WEEKS TOPI

CS
1 I
NTRODUCTI ONTOBI OLOGY
2 CLASSIFI
CATI
ONOFLI VINGTHINGSI
3 CLASSIFI
CATI
ONOFLI VINGTHINGSI
I
4 THECELL
5 CELLANDI TSENVIROMENT
6 PROPERTIESANDFUNCTI ONSOFCELL
7 MIDTERM BREAK
8 NUTRITIONINANIMALS
9 GROWTH
10 EXCRETION
11 NUTRIENTCYCLING
12 REVISI
ON
13 EXAMINATION

WEEKONE
INTRODUCTI ONTOBI OLOGY
Theterm Bi ol
ogyi scoinedf rom twoGr eekwor dsbi osmeani nglif
eandLogos
meanings tudy.Theref ore,Biologyiss i
mpl ydefinedast hebranchofs ci
encet hat
i
nvol
vest hes tudyofl ifei.
e.studyofl ivingt hings.Biologyi sbr
oadlydivi
dedi nto
two:
(a) Zool ogy:whichi sthes tudyofani mal s
.
(b) Bot any:isthes tudyofdi ff
erentt ypesofpl ant .
Someot hers pecif
icas pectsofBi ologyar e:
Mor phol ogy,Anat omy,Phys i
ology,Genet ics,Ecology,Vir
ology,Bacter
iology,
Mic robiology,Tax onomy,Hi s
tology,Myc ology,Embr yol
ogy,Evolut
ionet c.
Biologyf indsappl ic ationi n:g
 Medi cine,dent istryandvet er i
nar ys cience,agr i
cultur eandhor ti
c ulture,
 Foodpr oduc tioni ndus tr
ies
 Bi ot ec hnol ogy,genet icengi neer ingandhybr idomat ec hnol ogy.
LIVI NGTHI NGSANDNON-LI VINGTHI NGS
Livingt hingsar et hos eobj ec t
st hathavel i
fee. g.plantandani mal swhi lenon- l
iving
thingsar et hos eobj ec tswi thoutl i
feorl ifelessobj ects.Somec har ac teris
ticsofl ivi
ng
thingsar el is t
edbel ow( MR.NI GERDAC) :
1.Movement :Thi sist heabi li
tyofanor gani smt omovepar tort hewhol eofi ts
bodyf rom onepl acet oanot her .
2.Res pir ation:Thepr oces swher ebyor gani smsex changegas eswi tht heir
envi ronment .Or gani smst akei nox ygenandgi veoutc arbondi ox i
de.
3.Nut rition:Thi si st heabi li
tyofanor gani smt ofeed.Ther ear et womaj ort ypes
ofnut riti
onwhi c har eaut otrophi cnut ri
tionandhet erotrophi cnut ri
ti
on
4.Irritabi li
ty:Thi si st heabi l
ityofanor gani smt or espondt os timul i
5.Gr owt h:Thi si sapr oc essofpos iti
vec hangei nmas sors i
z eoveragi venper i
od
oftime.
6.Ex cr et i
on:Thi si sapr oc esswher ebyor gani smsr emovemet abol icwas te
produc tsfr om t heirbody.
7.Repr oduc tion:Thi si st heabi l
it
yofanor gani smt opr oduc eof fs pri
ngs .Thi s
all
owsl if
et oc ont inue.Ther ear etwot ypesofr epr oduc ti
on:s ex ual
repr oduc tionandas ex ualr eproduc ti
on.
8.Adapt at i
on:Thi si st hepr oc es swher ebyanor gani s m get sus edt oits
envi ronments ot hati ts urvivesi nt hisenvi ronment .
9.Compet i
tion:Thi sist hepr oc essbywhi c hanor gani smi nt erac tswi t
hot her
organi smsf ori tsneedsi nit senvi ronment .
10. Deat h/Li fes pan:Al llivingt hingshaveadef initet i
meofex ist
enc eaf ter
whi cht heydi e.
Differencesbet weenpl antsandani mal s
PLANTS ANI MALS
Mos tgr eenpl ant sc arryout Ani mal scannotphot os ynt hes i
zebut
photos ynt hes i
s . dependdi rec tl
yori ndi r ec tl
yonpl ant s
fort heirfood.
Growt hi sr es trictedt ot heapexoft he Gr owt htakespl ac einal lpar t
soft he
plants(api cal )
. body.
Theyc ont inuet ogr owt hroughoutt heir Gr owt hisr estrictedt oc ertainper iodsi n
l
ives. l
ife.
Theydonothaves pec ials enseor gans . Theyhaves pec i
alizeds ens eor gans .
Plantsc annotmoveabout .Theyar e Ani mal shaveor gansf ormovement .
i
nac
tive. Theyar
eac
tive.
Pl
ant
sst
oref
oodass
tar
ch Ani
mal
sst
oref
oodasgl
ycogen
Pl
antsshows
lowr
espons
etoex
ter
nal Animal
sshowf
astr
espons
etoex
ter
nal
st
imuli st
imuli

Organi zati
onofLi f
e
Or gani
zati
onofl i
feisdefinedastheex i
stenceoflif
efrom asi
ngle-c
elledorgani
sm
toamul tic
ell
ularorgani
sm wi t
hc ompl exformt hatperf
orm di
ff
erentfunct
ions.
Livingorgani
smsar ehighlyorganised.Thi sor
ganisati
onoccursinst
epsorl evel
s.
Thishierar
chyofbi ol
ogicalorganis
ationi sasfoll
ows:

Macr
omolec ules
Organelles i
ncreas
ingc
ompl
exi
ty
Cells
Tiss
ues
Organs
Or
gansys
tems
Organis
ms
Asi
ngle-cel
ledor ganis
mi scal
l
edUNICELLULARORGANISM whi
l
eanor
gani
sm wi
th
manycell
sar ecall
edMULTI CELULARORGANI SM.

