ERDEM URAS

MODÜL 6 MALZEME VE DONANIM DERS NOTLARI (FATİH YURTSEVEN)

Presentation 6.1 Ferrous Metals

Tensile Strength or Tenacity describes the

ability of a material to resist breaking under a
tensile (stretching) force.

Compressive Strength is a measure of a

materials ability to withstand compressive or
squeezing loads without splitting or cracking.

Shear Strength is the ability to resist off-set

(scissor action) loads.

Toughness is the ability of a material to resist

fracture under impact load. It is the opposite
of brittleness and should not be confused
with strength.

Elasticity is the ability of a material to return

to its original shape after deformation. The
extension or compression of a spring is a
good example.
Plasticity is the opposite to elasticity and is
the ability of a material to retain any shape
imposed by a force when that force is
removed.
Ductility is the capacity of a material for
plastic deformation under tensile loading
without fracture.

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Malleability is the capacity of a material for

plastic deformation and forming under
compressive load without cracking.

Hardness The ability of a material to

withstand scratching, abrasion, indentation or
permanent distortion and wear.

Brittleness is the tendency of a material to

fracture when subjected to a shock loading or
blow.

Rigidity or stiffness is the ability of a material

to withstand a load without deflection. It
should not be confused with strength and
rigid materials are often brittle.

The ability of a material to be easily liquefied by heat for welding

Fusibility
purposes.
A measure of the ability of a material to conduct a certain amount of
Thermal Conductivity
heat within a given time, Copper is a good example.
Electrical Conductivity Measure of the efficiency of a material to conduct an electrical current.
A measure of the ability of a material to impede the flow of an electri cal
Electrical Resistance
current through it.

Brinell (HB)
HARDNESS TEST Rockwell (HR)
Vickers (HV)

Ferrous Metals: Wrought Iron, Pig Iron, Cast Iron

Steel: The difference is in the form that the carbon takes, steel never contains free carbon ( graphite).

Stainless steel is cromium nickel steel (CRES)

- resistance to high temperatures
- relatively light weight
- corrosion resistance
- strength
- toughness

The most common of the alloying metals

Nikel Vanadium
Krom - hardness and strength Cobalt
Nickel/Chrome Steels Molybdenum
Manganese Tungsten – Heat and wear resistance

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𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝜎)
𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝜀)

Heat Treatment: In a low carbon steel, the constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear
as a laminated structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite. NO BOILING

The most common forms of heat treatment for ferrous metal are annealing, normalizing,
hardening, tempering and surface hardening.

Annealing: Cold working

Normalising: Heat hardening

Hardening: Hardest structure martensite

Tempering: Tempering is done on the steel.

Surface Hardening: Case Hardening, The Box Process, Heat Treatment, Cyanide Hardening, Gas
Carburising, Flame Hardening, Induction Hardening

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Presentation 6.2 Non-Ferrous Metals

This group includes pure metals such as aluminium, titanium, copper and magnesium, as well as
alloyed metals like brass, bronze, monel and babbit.

Aluminium is derived from the red ore Bauxite, which is widely distributed within the earth’s crust.
Pure aluminium is a silvery-white metal which is soft and ductile.

Age Hardening: Alloys which have been heated may not return to their normal cold level of hardness
straight away. It can take several hours, days or weeks, depending on the alloy and treatment
applied, for the metal to 'Age Harden' to its original state.

Corrosion Protection (Feclad): Introducing other elements into aluminium to form alloys reduce s i ts
corrosion resistant characteristics, in some cases by quite a large margin. Various chemical and
electro-chemical processes and coatings are used to protect the finished product, and the se wi ll be
covered at a later date, however, sheet aluminium alloy is often protected at manufacture by
'Cladding' it with a layer of almost pure aluminium on each side.

What material can the heat treatment be applied to?

- Wood
- Composite
- Metal (Correct)

Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys: Silvery-white pure magnesium is a fairly weak metal but alloying
with small amounts of aluminium, zinc, manganese and zirconium will increase its strength.
Although weaker than aluminium alloys, their lower densities often result in magnesium alloys
having a better strength to weight ratio.

Titanium: Titanium also falls between Aluminium and Stainless Steel in terms of elasticity, and
elevated temperature strength. Titanium has excellent corrosion resistance properties due to the
oxide film which forms.

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Nickel and Nickel Alloys:

- They do not become oxidized at high temperatures.

- They have a high melting point.
- They have a high electrical resistance.

Monel (alloy) Metal: This is an alloy containing 68% Nickel, 29% Copper, 1.5% Iron and 1.5%
Manganese. It has good resistance to corrosion. It can be reshaped and used to make rivets.

