byjusexamprep.

com

1
byjusexamprep.com

SURVEYING

9 CURVES

1. INTRODUCTION

Curves are usually employed on highways and railways in order to change the direction of
motion. The lines connected by the curves are always tangential to it known as tangents or
straights. The curves may be of any shape such as circular, parabolic or spiral depending on
requirements.
The purpose of the curve is to deflect a vehicle travelling along one of the straights safely and
comfortably through a deflection angle θ and to enable it to continue its journey along other
straight.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF CURVES

2.1. Simple Curve

A simple curve consists of a single arc of a circle tangential to two straight lines.

2
byjusexamprep.com

2.2. Compound Curve

Compound curve consists of 2 arcs of different radius turning in the same direction and
lying on the same sides of their common tangents, their centers being on the same side
of the curves.

2.3. Reverse Curve

Reverse curve consists of 2 arcs of equal or unequal radii bending in opposite direction
with common tangent at their junction having their centers lying on the opposite sides of
common tangent.

3
byjusexamprep.com

2.4. Transition Curve

These types of curves are used for gradual change of direction from straight to curve and
for gradual introduction of super elevation. The radius of transition curve at its junction
with the straight is infinity, i.e., that of the straight, and at the junction with the circular
curve that of the circular curve.

3. TERMINOLOGY USED IN SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVES

Point of curve (PC): It is the beginning point where alignment changes from straight line to
a curve.
Back tangent: It is the straight line at the beginning of curve tangent to the point of curve.
Point of Tangency (PT): It is the end point where alignment changes from a curve to tangent.
Forward Tangent: It is the straight line at the end of curve tangent to the point of tangency.
Point of Intersection (PI): The point where back and forward tangent intersects when
produced is called Point of intersection.
Tangent Length (T): It is the distance from PC to PI or PI to PT.
Deflection Angle (Δ): It is the angle between the back tangent when produced and forward
tangent.
Radius of Curvature (R): It is the radius of curve.
Long Chord (LC): It is the straight-line joining point of curve to point of tangency.
Length of curve (L): It is the total length of curve from PC to PT.
Mid Ordinate (M): It is the ordinate from mid-point of long chord to mid-point of curve.
Apex/ External Distance (E): The distance between POI and apex of curve is known as
external distance.

4
byjusexamprep.com

4. DESIGNATION OF A CURVE

A curve is designated by either radius of curve or degree of curve. The degree of a curve is
the angle subtended at the centre by a chord or arc of specified length.

For 20m arc length

360 1145.91
𝑅 = 20 × =
2𝜋𝐷 𝐷
For 30 m arc length
360 1718.87
𝑅 = 30 × =
2𝜋𝐷 𝐷
Example: Determine the radius of curve if it is designated as a 3˚ curve on a 30 m arc.
1718.87 1718.87
Radius of curve (R) = = = 573 m.
𝐷 3

5. ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

Formulas to calculate various elements of circular curve are as under:

(i) Tangent Length:
∆
𝑇 = 𝑅 tan ( )
2
(ii) Length of curve:
𝜋
𝐿 =𝑅×∆×
180
(iii) Length of Long Chord:
∆
𝐿𝐶 = 2𝑅 sin ( )
2
(iv) Mid ordinate:
∆
𝑀 = 𝑅 (1 − cos )
2
(v) Apex/External distance:
∆
𝐸 = 𝑅 (sec − 1)
2
(vi) Chainage:
(a) Chainage at PC = Chainage at PI – length of tangent
(b) Chainage at PT = Chainage at PC + length of curve
(c) Chainage at apex point = Chainage of PC + Half the curve length
(vii) Intermediate chord length:

5
byjusexamprep.com

For setting out of curve, it is essential that all pegs on the curve are at regular interval from
the beginning to end. This interval is known as peg interval and chord joining two pegs is known
as normal chord. All intermediate chords are normal chord except the first and last chord. The
tangent points (point of curve and Point of tangency) will not be full station i.e. the chainage
will not be multiple of full chains. The distance between PC and first peg will be less than normal
chord known as sub chord. Same case will be for the distance between last peg and PT.
(a) Length of First chord:

 Multiple of chainlength  
  
C1 =  just greater then  – Chainage at T1 
 chainge at T1  
  

(b) Length of Last chord:

