

Continuous Intermittent Extinction

Reinforcement Reinforcement
(FR1)

Basic Variations of
Schedules Basic Schedules

Schedules of
FR Progressive
Differential
Reinforcment of
Rates of Responding
FI

DRH
VR

DRL
VI

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DRD
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Basic Schedules of Intermittent Reinforcement
What is has to happen in order to gain reinforcement?
Emit a number of responses An amount of time passes
(Ratio) (Interval)

… is always the same

(Fixed) Fixed Ratio Fixed Interval
The ratio or interval…

(FR) (FI)
*Post-Reinforcement Pause* *Post-Reinforcement Pause*

…changes or is an average
(Variable)
Variable Ratio Variable Interval
(VR) (VI)

Fixed Ratio = Client must emit a set number of correct responses or occurrences of the correct behavior, in order to
receive reinforcement (FR5 = every fifth correct response is reinforced)
• Has post-reinforcement pause
o The larger the ratio, the longer the post-reinforcement pause
o The smaller the ratio, the shorter the post-reinforcement pause
• Produces high rates of responding because the more quickly the client reaches the criteria to earn reinforcement,
the sooner the client receives the reinforcement

Fixed Interval = The client receives reinforcement for the first correct response or first occurrence of the correct
behavior, after a set amount of time has passed. (FI5 = the first correct response after 5 minutes is reinforced)
• Produces slow to moderate rates of responding

Variable Ratio = Client must emit an unspecified number of correct responses or occurrences of the correct behavior, in
order to receive reinforcement
• Number indicates the average number of responses or occurrences of the correct behavior, in order to receive
reinforcement (VR5 = average/about of every 5 correct responses was reinforced)
• The strongest basic schedule intermittent reinforcement
• Produces high rates of responding because the more quickly the client reaches the criteria to earn reinforcement,
the sooner the client receives the reinforcement

Variable Interval = The client receives reinforcement for the first correct response or first occurrence of the correct
behavior, after an unspecified amount of time has passed.
• Number indicates the average amount of time which must pass in order to receive reinforcement (VI5 = after an
average of 5 minutes – could be seconds or hours as well – the next correct responses was reinforced)
• Produces slow to moderate rates of responding

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Basics on Compound Schedules of Reinforcement
Multiple basic schedules of reinforcement are used together to form compound schedules of reinforcement

Continuous
Reinforcement
(CRF)

Intermittent
Compound
Schedules of
Extinction (EXT) Schedules of
Reinforcement (FR,
Reinforcement
VR, FI, VI)

Differential
Reinforcement of
Various Rates of
Responding (DRH,
DRL, DRD)

IMPORTANT NOTES: DURATION OR DURATION TO COMPLETE A TASK IS NOT A SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT. TO

BE CONSIDERED A COMPOUND SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT, IT MUST HAVE AT LEAST TWO BASIC SCHEDULES
OF REINFORCMENT (i.e. CRF, FR, VR, FI, VI, DRH, DRL, DRD or EXT).
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Thinning Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
Thinning a schedule = gradually increasing the number of responses in a ratio schedule or gradually increasing the duration of
the time in an interval schedule until it is similar to the natural environment schedule / contingency.
Reasons to thin a schedule: Transfer to a more natural environment/schedule and promote generalization

Densening a schedule = gradually decreasing the number of responses in a ratio schedule or gradually decreasing the duration
of the time in an interval schedule until it is similar to the natural environment schedule / contingency.
Reason to have a denser schedule: Prevent ratio strain issues

Ratio strain = Making too big of a schedule change when moving from a dense schedule to a thin schedule too quickly.
EXAMPLE: Client is successfully earning reinforcement on a FR5 schedule, so you attempt to thin the schedule by moving to a
FR10 schedule. The client now refuses to work for reinforcement.

The degree to which a thinning schedule change can be made, while avoiding ratio strain, WILL VARY from client to client.

Intermittent Ratio Schedule Intermittent Interval Schedule

(FR and VR) (FI and VI)
Schedule Reinforcement is given Schedule Reinforcement is given after
after (NUMBER) the first correct responses
correct responses after (DURATION OF TIME)
CRF or FR1 1 Dense CRF 0 minutes
FR3 3 FI1 / FI 1m 1 minute
FR5 5 FI2 / FI 2m 2 minutes
VR5 An average of 5 VI2 / VI 2m An average of 2 minutes
VR7 An average of 7 VI5 / FI 5m An average of 5 minutes
VR10 An average of 10 Thin FI7 / FI 7m An average of 7 minutes

REMEMBER!!!
THINNING an intermittent schedule occurs when the number is INCREASED!
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Differential Reinforcement
Type of Differential Reinforcement Basic Definition Example Subtypes

Differential Reinforcement of Student can engage in ANY OTHER behavior Target behavior: Kicking peers 4 Subtypes
Other Behavior(s) (appropriate or inappropriate) besides the Other behaviors: Hitting peers, crying loudly, FI-DRO, VI-DRO, FM-DRO, and
(DRO) behavior being targeted to earn reinforcement asking to play, doing homework VM-DRO
Differential Reinforcement of Target behavior: Kicking peers
Student can engage in SPECIFIC behavior besides
Alternative Behavior(s) Alternative behavior: Asking to play N/A
the behavior being targeted to earn reinforcement
(DRA)
Differential Reinforcement of Student can engage in SPECIFIC behavior, which is Target behavior: Kicking peers
Incompatible Behavior(s) incompatible with the behavior being targeted, to Incompatible behavior: Kicking a ball N/A
(DRI) earn reinforcement (can’t kick a ball and peers at the same time)
Differential Reinforcement of Low Student engages in SPECIFIC behavior at a rate Decrease the number of bites per minute 3 Subtypes
Rates of Responding lower than baseline DUE TO INCREASED by increasing the time between bites Full-Session, Interval, Spaced-
(DRL) INTERRESPONSE TIME (IRT), to earn reinforcement (Does not eliminate the behavior) Responding
Differential Reinforcement of High
Student must engage in SPECIFIC behavior at a Increase the number of times the student 2 Subtypes
Rates of Responding
rate higher than baseline to earn reinforcement raises their hand during math class Full-Session and Interval
(DRH)
Differential Reinforcement of Decrease the number of times the student
Student must engage in SPECIFIC behavior at a 2 Subtypes
Diminishing Rates of Responding yells out in math class
rate lower than baseline to earn reinforcement Full-Session and Interval
(DRD) (Does not eliminate the behavior)
IMPORTANT NOTES:
• Replacement behavior(s) should serve the same function as the target behavior(s) they are replacing.
• DRI and DRA could be considered more specific forms of DRO
• DRD and DRL do not eliminate the target behavior. They simply make the behavior occur less frequently.
o DRO, DRA, and DRI do eliminate the target behavior
• DRL lowers the rate of the behavior by increasing the time between responses (increases the inter-response time; IRT)
• DRH and DRD are direct opposites; DRH increases rates of behavior while DRD decreases rates of behavior.
• DNRI and DNRA are similar to DRI and DRA but specifically use negative (the “N” in DNRI & DNRA) reinforcement (escape from a task as a SR+, for
example).
• Reinforcement in DRO is based on the absence of the target behavior AND an interval.
o DRO has several sub-types; which include FI-DRO (Fixed-Interval DRO), VI-DRO (Variable-Interval), FM-DRO (Fixed-Momentary DRO), and VM-
DRO (Variable-Momentary DRO).
o FI, VI, FM, and VM indicate specifically when reinforcement should be given based on an interval

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Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates
and
Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates

Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL) = Student engages in a SPECIFIC behavior at a rate lower than baseline DUE TO
INCREASED INTERRESPONSE TIME (IRT), to receive reinforcement

You would use DRL when you want to, or able to, increase the amount of time between the behaviors.

