Customs of Marriage Edited
Customs of Marriage Edited
It has been observed that with the passage of time, some of the customs prevalent in Munda
tribe during ancient time have been modified and it has happened mainly due to
Sanskritization that is to say, they have imitated few customs of their Hindu neighbours.
During earlier times, young boys and girls of this tribe had more freedom in choosing their
partners and they could easily choose their partners from amongst members of marriageable
tribes and septs by their own however, gradually this practice almost disappeared and in
today’s time it is mostly seen that the selection is made either by the father or any other
guardian of the girl or the boy as the case may be.1
AGE OF MARRIAGE
Child marriage is condemned in this tribe and in earlier times there used to be a custom
wherein no young boy belonging to Munda tribe could marry before he was able to build a
plough with his own hands whereas a Munda girl would become eligible to get married only
if she could weave mats with palm leaves, spin cotton and capable of working in the field. 2
These practices show that for a person to be eligible to get married should have some level of
physical and mental maturity, thus, establishing the fact that child marriage was not practiced
in this tribe. The adult marriage is a rule and the age of marriage in Munda tribe is minimum
nineteen years for boys and sixteen years for girls.3
RESTRICTIONS IN MARRIAGE
The Munda tribe practice monogamy as a rule and bigamy as an exception however,
polygamy is never permitted. Marriage between parallel cousins and cross-cousins is not
permitted. Marriage within milk-kinship is also prohibited.
1
S.C. Roy, The Mundas and Their Country 304 (Crown Publications, Ranchi, 2022).
2
J.P. Gupta, The Customary Laws of the Munda & the Oraon 157 (Director, Jharkhand Tribal Welfare Research
Institute, Ranchi, 2002).
3
J.P. Gupta, The Customary Laws of the Munda & the Oraon 161 (Director, Jharkhand Tribal Welfare Research
Institute, Ranchi, 2002).
REMARRIAGE
General practice is that a person belonging to Munda tribe can marry only once and bigamy is
normally not practiced in this tribe. However, a widower may marry again but only to a:
I. Widow or,
II. Divorced woman or,
III. Deserted woman or,
IV. Woman whose husband has left the country and has not been heard of or years.
However, in the case of a deserted wife, the former husband must be asked first whether or
not he is willing to take his wife back before marrying the second husband. Where wife
herself has deserted and she is unwilling to return to her husband then the bride price paid by
the husband must be paid back to him before she marries to another man. 4 If a bachelor tribal
wants to marry a widow from his tribe then he will first have to perform a mock marriage
with a lota i.e. brass jar or a flower and then only he can marry a widow as his second wife.5
Sangai or Remarriage:
Marriage between a widow and a widower in Mundas is performed in a less elaborate form in
which case the detailed ceremonies are not required and ceremony performed is called sangai
or sagai.6 By the second marriage a widow severs her relationship with the family of her
former husband unless the second husband be a younger brother of the former husband. The
marriage of a widow or widower can only be celebrated in the sagai form.
The ceremonies required for the ‘arandi’ or marriage are not need to be gone through. A
small bride-price of five rupees or so is paid and a cloth with vermilion presented to the
bride; the bridegroom also anoints vermilion on the parting of the bride’s hair.
In this form of marriage, the bridegroom goes with some of his relatives to the bride’s house,
the party is feasted, and the bride is taken home by the bridegroom. In some localities bride
and bridegroom just put ‘sindur’ marks on each other’s forehead and in other localities this
ceremony too is omitted. In some places, ‘sindur’ marks are put on a sal-leaf instead of on
4
J.P. Gupta, The Customary Laws of the Munda & the Oraon 162 (Director, Jharkhand Tribal Welfare Research
Institute, Ranchi, 2002).
5
J.P. Gupta, The Customary Laws of the Munda & the Oraon 162 (Director, Jharkhand Tribal Welfare Research
Institute, Ranchi, 2002).
6
S.C. Roy, The Mundas and Their Country 318 (Crown Publications, Ranchi, 2022).
the forehead. But if the bride is a maiden, she will put sindur marks on the forehead of the
widower- bridegroom.7
7
J.P. Gupta, The Customary Laws of the Munda & the Oraon 163 (Director, Jharkhand Tribal Welfare Research
Institute, Ranchi, 2002).
RITUALS OF MARRIAGE
CHENRE-URI-KO or ERE-URI-KO
Literal meaning of word chenre in Mundari language is bird, uri is a particular specie of a
bird and ere means an omen. Eventhough selection of suitable match is done by the father or
the guardian and generally boy’s approval is also sought but the ultimate selection is done
based on omens called chenre-uri-ko or, ere-uri-ko.