  Multiple of chain length  

  
Cn = Chainage at T2 −  just less then 
  chainge at T 
  2 

(c) Number of intermediate (normal) chord:

𝐿–𝐶1 –𝐶𝑛
n = [( ) + 2]
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

(d) All other chords:

C2 = C3 = ------- = Cn-1 = 1 chain length.
Example: The angle of deflection for a curve is 120°. If radius of a circular curve to be set out
is 570 m, and peg interval is 30 m, determine the tangent length and the length of the curve,
length of long chord, mid ordinate and apex distance. What will be the chainage of PC and PT
if chainage of PI is 2346.72 m.
Sol.
𝜙 120
Tangent length = 𝑅 tan ( ) = 570 × tan ( ) = 987.27 𝑚
2 2
𝑅×𝜙×𝜋 570×120×3.14
Length of curve = = = 1193.2 𝑚
180 180
𝜙
Length of long chord = 2𝑅 sin = 2 × 570 × sin 60 = 987.26 𝑚
2
𝜙
Mid ordinate = 𝑅 (1 − cos ( )) = 570(1 − cos 60) = 285 𝑚
2
𝜙
Apex distance =𝑅 (sec ( ) − 1) = 570(𝑠𝑒𝑐60 − 1) = 570 𝑚
2

Chainage of PC = chainage of PI – Tangent length

= 2346.72 – 987.27 = 1359.45 m
Chainage of PT = Chainage of PC + Length of curve
= 1359.45 + 1193.2 = 2552.65 m

6. SETTING OUT OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

Following are the methods used to set out circular curves on ground.

6
byjusexamprep.com

6.1 Linear Method

Linear method makes use of chain or tape only for setting of curves. Following are the methods
available:
(i) Offset from the long chord

Bisect the long chord at point D.

From triangle OT1D,
𝑂𝑇1 2 = 𝑇1 𝐷2 + 𝐷𝑂2
𝐿 2
⇒ 𝑅2 = ( ) + (𝑅 − 𝑂𝑂 )2
2
𝐿 2
⇒ 𝑂𝑜 = 𝑅 − √𝑅2 − ( )
2
To calculate ordinate Ox to any point E, draw the line EE1 parallel to long chord T1T2. Join EO
to cut the long chord at G. Then,
𝑂𝑥 = 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸1 𝐷 = 𝐸1 𝑂 − 𝐷𝑂
⇒ 𝑂𝑥 = √(𝐸𝑂)2 − (𝐸𝐸1 )2 − (𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝐷)
⇒ 𝑂𝑥 = √(𝑅2 − 𝑥 2 ) − (𝑅 − 𝑂𝑂 )
To set out the curve, the long chord is divided into even number of equal parts. Offset calculated
from above equation are used to set out the points on the curve.
(ii) Successive Bisection of Arcs

Join the tangent point T1 and T2 and bisect the long chord at D. Erect the perpendicular DC.
Join T1C and T2C and bisect them at D1 and D2 respectively. At D1 and D2, set out perpendicular
∅
offsets C1D1 =C2D2= 𝑅 (1 − cos ) to get points C1 and C2 on the curve. More points can be
4

obtained by successful bisection of chords.

7
byjusexamprep.com

(iii) Radial offset method

Let Ox be radial offset DE at any distance x along the tangent.

From triangle T1DO,
𝐷𝑂2 = 𝑇1 𝑂2 + 𝑇1 𝐷2
⇒ (𝐷𝐸 + 𝐸𝑂)2 = 𝑇1 𝑂2 + 𝑇1 𝐷2
⇒ (𝑂𝑥 + 𝑅)2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑂𝑥 = √(𝑅2 + 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑅 … ..(exact)
Approximately,
𝑥2
𝑂𝑥 =
2𝑅
(iv) Perpendicular offsets method

Let, DE = Ox = Offset perpendicular to tangent.

Draw EE1 parallel to tangent. From Triangle EE1O, we have
𝐸1 𝑂2 = 𝐸𝑂2 − 𝐸1 𝐸 2
⇒ (𝑇1 𝑂 − 𝑇1 𝐸1 )2 = 𝐸𝑂2 − 𝐸1 𝐸 2
⇒ (𝑅 − 𝑂𝑥 )2 = 𝑅2 − 𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑂𝑥 = 𝑅 − √(𝑅2 − 𝑥 2 ) ….. (exact)
Approximately,
𝑥2
𝑂𝑥 =
2𝑅

8
byjusexamprep.com

(v) Offsets from the chord produced

This method is very useful for long curves generally used on highway curves when theodolite
is not available.