EXAMPLE: Your client is eating too quickly and often chokes. You want to increase the amount of time between bites. This decreases the
rate of bites per minute. You could use a DRD procedure (setting the criteria to receive reinforcement lower than baseline – eat 5 bites per
minute instead of 10 bites per minute) but the client could still eat those 5 bites during the first 5 seconds of the minute (still too quickly)
and receive reinforcement.

Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates (DRD) = Student must engage in a SPECIFIC behavior at a rate lower than baseline to earn
reinforcement

EXAMPLE: During the baseline condition, your client yells out an average of 8 times in an hour in the classroom setting. You set the criteria
to receive reinforcement at 4 or less yelling behaviors in an hour. Your client yells out only 3 times and receives reinforcement.

You would use DRD with a variety of behaviors. ETHICS WARINING: If you are using DRD with seriously aggressive or dangerous
behaviors, other procedures such as modeling, DRA, DRI, DRO and/or extinction should be used in conjunction with DRD.

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DRH, DRD, and DRL Subtypes
Reinforcement is given at the end of the session if the amount/rate of the target behavior during the
entire session occurs equal to or greater than the preselected criteria. The preselected criteria is
Full-Session DRH
DRH based on the rate observed during baseline.
Subtypes
Reinforcement is given at the end of the interval if the amount/rate of the target behavior during the
interval occurs equal to or greater than the preselected criteria. The preselected criteria is based on
Interval DRH
the rate observed during baseline.

Reinforcement is given at the end of the session if the amount/rate of the target behavior during the
Full-Session entire session occurs equal to or less than the preselected criteria. The preselected criteria is based on
DRL* the rate observed during baseline.
DRL
Subtypes Reinforcement is given at the end of the interval if the amount/rate the target behavior during the
Interval interval occurs equal to or less than the preselected criteria. The preselected criteria is based on the
DRL* rate observed during baseline.

Reinforcement is given after the target behavior occurs if the target behavior occurs after a
Spaced-
preselected amount of time. The preselected criteria is based on the IRT observed during baseline.
Responding DRL

* Similar procedure with DRD

Behavior observed during…

…the entire session …set intervals
(Full-Session) (Interval)
…equal to or greater than
Reinforcement
the preselected criteria Full-Session DRH Interval DRH
is given if the
(DRH)
target
….equal to or less than
behavior
the preselected criteria Full-Session DRL Interval DRL
occurs…
(DRL)
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DRO Subtypes
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior(s) (DRO) = Client can engage in ANY OTHER
behavior (appropriate or inappropriate) besides the behavior being targeted and earn
reinforcement.

FI/VI-DRO = Client must engage in ANY OTHER behavior (appropriate or inappropriate)

besides the behavior being targeted, during the entire interval in order to earn reinforcement.
If the target behavior occurs any time during the interval, the client does not earn
reinforcement and interval/timer is immediately reset and started again.

FM/VM-DRO = Client must engage in ANY OTHER behavior (appropriate or inappropriate)

besides the behavior being targeted, at the end of the interval in order to earn
reinforcement. If the target behavior is occurring at the end of the interval, the client does
not earn reinforcement. The client has another opportunity to earn reinforcement, at the end
of the next interval.

Observing for occurrences of the target

behavior occurs…

Throughout the Only at the end of

entire interval the interval

Fixed Interval Fixed Momentary

The intervals are…

Fixed
(FI-DRO) (FM-DRO)

Variable Interval Variable Momentary

Variable
(VI-DRO) (VM-DRO)

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Differential Negative Reinforcement
Differential reinforcement procedures which specifically uses escape (or avoidance) as a reinforcer.

Two subtypes:
Under the Differential Negative Reinforcement of Other Behavior(s) umbrella

Differential Negative Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior(s) - DNRA

Differential Negative Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior(s) - DNRI

Example of Differential Negative Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior(s) – DNRA:

During a school related work task, which the client finds difficult, the client often engages in throwing
and ripping behaviors of work materials. If client verbally asks for a break from the difficult task
instead of throwing and ripping the work materials, the client is allowed to take a break (escape). This
results in the client asking for a break instead of engaging in throwing and ripping behaviors more
frequently in the future.

Asking for a break from the difficult task is an alternative behavior to throwing and ripping the work
materials AND allows escape from the present aversive stimulus (the difficult task).

DNRA can also use avoidance as a reinforcer.

Example of Differential Negative Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior(s) - DNRI

The client often engages in yelling behaviors when transitioning to the lunch room for lunch time. He
says the noise in the lunch room is too loud and it gives him a headache. If the client verbally asks to eat
lunch in the classroom, instead of yelling during the transition to the lunch room, the client is allowed to
eat lunch in the classroom (avoidance). This results in the client asking to eat in the classroom instead of
engaging in the yelling behavior more frequently in the future.

Asking to eat in the classroom is an alternative behavior to yelling (both cannot be emitted at the same
time) AND allows avoidance from an anticipated aversive stimulus (noise in lunch room).

DNRI can also use escape as a reinforcer.

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Page 43

Measurements

Continuous Discontinuous
Mesurement Procedures
HINT: No breaks in data collection
Mesurement Procedures
***CAN ALSO BE DISCONTINUOUS DEPENDING ON USE*** HINT: Breaks in data collection

Temporal Loucs Temporal Extent Partial Interval Recording Whole Interval Recording Momentary Time Sampling
Repeatability (Point in time) (Amount of time) (Used to lower rates of Bx) (Used to raise rates of Bx) (Overestimates OR
Loucs = "Location" in time Extent = "Amount" of time (Overestimates Bx Count) (Underestimates Bx Count) Underestimates Bx Count)

Interresponse Time (IRT) Planned Activity Check

Count / Frequency Response Latency Duration
(Time between Bx1 and (PLACHECK)
(Amount of occurrences) (Time between SD and Bx) (Amount of time for Bx)
Bx2) - Momentary Time
Sampling for groups

Total duration per session

Rate
(Total time the Bx occurred
(Count over time)
during the entire session)

Duration-per-occurrence
Celeration
(Amount of time of EACH
(Count per time over time)
Bx occurrance)

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Page 45
Interval Recording

Type / Name Basic Definition Behavior A (High rate) Behavior B (Low Rate)
Rate Data Collected: 2 of 13 intervals (15%) Rate Data Collected: 2 of 13 intervals (15%)
One occurrence of the behavior is
Whole Interval Actual: 12 of 13 intervals (92%) Actual: 6 pf 13 intervals (46%)
recorded only when the behavior
Recording
occurred for the entire (WHOLE)
(WIR)
interval Durational Data Collected: 10 of 65 minutes (15%) Durational Data Collected: 10 of 65 minutes (15%)
Actual: 45 of 65 minutes (69%) Actual: 26 of 65 minutes (40%)
Rate Data Collected: 11 of 13 intervals (85%) Rate Data Collected: 10 of 13 intervals (77%)
Actual: 12 of 13 intervals (92%) Actual: 6 of 13 intervals (46%)
Partial Interval One occurrence of the behavior is
Recording recorded if the behavior occurred at
(PIR) any time during the interval. Durational Data Collected: 55 of 65 minutes (85%) Durational Data Collected: 50 of 65 minutes (77%)
Actual: 45 of 65 minutes (69%) Actual: 26 of 65 (40%)

Rate Data Collected: 6 of 13 intervals (46%) Rate Data Collected: 5 of 13 intervals (38%)
One occurrence of the behavior is Actual: 12 of 13 intervals (92%) Actual: 6 of 13 intervals (46%)
Momentary
recorded only when the behavior
Time Sampling
occurred for the END of the interval
(MTS) Durational Data Collected: 30 of 65 minutes (46%) Durational Data Collected: 25 of 65 minutes (38%)
Actual: 45 of 65 minutes (69%) Actual: 26 of 65 (40%)
Same procedure as Momentary Time Examples:
Planned
Sampling (MTS), but used to collect Is everyone working on their math?
Activity Check Same procedure as Momentary Time Sampling (MTS)
data on small groups of students Are Jim, Tim, Jill, Bill, Kara, and Sara reading quietly?
(PLACHECK)
instead of individuals

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46 46
Page 47
Page 47
Page 48

Sequence Effect vs. Multiple Treatment Interference

Sequence Effect = When the client’s behavior is influenced in one condition due to the client’s
experience with a condition.