In Chenre-uri, Munda father who is looking for a suitable match for his son sends a
middleman called dutam or, agia to the girl’s guardian and if the girl’s guardian thinks that
proposed match to be suitable then he is supposed to choose a day for chenre-uri. On that
chosen day, the agia, and the guardian of the proposed groom with two or three relatives and
the groom (if especially requested by the girl’s guardian) will proceed for the girl’s village.
On their journey, if they come across any bad omen the journey will be ended and they will
return but if they do not encounter any bad omen, they will keep proceeding to the bride’s
village. Upon boy’s party’s arrival at girl’s home they will take their seats on the mats in the
courtyard (known as aangan) of the house and then the agia of the boy’s side will tell the
agia of the girl’s side the omens they noticed on their way to the girl’s village and if the agia
of the girl’s side declares that no unfavourable omens were encountered then only the rituals
will be proceeded further. Then, the women of the bride’s house wash the feet of persons
arrived and the local rice beer haria served followed by a meal of boiled rice and boiled
pulse. Thereupon, boy’s guardian invites girl’s family to visit their house on a specific date.
Then on that specified date, girl’s guardian with agia and other relatives starts the journey to
the boy’s village while marking every omen on their way and if any bad omen is encountered
then everyone will return except the agia whose duty will be to convey the boy’s family
about the unfavourable omen and the negotiations will end then and there. However, if the
girl’s party do not encounter any bad omen then they will proceed to the boy’s house and
upon reaching same rituals will be performed as performed at the girl’s place. But before
consuming the rice beer, a relative of the bride will pour haria in a leaf cup and he will
deliver a speech declaring that the omens were favourable and that the father of the intended
bride and the father of the intended groom will be united as members of one family and then
the guests can have their rice beer and meal consisting of boiled rice, dal and mutton. 8
BALA or ENGAGEMENT:
8
J.P. Gupta, The Customary Laws of the Munda & the Oraon 159 (Director, Jharkhand Tribal Welfare Research
Institute, Ranchi, 2002).
Engagement ceremony in Munda tribe is called as bala. On a fixed day, bride’s relatives will
arrive at groom’s house and upon their arrival their feet will be washed by young men called
kata abungnis, then the goats are ceremonially killed in their honour and rice beer is freely
distributed.
One of the major rituals performed during bala ceremony is that of deciding the bride’s price.
The payment of bride price in Munda tribe is a rule, however marriage by service is also
permitted where bride price is not paid and the prospective groom serves the family of his
father-in-law for a few years.9
Though the bride price is decided at the time of bala ceremony but the bride price is
presented later. The ceremony of carrying or presentation of bride price is known as
Gonongtaka-Idituka.
Fixing of Bride Price: For deciding bride’s price during bala, demand and acceptance are
signified through symbols by girl’s guardian and boy’s guardian respectively. Bride’s
guardian signifies the demand through symbols by sending a number of clay marbles through
dutam to groom’s house wherein the marbles signify the number of rupees wanted; also, a
number of sal leaves are sent each rolled up and tied round with a coloured thread signifying
the demand for the sarees for women relatives of the bride. Then the groom’s guardian
signifies his acceptance by keeping a certain number of marbles and the rolled leaves
implying that he agrees to give the number of items he has accepted and returning the rest
which he is agreeing to give. Then the bride’s guardian and the groom’s embrace each other
and the finality to this reunion is given when the munda or pahan (priest) of the bride’s
village shakes his hand with munda or pahan (priest) of the groom’s village.
The final ritual done in the bala ceremony is that the groom sits on the knees of the bride’s
maternal uncle or in his absence on the knees of the pahan or munda of the bride’s village
and the bride’s guardian gifts him a new piece of cloth and a bead-necklace. Lastly, the feast
is organized and guests depart.10
9
J.P. Gupta, The Customary Laws of the Munda & the Oraon 161 (Director, Jharkhand Tribal Welfare Research
Institute, Ranchi, 2002).
10
J.P. Gupta, The Customary Laws of the Munda & the Oraon 159 (Director, Jharkhand Tribal Welfare Research
Institute, Ranchi, 2002).
Presentation of Bride Price: On an already fixed day, father and the relatives of groom visits
bride’s home for presenting gonongtuka-idituka. Upon their arrival, their feet is washed and
the boy’s guardian gives gonong-taka to the dutam of girl’s side who hands over that money
to the bride’s guardian.