Level sofOr ganizat i

on
1. Cel llevel:Ac el
lwhi chi sthef unc t
ionalands t
ruc tur
aluni toflif
ei sthefir
st
levelofor gani zation.I tc ont ainsnuc leusandc ytoplasmi cmat erial
s.Some
li
vingt hingsoror gani smsex i
s tasac ellcapableofc arryoutal lthe
char ac teri
stic sofl ivingt hi
ngst heyhavec ytoplasmics tructuresuc has
ps eudopodi a,c i
lia,f l
agel laandvac uoleet c.amoeba,par amec i
um and
Eugl ena.
Prot opl asm =nucl eus+cyt oplas m
2. Ti ss uel evel:At issuei sac ollec t
ionofc ellswhic hares imilarinstructureand
per forms i
mi l
arf unc ti
ons .
Ex ampl eofor ganismt hatexistsatt i
ssuelevelis
hydr a.Typesoft i
ss uesi nani mal sare:
 Epi thel ialtiss ues–t heyl i
neandpr otec tthebodys urf
ac e
 Skel etalt i
s sues–s uppor t
sandai dmovement
 Connec ti
vet issues–bi ndot hert i
ssuese. g.blood,bone,c arti
l
age
 Mus clet i
ss ues–ai dsmovementofbodypar t
s
Typesoft issuesi npl ant sar e:
 Vas culart iss uese. g.phl oem,x ylem
 St rengt heni ngt i
ssuese. g.sclerenchyma,c ol
lenc hyma,par enchyma
ti
ssues
 Epi thel ialtiss ues
 Phot os ynt het ictissues
  Pac ki ngt i
s s
ues
3. Or ganl evel:Anor gani sac oll
ec tionofdi f
fer entt i
ssuesthatperfor
m different
func tions .Someper form onl yonef unc t
ione. g.hear twhilesomeor gansc an
carryoutmor et hanonef unc t
ion,f orex ampl eki dney.Examplesofor gansar e
root,s t
em,l eaves ,oni onbul b,nos e,ear s ,br ain,spinalcords,t
astebuds ,
ovar iesandur i
nar ybl adder .
4. Sys tem l evel :As ys tem isas etofor ganswhi chc ooperatetocarryoutt hevital
func tionsofl ife.Forex ampl est hedi ges ti
ves ys t
em ismadeupofor ganss uc h
ast hemout h,oes ophaguss tomac h,panc reas ,duodenum andi leum,large
intest i
neandanus .Ot hers ystemsi nc luder epr oductivesyst
em,ex cr
etory
sys t
em,s kel etals ystem et c.
COMPLEXI TYOFORGANI SMS
Advantagesofcompl exit yofor gani sms
1.Itleadst os pec ialisation
2.Spec i
alisationl eadst odi visi
onofl abour
3.Divisionofl abourl eadst oef fi
cienc ytot het issue,organsandt hesystem.
4.Onebodyf unc t i
ondoesnotadver selyaf fec ttheot herbodyf uncti
on.
Ther ef ore,var i
ouss ystemsoper ates i
de- by- s i
dewi thoutaffect
ingeac hother .
5.Itincr easesadapt at i
ont oenvironment .
Di
sadvant agesofcompl exi tyinhi gheror gani sms
1.Inabi l
ityofi ndi vi dualc ell
stoex i
s tont heirown.
2.Itleadst os lowerr at eofdi ff
us i
on.
3.Itleadst odec reas ei nabi l
itytor egener ate.
4.Itleadst os lowerr at eofex pul si
onofwas tepr oducts.
5.Ther ei sdi ffi
c ultyi nr epr oduc t
ion.

WEEKTWO
CLASSIFI
CATIONOFLIVINGTHINGS
Classi
fi
cati
oni sdefi
nedast hear r
angementofli
vi
ngt hi
ngsintogr
oupsbas
edon
st
r uct
uralgenetic and cell
ularorganiz
ati
on. Thisisc al
l
ed TAXONOMY.This
cl
as s
ifi
cat
ion occur
si n hi
erarchyfrom thehi
ghestl
eveltot hel
owestasshown
below:
Kingdom
 Phyl
um orDi
vi
si
on(
forpl
ant
s)