Since T1V is the tangent to the circle at T1

∠𝑇1 𝑂𝐴 = 2∠𝐴1 𝑇1 𝐴 = 2𝛿

𝑇1 𝐴 = 𝑅 × 2𝛿
𝑇1 𝐴
⟹𝛿=
2𝑅
Now,

𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝐴1 𝐴 = 𝑂1 = 𝑇1 𝐴 × 𝛿

Substituting the value of 𝛿, we get

𝑇1 𝐴2
𝐴1 𝐴 =
2𝑅
Taking Arc T1A = chord T1A, we get

𝐶12
𝑂1 =
2𝑅
In the similar manner, all other offsets can be obtained. They will be given as
𝐶2
𝑂2 = (𝐶 + 𝐶2 )
2𝑅 1
𝐶𝑛
𝑂𝑛 = (𝐶 + 𝐶𝑛 )
2𝑅 𝑛−1
Example:Two tangents intersect at chainage 50.60 (50 chains and 60 links), the deflection
angle being 61°. Calculate the necessary data for setting out a circular highway curve of 20
chains radius to connect the two tangents by the method of offsets from chords. Take peg
interval equal to 100 links with length of the chain being 20 meters (100 links)

9
byjusexamprep.com

Sol. Given,

Deflection angle = 61°

1 chain length = 20 metres (100 links)

Chainage of point of intersection (P.I)= 50 chains and 60 links

Radius of curve = 20 chain = 20 × 20 = 400 m

2R 2  400
Length of curve (L) = 61 =  61 = 425.86m
360 360

  61 
Tangent length, (T) = = R tan = 400 tan   = 235.62 m
2  2 

Chainage of P. 1 = 50 chains + 60 links

20
= (50 × 20 + × 60) m
100
= 1012 m

Chainage of PC = Chainage of (P. I) − Tangent length (T)

= (1012 − 235.62)m
= 776.38 m

Chainage of P. T = Chainage of (P. C) + Length of curve (L)

= (776.38 + 425.86)m
= 1202.24 m

The length of first sub-chord is selected in such a way that the chainage of each peg become
multiple of 20 metres.

10
byjusexamprep.com

∴ Chainage of first peg = 780 m Length of first sub − chord = 780 − 776.38 = 3.62 m
∴ Length of last sub-chord = 1202.24 – 1200 = 2.24 m

1200−780
Number of chords in between these two sub chords = = = 21
20

Total number of chords = 21 + 2 = 23

We know that,

C21 (3.62)2
Length of first offset, O1 = = = 0.016m
2R 2×400

C2 (C1 +C2 ) 20(20+3.62)

Length of second offset, O2 = = = 0.591m
2R 2×400

Also, C2 = C3 = C4 = C5 = …….. C22 = C = 20m

C2 202
Length of immediate offset, O3 = O4 = O5 = ⋯ O22 = = 400 = 1m
R

𝐶23 ×(𝐶22 +𝐶23 )

Length of last offset (O23) = 2𝑅

Q1 = 0.016m (Chainage = 780 m)

Q2 = 0.059m (Chainage = 800 m)

Q3 = Q4 = …. Q22 = 1m (Chainage = 820m, 840m, ------ 1200m)

Q23 = 0.062m (chainage = 1202.24 m)

11
byjusexamprep.com

6.2 Angular Methods

These methods make use of angle measuring instruments such as theodolite with or

without use of distance measuring instruments. Following are the angular methods.

(i) Rankine Method of deflection Angles

A deflection angle at any point is the angle at P.C. between the back tangent and the
chord from P.C. to that point. Rankine method is based on the principle that the deflection
angle to any point on a circular curve is equal to one half the angle subtended by the arc
from P.C. to that point.
From the property of circle,
1
∠𝑉𝑇1 𝐴 = ∠𝑇 𝑂𝐴
2 1