If the marriage and the engagement ceremony take place in the same year then the
gonongtuka-idituka and the ceremony of logon-tol takes place on the same day and few
additional ceremonies are also performed. For deciding an auspicious day for marriage in
Mundas, two sal patris i.e. circular plates made by stitching two sal leaves are placed on a
mat in the courtyard and the maternal uncle of the groom and pahan of the groom’s village sit
on those sal patris. Then the to-be bride along with her girl-friend (known as lukundi) are
made to sit respectively on the knees of boy’s maternal uncle and the pahan of the boy’s
village. Then the to-be bride takes out some rice, turmeric and few betel-nuts thrice from a
plate kept before her and transfers it to a new piece of cloth spread over the palm of her
another hand. Then, the logon that is to say, a suitable date for marriage is given by the bride
by handing over that piece of cloth with rice, turmeric and betel-nuts to the maternal uncle of
her to-be husband.
Lastly, again the guests are served rice beer and goat-flesh curry and return back.
Arandi is the main marriage ceremony in which numerous other ceremonies are performed as
well.
Sasang-goso:-
A few days before the marriage a rectangular mud-pulpit called ‘Manoda’ is raised on
the court-yard of the house of the bridegroom as well as of the bride. On each of the
four corners of this ‘Mandoa’, a Bheloa sapling, a thin bamboo sapling, and a thin sal
sapling, are planted together and all painted with rice-flour dissolved in water, and
encircled with a cotton-thread. From the third day before the wedding, every evening
the bride and bridegroom sits down for a while on the Mandoa at their respective
houses, and are there anointed with mustard-oil mixed with turmeric juice (berel-
sasang) by some female relative.11
11
S.C. Roy, The Mundas and Their Country 310 (Crown Publications, Ranchi, 2022).
Cho or Chuman - On the evening preceding the wedding. day, a benedictory
ceremony called cho or chuman is performed at the bridegroom’s as well as at the
bride’s house. The bridegroom, puts on cloth dyed with turmeric- juice, and sits down
on the Mandoa, when his near female relatives, one after another, take up some arua
rice and young grass-blades from a plate or basket and with these in their folded
hands touch the feet, thighs, shoulder-joints, and, last of all, the cheeks, of the
bridegroom. Just after touching the cheeks of the bridegroom, each female relative
kissed (cho) her own hand. The chuman of the bride is similarly performed at her
father’s house.12
Groom’s Uli-sakhi :- Before the marriage-procession passes out of the bridegroom’s
village, it stops at the first mango (uli) tree on the way. Round the trunk of this tree
the bridegroom puts a mark of rice-flour dissolved in water, and ties up a thread. The
bridegroom’s mother then sits down under the tree with the bridegroom on her knees.
The mother asks his son- “Where are you going?” The son replies, “I am going to
bring some one who will take care of you and give you rice and vegetables.” The
bridegroom then puts into his own mouth mango-stalk and molasses. After chewing
the mango-stalks a little, he gives the chewings to his mother who gulps the whole
thing and blesses her boy. The bridegroom and his party including a number of female
relatives then start for the bride’s house. When the bridegroom can afford to go on a
chowdol or on a planquin, he always does so. Otherwise he is carried up to the limits
of his own village on the arms of his relatives, and again similarly carried from the
limits of the bride's village to the bride’s house.13
Daparom or Mergerai - When the procession approaches the bride’s village, the
relatives of the bride come out to welcome the bridegroom’s party, often with
musicians and paiki-dancers. Then the joint procession first walk round the boundary
of the village and finally proceed to the bride’s house.
‘Da-hirchi’ and ‘Chuman’ - When the bridegroom arrives at the courtyard of the
bride’s house, a number of female relatives come out to meet him, each carrying a
brass lota filled with water and a pestle (samat). Each of these women first sprinkles
water on the bridegroom with a mango twig, and then brandishes the pestle. Then the
mother of the bride and the other female relatives, one after another, perform the
benedictory ceremony of chuman of the bridegroom with arua-rice, grass-blades,
12
S.C. Roy, The Mundas and Their Country 310 (Crown Publications, Ranchi, 2022).
13
S.C. Roy, The Mundas and Their Country 311 (Crown Publications, Ranchi, 2022).
cowdung balls, rice-flour balls, and rice-flour bread. Finally, powdered turmeric is
smeared on the cheeks of the bridegroom. The bridegroom and his party are
accommodated in a temporary shed called ‘Jalom.’