Cl
ass

Or
der

Fami
l
y

Genus

Spec
ies

Binomi alNomencl atur e

Thisisas ystem ofnami ngor gani smsasi ntroduc edbyCar olusLi nnaeuswhi chi s
deri
ved f rom t he or gani sm’sgenusand s pec i
es.Thi ssc i
ent i
fi
cname mus tbe
i
tali
cisedorunder linedandt hef ir
stlet teroft hegener i
cname(t hegenus )iswritt
en
i
nc apitall ett
erwhi let hatoft hes pec i
esi swr i
tteni nsmallletter.Exampl esofsome
sci
entificnamesar e:
Man Homo s api ens
Maize Zeamays
Rat Rattusr attus
Orange Ci t r
uss inens is
Li
ving t hings ac cor ding t o moder nc las s
ific
at i
on s yst
em whi chi s based on
physiology,bi oc hemi s t
ry and embr yology ar ec l
assi
fi
ed i nto five kingdoms ;
MONERA,PROTI STA,FUNGI ,PLANTAEANDANI MALI A.
MONERA
Charact er i
sti
cs
i
. Theyl ac kor gani zedDNAi .e.theDeox yribonuclei
cac id( DNA)i sscatt
eredin
t hec ytopl asm andnoti nnuc leushenc et heyar ecall
edpr okaryotes.
i
i. Theyhavenomi tochondr i
oni nt heirc ytoplasm
i
ii
. Thei rc ellwal llac kc el
lulose,thei rc ellwal lismadeupofpr otei
nandf att
y
materials
i
v. Theyar emi croscopi csinglecelledor ganism
v. Somear emot il
ewhi les omear enon- mot i
l
e
vi. Theymaybeaut otrophi c
vii
. As exualmodeofr epr oduc ti
on( bi naryfissi
on)
Exampl eofMoner aar e: bac t
er i
aandphot os ynthet i
cbl uegr eenbac t
eri
um al so
knownasbl uegr eenal gae.
Kingdom Pr ot ista
Thes e ar e uni cellulareuc ar yot icor gani smswhi c h maybe pr otozoa (
ani
mal -l
ike
protists),pr otophyt a( plant -likepr ot i
s t)oreugl enophyt a( combi ni
ngbot hplantand
animalf eat ur es) .
Phylum Pr otoz oa:Thes e ar et he pr otist
swi th animalf eat urese.g.amoebaand
paramec ium
Char ac t
eristicsar e:
1.Theyar emi cros copi cuni cellularor ganisms
2.Theyar eal leukar yot ic(c ell
shavemembr ane)
3.Theyr epr oduc eas ex ual lybybi nar yfissi
on
4.Theyar emai nl yaquat i
candmot i
leor ganisms .
5.Theymoveaboutwi thc ili
a,flagel l
aorps eudopodi a.
Phylum Pr otophyt a:Thes e ar e pr ot i
s tswi th plantf eatur ese. gc hl
amydomonas ,
chlorellaet c.
Char ac t
eristicsar e:
1.Theyhavec ell
ul osec ellwal l
s
2.Theyhavec hlor oplas tswhi c hc ont ainc hlorophyl lforphot osynthesi
s
3.Theyar ef oundi nf res hwat erori nt hes ea.
Phylum Eugl enophyt a:Thes e ar e or gani sms t hathave bot h plantand ani mal
features .Ex ampl ei sEugl enavi ri
dis.
Char ac t
eristicsar e:
1.I thasf l
agel l
um f ormovement
2.I thasc hlor opl astswhi chenabl esi ttomanuf acturef ood
3.I thaseyes potf orr es pondi ngt ol ight
Iti
sal soabl et omanuf ac tur ei tsfoodi nheabs enc eofs unlight
KINGDOM FUNGI( Char act eris t
ics)
i
. Theyl ac kc hlor ophyl lt her efor ec annotphot osynt hesiz e.
i
i. Theyar es impl emul ti
c ellularor gani sm.
i
ii. Thei rbodi esar enotdi videdi nt ot ruer oot,stem andl eaves
i
v. Theyar emos tl
ynon- mot ileor gani s
msc ompos edoft hread-li
kemulti
nucleate
hyphaec oll
ec ti
velyknownasmyc eli
um
v. Theyr epr oduc ebymeansofs por es.
vi. Thef ungis tor ec arbohydr ateasgl ycogen.
vii
. Thei rc ellwal li smadeupofc hi ti
nandnotc ell
ulos elikepl ant.
Exampl esar eMuc or ,Rhi zopus ,Mus hroom andSl i
memoul d.
 WEEKTHREE
KI NGDOM PLANTAE
Thef ami li
argr eenpl ant sbel ongt ot hiskingdom.Pl antsar enon- mot i
l
emul tic
ellular
or gani smswhos ec ellshavec ellulos ec ellwal l
sandc hloroplas t
s.Thec hlor ophyllin
thec hloroplas tsenabl espl ant st omaket heirownf oodbyphot osynthes is.Thepl ant
kingdom i nc l
udes :Thal l
ophyt a,Br yophyt aandTr acheophyt a.
Di vi
s i
onThal lophyt a
Theyar ef urtherdi videdi nt o:Rhodophyt a( RedAl gae),Chl orophyt a(Gr eenAl gae),
Phaec ophyt a( BrownAl gae) .
Char ac teri
stics:
1.Theyar emi cros copicpl ant s.
2.Theyar eei t
heruni cellul are. g.Chl amydomonasormul ticel
lulare.g.Spi r
ogyr a
3.Theyar es i
mpl eaquat icpl ant s.
4.Theyhavenot ruer oot s ,s temsandl eaves .
5.Theyar emai nlyaut ot rophi c
Di vis
ionBr yophyt a
Char ac teri
stics:
1.Theyar ec ompl exmul tic ell
ul argr eenpl ants.
2.Theyhavenot ruer oot s ,s temsandl eavesbuthaves tructuresresembl i
ng
t
hem.
3.Theyar eus uallyf oundgr owi ngi nmoi s tplaces.
4.Thei rcel l
sar edi fferent i
at edi ntot iss
ues .
5.Ex ampl esi ncludeMos s esandLi verwor ts .
Divisi
onTr acheophyt a
Trac heophyt esar eknownasvas cul arplantss i
nc etheyhaveves s
elsforc onduc ting
foodandwat er.Thisi st hel ar ges tgr oupofpl antsandinc l
udess eedpl ant sli
ket he
fl
ower ingpl ant s,aswel lass omes por e-bear ing,non- fl
ower ingpl antslikef er
ns .
Theyar esubdi videdi nto:Pt er i
dophyt aandSper mat ophyta.
Pt eri
dophyt a
Char ac teri
stics:
1.Theyar enon- fl
ower ingpl ant s.
2.Theyr epr oduc eas exual lybys pores
3.Theyar enon- seedpr oduc ingpl ant s
.
4.Ex ampl ei saf er n( Dryopt eris).
Sper mat ophyt a
Char ac teri
stics:
1.Theyar es eedpr oduc i
ngpl ant s
.
2.Theydonotneedwat erf orr epr oduc tion.
3.Theyr epr oduc es exual ly.
 4.Thes
eedcontai
nstheembr
yo.
5.Theseedpl
antsar
edivi
dedint
ogymnos
per
msandangi
osper
ms

GYMNOSPERMS ANGI OSPERMS

Theydonotbearf
lower
s They ar ecompl ex green flowering
plants
Seedsarenaked Seedsarenc losedwithinthef r
uit
s
Seedsareborneoncones Seeds devel op from ovul es and
enclosedintheovary
Examples i ncl
ude c yc
ads
,Fr uit
s,veget
ables,
grasses,fl
ower s
gingkosandconi
fer
s

Angiosper ms
Angiosper mshavef ourmaj orpar ts
:fl
ower s(forrepr oduc ti
on) ,leaves( f
or
photosynt hesis,ex c retion,r espi rati
onandt rans pi
ration),s t
em ( fors upport,s
tor
age
offoodandhol dingt hepl anti npos it
ion)andr oot( holdingt hepl antinthesoil
,
stor
ingf oodandabs or bingwat erandmi neralsf r
om t hes oil).Angi ospermsare
clas
sif
iedi nto;moonoc otyledonsanddi cot yl
edons .
S/N MONOCOTYLEDONOUS DICOTYLEDONOUSPLANT
PLANT
1 Theypos ses sonl yones eed Theypos sesstwos eedl eavesor
leaforc otyledon cot yl
edons .
2 Theyhavef ibrousr oots ys t
em. Theyhavet apr oots ystem.
3 Theyex hibi thypogeal Theyex hibitepigealger mination
ger minat i
on
4 Theydonotunder go Theyunder gos ec ondar ygr owt h.
sec ondar ygr owt h.
5 Cambi um isabs ent Cambi um ispr esent .
6 Thes i
zeofc or texisnar rowi n Thes izeofc ortexi slargei na
amonoc ot yledonouss tem. dicot yl
edonouss tem.
7 Ex ampl esinc l
udemai ze,oi l
- Ex ampl esinc l
udehi biscus,s weet
pal m,gr ass es,r ice,et c
. pot ato,pawpaw,yam,c owpea,
etc .

Kingdom Ani
malia
Allani
malsbel
ongt othi
skingdom.Theyaremot
il
emulti
cell
ularor
gani
smswhos
e
cell
shavenocellwall
sorchlor
oplas
ts.Ani
mal
sarecl
ass
ifi
edintotwomain
groups:
 •I nvert
ebrata(invertebrates)
:ani
malswi
thnobac kbone
• Vertebrat
a( vertebrates)
:animal
swithbackbones.
I
nvertebrata
Thereareabout23i nvertebrat
ephylaandsomear edesc
ribedbel
ow.