Copper Conductive
Brass Increase tensile strength and corrosion resistance
Bronze Good elastic and corrosion resistance
Tugnum It is highly resistant to fatigue and corrosion
Lead Metal Corrosion resistance
Depleted uranium It is used to produce balance weights
Tungsten Hard, dense, corrosion resistant
Cadmium Corrosion protection
Chromium Resistant to scratch and corrosion resistance

Metal Fatigue: Nevertheless, although it is certainly not a form of corrosion, fatigue is closely
related to it.

An aircraft is exposed to high stress during the cruise flight.

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Presentation 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and/Non-Metallic Materials

Composite Materials: A composite material consists of two (or more) different materials whose
mechanical properties complement each other although they maintain their separate identities
(unlike an alloy). One material forms a matrix which bonds to the other, the reinforcement material.

Glass Reinforced Plastic: Fibreglass was the first of the composites, originally developed in the
1940s for radomes, the fairings which cover radar antennas and which must be transparent to radi o
waves. It is, as its name implies, a fibre made of glass.

Aramid Fibers: Aramid fibers are made from aromatic polyamide, nylon-like plastic. They devel oped
in the 1960s, and in the 1970s the service entered. The best known is DuPont's Kevlar, but other
manufacturers produce similar materials such as Twaron and Technora.

Aramid fiber has a very high impact strength, which is limited to a small area of damage. Therefore,
debris of stones and runways are often used in damaged areas and bulletproof vests!

Carbon Fibers: In the United States, carbon fibers, often referred to as graphite fibers, are made of
pure carbon and have a black color.

Material Field of use

Polyester Low density, high strength, good impact resistance (Cabin Interior Stowages)
Polyethylene It has very low mechanical properties (Thermal insulation)
Very high silica version of glass providing excellent resistance to high
Quartz
temperatures (> 1000 ° C) (Fiber optic)
Ceramic In areas where high temperature resistance is required
Aluminium Bulletproof glass

Resins are plastic materials used in the lamination and assembly of all kinds of materials used in the
engineering of composites. The resin is usually in liquid form.

Thermoset Resins: Polyester and Phenolic resins are used in combination with composite mate rial s
(usually cabin interior / floor panels).

The health and safety rules that must be followed when using resins,

- Movement of resins and solvents - Correct type of glove cleaning

- Skin protection - barrier creams and protective equipment
- Smoke and dust suction and ventilation
- Clean yourself and tools - Clean overalls
- Disposal of uncured resins and contaminants - special wastes
- Risk of flammability

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Storage of Resins

Epoxy resins should be stored in their original containers, according to their chemical properties , i n
metal cabinets and in a dry environment. There should be no plastic material in the storage area.

Composite Structure

Fiber reinforced plastic resins; laminates; A simple structure consisting of layers of resin impregnated
fabrics, sandwich; Separated laminates with light core or monolithic structure; A structure with
integrated reinforcements assembled during manufacturing or built during manufacturing.

Inspection and Damage Assessment for Composites

- Ultrasonic Inspection (presence of delaminations, voids, foreign materials, moisture

ingress and disbonds)
- Radiography (inspection of metal and carbon fibre composite components)
- Vibration Methods (Coin tap test, Impact test)
- Acoustic Defect Detector
- Thermal Imaging (can be used to survey large areas for water damage and delamination)
Fibre/Metal Laminate (FML): A new type of composite used in aircraft construction is the
fibre/metal laminate (FML) (impact resistant qualities of the material are of great advantage).

Stresses on a bonded joint

Adhesive joints are liable to experience four main types of stress ; Tensile, Shear, Cleavage and Peel.

Sealants: It is of the utmost importance that the pressure cabin of an aircraft be capable of
sustaining the required differential pressure at high altitude, both for the safety of the passe nge rs
and crew and for the operational efficiency of the aircraft. To this end it is essential that all source s,
or potential sources of air leakage from the cabin be carefully sealed in accordance with the proce ss
specification laid down by the manufacturers (Room Temperature Vulcanising, RTV).

Sitka Spruce: Sitka Spruce has long been recognized as the best type of wood to use in the
construction of aircraft. It is the standard against which all other woods are judged. It is light in
weight with a corresponding greater strength and toughness than is found in other woods. It is
easily worked, uniform in texture, resistant to rotting, and has no odour.

Splitting Test is used to confirm the true grain direction and run of the timber sample.

Alternatives To Spruce: Douglas Fir, Noble Fir, Western Hemlock, White Pine, White Cedar, and
Yellow Poplar.