• Commonly occurs with design which contain multiple treatments.

• Multiple Treatment Reversal Designs especially have a higher threat to the internal validity due
to sequence effects because of the repeated reversal to a pervious treatment.
• Alternating treatments designs have a less the threat to the internal validity due to sequence
effects because each treatment is in effect for a short period of time and the order of the
treatments can be alternated in a random fashion.
• In cases where Multiple Treatment Reversal Designs are needed, the threat to the internal
validity due to sequence effects can be lessened by returning to the baseline condition (and
returning to baseline levels of responding) before continuing to another treatment condition (A-
B-A-C-A-C).

DO NOT BE CONFUSED WITH: Ripple effect and spillover effect which are related to or synonymous
terms for generalization across subjects.

Multiple Treatment Interference = When the effects of one treatment on the client’s behavior, effect
another treatment within the same experiment / design.

• Multiple treatment interference must always be suspected in the alternating treatments design.
• By limiting an alternating treatments design to one treatment condition (preferably the most
effective treatment), we can evaluate the effects of the treatment in isolation.

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Extinction Burst, Spontaneous Recovery, and Resistance to Extinction
Extinction Burst = A general effect of the extinction procedure is an immediate increase in the frequency of the response after the
removal of the positive, negative, or automatic reinforcement. (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 462)

Spontaneous Recovery = A phenomenon commonly associated with the extinction process is the reappearance of the behavior after it has
diminished to its prereinforcement level or stopped entirely (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 462)

Resistance to Extinction = Behavior analysts refer to continued responding during the extinction procedure as resistance to extinction.
Behavior that continues to occur during extinction is said to have greater resistance to extinction than behavior that diminishes quickly.
Resistance to extinction is a relative concept. (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 463)

Source: Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (07/2012). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2/e. Retrieved from
https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781256844884

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Page 50

Irreversibility
Cooper says “A situation that occurs when the level of responding observed in a previous phase cannot be reproduced even though the
experimental conditions are the same as they were during the earlier phase” (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 698).

Some examples of behavior which could be subject to irreversibility:

Riding a bike
Walking
Running
Jumping
Talking

It is a common misconception that “irreversibility” refers to the actual behaviors that, once learned, cannot be ‘unlearned’. THIS IS
INCORRECT!! Irreversibility is related to data; the level of responding cannot be reproduced after the behavior is taught.

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Page 51

Direct vs Indirect Assessments

Indirect Assessment = You are collecting data after the fact / You do not “directly” see the behavior occurring

Direct Assessment = There is a “direct” permanent product or you “directly” see the behavior occurring

Indirect Direct
Assessments Assessments

Direct ABC Scatter Plot

Interviews Checklists Surveys Questionnaires Tests
Observation Recordings Recordings

Which do Behavior Analysts prefer?

Although both types of assessment can provide Behavior Analysts with valuable information, the subjective nature of indirect assessments
make them less favorable to direct assessments.

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 Page 52
ABC Continuous and Narrative Recording

ABC Narrative Recording ABC Continuous Recording

Name: ______________________________ Date: ___________ Name: __________ Date: ___________ Times: ____________
Time Antecedent Behavior Consequence Antecedent Behavior Consequence
[ ] Alone [ ] Aggression [ ] Task Removed
[ ] Task presented [ ] Yelling [ ] Reprimanded
[ ] Social interaction [ ] Crying [ ] Toy Removed
[ ] Toy given [ ] Running away [ ] Blocked
[ ] Alone [ ] Aggression [ ] Task Removed
[ ] Task presented [ ] Yelling [ ] Reprimanded
[ ] Social interaction [ ] Crying [ ] Toy Removed
[ ] Toy given [ ] Running away [ ] Blocked
[ ] Alone [ ] Aggression [ ] Task Removed
[ ] Task presented [ ] Yelling [ ] Reprimanded
[ ] Social interaction [ ] Crying [ ] Toy Removed
[ ] Toy given [ ] Running away [ ] Blocked
[ ] Alone [ ] Aggression [ ] Task Removed
[ ] Task presented [ ] Yelling [ ] Reprimanded
[ ] Social interaction [ ] Crying [ ] Toy Removed
[ ] Toy given [ ] Running away [ ] Blocked
[ ] Alone [ ] Aggression [ ] Task Removed
[ ] Task presented [ ] Yelling [ ] Reprimanded
[ ] Social interaction [ ] Crying [ ] Toy Removed
[ ] Toy given [ ] Running away [ ] Blocked

Data is collected only when behaviors of interest Data is collected on occurrences of the behaviors
are observed. and environmental events in the natural routine
during a set period of time.

Data recording is open-ended Data recording is restrictive

(Any events which immediately precede and (Only the preselected items are recorded)
follow the behavior are recorded)

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Page 53
Duplic vs Codic

Question 1:
Is there a verbal SD?

Yes No

Queation 2: Question 2:
Is there point-to-point Is the antecedent vaiable MO
correspondence? or Nonverbal SD?

Yes No Nonverbal SD MO

Intraverbal
Question 3: Tact Mand
(Neither Duplic nor Codic)
Is there formal similarity? (Neither Duplic nor Codic) (Neither Duplic nor Codic)
Can have formal similarity

Yes No
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Echoic Question 4:
Imitating Signs Written word to spoken
(Duplic) word

Yes No

Textual
Transcription
(Codic)
(Codic)
Written word to spoken
word Spoken word to written word
Page 54

Duplic Codic
Has P-T-P and FS Has P-T-P but not FS

Echoic Copy Text Mimic Textual Transcription

Verbal SD Written SD Signed SD Written SD Verbal SD

Vocal R Written R Signed R Vocal R Written R

Example: Example: Example:

Example: Example:
Seeing the word "Bird" on Someone signing the word Someone saying the word
Someone says "Bird" and Seeing the word "Bird" and
the board and then you "Bird" and then you sign the "Bird" and you then you
then you say "Bird" then you say the word "Bird"
write the word "Bird" word "Bird" write the word "Bird"
“Bird”
Bird Bird
“Bird”

“Bird” Bird
Bird
“Bird”

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Page 55

Point-to-Point Correspondence =
SD and response have the same characteristics/parts AND have two or more components

SD Response Same Two or more P-T-P?

characteristics? components?
You sign “Car” Client signs “Car”
You sign the letter “B” Client signs the letter “B”
You say “Car” Client writes “Car”
You write “C” Client says “See”
You say “Dog” Client points to the word “Dog”
You write “Car” Client says “Cat”

Formal Similarity =
SD and response have the same delivery method / sense mode

SD Response Same delivery method? FS?