Phylum Por ifer a( sponges )

This phyl um i s mai nly made up of s ponges .Sponges ar es i
mpl e,aquat i
c
i
nver tebr atest hatdonotmoveaboutbutar eat t achedt oroc ksors hells.Theyl ivein
coloniesandhavemai nlyas ymmet ricalbodi es( nobodys ymmet ry).Theyar emer ely
coloniesofc el l
s,henc e,t hey l ac ks pec ilaized t i
ss ues.Spongesr epr oduc e bot h
asexual l
yands ex ually.Mos ts pongesar eher maphr odi tes.
Phylum Coel ent rat a
This phyl um i s made up ofj ell
yf i
s h,hydr a,c or al
s,anemones et c .t hey ar e
mul t
icellularaquat i
cor gani sms .Theyhaves oftj elly-li
kebodi es .Theyr epr oduc e
asexual l
ybybuddi ng.Theyhaveat wol ayer edbodywhi chisr adi all
ys ymmet ri
cal.
Phylum Pl atyhel mi nthes
Thisphyl um i nc l
udest hepl anarians,f lukesand t apewor ms .Theyar ebi laterall
y
symmet rical.Theyar e mai nl ypar asit
esi n man and ot hersi n ani mal s.t heyar e
mul t
icellulari nver tebr ates .
Phylum Nemat oda
Thisphyl um i ncludesr oundwor m,gui neawor m,t hreadwor m,f i
lari
alwor ms .They
haver oundandc ylindr icalbodi es .Theyar l
at eral l
ys ymmet ri
c al.Somear epar as i
tes
whi l
eot her sar ef ree- li
ving.
Phylum Annel i
da
This phyl um i nc l
udes ;ear t hwor m,l eec hes ,r agwor ms et c.t heirbody i sl ong,
cyli
ndr ic
alands egment ed.Somear eaquat i
cwhi leot hersar et errestrial.Annel ids
reproduc es ex uallyandmanyar eher maphr odi tes .
Phylum Mol l
us ca
This phyl um i nc l
udes ;c l
ams ,mus sel,s nails,s lugs ,oc topus and s qui ds.They
reproduc es ex uallyandt hes exesar esepar ate.Theyhaves oftuns egment edbodi es.
Theypos ses smus cul arf ootadapt edf orc rawl ingorbur r
owi ng.Somear eaquat i
c
(possesgi ll
s)whi leot her sar et errestri
al( pos s
es sl ungs )
.
Phylum Ar thr opoda
Thisphyl um i ncludesc rabs ,s hrimps ,i ns ect s,s pider s,ticks ,c opepodset c.The
arthropodai st he l ar ges tphyl um i nt he ani malki ngdom.I ti sdi vided i ntot he
fol
lowi ng c las ses:Cr ustacea,i ns ecta,ar achni da and myr i
apods ( mi l
lipede &
cent i
pede) .
Theyar ebi laterallys ymmet ri
c albody.Theyhavej ointedappendagesor
j
oi ntedl egs .Theyhavehar d,r igidex os kelet onmadeofc hitin.
Phyl um Echi noder mat a
Thi sphyl um i nc ludes ;s tarfish,s eaur chin,s eac uc umber ,br it
tlestaret c.theyar e
mai nlymar i
nei nver t
ebr ates.Thei rbodi esar er adi all
ys ymmet ri
cal.Theypos sess
tubef eet .Theyhaves pi nys kin.
Phyl um Chor dat a
Thi s phyl um c ons i
s ts oft he s ub- phyl um pr otoc hor dat es and ver tebrata.The
prot ochor dat esdonothaveac ranium andaver tebr alc olumn.Thec hordateshavea
cranium,not oc hor dpr otec t
edbyt hever t ebralc ol umn.Theyar edi videdi ntofive
classes .Thes ear edi videdi ntof ivec lass es .Thes ear e;
 Pi sc es( Fishes )
 Amphi bi a( Amphi bians)
 Rept i
l
ia( Rept il
es )
 Aves( Bi rds )
 Mammal ia( Mammal s)
Gener alchar act erist i
csofver tebr atesi ncl ude;
 Theyhavewel ldevel opedc ent ralner vouss ys tem wi thabr ainands pinalcord.
 Theyhavewel ldevel opeds ens eor gans .
 Theypos ses sani nternalj oi nteds kel et onmadeupofc artil
ageand/ orbones .
 Theyhaveabi later all
ys ymmet ricalbodydi videdi ntoahead,t runkandt ail
.In
mos tver t
ebr ates ,anec kj oinst heheadt ot het runk.
 Theyhaveef fi
c i
entex cret oryor gans .
 Theyhavet wopai rsofl imbs .(i.
e.t et rapods ).
 Theypos s esss kinwhi chmaybenakedorhaveac over ingofs c
ales,feathers
orhai r.
Clas sPi s ces( Fishes )
Thi sclas sofver tebr at esc anbes ub- dividedi ntot hreegr oupsbas edont henat ure
oft heirs kelet als ys tem.Theyar e;
 Agnat ha:Thej awl es sfishe. g.hagf ish,l ampr eys
 Chondr icht hyes :Thec art i
lagenouf i
s he. g.s har k.
 Os teicht hyes :Thebonyf ishe. g.Ti l
api a,carp
Char act eristicsoft hiscl assi ncl ude;
 Theyar eaquat i
cani mal .
 Thei rs kini sc over edwi ths calesbutf ewar ewi thouts cales.
 Theyar epoi kilot hermi corc oldbl oodedani mal si.e.t heirbodyt emper ature
var i
eswi t
ht hatoft heenvi ronment .
 Theyhavegi l
lswhi c har eus edf orgas eousex change.
 Theyhaves wim bl adderwhi chenabl est hem t omai nt ainbouyanc yinwat er.
  Reproduc ti
oni ss ex ualandt heyhaveex ternalt ypeoff ert
ili
zation.Theyar e
oviparousani mal s .
 Theyhaveat woc hamber edhear t
 Theyhavef i
nswhi c har eus edf ormovementi nwat er.
ClassAmphi bia
Char
acteri
sticsoft hi sclas si nclude;
 Theyar epoi kilother mi cani mal s.
 Theyhavet wopai rsofl imbs .
 Theyc arr youtgas eousex c
hangebygi l
ls,lungs ,mout hands ki
n.
 Theirskini snakedandmoi s t
.
 Somememeber shavepoi sonousgl andsont hes ki n.
 Theyhaveat hr eec hamber edhear t.
 Ferti
li
zationi sex ter nal .
 Exampl esofmember soft hisgr oupar et oad,frogs
ClassRept i
li
a
Char
acteri
sticsoft hi sclas si nclude;
 Theyar epoi kilother mi c .
 Theyhavedr ys kinc over edwi t
hs cales.
 Theyhavet wopai rsofl imbsex cepts nakes .
 Somear eaquat icwhi leot her saret erres t
ri
al.
 Theyhavel ungswhi char eus edf orgas eousex change.
 Reproduc ti
oni ss ex ualandf ert
ili
zationi sinternal .Theyar eoviparous.
 Theyhavehomodontdent i
tion
 Theyhaveani ncompl etelydevel opedf ourc hamber edhear t.
 Theydonots howpar entalc arefort heiryoung.
 Exampl esofmember soft hisgr oupar e;snakes ,lizards,all
i
gat ors,croc odil
es
etc.
ClassAves
Char
acteri
sticsoft hi sclas si nclude;
 Theyar ehomeot her mi corwar m bl oodedani mal s,i .
e.theyhaveac onstant
bodyt emper ature.
 Theirhead,nec kandt r
unkar ec over edwi thf eat her s.It
shindlegsar ec over ed
withsc ales.
 Theirf or el
imbsar emodi fi
edi ntowi ngsf orf lying.Thei rhindl egshavef eet,
eachwi t
hf ourt oesendi ngi nc laws .
 Reproduc ti
on i ss ex ualand f er ti
l
ization isi nt ernal .Theyex hibitovi parous
modeofr eproduc tion.
 Theys howpar entalc aref ort heiryoung.
 Theyhavel ungswhi char eus edf orgas eousex change.
 Theyhavegoodeyes ight.
  Theyhaveafourchamberedheart
.
 Theyhavebeakswithoutt
eethwhichareusedforf
eeding.
 Examplesofmember soft
hisgr
oupi nc
lude;pi
geons,ducks
,os
tri
tch,c
hic
kens
,
peacoc
ks,vul
tur
eset c.