⇒ ∠𝑇1 𝑂𝐴 = 2∠𝑉𝑇1 𝐴 = 2𝛿1

Now,

∠𝑇1 𝑂𝐴 180°
=
𝐶1 𝜋𝑅

180°𝐶1
∠𝑇1 𝑂𝐴 = 2𝛿1 =
𝜋𝑅
90°𝐶1
⇒ 𝛿1 =
𝜋𝑅
For the first chord T1A, the deflection angle = its tangential angle
Δ1 = δ1
For the second point B,
Δ2 = ∠𝑉𝑇1 𝐵 = ∠𝐴1 𝑇1 𝐴 + ∠𝐴𝑇1 𝐵
⇒ Δ2 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 = Δ1 + 𝛿2
Similarly,
Δ3 = Δ2 + 𝛿3
Δ𝑛 = Δ𝑛−1 + 𝛿𝑛

12
byjusexamprep.com

Example: Two tangents intersect at the chainage 1190m, the deflection angle being 36°.
Calculate all the data necessary for setting out a curve with a radius of 300m by deflection
angle method. The peg interval is 30m.

Sol.

Tangent length = 𝑅tan Δ/2 = tan 18∘ = 300tan 18∘ = 97.48 m

Chainage of 𝑇1 = 1190 − 97.48 = 1092.52 m
Chainage of 𝑇2 = 1092.52 + 1

𝜋𝑅Δ 𝜋𝑅
length of curve 𝐼 = = × 36∘
180 180∘
𝜋 × 300 × 36
= = 188.5 m
180

⇒ chainage of T2 = 1092.52 + 188.5 = 1281.02 m

Length 1st sub chord C1 = 1110 – 1092.52 = 17.48 m

Length of full chords. C2 = C3 = C4 = C5 = C6 = 30m

Length of last Sub chord = 1281.02 – 1260 = 21.02 m

Hence chord lengths are 17.48, 30, 30, 30, 30, 30, 21.02

Tangential angle are

1718.873
δ1 = C1 (minutes) = 100.153min
R

= 1°40’9.18’’

1718.873 30
δ2 = δ3 = δ4 = δ5 = δ6 = × = 2∘ 51′ 53.24∗
300 60

13
byjusexamprep.com

1718.873 21.02
𝛿7 = × = 2∘ 0′ 26.14∘
300 60

Deflection angles

Δ1 = δ1= 1°40’9.18°

Δ1 = δ1+ δ2 =1°40’9.18° + 2°51’ 53.24° = 4°32’2.42°

Similarly Δn = δn + Δn-1

∴ Δ3 = 7°23’55.66”

∴ Δ4 = 10°23’55.66”

∴ Δ5 = 13°7’42.14”

∴ Δ6 = 15°59’35.38”

∴ Δ7 = 18°0’00”

These are the required data for setting out the curve

Actual theodolite
Peg no. Chainage Chord length Tangential angle Deflection angle
setting to 2

1 1110.00 17.48 1°40’9.18” 1°49’9.18” 1°40’0”

2 1140 13m 2°51’53.24” 4.32’2.42” 4°32’0”
3 1170 30m 2°51’53.24” 7°23’55.66” 7°24’0”
4 1200 30m 2°51’53.24” 10°15’48.9” 10°15’40”
5 1230 30m 2°51’53.24” 13°15’42.14” 13°7’40”
6 1260 30m 2°51’53.24” 15°59’35.38” 15°59’40”
7 1281.02 21.02m 2°0’26.14” 18°0’0” 18°0’0”

(ii) Two Theodolite Method

In this method two theodolite are used one at P.C. and other at P.T. This method is based on
the principle that the angle between the tangent and the chord is equal to the angle which the
chord subtends in the opposite segment.

14
byjusexamprep.com

∠𝑉𝑇1 𝐴 = Δ1 = Deflection angle for A

But ∠𝐴𝑇2 𝑇1 is the angle subtended by the chord T1A in the opposite segment.
∠𝐴𝑇2 𝑇1 = ∠𝑉𝑇1 𝐴 = Δ1
Similarly,
∠𝑉𝑇1 𝐵 = ∠𝑇1 𝑇2 𝐵 = Δ2
(iii) Tacheometric Method

In this method, a point on the curve is fixed by the deflection angle from the rear tangent and
measuring tacheometrically, the distance of that point from T1.
𝑇1 𝐴 = 𝐿1 = 2𝑅 sin Δ1
𝑇1 𝐵 = 𝐿2 = 2𝑅 sin Δ2
Δ
𝑇1 𝑇2 = 𝐿𝑛 = 2𝑅 sin Δ𝑛 = 2𝑅 sin =𝐿
2
Knowing the lengths, staff intercepts can be calculated.
Example
Two straights AB and BC meet in an inaccessible point B and are to be connected by a simple
curve of 600 m radius. Two point P and 0 wore following data were obtained.