You sign “What is it?” Client signs “Car”
You say “What letter?” Client say “B”
You say “Car” Client writes “Car”
You write “C” Client says “C”

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Page 56
More of Point to Point Correspondence
Two requirements of Point to Point Correspondence:
1. The SD and response must have two or more components.
2. The first component of the SD must control the first part of the response; the second part of
the SD must control the second part of the response, and so on.

Point to Point Correspondence Not Point to Point Correspondence

Vocal SD Written Response Vocal SD Written Response

“APPLE” APPLE “A” A
3-5 components 3-5 components 1 component 1 component

A PP LE A PP LE A A

Signed SD Signed SD (CAR)

Vocal Response Vocal Response

C-A-R C-A-R
3 components 1 component 3 components
3 components

C-A-R C-A-R

Written SD Written Response Written SD Written Response

CHECK CHECK DOT DOG

3-5 components 3-5 components 3 components 3 components

CH E CK CH E CK DOT DOG

Vocal SD Written Response Written SD Written Response

WRITE RIGHT WRITE RIGHT
2 components 2 components 2 components 2 components

WR ITE R IGHT WR ITE R IGHT

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Page 57
All About Chaining!
Chaining = A sequence of actions or behaviors in which completing the prior action or behavior evokes (provides an SD for) the next action or behavior.

How to remember: Chaining is like links in a chain

NOTE: Chaining DOES NOT occur if completing the prior action or behavior DOES NOT provide an SD for the next action or behavior.

Type of chaining Basic Definition Pros and Cons Example:

procedure (Cleaning the bathroom)
Forward Chaining The first step must be Pros Start by teaching the student to clean the sink (Link 1). Once mastered, the
taught to mastery - Used to link smaller chains student cleans the sink independently and you teach cleaning the toilet (Link 2).
(done independently) together to form larger one Once mastered, the student cleans the sink and the toilet independently and you
before continuing on - Easiest form of chaining teach cleaning the shower (Link 3). Once mastered the student cleans the sink,
to the next step. the toilet, and the shower independently and you teach cleaning the floor (Link
Cons 4). Once mastered, the student cleans the bathroom completely independently.
- Takes a lot of time to teach
Backward Chaining The therapist Pros You clean the sink, the toilet, and the shower and teach cleaning the floor (Link
completes every step, - With each trial, the 4). Once mastered, you clean only the sink and the toilet and teach cleaning the
starting with the first student is exposed to all the shower (Link 3) while allowing the student to clean the floor independently. Once
step in the sequence, steps, including those to be mastered, you clean only the sink and teach cleaning the toilet (Link 2) while
which has not been taught in the future allowing the student to clean the both floor and the shower independently. Once
taught, leaving only mastered, teach cleaning the toilet cleaning the sink (Link 1) while allowing the
the step being taught Cons student to clean the floor, the shower, and the toilet independently. Once
and the steps which - Takes a lot of time to teach mastered, the student cleans the floor, the shower, and the sink independently.
have been mastered
Total Task Chaining Student is assess and Pros You assess the student’s skills and determine the student has mastered cleaning
only taught the skills - Takes less time to teach the sink and shower (Links 1 and 3) but needs to be taught how to clean the toilet
they are missing to than forward and backward and floor (Links 2 and 4). The student cleans the sink independently, you teach
complete the task chaining cleaning the toilet, the student cleans the shower independently, and you teach
independently cleaning the floor (which completes the task). You continue this until all links are
mastered.
Backward Chaining Similar to backward Pros You assess the student’s skills and determine the student has mastered cleaning
with Leap Aheads chaining but the - Takes the least amount of the sink and shower (Links 1 and 3) but needs to be taught how to clean the toilet
student is assess and time to teach and floor (Links 2 and 4). You clean the sink, the toilet, and the shower and teach
only taught the skills cleaning the floor (Link 4). Once mastered, you clean only the sink and teach
they are missing to cleaning the toilet (Link 2) while allowing the student to clean the shower, the
complete the task floor independently. Once mastered, the student cleans the floor, the shower,
independently and the sink independently.
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Stimulus Prompt
Stimulus Prompt: Makes the antecedent stimulus more salient (stand out) which evokes a correct response
Forms: Position, Movement, Redundancy, Within-Stimulus, Extra-Stimulus
Position Movement* Redundancy
Change the position to place the correct response Pointing to, tapping, touching, looking at, or moving Have one or more stimulus or response dimensions
closer to the client to make it more salient the correct response to make it more salient (color, size, shape) paired with the correct response
SD: “Touch Dog” SD: “Touch Dog” SD: “Two plus two equals”
Prompt: The dog card is placed closer to the client Prompt: You tap the dog card to make it stand out Prompt: You paired the color green to the correct
R: Client touches “DOG” R: Client touches “DOG” response
R: Client touches “4”

CAT BOY
4 2 6
DOG CAT BOY
DOG

Within-Stimulus Extra-Stimulus
Change the position, size, shape, color, or intensity of the Add something (extra) to the correct response to make it
correct response to make it more salient more salient
SD: “Touch Dog” SD: “Touch Dog”
Prompt: You made the dog card bigger than the others Prompt: You add stars the dog card
R: Client touches “DOG” R: Client touches “DOG”

CAT BOY DOG CAT BOY

DOG

IMPORTANT NOTES:
- A prompt is only a prompt if it evokes a correct response.
- A prompt can occur either before or during a behavior or response. I prompt cannot occur after a behavior or response.
- The movement prompt MUST make the antecedent stimulus more salient to be considered a stimulus prompt!! If the
movement prompt is acting on the desired behavior, it is considered a response prompt!!
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Page 64
Stimulus Prompt Removal
Two methods: Fading and Shaping
Fading Shaping
Fading Position Fading Movement
MORE MOST

MORE

CAT BOY
DOG CAT BOY RED
DOG

DOG
CAT BOY
DOG CAT BOY DOG RED

RED
DOG CAT BOY

LESS
DOG
DOG CAT BOY LESS

Fading Within-Stimulus Fading Extra-Stimulus

MORE MORE

DOG
CAT BOY
DOG CAT BOY
DOG RED
CAT BOY DOG CAT BOY
DOG

DOG LEAST
RED
DOG CAT BOY
DOG CAT BOY
LESS LESS

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Page 65

Response Prompt
Response Prompt: Acts on the behavior or response itself which evokes a correct response
Forms: Verbal (which includes vocal and non-vocal), Modeling, Gestural, and Physical Prompting
Verbal (Vocal) Verbal (Non-vocal) Modeling
Oral Written, Signing, Picture Instructions Demonstrate the desired behavior or response
D
S : “Touch Dog” SD: “Touch Dog” SD: “Touch Dog”
Prompt: You say “The one on the left” Prompt: You give the client a note saying “on the left” Prompt: You touch the dog card
R: Client touches “DOG” R: Client touches “DOG” R: Client touches “DOG”

DOG CAT BOY

DOG CAT BOY

DOG CAT BOY

Gestural* Physical Prompting

Pointing to, tapping, touching, or looking at the correct Physical touching or moving the client
response
SD: “Touch Dog” SD: “Touch Dog”
Prompt: You point to the dog card Prompt: You take the client hand and guide them
R: Client touches “DOG” R: Client touches “DOG”

DOG CAT BOY

DOG CAT BOY

IMPORTANT NOTES:
- A prompt is only a prompt if it evokes a correct response.
- A prompt can occur either before or during a behavior or response. I prompt cannot occur after a behavior or response.
- The gestural prompt MUST act on the desired behavior!! If the gestural prompt makes the antecedent stimulus more salient,
it is considered a stimulus prompt!!
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Response Prompt Removal
Four methods: Most-to-Least, Least-to-Most, Graduated Guidance, and Delayed Prompting