ClassMammal ia
Charact eristi
csoft hiscl as sinclude;
 Theyar ehomeot her mic.
 Thei rbodyi sc over edwi t
hhai rs .
 Theyhavehet erodontdent i
tion.
 Theyhavel ungswhi char eus edf orgas eousex change.
 Theyhaveawel ldevel opedbr ain.
 Theyhaveaf ourc hamber edhear t.
 Repr oduc ti
oni ss ex ualandf er ti
lizati
oni si nternal .
 Theyar evi vipar ous .
 Theyhavet wopai rsofl imbs .
 Ex ampl esofmember soft hi sgr oup i nc lude;man,goat ,kangar oos ,bats,
whal es,chimpanz es ,gor r
ilaet c.
VI RUS
Thes ear emi cros copi cor gani smst hatc anonl ybes eent hr oughanel ec tron
mic rosc ope. Thought heydonothaveac ellstruc ture,t heyhavec oi
leds trandof
nuc l
ei cac ids(DNAorRNA)enc los edwi thinapr ot einc oat.Itcanonl yr epr oduc e
wheni ti swi t
hinal ivingor ganis m.Out si
deal i
vingc ell
,itex i
stsasac rys t
al ,and
seemst obenodi ff
er entf rom ot hernon- l
ivingt hings .
Virus esar eec onomi callyimpor tantbec aus et heyc aus edi seasesinpl ant sand
animal s .Diseasesc aus edbyvi rus esi nhumansi nc l
udeAI DS,Chi ckenpox ,Meas l
es,
Her pes ,Ebol a,Inf l
uenz a,Smal l
pox ,et c.
Virusasanani mat et hi ng
Theyar eof t
enr ef err edt oasl ivingt hingsbec aus eoft hef ollowing;
1.Theyc anr eproduc ewhenpr esenti nanot herl ivingc el
l
2.Itpos ses sesc har acter isti
cswhi chc anbet r
ans mi ttedf rom onegener ationt othe
nex t.
Virusasi nani mat et hi ng
Theyar ealsor efer redt oasnon- livingt hingsbec aus eoft hef ol
lowing;
1.Whent heyar er emovedf rom al ivingc ellandpl ac edi nanon- li
vingmedi um,i t
bec omesnon- l
ivingandas s
umesac rystall
inef or m
2.Virusc annotr es pire,ex creteorr es pondt os timul i
.

WEEK4
 THECELL
Thec ellisdef i
nedast hes tructuralandf unc ti
onaluni tofal i
vingorgani sm.Inot her
wor ds ,thec ellist hes i
mpl es t
,t hes mal l
es tandt hebas i
cuni toflif
e.
Thisi sthes impl es tbitofl ivingmat terthatc anex istindependent l
y.Theyr angef rom
extremel ys mal lbac t
eriac el
ls( 1mm)whi c hcanonl ybes eent hroughas trongor
power fulmi c rosc ope,t oal argeyol kofanos t
richegg( 100mm) .
TheCel lTheor y
Thec elltheor yst ates;
• Thec el listhes t
ruc t
uralandf unc ti
onaluni tofal lli
vingor gani
sms .
• Al llivingor gani smsar ec ompos edofc el
lsandc anei therbeuni cell
ularor
mul ti
cel l
ular .
• Ther eisnol i
feapar tfrom l i
feofc ells.
• Al lc ellsc omef rom t her eproduc ti
onofpr e-ex i
stingc ell
s.
• ACel lc ont ainsinf ormat ionf ori tsstructuralandf unc tionaldevelopmenti nits
nuc leicac i
ds( DNAandRNA) .Thi sinformat i
oni spas s eddownf rom par entsto
of f
s pringc ells
.
THECELLSTRUCTUREANDFUNCTI ONSOFCELLCOMPONENTS.
Struct ureOfPl antCel lAndAni malCel l
Eac hc ellisboundedbyat hinmembr aneandi tisc ompos edofapr otoplasm whi ch
canbef ur t
herdi videdi ntocyt oplas m andnucl eus .
Thecyt oplas mi saf luidmat er i
alt hatc ons i
stsofc ytopl as micorganel l
ess uchas ;
l
ys osome,gol gibodi es ,mi tochondr ion,endopl as micr ecti
c ulum,vac uoleet c.
Thenucl eusi sboundedbyanuc learmembr aneandi tismadeupofc hromos omes
(chromat ingr anul es)andnuc leolus .
Onl yani malc ell
shavec entros omes .Plantc el
lpos ses sstar chgr anules,cell
ulosec el
l
wal lands omepl as ti
ds