Dote Disease: This is the worst of all the imperfections and the wood is very damaged. It is a natural
disease only at the base of the living tree.

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Plywood: Aircraft grade plywood is normally made of birch wood veneers bonded together.

Dope is primarily used to prevent damage to the aircraft fabric caused by environmental factors
such as moisture, sunlight and pollution.

Inspections Methods for Fabric Strength:

- Maule Tester
- Seyboth Tester (Red, Yellow and Green)

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Presentation 6.4 Corrosion

Corrosion is the tendency of metals to revert to the thermodynamically more stable, oxidized, state .
There are two types of corrosion. These are chemical (oxidation / Environmental effect) and
electrochemical (galvanic) corrosions.

Chemical corrosion can be caused by direct exposure, of the metal surface, to caustic liquids or
gaseous agents.

Chemical (oxidation) and Environmental effect Appearance of Corrosion

- Moisture
- Salt Atmosphere Steel - Reddish brown (Rust)
- Other Fluids Aluminium alloy - Whitish powder
- Temperature Magnesium alloy - Greyish white powder
- Pressure Copper and its alloys - Green coating
- Sand and Dust Cadmium and zinc - White powder
- Pollution

Galvanic Corrosion

Note that the electric current referred to here is

the flow of negatively charged particles or
electrons from the zinc anode (-) to the copper
cathode (+), as opposed to the convention which
assumes that an electric current flows from
positive to negative. Zinc is anodic towards
copper so that when these metals are connected
and immersed in an electrolyte the zinc will
dissolve or corrode far more quickly than if
immersed in the electrolyte by itself.

This will apply to any pair of dissimilar metals, one of which will always be anodic to the other.
There is no galvanic corrosion between the same metals. Gold (Most Cathotic +) is last
exposed to galvanic corrosion.

Intergranular Corrosion: It is normally

caused in the first place by incorrect heat
treatment although it could be due to
the effects of heat in or on the aircraft
itself. During solution heat treatment any
delay between removal of the metal
from the salt bath and quenching, will
allow the grains of the metal to grow in
size.
This enlargement of the grains may allow areas of dissimilar metals to provide efficient
anodes and cathodes for galvanic corrosion formation. The corrosion spreads along the grain
boundaries and is accelerated if fluctuating stresses are applied. This may cause a complete
failure of the part without any external indication. Hairline cracks or small blisters on the
surface may be an indication of intergranular corrosion.

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Microbial Corrosion

Microbial (Microbiological) corrosion occurs

in the integral fuel tanks of aircraft using
aviation kerosene and is caused by fungal
growths such as Hormoconis resinae
(previously called Cladosporium resinae)
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Water should be drained from tanks on a
regular basis and aircraft which operate in a
tropical environment for prolonged periods
may require an approved fungicide such as
Biobor added to their fuel. Aircraft stored in
a heated hangar should have their tanks
drained or treated with biocide.

Protection of Metal from Corrosion

There are three basic methods of protecting metal from corrosion:

- To convert the surface by either chemical or electrolytic methods to produce a corrosion

resistant coating.
- To coat the surface with a metal that will not corrode or is more resistant to corrosion
than the base metal.
- To coat or paint the surface with a non-metallic substance to produce a protective skin.

As with all solvent based and spray applied chemicals, correct protective clothing and
procedures must be used at all times. Extreme care must be taken when spraying in enclosed
spaces (especially bottom of the aircraft).

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Presentation 6.5 Fasteners

Square Thread: The thread form is a square. It is used

on lead screws and feed shafts in machine tools. The
rams of aircraft lifting jacks have a square thread for
the locking collars.

Acme Thread: A modified form of square thread with

sloping faces and flat roots and crests. Largely
employed in making lead screws and feed shafts for
machine tools. May be multi-start to provide fast
traversing motion when this is necessary.

Buttress Thread: The form is triangular with one face

900 or nearly so to the screw axis and a second face
inclined at 450. It combines low friction with
resistance to shear. The thread takes axial loads in one
direction only. It is used in bench vices having quick
release jaws.

Ball Screw Thread: A modified square thread for use

with recirculating ball nuts in which the female thread
element is comprised of hardened steel balls. This
type of high strength, low friction thread is commonly
used on aircraft for flap drive and stabiliser drive
units.

A modern commercial aircraft is composed of many individual component parts, units and
assemblies. Amongst the most numerous of these are the fasteners, the nuts, bolts, screws and
rivets, that hold the whole thing together.

Eyebolt: The eye is designed for the attachment of

cable shackles or turnbuckles and the bolt is used
for tensile loads. The threaded end may be drilled
for ‘safetying’ (Sliding tool).