Most-to-Least Prompting Least-to-Most Prompting Graduated Guidance Prompting Delayed Prompting

MOST
LEAST MOST Fixed Delayed Prompting
Full Physical Prompt Natural Full Physical Prompt The time between the SD and the
DOG Move the client’s hand at the... prompt remains the same
HAND
Partial Physical Prompt Gestural Prompt
TAP!
WRIST Example:
TA FOREARM You say “Touch Dog” and give the
Modeling Prompt D Partial Verbal Prompt client 5 seconds to response before
ELBOW
prompting. After several sessions, the
BICEP
DOG Verbal Prompt DOG Verbal Prompt client touches the picture of the dog
(Vocal, Written, Sign, Picture) (Vocal, Written, Sign, Picture)
Partial Physical Prompt 4 seconds after the SD, then 3
D Tap the client on the... seconds, then 2 seconds, and so on
Partial Verbal Prompt Modeling Prompt HAND
and the prompt is no longer needed.
WRIST
Gestural Prompt Partial Physical Prompt
TAP! FOREARM
TA ELBOW Progressive Delayed Prompting
P Natural Full Physical Prompt The time between the SD and the
DOG LEAST BICEP
MOST prompt is progressively increased
SHOULDER

Natural LEAST Example:

Begin with a prompt which is Begin with the less invasive You say “Touch Dog” and give the
known to evoke the correct prompt and sequentially move to Begin with a prompt which is client 5 seconds to response before
behavior or response then more invasive prompts until the known to evoke the correct prompting. After several sessions of
sequentially move to less invasive correct behavior or response is behavior or response then the client needing the prompt after 5
prompts, ultimately removing all seconds, you increase the time
evoked. Ultimately the goal is to sequentially move to less invasive
artificial prompts between the SD and when you give
remove all artificial prompts. prompts, ultimately removing all
the prompt to 10 seconds. The client
artificial prompts independently touches the dog 6
seconds after the SD.
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Page 67
Response Blocking vs Planned Ignoring
Response Blocking = Occurs immediately at the beginning of the behavior and blocks / prevents the
behavior from being completed.
EXAMPLE: The client often places non-food objects in his mouth. During your session he grabs a marble
with his hand and moves it towards with mouth. Not wanting the client to put the marble into his mouth
due to the choking hazard, you place a hard book between the client’s mouth and the hand containing the
marble. You then remove the marble from the client’s hand.

Planned Ignoring = A non-exclusionary time-out procedure in which the behavior can still allowed to occur
but the social reinforcers should as attention, physical contact, or verbal interaction are briefly
removed.
EXAMPLE: The client often engages in yelling behaviors to gain attention from other. During your
session, anytime the client engages in the yelling behaviors, you ignore and do not provide the desired
attention.

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Page 68

Prompt Dependence
Prompt dependence: When the subject will not perform a behavior, skill, or activity until they are provided with a prompt.

Occurs when prompts are not systematically faded and reinforcement schedules are not thinned as the behavior, skill, or activity is
acquired.

Prompt dependency should not be confused with prompts which are required to initially teach a behavior, skill, or activity.

The term “prompt dependent” suggests that the individual is somehow requires prompts to be able to initiate or continue specific activities
or steps of a task. However, this formulation has two fatal flaws, first it places the explanation for this “dependence” within the individual
(they are dependent) rather than in the environment (consequences maintaining the behavior). Second the behavior of concern is not
correctly described as “dependence”, that is not a behavior, rather it is a characterization of how we “feel” about some other behavior. It
is the actual behavior that the person engages in that we must turn our attention and our analysis. The actions (behaviors) we must concern
ourselves with are the acts of stopping or ceasing the actions that are desired. This should not be confused with the absence of behavior,
as the topography of response can be specified and may take a number of forms that can be operationally defined.

Source: http://www.behaviorpedia.com/conceptual-issues/prompt-dependence/

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Page 69

Developed by Siegfried Engelmann

Major characteristics/component:
• Involves a carefully designed curriculum based on task analyses.
• Used in teaching small groups.
• Utilizes continuous interactions between the group and the teacher.
• Utilizes fast-paced teaching, scripts, and choral responding of the group.
Direct
• When preventing and correcting errors, direct instruction involves graphing errors, prompting the group to use multi-step strategies, and supplying correct answers for
Instruction
discrimination tasks.
(DI)
• Student learning is the responsibility of the teacher’s design and method of delivering instructions.

Used in classrooms and one-on-one

Step 1: Assess student background and previous knowledge (Explain to the student’s WHY it is being taught)
Step 2: Explain what the students will do and how they will do it
Step 3: Model
Step 4: Guided Practice
Developed by Ivar Lovass

Major characteristics/component:
• Trials have: SD, prompts, responses (client’s behavior), reinforcers to reinforce the client’s behavior, and inter-trial intervals (momentary breaks between trials).
• For incorrect response: The teacher say "No" and ends that trial. The next trial, the teacher presents the SD and then a prompt.
• Collected data is recorded as percentage correct.
• Teaches discriminated operants.
• DTT is very controlled and restricted.
• “Discrete” meaning trials have well-defined beginnings and endings.
• DTT has four methods of introducing new targets; Mass trial, Block trial, Expanded trial, and Random Rotation
Discrete Trial • Mass trial involves a single SD for the trial (with prompts as needed). Client must reach at least 80% correct responding with a neutral distracter, before introducing a
Training new target.
(DTT) EXAMPLE: Teacher says “Touch ball”. Student touches the crayon. Teacher says “No” and ends the trial. The next trial the teacher says “Touch ball” again and points
to the car. The student touches the car. Over several sessions, the client is responding 95% of the trials correctly. The teacher then introduces the SD “Touch car”
• Block trial involves presenting single SD for a specific “block” or group of trials, then another SD, different from the first, is presenting for another specific “block” or
group of trials.
EXAMPLE: Teacher says “Touch ball”. Student touches the ball. The next trial the teacher says “Touch ball” again. Student again touches the ball. For the third trial,
the teacher says “Touch car”. Student touches the car. For the last trial, the teacher says “Touch car” again. Student again touches the car.
• Expanded trial involves presenting distracter trials between the acquisition trials. Distracter trials should contain mastered targets.
EXAMPLE: Teacher says “Touch ball”. Student touches the ball (target in acquisition). The next trial the teacher says “Touch car”. Student touches the car (previously
mastered target). For the third trial, the teacher says “Touch crayon”. Student touches the crayon (previously mastered target). For the last trial, the teacher again
says “Touch ball” again. Student again touches the ball (target in acquisition).
• Random rotation is similar to expanded trial but distracter trials and acquisition trials are presented at random.
Page 70
Major characteristics/component:
• Also known as Naturalistic Teaching and In-situ Training
• Occurs in the natural environment, at any time.
Incidental
• Involves training loosely by using client selected reinforcers.
Teaching
• Involves indiscriminable contingencies. The client is unsure which trials will yield reinforcement and which trials won’t
• Helps facilitate natural generalization.
• Involves using motivational operations (MOs) to teach verbal operates by required requesting for items in the natural environment, under natural occurring contingencies.
Developed by Ogden Lindsey

Major characteristics/component:
Precision • Individualized
Teaching • Utilizes the standard celeration chart; noticeably different from a line graph by its semi-logarithmic scaling of the y-axis.
(PT) • Performance of the student is the teacher’s responsibility (The learner knows best).
• Observable and measureable behaviors only. No private events.
• Measures performance by rate and frequency, not percentage correct (hence the use of the standard celeration chart).
• Fluency is measured by collecting data on response accuracy and speed of responding.
Developed by Fred Keller

Major characteristics/component:
• Also known as the Keller plan
• Created for college classrooms but is also used in high schools.
Personalized
• Personalized and self-paced
System of
• Unit mastery criteria typically set at 90%.
Instruction
• Material is divide into self-contained sections.
(PSI)
• Student cannot continue to the next section without meeting the mastery criteria of the previous section.
• Utilizes written materials alone (No formal lectures to teach acquisition of the material).
• Students in more advanced sections of the material, grade and provide feedback to students who are in the previous sections of the material.
• Lectures are used as reinforcers for students who reach a pre-determined mastery criteria of the written materials.
o Lectures do not teach acquisition of the material but are enjoyable and entertaining, and are thus considered reinforcers.