∠APQ = 150°: ∠CQP = 160°: PQ = 150.0m

Make the necessary calculations for setting out the curve by the method of tangential angles.
given that the chainage of P = 1600.0 m. Take unit chord of 30 m length.
sol.

15
byjusexamprep.com

In △ PQB
From sine rule

150 PB
=
sin (130∘ ) sin 20∘
PB = 66.97 m
Chainage of B = 1600 + 66.97 = 1666.97 m
AB = Rtan Δ/2 = Rtan 25∘ = 279.78 m

Chainage of point A = 1666.97 − 279.78 = 1387.18 m

πRΔ
Length of curve = = 523.6
180

Changing of C = 1387.18 + 523.6 = 1910.78 m

1st Sub chord length = 1410 − 1387.18 = 22.82 m Last Sub chord length = 1910.78 − 1890 =
20.78 m Length of full chord = 30 m Hence chord lengths and tangential angles are

180
C1 = 22.82 δ1 = × 22.82 = 1∘ 5′ 22.47′′
2πR
180
r2 = 30 m δ2 = × 30 = 1∘ 25′ 56.62′′
2πR

𝐶3 = 30m𝛿3 = 1∘ 25′ 56.62′′

𝐶4 = 30m𝛿4 = 1∘ 25′ 56.62′′

C5 = 30m𝛿5 = 1∘ 25′ 56.62′′

: :

𝐶17 = 30m 𝛿17 = 1∘ 25′ 56.62′′

𝐶18 = 20.78m 𝛿18 = 0∘ 59′ 31.82′′

7. TRANSITION CURVE

• When a vehicle moves on a curve, a centrifugal force acts on it. Thus, sudden transition

from a straight path to a circular curve of radius R will introduce the centrifugal force

suddenly. Hence a sudden lateral shock will be felt by the passengers.

• To avoid this we introduce a curve of varying radius between straight path circular curve

such that the radius changes from infinity (i.e., straight line) to a radius R of circular curve.

• Thus curve of varying radius is called transition curve.

16
byjusexamprep.com

8. SUPER ELEVATION

• When a vehicle, moves along a curve,it is acted upon by a centrifugal force which acts in
horizontal direction radially outward. It has a tendency to push the vehicle off the road or
track in the outward direction.
• To counteract this tendency. The outer edge of the road or the outer rail of the track is
raised above the inner one such that resultant force becomes normal to the road surface or
rails for a given speed.
• Super elevation 9or cant) is the vertical distance by which the outer end is raised above the
inner end.

For resultant force to be normal to the road surface

pcos α = ωsin α
mV2
P V2
⇒ tan α = = R =
ω mg gR

V2
tan α =
gR

𝐞 = 𝐺sin 𝛼

[where 𝐺 = width of road or gauge of railway track]

for small values of 𝛼

sin 𝛼 = tan 𝛼

17
byjusexamprep.com

V2
⇒ e = Gtan 𝛼 = ⋅G
gR
GV2
⇒ Super elevation =
gR

Superelevation cannot be as high as possible because for high superelevation, movement of

light vehicle in the presence of cross wind may lead to toppling of vehicle.

In such cases either large radius is used or if it is not possible due to lack of availability of
land the velocity of movement is restricted.

9. MAXIMUM CENTRIFUGAL RATIO

To avoid inconvenience to slow-moving vehicles on curves, the maximum value of the

centrifugal ratio is generally specified as ¼ for roads and as 1/8 for railway tracks.

P v2
Centrifugal ratio = =
W gR

For Roads

v2 1
=
gR 4

𝑔𝑅
𝑣=√ (𝑚/𝑠)
4

For railways

𝑣2 1
=
𝑔𝑅 8

𝑔𝑅
𝑣=√
8

The above equations given the maximum speed v for the vehicles to pass safely over a curve
with a given radius R.

10. EFFECT OF FRICTION ON SUPER-ELEVATION OF HIGHWAYS

• The friction between the tyre of the vehicle and the road surface plays an important role in
the design the super-elevation of highways.
• The amount of super-elevation can be reduced because some sideways grip always exists
between the tyre and the road surface. The frictional force acts parallel to the pavement of
the highway.