Chauli Heper - Next morning, the bridegroom in his Palanquin from the Jalom to the
bride’s house. When the Palanquin arrives at the house, the bride is brought out into
the courtyard on a bamboo basket, and in it she is carried three times rounds
bridegroom’s Palanquin. The bridegroom then throws three handfuls of arua rice at
the forehead of the bride, and the bride next throws three handful of rice at the
forehead of the bridegroom. The Palanquin and the basket are then put down on the
ground, and bride bridegroom conducted into the house.
Bride’s Uli-Sakhi - The bride with a number of her female relatives next proceed on
the palanquin vacated by bridegroom, to a neighbouring mango tree (uli daru).
Arriving there, the bride puts a mark on the tree with moistened rice-flour and ties up
a thread around the tree. is thus made a witness (sakhi) to the marriage.
Sasang-gogo - A number of female relatives of bridegroom then come from their
quarters (jalom) to the house of the bride’s father, carrying a little turmeric and oil,
and with these anoint the bride. They then return to their quarters taking the
bridegroom with them. And now it is the turn of the female relatives of the bride to go
to the quarters of the bridegroom’s party and there anoint (goso) the bridegroom with
oil and turmeric (sasang). Before the bridegroom is thus anointed, he is shaved, and
during the shaving a little blood is scratched out of his little finger, and a small rag is
tinged with the blood. Likewise, before the Sasang-goso (anointing with turmeric) of
the bride, her nails are pared, and a little blood drawn out of her left little finger to dye
a small rag with. These two rags are called ‘sinais.’
Sinduri-Rakab - In the forenoon, the bride’s female relatives escort the bridegroom to
the house of the bride’s father. And the actual marriage ceremony is then performed.
The bride and bridegroom are carried on the arms of the relatives three times round
the ‘Mandoa’ or marriage-pulpit in the courtyard. And now both bride and
bridegroom a are made to stand each upon a Sal-patri in the middle of the Mandoa,
the former with her face to the east, and the latter with his face to the west. In this
position, the bridegroom presses the toes of the bride’s right foot with the toes of his
own left foot, and touches first his own neck with his ‘sinai’ (rag tinged with the
blood of his little finger) and then the bride’s neck with it and repeats the process
twice. Then the bride and bridegroom change places, and the bride similarly, three
times, touches first her own neck with her ‘sinai’. Then they to their former places on
the Sal-patris, the bride and bridegroom exchange garlands made of gulaichi flowers,
and each puts three vermilion marks first on his or her own forehead and then on the
other’s forehead. Their garments are now knotted together and both enter the house
walking one behind the other. Before they get admittance into the house, the
bridegroom has to pay a small sum to the bride’s elder sister or other female relative
who by way of joke bars the door against them. Now the bride and bridegroom sit
down on a new mat and are treated to a dish of chiura (parched rice), gur (molasses),
milk or curd (dahi) with other delicacies.
‘Da-au’ and ‘Tuing Etel’- In this ceremony, four unmarried Munda girls, two from the
bridegroom’s party and two from the bride's side, each with an earthen pitcher on her
head, now proceed to a neighbouring tank, spring or river. They are accompanied by a
band of Ghasi musicians, and by two elderly Munda women one of whom carries an
sword in her hand and the other a bow and arow. Other female relatives and friends
accompany the party. Now the party move in a procession towards the house of the
bride's father, the four maidens carrying the pitchers on their heads, the woman with
the sword brandishing and whirling her weapon all the way and the other women
excitedly mimicking her with their hands, and the musicians playing on their drums
and flutes.
‘Dul-da’ - When this procession reaches the house of the bride’s father, the bride and
bridegroom change their garments and are led out into the courtyard and seated each
on a yoke covered over with straw. These yokes are placed on one side of the
courtyard. There the bride and bride-groom anoint each other with oil and turmeric.
And then the water brought in the pitchers by the four maidens, is poured over the
young couple. While being bathed in this manner, the bride and bridegroom each
conceals a tiny earthen vessel (chuka) in the ground for the other to find out. Finally,
they put on their yellow clothes again, and once more daub each other’s forehead with
‘sindur’.
Bor-agia - The young couple now walk back into the house, and there sit down on a
mat. A goat is then brought before them. Ceremonial ‘agia’ water is given to the
bridegroom and a sword put into his hands. With this sword, he kills the goat on the
courtyard. His feet are now washed, and he resumes his seat on the mat.