DI
AGRAM OFAN
ANI
MALCELL
 DIAGRAM OFA
PLANTCELL

CELLCOMPONENTSANDTHEI RFUNCTI ONS

S/N CELLCOMPONENT FUNCTI ONS
1. Cel l (i
)I tai dsi ns elec tiveabs or ptionofmat er i
alsinto
membr ane/ Plasmalemma thec ell
.
2. Cel lwal l (i
)I tal lowsf r eepas sageofnut ri
ent sinandout
oft hec ell
(i
i)Itpr ovi dess hapeandmec hani cals uppor tfor
thec ell
3. Ri bosomes I
ti sr espons iblef orpr oteins ynt hesis
4. Lys osomes Hel psi nt racellul ardi ges ti
on
5. Chl oroplast (i
)Itc ont ainsc hlor ophyl lforphot osynthes is
(i
i)Iti sthes itef ors ugars ynt hes is
6. Gol gibodi es Func ti
ons i n t he s ynt hes i
s , pac kagi ng and
distribut ionofmat erials
7. Endopl asmicr ect
icul
um Itai dst rans por tofmat erialswi thint hec ytoplasm
8. Mi tochondr ion (i
)I tist hes itef orc ellularr espi rati
onandr elease
ofener gy
(i
i)I tisknownast hepowerhous eoft hec el
l
9. Nuc l
eus (i
)Itc ont rolsal ll i
feac ti
vitiesoft hec ell
(i
i)I ts tor esher editaryi nformat i
on bec aus eit
cont ainsDNA( Deox yr ibonuc l
ei cacids)
10. Nuc eolus I
tpr oduc esr ibos omesf orpr ot einsynt hes i
s
11. Chromos ome Thes e ar et hr ead- l
ike bodi esf ound wi thint he
nuc leusofac el l.Theyc arryDNA
12. Cent r
iole Theyar ei mpor tantinc elldi vi
s i
on.
 Theyalsos erveasbas albodyfrom whi
chc i
l
iaor
fl
agel
laarise.
13. Tonopl
ast Thisi
sthemembr anet hatboundsthevacuol
e
14. Vacuol
e I
t c ontai
ns c el
l s ap whi ch ac t
s as an
osmoregulator by hel pi
ng to remove ex ces
s
waterincells
.
15. St
arc
hgr
anul
es Theystores t
archinthec el
l

Dif
fer
encesBet weenPl antAndAni malCel
ls
S/
N PLANTCELL ANI MALCELL
1. Pr esenc eofc hl
oropl ast Abs enc eofc hlor
opl ast.
2. Def initerectangulars hape Irr
egul arors pheri
c alshape.
3. Pr esenc eofr i
gidc el
lulosecel
lwall Abs enc eofr i
gidcel l
ulosec el
lwal
l.
4 Ithasnof l
exibl
ec ellmembr ane Ithasaf l
exiblecellmembr ane.
5 Largebutf ewvac uol es Smal lbutnumer ousvac uol
es.
6. Nuc l
eusi sl ocated att heedgeof Nuc leus i s at t he c enter of
thec ytoplasm. cytoplas m.
7. Abs enc e of c entri
oles and Pr esenc e of c ent rosome and
centrosome centr i
oles.
8. I tst
or esli
psasoi l Itstoreslipi
dsasf at s.

Formsi nWhi chCel l

sExi st
Livi
ngc el
lsexistindifferentf orms;someasi ndependentor ganisms ,somei n
colonies,ands omei nf il
ament swhi l
eot hersar epar tofl i
vingor ganisms .
(1)Cellasani ndependentor ganism:Or gani
s mss uc hasAmoeba,Par amec i
um,
Euglena,Chl amydomonasc ons i
stofonl yonec ell(
uni cell
ul aror ganisms).
(2)Livingcel l
sasacol ony:Someor ganis msar emadeupofmanys i
mi l
arcell
swhi ch
arejoinedormas sedtoget herbutc annotbedi fferentiatedf rom eac hother.This
aggregat ionofs imil
arc ell
si scall
edt hec olonye. g.Vol vox ,Pandor inaandSponge.
(3)Livingcel l
sasf il
ament s :Somec ell
sar eor ganisedi ntof ilamentsi nwhich
i
dent i
c alcell
sarej oi
nedf r
om endt oendt of orm unbr anc hedf il
ament s.Eachc ell
functi
onsasani ndependentc el
l.Exampl esar eOedogoni um andSpi r
ogyra.
(4)Cel l
saspar tofa l iving or ganism:I n mul t i
cellul
aror ganisms ,a group of
numer ous ,similarc el
lsar ranged t oget herand per formi ng as pec i
fi
cf unction i
s
call
edat i
ssue.Agr oupoft i
ssuesf ormsanor gan.Agr oupofor ganswhi chwor k
togethert oper forms pec i
fi
cf unc t
ionar ec al
l
edas ys tem.
Diff
erencebet weencol onialorganismsandf i
lament ousorganis ms
S/N COLONI ALORGANI SMS FI
LAMENTOUSORGANI SMS
(i
) Abs enceofintracel
lularc el
lwall Pr esenceofintracell
ularcellwall
(i
i
) Thei denti
calcell
sfor m amas s Thec el
lsform end-to- endarrangement
s
inli
nearform
(i
i
i) Cells ar e connec ted by Allcel
lsarephys i
ologicall
yindependent
.
cytoplasmic mat eri
als i.e.
phys i
ologi
call
ydependent .

WEEK5
THECELLANDI TSENVI RONMENT
DIFFUSI ON;Thi sist hepr oc essbywhi c
hmol eculesori onsofas ubs tanc emove
from ar egionofhi gherc onc entrationtoar egi
onofl owerc oncentrationunt ilthey
areevenl ydi str
ibut edort illequilibrium isreached.Thi ss ubs t
ancemaybes olid,
l
iquidorgas .
Thedi fferenc eint hec onc entrationofas ubstanc ebet weent woar easi sc all
edt he
concent rationgr adient
FactorsAf fectingt heRat eofDi ffus i
on
(1)Stateofmat ter
(2)Mol ecul ars ize
(3)Diff
er encei nconcent r
at ionofbot hr egions
(4)Temper ature
(5)Diff
us i
ondi stance
(6)Dens ity
(7)Surfacear ea
(8)Exter nalf orce
Impor t
anceOfDi ffusi
onToFl ower ingPl ants
 Movementofc arbondi oxideandox ygent hr ought hes tomataofl eavesdur i
ng
res pirat i
on.
 Ther ei s movementofgas es thr ough t he s t
omat a oft he l eaves dur i
ng
phot os ynthes i
s .
 Wat ervapourl eavingt heleavesdur ingtrans piration.
 Mi ner alupt akebypl antr oot s.
Impor t
anceOfDi ffusi
onToAni mal s
 Ex change ofnut ri
ent s,ox ygen bet ween t he f oetusand pr egnantmot her
thr ought hepl acenta.
 Gas eousex changei nmammal socc ursinthel ungsdur ingres pirationthr ough
diffus ion.
  Movementofdigest
edandsol
ubl
efoodfrom t
hevi
ll
iofsmal
lint
est
inet
othe
bl
oodstream.
 Removalofex
cretor
ypr
oduc
tsinuni
cel
l
ularor
gani
sm egamoeba