18
byjusexamprep.com

N = wcosα + P sinα

⇒ Ff = μN = μ(wcosα + P sinα)

Also Pcosα = wsinα + Ff

P cosα = wsinα + Ff

P cosα – wsinα = w(μ cosα + P sinα)

P mv2 /R V2 μcos α+sin α

⇒ = = =
w mg gR cos α−μsin α

V 2 μcos α + sin α μ + tan α

⇒ = =
gR cos α − μsin α 1 − μtan α

𝑉2 𝜇 + tan 𝛼
=
𝑔𝑅 1 − 𝜇tan 𝛼

This formula can be used to find out superelevation. As the value of μ tan α is very small.

v2
We can write. μ + tan α =
2R

For safe design of highway

V2
μ + tan α ≥
gR

11. DERIVATION OF TRANSITION CURVE EQUATION

• P should increase uniformly with distance l from the the beginning of the transition curve:
that is P ∝ l.
• At the point where the radius of the transition curve = r.
wV 2
P=
gr

1
Therefore P ∝ for constant velocity
r

1
Hence, l ∝ because P ∝ l.
r

19
byjusexamprep.com

• Therefore lr = K (where K is some constant), and if the transition curve has a length L and
the radius of the circular curve is R.
LR =K
or lr = Constant represent a curve called clothoid, the glover spiral or the Euler spiral. This
curve is the ideal transition curve.

12. LENGTH OF TRANSITION CURVE

The length of transition curve may be taken

• Such that the super-elevation is applied at a uniform rate, say 0.1 percent
• Such that the rate of change of a radial acceleration equals a certain chosen value.

Hence, if the time taken to travel along transition curve is t seconds:

L
t=
V

Let rate of change of radial acceleration = α

V2 /R V3
then α = =
L/V LR

V3
and L =
Rα

13. EQUATION OF IDEAL TRANSITION CURVE IN CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATE

1. Cubic Spiral

L3
y=
6RL
where

L = length of transition curve

R = radius of circular curve or radius of curve at the end of transition curve of length L.

2. Cubic Parabola

𝑥3
𝑦=
6𝑅𝐿
• This is also called Froude’s transition curve
• Cubic spiral is superior to cubic parabola as it represents the true transition curve more
closely.

20
byjusexamprep.com

• However cubic parabola can be set out more conveniently then a cubic spiral from the
cartesian co-ordinate. There fore.
• Cubic Parabola is more commonly used in practice as a transition curve.
• However with electronic total station even cubic spirals or clothoid can now be easily set out
and hence nowadays there is no justification for use a cubic parabola.
• For deviation angle upto 12∘ there is not much difference between a cubic parabola and a
clothoid.
• In no case, a cubic parabola shall be used for the value of 𝜙 greater than 24∘ 541′′ as it will
not serve the required purpose of a gradual decrease in radius with an increase in length I

14. INSERTION OF TRANSITION CURVE

• When transition curves are introduced between the tangents and a circular curve of radius
R, the circular curve is ‘shifted’ inwards from its original position by an amount AB = S (the
shift) as shown in the above figure such that the curves can meet tangentially.

• This is equivalent to have a circular curve of radius (𝑅 + 𝑆) connecting the tangents replaced
by two transition curves and a circular curve of radius 𝑅, although the tangent points are
not the same, being 𝐴 and 𝐵.

L2 L
The amount of shift S = and TC = CD =
24R 2

Setting out transition Curve

To locate the tangent point T:

1. Calculate the shift S from the expression below.

L2
S=
24R
Δ
2. Calculate VA = (R+S) tan
2

L
3. Since TA =
2

Δ L
Then VT = (R+S) tan +
2 2

21
byjusexamprep.com

Measure this length back from V and mark/set the pint T.

The next step depends on whether it is intended to set out the transition with tapes using the
cubic spiral or cubic parabola, or by the theodolite using the cubic spiral.

4. Either calculate offsets from

l3 y3
𝑥= or x =
6LR 6LR

Each peg is located by swinging a chord length from the preceding peg.