Castellated Nuts: Many fasteners are provided with locking facilities which
include wire locking holes and split pin slots. Some nuts have a plain raised
portion to accommodate the slots without compromising the screw
thread, these are referred to as Castellated nuts (self locking nut).

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Thread Inserts: With the assembly of units and components,

fasteners are often installed in threaded holes. With the periodic
disassembly and reassembly of these parts during their
maintenance cycle, threads in softer metals will become worn
and damaged.

Washers: Plain washers are used to provide a

smooth bearing surface between the nut an
the structure or component to protect it
when tightening the nut. They may also be
used to adjust the grip length of a fastener. used only once

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
× 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟

Split pins (sometimes referred to as Cotter Pins in the

UK) are manufactured from corrosion resisting steel
and are used in conjunction with drilled bolts and
slotted or castellated nuts.

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Presentation 6.6 Pipes and Unions

Pipes and hoses can be called upon to carry a wide variety of different fluids within an aircraft,
including fuel, hydraulic and engine oils, de-icing fluids, pitot and static air.

Rigid pipes are manufactured from aluminium alloys, carbon steel, corrosion resistant or
stainless steel and titanium.

Where pipes are required to join together, or to system components couplings or unions are
used. The various types of coupling include;

Flared coupling
High pressure types: Flareless coupling
Brazed nipple coupling
Rubber hose coupling
Low pressure types:
Low pressure coupling

Rubber Hose Coupling (Flexible): Seldom used on commercial aircraft, this type of coupling
employs a length of rubber hose to connect two rigid pipes. The pipe ends are beaded
(expanded radially to form a raised ring), the hose is secured to the pipes with hose clips.

Quick-Release Couplings (Air hose): Quick-release couplings are required at various points in
aircraft systems. Typical uses are in fuel, oil, hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Their purpose is
to save time in the removal and replacement of components; to prevent the loss of fluid and to
protect the fluid from contamination. The use of these couplings also reduces the maintenance
cost for the system involved.

Flexible Hoses: Modern hoses are manufactured from either synthetic rubber or Teflon.
Synthetic rubber hoses are reinforced with cotton or metal braid depending on the pressure
that the hose has to withstand, with a rubber sheath on the outside to protect the braiding
(pressures below 300 PSI).

Presentation 6.7 Springs

Springs: They use the property of elasticity, inherent in many materials, which allows them to
absorb energy by distorting or deflecting when under load, store it in their loaded state, and
then release it in a controlled manner as they return to their original shape after the load has
moderated (or has been removed).

Forces applied to a spring:

Most Known
- Compression -Flat Springs
- Tension -Leaf Springs
- Torsion -Spiral Springs

Most springs are contained inside units and assemblies and are not accessible during aircraft
maintenance, these will be inspected, tested and if necessary replaced during component
overhaul.

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Presentation 6.8 Bearings

Bearings: Bearings are broadly classified by the type of rolling element used in their
construction. Ball bearings employ steel balls which rotate in grooved raceways, whilst roller
bearings utilise cylindrical, tapered or spherical rollers, running in suitably shaped raceways.

Ball bearings are designed for RADIAL or THRUST loads (axial) or a combination of both and are
able to operate in either direction of rotation.

Roller bearings are normally only used to support radial loads (N1 shaft) but can be designed to
compensate for linear expansion of the shaft or housing, by ensuring that the inner and outer
races are truly parallel.

Needle roller bearings are usually used in small places.

Clearance Fit: A fit which always has a positive clearance or, technically, where the tolerance
zone of the hole is always above that of the shaft.

The purpose of lubricating the bearings is to prevent rubbing (friction).

Storage of Bearings: The bearing should always be stored horizontally, in a clean dry
atmosphere, boxed and labelled.

If the bearings are damaged, they are replaced.

Presentation 6.9 Transmissions

Gears are toothed wheels used to transmit power between components of a machine where the
centre distances between the shafts is limited. They give a positive drive of a fixed velocity ratio
and do not slip.

The primary purpose of a gear is the transmission of force, change direction of rotation, reduce
speed.

Spur gears: The have straight teeth and are used to transmit power between two parallel shafts
or shafts in the same axis.

Bevel gears are shaped liked sections of cones. They are used to transmit power between
nonparallel shafts whose axes intersect.

Conformal Gears tooth pattern has been applied to helicopter gearboxes.

Epicyclic Reduction Gear: There are several basic types of planetary gear arrangements. In one
type the ring gear is fixed and the sun gear is the driven gear.

Reduction gears are driven by gas turbine engines, and normally drive a propeller or helicopter
rotor.