Samdi-bhet - The bride’s parents and near relatives accompanied by musicians next
proceed with a jar of rice-beer to the jalom or quarters of bridegroom’s party where
another jar of rice-beer has been kept ready for the occasion. After ceremonial johar
(salutations) the guardians of bride and the bridegroom’s drink rice-beer from one and
the same cup, and so also do the mothers of the bridegroom and of the bride drink out
of one and the same cup. Then all the guests drink rice-beer. Then the everybody
dances. Finally, the bridegroom’s father hugs the bride’s father, and the bridegroom’s
mother similarly embraces the bride’s mother. This is called the ‘haparup johar.’ Then
all the persons of one party individually salute the persons on the other side, and the
bride’s relatives return to the house of the bride’s father.
Kata-abung: The bride and bridegroom now wash the feet of the male as well as the
female relatives of the bride. The relatives thus honoured put down on a brass-plate
some presents, generally in cash for the wedded pair.
Then, the bride feast is organized in which rice, pulse, vegetables, and meat are served
to bride’s relatives on plates and cups made of sal-leaves the the bridegroom places a
small sal-leaf by the side of the rice-plate of each guest and the bride puts a pinch of
salt on it and on each of the sal-leaf-cups The bride and bridegroom finally take their
seats by the side of the Manki or the Munda of the Pahan of the village,and wash his
hands and put a pinch of salt into one of the leaf-cups in which vegetable- curry or
meat has been served to him.
Baba-hertukam: Before the ‘bida’ or departure of the bridegroom and his party with
the bride, the bride’s mother sits down on the threshold of her house, and the bride is
seated before her with her back to her mother. A female relative now brings her some
paddy on a ‘sup’ or winnower, and the bride takes up three successive handfuls of
paddy in the palms of her hands joined together, and throws the paddy behind her,
over her own head.
Jimma: The final ceremony of making over the bride is significant. In the presence of
the assembled village-elders (Pancho- ko), either the Munda or the Pahan of the
village of the bride’s father makes over charge of the bride to the father or other
guardian of the bride.
Ceremonies at the Groom’s House: Upon bride and groom’s arrival at groom’s house,
chuman ceremony is performed the way it was performed at bride’s house upon
groom’s arrival. Then both bride and groom are carried three times around the
mandoa i.e. pulpit in the courtyard in which groom is taken from right to left and
bride taken round from left to right. Then, both of them stand on the mandoa and put
vermillion on each other’s forehead. Next, the Dul-da ceremony is performed again.
And lastly dinner is served to groom’s relatives to whom bride and groom serve salt
and wash the hands of the pahan of the groom’s village.14
And thus, after performing all the aforementioned rituals the marriage in the Munda tribe
is considered to be concluded.
14
J.P. Gupta, The Customary Laws of the Munda & the Oraon 160 (Director, Jharkhand Tribal Welfare Research
Institute, Ranchi, 2002).
DISSOLUTION OF MARRIAGE: DIVORCE
When a Munda wife refuses to live with her husband or the husband refuses to keep or
support her, a Panchayat is convened, three of the members being selected by the party
wishing to snap the marriage-tie, and two by the party who wishes the marriage to continue.
The Balapanch or the Panch i.e elders of the villages involved, decides whether the
brideprice should be returned, and where any children of the marriage should live. The
ending of the marriage is then symbolized by the public tearing in half of a mango or sal leaf
which reverses the tie represented in the marriage ceremony by the tying of mango/sal leaves
on the couple. They are then free to remarry as if they had been widowed, and no stigma is
attached to either party. This ceremony is known as the ‘Sakam-chari’. However, in some
places a piece of turmeric (sasang) is also similarly broken in two, and this ceremony is
known as the ‘Sasang-had’.
(1) that the wife is a landi or run-away, that is, she habitually runs away from her husband’s
place;
(2) that she is kuria or habitual idler and neglects her household duties, or cannot perform
them properly,
e.g. cannot climb trees to pluck edible leaves, etc. or cannot break clods of earth in the fields
or manure the soil;
(3) that she is a churni or thief who steals and sells grain, etc. from the house;
(4) that she possesses the evil eye (najar) or is a witch (dain);
(6) that she has brought sickness or misfortune and ill-luck to her husband's family;
15
J.P. Gupta, The Customary Laws of the Munda & the Oraon 162 (Director, Jharkhand Tribal Welfare Research
Institute, Ranchi, 2002).
(9) that either the husband or the wife has been converted to Christianity or any other
religion. Additionally, bad temper and frequent quarrels between husband and wife may also
justify divorce. No special ceremonies or formalities are required to effect a divorce.