OSMOSI S;Thi si sdef inedast hef lowofwat erors olventmol eculesfrom aregionof
l
owerc onc ent rationoraweakers ol uti
ont oar egi onofhi gherc oncentr
ati
onor
strongers olut i
ont hr oughas elec tively( semi -permeabl e)ordifferenti
all
ypermeable
membr ane.
Os mos isi sas pec ialf or m ofdi ffus i
on
Condi tionsnec ess ar yf oros mos i
st ot akepl ace
 Pr es enc eofas trongs olut ion,e. g.s ugarors altsolution.
 Pr es enc eofaweaks olut i
one. g.di sti
lledwat er .
 Pr es enc eofas elec ti
velyper meabl emembr ane.
 Di fferenc ei nt hec onc ent rationofs ubs tanc es.
Theenvi ronmentofanor gani smi scl as si
fi
edasf ol l
ows :
(i
)Hypot oni cs ol
ut ion
(i
i)Hyper toni cs olut ion
(i
ii
)I s
ot oni cs olution
Os mor egul at i
on i st hepr oc ess ofmai ntaining s altand wat erbal ance(osmoti
c
balanc e)ac ros smembr aneswi thint hebodys uc hast hec ont r
acti
levacuolesin
amoebaandpar amec ium.
Pr oces sesi nwhi chOs mos i
sOccur s
 Ent er ingofwat erf rom t hes oilintot her oothai rs.
 Movementofwat erf rom onel ivingc el ltoanot her.
 Re- abs or ptionofwat erbac ki ntot heki dneyt ubules .

Differencebet weenos mos i
sanddi ffus i
on
S/N DI FFUSI ON OSMOSI S
1. Oc cur sins ol i
ds ,gas esandl iqui ds. Oc cursinl i
qui dmedi um only
2. s emi -per meabl emembr anei snot s emi -
per meabl e permeable
requi red. membr anei sr equir
ed
3. I toc c ursi nl iving and non- living I toc cur snat urall
yinlivi
ngor gani
sms
or gani sm/ c ondi tions .
4. Mol ec ulesdi ffus ei nt o anys pac e Wat ermol ec ul
esmovesbet weent wo
ac ces siblet ot hem. s oluti
ons of di f
ferent os motic
pr essur es.

Haemol
ysis
;Haemolys
isisdefi
ned asthe pr
oces
sbywhi c
hr ed bl
ood c
ellsor
cor
pusc
lesspl
i
torburstasar
esultoft
oomuc hwaterpas
singint
oit.Thi
ssi
tuati
on
willoc curwhenar edbl oodc ellisplac edi naweakerorhypot oni
cs oluti
onwher e
ther edbl oodc elltakesi nwat erandbec omess wol l
en( turgi
d)andevent uallyburst
.
Plasmol ys i
s;Plas mol ysisoc curswhenal ivi
ngc ell(plants)ispl acedinahyper toni
c
solution,wat erl eavest hec ellvac uolesandent erst hes trongers ol
ut i
onandt hi
s
caus es c ellvac uol es and t he pr otopl asm s hrink away f rom t he c el
lwal l.If
plasmol ysispr oc es sc ont i
nues ,t he c ellmembr ane wi l
ltearand t hisr esul
tsin
permanentdamageandevent ualwi l
ti
ngordeat hoft hepl ant.
Similariti
esbet weenpl as molys isandhaemol ysis
 Bot hoc c uri nlivi
ngc ell
s
 Bot hpr oc es sesmakec ellstoloset heirf unction.
 Bot hpr oc es sesc anl eadt ot hedeat hofc ell
sc onc erned.
 Bot har ei nfluenc edbyex ternalfac tor
s .
Differencesbet weenpl asmol ys i
sandhaemol ysis
S/N PLASMOLYSI S HAEMOLYSI S
1. I toc cursi npl antc ells I
toc cursi nredbl oodc el
ls
2. I tleadst ot hes hr i
nkingofpl ant I tl eadst ot he bur s
ting ofr ed blood
cel
ls cel
ls.
3. I toc cursi nhyper tonicsol uti
on I toc cursi nhypot onics olut
ion
4. Thepr oc essi srever si
ble Thepr oces sisirreversibl
e

Flaccidi
ty;Fl accidi
tyist hec ondi ti
oninwhi c hpl antlosewatert otheirs urrounding
fasterthant heyc anabs orb.Whenapl antl os esmorewat erthani tabs orbs,it
bec omesf lacc i
d.
Turgidity;Tur gidityi
sdef i
nedast heconditioni nwhi chcell
sabs orbplent yofwat er
upt oapoi ntwher et hec ellisf ull
ys t
ret
c hed.Att hispoint,thec el
liss ai
dt obe
turgid.
Crenat i
on;Thi sisthepr ocessbywhi c
hani malc ell
splacedinahyper tonics oluti
on
shrinks.
Activet rans por t;Ac tivet ranspor tisthepr oc essofmovi ng mol ec
ul esac r
os sa
cell
ularmembr anet hrought heus eofc ell
ul arener gy.Ther equir
ementf orener gy
diff
erent i
atesi tfrom os mos i
s.
Ac t
ivetrans por tisusedbyc ell
st oac cumulat eneededmol eculessuchasgl ucos e
andami noac i
ds .
PROPERTI ESANDFUNCTI ONSOFCELL
NUTRI TION
Nut ri
ti
oni sthes eri
esofpr oc essesbywhi c
hl i
vingor gansi
msobt ai
nfoods ubs t
anc es
and us et hem t o provi de ener gyand mat erialsfortheirgr owth,ac tivit
iesand
reproduc ti
on.
 Mac ronut rientsaret henut rientsyourbodyneedsi nlargeramount sonadai l
ybasis
forthepr operf unc tioningoft hebodynamel ycarbohydrates,protein,andf at.
Micronut rientsar et henut rientsyourbodyneedsi ns mall
eramount sc ompar edto
macr o- nut rients.Theyar ec ompos edofvi tamins,mineral
sandt r
ac eelement s.
MODESOFNUTRI TION
Therear et womaj ormodesoff eedingwhi chincl
ude:Aut otr
ophicand
Heter otrophi cmodesofnut riti
on.
AUTOTROPHI CNUTRI TION
Autot rophi cnut riti
oni st het ypeofnut rit
ionwher eorganismss ynthesizetheirown
foodf rom i norgani cmat eri
als.Ther earetwot ypeswhichar ephot osynthesis(whic
h
deri
veener gyf r
om s unlight)andc hemosynt hesis(whichus echemi calenergy).
PHOTOSYNTHESI S
I
tisapr oc essus edbypl antsandot heror ganismstoc onvertthel i
ghtener gy
captur edf rom thes uni ntoc hemi c
alener gyt hatcanbeus edtof ueltheorgani sm'
s
acti
vities .Phot osynt hes i
soc c ursi
npl ants,algae,ands omes pec i
esofbac teria.