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Group Contingencies
= meets criteria (GREEN) = doesn’t meet criteria (RED)
and receives reinforcement (SMILE) but receives reinforcement (SMILE)
= meets criteria (GREEN) = doesn’t meet criteria (RED)
but doesn’t receive reinforcement (FROWN) and doesn’t receive reinforcement (FROWN)

Independent Contingency Interdependent Contingency Dependent Contingency

Everyone earns their own reinforcement. Reinforcement is earned for all if everyone in Reinforcement is earned for all by one.
If one person doesn’t meet the criteria to the group meets the criteria to receive If that one person doesn’t meet the criteria to
receive reinforcement, only that person reinforcement. If one person doesn’t meet the receive reinforcement, no one receives
doesn’t receive reinforcement. criteria to receive reinforcement, no one in reinforcement.
the group receives reinforcement. AKA: Hero Procedure

Group A Group B Group A Group B

C C C C
V V V V C C C C C C C C
V V V V V V V V

Jim Jay

Example: Example: Example:

Everyone who turns in their completed If everyone in the group turns in their If Jim turns in his completed homework, his
homework get to go outside for recess completed homework, the group gets to go group gets to go outside for recess. If Jay turns
outside for recess in his completed homework, his group gets to
go outside for recess.

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Page 72

Premack Principle and High-Probability Request Sequence

Premack Principle = Making a high-probability behavior (easy task, preferred task, etc.)
contingent on performing a low-probability behavior (difficult task, non-preferred task, etc.)

Logic: The opportunity to engage in the high-probability behavior severs as a reinforcer for
engaging in the low-probability behavior

Typically written as a “First ____ then ____” statement.

“First finish your homework, then you can watch TV.”

Response Deprivation Hypothesis (RDH) = Creates an environment for an Establishing Operation

(EO) by restricting access to a BEHAVIOR.

If the client is unable to watch TV for a month, this in theory, would increase the value (EO) of
watching TV once able to.

EO
MANY ETHICS CONCERNS FOR USING!!!

High-Probability Request Sequence (High-P) = Increases the probability of the client

performing a low-probability behavior by presenting high-probability behavior(s) in RAPID
succession immediately before the low-probability behavior request.

All behaviors (both low and high-probability) must be in the client repertoire.

The goal is to have the client spell his spelling words:

You say “Touch your nose.” The client touches his nose (high-probability)
You say “Touch your head.” The client touches his head (high-probability)
You say “Say your name.” The client say his name (high-probability)
You say “Spell apple.” The client say “A-P-P-L-E” (low-probability)

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Basics of Token Economy
Token Economy = A behavior change system where tokens or points (generalized conditioned reinforcers) are given when the client
engages in a specific targeted/desired behavior. When enough tokens or points are collected, they are then exchanged for the
“purchase” of a specific reinforcer (backup reinforcer).

Three Major Components:

The behaviors to be targeted
The tokens to be delivered
The backup reinforcers to be exchanged

Token economies often include a token loss contingency when rules are broken or when the client engages in inappropriate behaviors.

GUIDELINES FOR TOKEN LOSS: Behaviors involved in the token loss contingency (response cost) should be defined and clearly stated in
the rules when the token economy is introduced. Client should also to be made aware of what inappropriate behaviors will yield a loss in
tokens as well as how much each inappropriate behavior will cost (the more severe the inappropriate behavior, the greater the token loss).
Token loss should not be use if the client does not have any tokens loose. This is because the client should not go into “token debt” (i.e. the
client should always receive more tokens than they loses). “Token debt” is likely to decrease the reinforcement value of the tokens and thus
should be avoided.

Real world / Everyday Example: Money!! Income earned at your job can be exchanged at a later time for backup reinforcers (food, clothing,
transportation, entertainment, vacation, house, etc.).

Level System = A type token economy where the client can move up or down a series of “levels”. The promotion or demotion through the
levels is contingent upon meeting specific performance criteria of the target behaviors. Each promotion to a higher level yields access to
more privileges / more powerful reinforcers AND the expectation to meet more independent performance criteria (the higher the level,
the thinner the schedules of reinforcement. The highest level has schedules of reinforcement which are similar to those in the natural
environment).

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Page 74

Implementing a Token Economy

1. Initial Token Training – Provide an example of the token economy to be used. Then provide a model of token delivery procedure.
Lastly provide a model of the token exchange procedure.
2. Ongoing Token Training – The focus of the training should be on promoting and increasing the frequency of desirable behaviors via
token delivery rather than decreasing the frequency of undesirable behaviors via response cost. After several weeks, revisions in
the token economy procedure(s) may be needed.
3. Management Issues During Implementation – Clients should be taught how to manage the tokens they receive. Some clients may
hold on to all their tokens and not exchange them for backup reinforcers while other clients may try to exchange their tokens for a
“high priced” backup reinforcer but do not have enough tokens to do so. Both of these extremes should be discouraged.
4. Withdrawing the Token Economy – When implementing a token economy, token presentation should always be paired with verbal
praise. This is an essential factor when it comes to time withdraw the token economy. Initially, gradually increase the number of
responses required to earn a token (think reinforcement schedule thinning). Then gradually decreased the duration the token
economy is in effect (use the token economy less often). Next, gradually increase the number of activities and objects which serve
as backup reinforcers. These backup reinforcers should to be found in the client’s natural environment. Next, the price of more
desirable backup reinforcers should be increased systematically while keeping the price of less desirable backup reinforcers low.
Lastly, evidence of the tokens should be faded out until they are entirely removed.

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Behavior contracts
When developing a behavior contract:
• Choose behaviors which are already in the student’s repertoire
• Choose behaviors which will result in a permanent product
• Choose a reward which will overcome the response effort
• Choose wording which is easily understandable to the client
• Make it complete (no loop holes) but keep it simple
• Choose a reinforcement delay duration which is which within the client’s ability
• Make the contract written so it can be objectively referenced later
• After introducing it to the client, have them repeat it back (to check for understanding)
• Make the contract available to the client at all times (to promote self-management)

What does a behavior contract need?