15. BERNOULLI’S LEMNISCATE

• A Bernoulli’s lemniscate is a special type of transition curve used in modern highways. It is

specially suited when the angle of deflection between the two tangents is large.
• In such a case; the super-elevation continuously increases till the apex is reached and then
it decreases. This is objectionable in railways but on highways, there is no problem.
• A Bernoulli’s lemniscate is preferred over a spiral curve in case of highways because of the
following reasons:
1. The shape of the lemniscate corresponds to the actual path traced by a vehicle when turning
freely on the-curve. i.e., autogenous curve
2. The rate of change of curvature is less than that of a spiral curve.
3. The rate of increase of curvature decreases near the junction with the circular curve.
• Therefore, for the curve to be transitional throughout, the maximum polar deflection (α n)
must be equal to one-sixth of the deflection angle I of the curve.

16. VERTICAL CURVE

• A curve used to connect two different grade lines of railways or highways is called a vertical
curve. A vertical curve may be circular or parabolic. The Parabolic Vertical Curve is preferred
more and invariably used because of the following reasons.

22
byjusexamprep.com

1. It is flatter at the top and provides a longer sight distance. Greater the sight distance.
Lesser is the possibility of any accident.
2. Rate of change of grade is uniform throughout and therefore produces best riding
qualities.
3. It has simplicity in computation work.

The general equation of a parabolic curve with a vertical axis is given as

y = ax2 + bx + a …(1)

At x = 0, y = a

dy
= 2ax + b …(2)
dx

At x = 0

dy
=b=g
dx 1

Equation (2) gives the slope of the curve at any point on it. Now.

2
d y
2
= 2a …(3)
dx

From the equation (3) we can observe that the rate of change of gradient is uniform thoughout,
and therefore produces a smooth riding condition.

16.1. Types of Vertical Curve

• Basically there are two types of vertical curves

1. Summit curve
2. Sag curve

Summit Curve

It is provided in one of the following three cases.

(a) When a upgrade is followed by a downgrade.

(b) When a steeper upgrade is following by a milder upgrade.
(c) When a milder downgrade is followed by a steeper downgrade.

23
byjusexamprep.com

Sag Curve

It is provided in one of the following three cases.

(a) When a downgrade is followed by an upgrade.

(b) When a steeper downgrade is following by a milder downgrade.
(c) When a milder upgrade is followed by a steeper upgrade.

Total Change of Grade

• The total change of grade is the algebraic difference of two grades. Example, if
(+g1%) (upgrade) is followed by (- g2%) (downgrade) then the total change of grade
is [-g1 –(g2)]% = (g1 + g2)%.
• If (-g1%) grade is followed (+g2%) grade then total change of grade is [-g1-(+g2)]%
= - (g1+g2)%.

16.2. Length of Vertical Curve

The length of a vertical curve is determined by the permissible rate of change of grade
such that

total change of grade

Length of curve =
permissible rate of change grade

16.3. Setting out a Vertical Curve

Length of the vertical curve is determined, and chainage of T1 and T2 is found out. In this
case

𝑔1
𝑅. 𝐿. 𝑜𝑓𝑇1 = 𝑅. 𝐿. 𝑜𝑓𝐼 − 𝑙
100
𝑔2
𝑅. 𝐿. 𝑜𝑓𝑇2 = 𝑅. 𝐿. 𝑜𝑓𝐼 − 𝑙
100

1
R.L.of H = (R.L.of T + R.L.of T )
2 1 2

∴ lH = R.L. of l – R.L. of H

1
lM = lH
2

24
byjusexamprep.com

For the calculations of offsets to the curve, y1, y2, y3 etc. by the offset at distances x1, x2, x3, etc., such
that

2
y x
1 1
= 2
lM l

2
x 
y =  1  lM
1  1 
 

2
x 
and y2 =  1  lM
 1 
 

In a similar way y3, y4 ….. yn can be calculated

Calculation of R.L. along the tangent

g
1
R.L. of point a = R.L. OF T1 + x
100 1

g
1
R.L. of point a = R.L. OF T1 + x
100 2

Calculation of R.L. along the curve

at a = R.L. of a – y1

at a = R.L. of a – y2

All the offsets are thus calculated and R.L. of the points on the curve are set out.

Note

In case of a sag curve, the offsets are added to the R.L. of the points on the tangent to get the R.L. of
the points on the curve.

Example. A vertical parabolic curve is to be used under a grade separation structure.