BACKLASH or LASH is the play between two meshing gears and is defined as the difference
between the distance between two teeth and the width of the engaging tooth.

If the belts and pulleys are damaged, they are replaced.

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Presentation 6.10 Control Cables

Metal cables (or wire ropes as some manufacturers refer to them) are used as a method of
transferring movement from one place to another, for instance from the control column to
the control surface.

Bending and Fatigue:

All cables, except stationary ones used as bracing, are subjected to bending around pulleys.
The detrimental effects of bending as:

- Loss of strength due to bending.

- Fatigue effect of bending.
Cable Construction As we have seen, the thickness of the individual wires determines the
flexibility of the cable, so a cable composed of 19 wires will be more flexible than a similar sized
cable constructed from 7 thicker wires. Thicker wires may offer slightly greater strength in larger
diameter cables (Usually 7x7 or 7x19 cable is used on airplanes).

End Fitting Swaging

Whilst cables were previously, 'spliced' and 'whipped' with waxed cotton to form end -fittings,
the majority of modern cables have a 'swaged' type end-fitting where a hollow shank or sleeve
on the fitting is physically distorted to grip the cable.

Turnbuckles are the usual device for tensioning a cable system.

Cable Fairleads: The cables of a control run must be supported to reduce the possibility of
fouling, vibration and fluctuations. They are supported by fairleads which are usually made
from plastic or fibre materials. These fairleads should not be lubricated as this will collect dirt
and dust, which will cause extra wear on the cable and fairlead.

Control Cables Inspection: Clean the airplane control cable with a dry, clean cloth. Do not use
solvents or abrasive materials to clean the control cable, solvents will remove the cables internal
lubricant, which will cause corrosion and rapid wear (AMM).

Bowden Cable Systems: A typical Bowden cable control might be a brake lever on the control
column operating a remote brake control valve. Maintenance of Bowden cable systems is usually
restricted to cleaning and lubrication of the inner cable at regular intervals and adjustment of
the outer conduit (e.g. if the brakes needed adjustment). The lubrication would keep moisture
out of the cable to prevent it freezing at low temperatures (preventing corrosion).

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Presentation 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors (SALİH AYGÜN)

Aluminium Cable: Where large amounts of current must be carried for long distances, MIL-W-
7072 aluminium cable is often used. This cable is insulated with either "Fluorinated Ethylene
Propolene (FEP), nylon or fibreglass braid. It is used to reduce weight. Aluminium cable smaller
than six-gauge is not recommended because it is so easily broken by vibrations.

Cable Specifications

Prime specifications of any electrical cable must:

- Be capable of carrying its rated current

- Be able to withstand the applied voltages
- Be flexible, where necessary

Also it must be able to perform these functions in conditions of:

- Very high temperature

- Very low temperature
- A large temperature range

Shielded Cable: Anytime a cable carries a current, a magnetic field surrounds the cable, and this
field may interfere with some aircraft instrumentation. For example, the light that illuminates
the compass card of a magnetic compass is powered with low-voltage DC. The field from this
small voltage can deflect the compass.

AC or pulsating DC has an especially bad effect on

electronic equipment, as its conductor’s radiate
electrical energy much like the antenna of a radio. To
prevent radio interference, cables that carry AC or
pulsating DC are often shielded. Encasing the
conductor in a cable braid carries this out. This
ensures that the radiated energy is received by the
braid and is then passed to the aircraft's ground
where it can cause no interference.

Installation of Cable Bundles

- Install cable bundles with a minimum clearance of 1cm (0.4inch) to prevent chafing
against sharp edges.
- At least 15cm (6 in.) separation is required between cables and lines carrying fuel or
oxygen.
- At least 7.5cm (3 in.) separation is required between cables and control cables.
- Maintain a minimum 13mm (0.5in.) separation between cables and water lines, pitot
static lines, etc.

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Construction of the Code

Cable Number Prefix: The first four digits of the code is the cable number prefix and identifies
the aircraft system to which the cable is connected.

Cable Number: A dash separates the ATA number prefix from the cable number. A cable number
consisting of a maximum of 5 digits is used to differentiate between cables, cables or coaxial
cables in a particular subsystem.

Cable Gauge: The cable or cable size number is used to identify the American Cable Gauge
(AWG) size of the cable or cable. The cable size number is not normally included for coaxial
cables. For thermocouple cables a dash is used instead of the cable size number.

Aircraft Connectors: The basic crimped contact connector comes in two parts:

The Receptacle: This part is

normally part of the equipment or
structure and is stationary.

The Plug: The removable

(movable) half which mates with
the receptacle and is usually at the
end of a cable/lead.

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