Behavior contracts MUST… This includes…
…exactly what the behavior is to performed
…exactly what and how many prompts will be provided (if any)
…exactly who needs to perform the behavior
…describe the behavior
…exactly when the behavior needs to be done or completed
…exactly where the behavior needs to occur
…exactly how well the behavior needs to be completed
…exactly what the reward is
…exactly who will assess the behavior (or permanent product of the behavior)
…exactly who will deliver the reward
…describe the reward
…exactly when the reward will be delivered
…exactly where the reward will be delivered
… exactly how much of the reward will be delivered
…where data be collected (or where data will not be collected)
…describe the behavior data
…when the data will be reviewed to receive the reward

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Time-Out Procedures
Name of
Type Location Procedure Scenario Example
Procedure
Student is placed in a location Jim hit another student during
Contingent where they can view/observe inside recess. He was then placed
Non-Exclusionary Room where the behavior occurred
Observation peers engaging in preferred at his desk for the remainder of
activities. recess.
Social reinforcers (attention) are Jim yelled during reading time to
Planned Ignoring Non-Exclusionary Room where the behavior occurred removed by using planned get peer’s attention. Everyone
ignoring. ignored his yelling.
Withdrawal of Tangible reinforcing items are Jim throws his favorite toy. The toy
Positive Non-Exclusionary Room where the behavior occurred taken away is taken away for the remainder of
Reinforcement (Toy gets “time-out”) recess.
Student has a ribbon to wear. During reading time, Jim wears the
Ribbon on = can earn ribbon and earns 5 minutes of
Time-Out Ribbon Non-Exclusionary Room where the behavior occurred reinforcement computer time for every 10
Ribbon off = cannot earn minutes he reads. During recess Jim
reinforcement does not wear the ribbon.
Jim hit another student during
Student is placed in a different
outside recess. He was then sent to
Entirely separate room from where the room, near the “time-in”
Time-Out Room Exclusionary the principal’s office, which is near
behavior occurred environment, for a duration of
his classroom, for the remainder of
time.
recess.
Jim hit another student during
Student is placed behind a physical
Separate area of the room where the inside recess. He was then placed
Partition Time- barrier/partition where they
Exclusionary behavior occurred, with a physical barrier in the “time-out” area, where he
Out cannot view/observer peers
in place (partition) can’t see his peers, for the
engaging in preferred activity.
remainder of recess.
Student is placed in the hallway, Jim hit another student during
Immediately outside the door of the immediately outside the door of inside recess. He was then placed
Hallway Time-Out Exclusionary
environment where the behavior occurred the room where the behavior in the hallway for the remainder of
occurred recess.

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Habituation, Habilitation, Adaptation, Deprivation, and Satiation
Reduced responding of a respondent Exposure to a loud sound, initial elicits an
behavior as a result of the frequent, immediate reflex to cover your ears. After
Habituation
repeated, and/or prolonged presentation of repeated exposure to the loud sound, your
the eliciting stimulus response becomes less immediate.
Initially, when you see your boss coming, you
Reduced responding of an operate behavior
immediately start working. After many
as a result of the frequent, repeated,
Adaptation times of your boss approaching you but
and/or prolonged presentation of the
saying nothing, your being starting work
evoking stimulus
later and later.
Removing the client’s access to his favorite
The inability to gain access to a stimulus
Deprivation toy so the client is willing to work to gain
(acts as an EO, adding value, in theory)
access to it.
Access to a stimulus is continuous, which Arriving hungry at an “all you can eat”
leads to reduced responding due to buffet. After several hours of eating, you
Satiation
overexposure or overuse of the stimulus stop eating even though there is still food
(acts as an AO, lessens value, in theory) available.
The significance of the client’s behavior
repertoire which maximizes both short and
long term reinforcers while minimizing short
Habilitation
and long term punishers.
(Not to be confused with Habituation)
- Assesses the significance the behavior
change will impact the client’s life
- Think of the “applied” dimension of ABA

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All Things “Contrived”
Contrived Mediating Stimuli, Contrived Contingencies, Contrived Reinforcers

Stimuli
Contrived Mediating Stimuli: Stimuli which are used to control the behavior in the teaching environment, are then used in
novel/generalization environments to prompt the same behavior.

Contrived mediating stimulus can be physical objects or people but MUST meet BOTH of the following criteria:

Made functional for the target behavior during acquisition

Easily transportable to the generalization setting

Contingencies

Contrived Contingency: A contingency of reinforcement or punishment which is artificially created in the environment by a behavior analyst
or practitioner and is used to teach skill/behavior acquisition, maintenance, and generalization.

Naturally Existing Contingency: A contingency of reinforcement or punishment which is naturally occurring in the environment. May still be
used to teach skill/behavior acquisition, maintenance, and generalization but without the involvement of a behavior analyst or practitioner.
(Opposite to contrived contingencies)

Reinforcers

Contrived Reinforcers: “Events that are provided by someone for the purpose of modifying behavior.”
– Paul Chance, Learning and Behavior, 7th Edition, 2013

Naturally Occurring Reinforcers: “Events that follow spontaneously from a behavior.”

– Paul Chance, Learning and Behavior, 7th Edition, 2013
(Opposite to contrived reinfrocers)
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Stimulus Control, Discrimination and Generalization
Stimulus Control = When the frequency, rate, duration, or other attribute of the behavior changes as a results the presence of an
antecedent stimulus.
Your favorite TV show is on only on Tuesdays and Thursdays. When you look at your calendar and see it is Tuesday (S D), you turn
on your TV. When you look at your calendar and see it is Monday
(S-Delta), you don’t turn on your TV.
(The day of the week is “controlling” your behavior of turning on the TV and not turning on the TV)
Stimulus Discrimination = Behavior is emitted when a taught stimulus is present and not when an untaught stimulus is present (strict
stimulus control).
You taught your client to say “apple’ when presented with an apple. When you present a picture of an apple , the client says “apple”. When
you present a picture of a car , the client doesn’t say “apple”.

≠ “Apple”
Stimulus Generalization = When similar but novel/untaught stimuli evoke a taught behavior or response
(relaxed stimulus control).
You teach the client to say “apple” when you present a red apple . You then present a green apple , the client still says “apple”.
Stimulus
Response
“APPLE”

Response Generalization = When untaught but functionally equivalent behaviors or responses are emitted instead of the taught behavior
or response
You taught the client to say “Hello” when they arrive for a session. Today when they arrived for a session, the client said “Hi! How are you?”
Stimulus Response
Seeing you “Hey!”
“Hi!”
“What’s up?”
Overgeneralization = When novel/untaught stimuli (similar or non-similar) evoke a taught behavior or response which is inappropriate or
incorrect in the current situation or environment.
The client has been taught to say “car” when presented with a picture of a car . When the client is presented with a picture of an
apple , the client says “car”.
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More on Generalization
Setting/Situation Generalization = When the client engages in a target behavior in the presence of a novel environmental stimulus which is
similar but significantly different than the controlling stimulus used during acquisition (i.e. the client engages in previously taught
target behavior in a novel setting or situation).

Generalization Across Subjects = When there are changes in the behavior of other people (who are not directly be treated by the
intervention) due to the treatment contingencies being applied to the client. According to Cooper, Heron, and Heward, “vicarious
reinforcement (Bandura, 1971; Kazdin, 1973), ripple effect (Kounin, 1970), and spillover effect (Strain, Shores, & Kerr, 1976)” are all
related to or synonymous terms for generalization across subjects (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 622).
HOW TO REMEMBER: The BEHAVIOR of one person (or a few people) is being GENERALIZED to others.
EXAMPLE: I have ten people walk into a room. Nine of the ten people “work” for me. The one other person (the subject) doesn’t know
everyone else is working with me. I instruct the nine people to engage in a specific behavior (tapping their finger in a rhythmic pattern).
Soon the subject starts tapping his finger in the same rhythmic pattern.