The minus grade left to right is 4%, and the plus grade is 3%. The intersections of two
grades is at 435 m and at an elevation of 251. 48m. The curve passes through its fixed
point at a chainage of 460 m and R.L. of 260m. Find the length of curve.

State the criteria which should be considered in setting minimum length of sag vertical
curve on highways.

So, given

Minus grade = 4%

25
byjusexamprep.com

Plus grade = 3%

Let,

• P be the point of intersection of two grades.

• Z be the reference point from which chainage is taken.
• A and B be the starting and end point of curve respectively.
• C be the fixed point through which curve passes
• O be the origin
• ‘l’ be the length of curve upto mid-point.

Given,

Chainage of P = 435m

R.L of P = 251.48m

Chainage of C = 460m

R.L of C = 260m

Let us assume that equation of parabolic curve is

y = ax2 + bx + c …(i)

dy
⇒ = 2ax + b
dx

dy −4
At x = 0; = [because minus grade is 4%]
dx 100

−4
∴ = 2a  0 + b
100

∴ b = -0.04

26
byjusexamprep.com

 4 
∵ grade is 4%, therefore point A is   l  m above origin
 100 

4l
⇒ y – coordinate of A =
100

x – coordinate of A = 0

Putting in equation – (i), we get

4l 4l
=0+0+cc =
100 100

3l
Similar, y-coordinate of B =
100

x-coordinate of B = 2l

Putting in equation (i), we get

3l 2 4l
= a  (2l ) + (−0.04) (2l ) +
100 100

3l
⇒ = 4l − 0.04l
100

0.07
⇒a =
4l

Putting value of a,b,c in equation (i), we get

0.07 2
𝑦=( ) 𝑥 − 0.04𝑥 + 0.04𝑙
4𝑙

Now, point 𝐶 also lies on the curve

𝑥 co − ordinates of 𝐶 = 𝑙 + (460 − 435) = 𝑙 + 25

𝑦 − coordinate of 𝐶 = 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐿 of 𝐶 − 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐿 of 𝑃

= 260 − 251.48
= 8.52
Putting these values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates of 𝐶 in equation (ii), we get

𝑙 = 492.73
∴ Length of curve = 2𝑙 = 2 × 492.73
= 985.46 m
Criteria which should be considered in setting minimum length of sag vertical curve are-

27
byjusexamprep.com

• The length of sag-vertical curve is designed in such a way that impact-free movement
of vehicle is achieved.

• During night, in order to avoid accident, head-light sight distance available must be
greater than or equal to stopping sight distance.

Example: Two straight AB and BC falling to the right at gradients 12% and 6%
respectively, are to be connected by a vertical parabolic curve of length 240m. Chainage
and reduced level of point B are 3000 m and 60.00m respectively. Calculate the chainage
and reduced level of the first three and last three points of the curve by correction
method. Taking peg interval as 20m.

•
• Given: Chainage of B = 3000 m
• Reduced level of B = 60 m
Length of curve = 240 m
•
Peg interval = 20 m
240
Total number of station = = 12
20
12
Number of each on eachside of apex, 𝑛 = =6
2

• Chainage of 𝐴 = 3000 − 6 × 20 = 2880 m

Chainage of 𝐶 = 3000 + 6 × 20 = 3120 m
12
Reduced level of 𝐴 = 60 + × (6 × 20) = 74.4 m
100
6
Reduced level of 𝐶 = 60 − × 6 × 20 = 52.8 m
100
g1 −12
e1 per chord length of 20 m = × 20 = × 20 = −2.4
100 100
g2 −6
e2 per chord length of 20 m = × 20 = × 20 = −1.2
100 100
𝑒1 − e2 −2.4 + 1.2
C= = = −0.05
4𝑛 4 × 16
• Tangent correction = - N2C
• When N is peg number from A
• Calculation of chainage and reduced level:

28
byjusexamprep.com

Point Chainage N Elevation on Tangent correction Reduced level of point

(m) tangent (EA+Ne1) (-N2C) on curve

A 2880 0 74.4 0 74.40

P1 2900 1 72 +0.05 72.05
P2 2920 2 69.6 0.2 69.80
P10 3080 10 50.4 5 55.40
P11 3100 11 48.0 6.05 54.05
P12 (or C) 3120 12 45.6 7.2 52.80

****

29