Drabman, Hammer, and Rosenbaum’s Generalization Map (1979)

Four basic types of generalized treatment effects

Generalized Treatment
Effects

Generalization Across Time Generalization Across Settings Generalization Across Behaviors

Generalization Across Subjects
(Response Maintenance) (Setting/Situation Generalization) (Response Generalization)

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Promote Generalization
Seven methods to promote generalization:
Program Common Stimuli Indiscriminable Contingencies
Train Loosely Negative Teaching Examples
Multiple Exemplar Training General Case Analysis
Mediation

Program Common Stimuli = Making the instructional/teaching setting similar to the natural setting. The
same SDs should be present in both the instructional/teaching and natural setting
HOW TO REMEMBER: SDs are “Common” between settings.
EXAMPLE: Making the instructional setting look like a store (products, aisles, shelves, cashier, conveyor
belt) and teach the client how to select and purchase items.

Train Loosely = Making minor changes to the environment or intervention while still evoking the taught
behavior.
Changes may be made to people, materials, instructions, prompts, consequences, settings, and time. The
change is ignored by the client (i.e. doesn’t evoke a change in behavior).
HOW TO REMEMBER: Elements of the environment are “loosely” controlled.
EXAMPLE: Varying the order of the tasks for the session.

Multiple Exemplar Training = Varying the antecedent stimuli which evoke the taught behavior.
HOW TO REMEMBER: “Multiple” stimuli examples are provided.
EXAMPLE: Saying “Hi”, “Hello”, or “How’s it going?” and the client says “Hi!”

Mediation = Having people other than the person who was present during acquisition, maintain the
behavior.
ETHICAL WARNING: YOU, the BCBA, are still responsible for properly training and ensuring the
intervention is being used correctly by the “other people”.
HOW TO REMEMBER: You act as a “mediator” (Someone who acts as a link between parties)
EXAMPLE: Training and having the client’s teacher use a token economy, which is being utilized in the
instructional setting, in the classroom setting.

Indiscriminable Contingencies = The client is unable to determine/discriminable when reinforcement will

be provided. This is accomplished by using variable intermitted reinforcement schedules and delaying the
presentation of reinforcement.
HOW TO REMEMBER: Indiscriminable = The client doesn’t “know” when reinforcement is coming

Negative Teaching Examples = Providing the client with settings and conditions which the behavior
should not be emitted. Also strengthens discrimination skills.
HOW TO REMEMBER: “Do not do” settings and conditions are provided.

General Case Analysis = Using differing stimuli in the client’s environment and teaching a variety of
appropriate responses/behaviors
HOW TO REMEMBER: “General”/Overall generalization
EXAMPLE: Teaching the client the differences between many different TV remotes AND teaching the
correct sequence of behaviors changing the channel for each different remote.

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Page 82
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Primary Source AKAs (Cooper)
Respondent Conditioning / Classical Conditioning / Pavlovian Conditioning (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 33)

Anecdotal Observation / ABC Recording (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 70)

Repeatability / Countability (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 75)

Horizontal Axis / X Axis / Abscissa (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 129)

Vertical Axis / Y Axis / Ordinate (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 129)

Type I Error / False Positive (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 249)

Type II Error / False Negative (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 249)

Single-stimulus Presentation Method / Successive choice Method (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 278)

Reflexivity / Generalized Identity Matching (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 398)

Contingency Contract / Behavioral Contract (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 551)

Self-monitoring / Self-recording / Self-observation (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 590)

Self-evaluation / Self-assessment (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 593)

General Case Analysis / General Case Strategy (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 628)

A-B-A-B Design / Reversal Design / Withdrawal Design (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 689)

Adjunctive Behavior / Schedule-induced Behavior (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 689)

Alternating Treatments Design / Concurrent Schedule Design / Multielement Design / Multiple Schedule Design
(Cooper, 07/2012, p. 689)

Bar Graph / Histogram (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 690)

Experimental Question / Research Question (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 695)

High-probability (high-p) Request Sequence / Interspersed Requests / Pretask Requests / Behavioral Momentum.
(Cooper, 07/2012, p. 697)

Higher Order Conditioning / Secondary Conditioning (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 697)

Interval-by-interval IOA / Point-by-point / Total Interval IOA (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 698)

Single-subject Designs / Single-case / Within-subject / Intra-subject designs (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 704)

Time-out from Positive Reinforcement / Time-out (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 706)

Treatment Integrity / Procedural Fidelity (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 707)

Unconditioned Punisher / Primary Punishers / Unlearned Punishers (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 707)

Unconditioned Reinforcer / Primary Reinforcer / Unlearned Reinforcer (Cooper, 07/2012, p. 707)

Source: Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (07/2012). Applied Behavior Analysis, 2/e [VitalSource Bookshelf
version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781256844884

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Page 85
Primary Source AKAs (Miltenberger)
Covert Behaviors / Private Events (Miltenberger, p. 3)

Intensity / Magnitude (Miltenberger, p. 24)

Product Recording / Permanent Product Recording (Miltenberger, p. 27)

Horizontal Axis / X-Axis / Abscissa (Miltenberger, p. 40)

Vertical Axis / Y-Axis / Ordinate (Miltenberger, p. 40)

Alternating-treatments Design (ATD) / Multielement Design (Miltenberger, p. 53)

A-B-A-B / Reversal Design (Miltenberger, p. 56)

Conditioned Reinforcer / Secondary Reinforcer (Miltenberger, p. 71)

Punisher / Aversive Stimulus (Miltenberger, 20110512 / p. 102)

Respondent Conditioning / Classical Conditioning / Pavlovian Conditioning (Miltenberger, p. 144)

Least-to-most Strategy / System of Least Prompts (Miltenberger, p. 191)

Self-generated Verbal Prompts / Self-instructions (Miltenberger, p. 212)

Behavioral chain / Stimulus-response Chain (Miltenberger, p. 215)

Direct Observation Assessment / ABC Observation (Miltenberger, p. 246)

Experimental Methods / Experimental Analysis / Functional Analysis (Miltenberger, p. 250)

Paired Stimulus Assessment Procedure / Forced Choice Procedure / Paired Choice Procedure (Miltenberger, p. 291)

Antecedent Control Procedures / Antecedent Manipulations (Miltenberger, p. 315)

Behavioral Contract / Contingency Contract / Performance Contract (Miltenberger, p. 453)

Behavior Modification / Applied Behavior Analysis (Miltenberger, p. 507)

Differential Reinforcement of Communication (DRC) / Functional Communication Training (Miltenberger, p. 508)

Stimulus Discrimination Training / Discrimination Training (Miltenberger, p. 515)

Three-term Contingency / Contingency of Reinforcement (Miltenberger, p. 515)

Source: Miltenberger, R. G. (20110512). Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures, 5th Edition [VitalSource
Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781285311012

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Page 86
Main sources of information:

Chandler, L. K., Dahlquist, C. M. (07/2012). Functional Assessment: Strategies to Prevent and

Remediate Challenging Behavior in School Settings, 3/e. Retrieved from
https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781256844907

Cooper, John O., Timothy Heron, William Heward. Applied Behavior Analysis, 2/e. Pearson
Learning Solutions, 07/2012. VitalBook file.

Miltenberger, R. G. (20110512). Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures, 5th Edition

[VitalSource Bookshelf version]. Retrieved from
https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781285311012

Other sources are noted direct on their respective pages

Version 6.1, created on August 12, 2020

This file was designed for the purpose of being a study aid for the Registered Behavior
Technician (RBT) exam (based on the 2th edition task list) and should not be used as a sole
resource for studying.

This file and its content are property of William Slusser MS, BCBA, COBA. This file and its
content was initially distributed free of charge, but please ask for permission before further
reproduction or distribution ([email protected]). THANKS!