Thepr ocessal waysbegi nswhenener gyf r

om l ightisabs orbedbyc hl orophyll
.Some
oft hel ightener gygat her ed byc hl
orophyl liss t
ored int hef or
m ofAdenos ine
Tri
phos phate( ATP).Ther estoft heener gyi sus ed tor emoveel ectronsf r
om a
subs t
anc es uc haswat er .Thes eelect
ronsar et henus edi nt hereac ti
onst hatturn
carbondi oxidei nt
oorgani cc ompounds .
Stagesofr eac ti
onofphot osynthes
isareLightSt ageandDar kStage.
Mat erialsAnd Condi ti
onsNeces sary Factor s Whi ch Af f
ects
ForPhot osynt hesis Phot osynt hesis
For phot os ynthesisto t ake place
,Li ghtint ensity
certainmat erialsandc ondi ti
onsmus t
beavai l
able.Thes eare:
 Carbon( i
v)ox ide  Carbon( IV)ox i
de
 Wat er  Wat er
 Chlorophyl l  Temper ature
 Sunlight  Chloropyl lconc entrati
on
 Miner alsalts  Highc onc entr
at i
onofox ygen
 Suitablet emper at
ure I nhi
bi t
or s
 Enzymes  Poll
ut i
on

CHEMOSYNTHESI
S
Thepr
oces
sbywhi
chs
omeor
ganis
msmanufac
tur
ethei
rfoodbyc
onver
ti
ngc
arbon
 mol ec
ulesintoorganicsubst
anc esusi
ngt heener gyfrom inor
ganicsubst
ancessuch
as;hydr ogensulphide,hydrogengas ,ammoni a,met haneasas our
ceofener gy
withoutt heuseofs unli
ght/solarenergy.Exampl esofor ganis
mst hatcarr
yout
chemos ynthesi
sare;Nitr
osomonas ,Nit
robacter,Blue-greenalgae

HETEROTROPHI CNUTRI TION

Het er otrophsar eor gani smst hatc annotmaket hei rownf oodr atherdependon
other sfort hei rfood/s urvival .Thet ypesofhet erot rophicnut r i
ti
oni nclude:
A.Hol oz oicNut rit
ion;Mos tani mal sar ehol oz oicandt husi nges tcompl exor gani cf ood.
Theyei therf eeds olelyonpl ant s( her bivor es ),flesh( carnivores)orbot h( omni vores )
.
Car nivor est hathuntot herl i
vingani mal s( pr ey)f orf oodar eknownaspr edat ors,
whi les cavenger sar et hos et hatf eedonl yondeadani mal s.
B.Sapr ophyt icNut riti
on: (sapr os–r ot ten,phyt on-pl ant );Sapr ophyt esar eor ganisms
whol i
veandf eedondeador gani cmat erialsandobt ainnut ri
tionf ort hei rgr owt h.
Exampl e;Muc or,yeas t.Sapr ophyt esar emos tlyf ungusand/ orbac teria.
C.Par as i
t i
cnut riti
on:Par as i
tesar eor gani s mst hatl ivei noronot herl ivingor gani sms
(calledt hehos t)gener allyr ecei vings helterandder ivingnut r
ientsf rom i t.Thos et hat
stayont heirhos tarec all
edect opar as i
teswhi lethos et hatlivewi thint hei rhos tar e
called endopar as it
es .Par as it
es i nc l
ude vi rus es,bac teri
a and f ungit hatc aus e
diseas et oani mal sandpl ant s.
D.Symbi oticorMut ualisticNut r
ition;Thi sinvol vest woor gani smst hatl ivet oget her
andbenef itfrom eac hot her .Ex ampl esar et er mi t
esandt hepr otoz oal i
vi ngi nt heir
gut .
E.Commens ali
s m:Thi si saf eedi ngr elations hipt hati nvol vest woor gani smswher eone
gainsandt heot hernei t
hergai nsnorl oos es .Ex ampl e:ther el
at i
ons hipbet ween
shar kandr emor a.
F.INSECTI VOROUSPLANTS;I ns ec ti
vor ouspl ant sar eaut otrophicbutobt ainor gani c
mat terandani malni t
rogenf r
om i nsec ts.Thes epl ant shaves pec ialdevi c esor
struc turaladapt at i
onf ort rappi nganddi ges tingi ns ec tsandot hers mal lor gani sms .
Exampl esinc lude:pi tcherpl ant s ,bladder wor t,s undew,andVenusf l
ytrap.

GROWTH
Growthisanincreaseinsi
zeandc omplexi
tyofanorganis m asaresultofcel
l
divi
si
on.Forgrowtht ooccur,t
herateofsynthesi
sofmat eri
als(
anabol i
sm)must
exceedtherateofbreaki
ngdown( cat
aboli
sm).
BASISOFGROWTH
The basisofgrowt hinvolvesthree maj
orphas esi.e.celldivi
sion (mi
tosi
s),cel
l
enlar
gementandc el
ldi
ff
erenti
ati
on.
CellDivi
si
on:Foranembr yot ogrow oratissuetoregenerate,it
sc el
lsmustdivi
de.
Ther ear et wot ypesofc elldi visi
on–mi t
os isandmei os i
s .
1.Mei osis:I tisaf or m ofdi visi
onwhi chbr i
ngsabouthal vi
ngoft hec hr omos ome
number as wel l as i nt erc hange of genet ic mat er i
al bet ween homol ogous
chr omos omes .I n ani mal s mei os ist akes pl ac e at t he f ormat ion of gamet es
(gamet ogenes is;s exc el
lss uc hass per mat oz oaandeggsorova)andi npl antsint he
repr oduc tivec el l
si .eovul esandpol lengr ains
2.Mi tos i
s( karyoki nes is):ist hepr oc essi nc el ldivisionbywhi cht henuc l
eusdi vides ,
andnor mal lyr es ultingi nt wonew i dent i
c aldaught erc ell
,eac hofwhi c hc ontainsa
compl et ec opy oft he par ent alc hr omos omes .Ti ssue r epai rand bi nar yfission
(asex ualr epr oduc tion)ar eal lmi tot icdi visions .Itoc cur sinf ourphas es :prophas e,
met aphas e,anaphas e,andt elophas e.
DIFFERENCESBETWEENMEI OSI SANDMI TOSI S
MEI OSI S MI TOSI S
1.Hapl oidnumberofc hromos omes Di ploi d number of c hr omos omes ar e
res ultaf terdi vis i
on for medaf terdi vision
2.Twos t agesofdi vis i
on Onl yas tageofdi visi
on
3.Fourdaught erc el lsar ef or med Twodaught erc ell
sar ef ormed
4.Oc cur sonl yi ns exc ells Oc cur sinbodyors omat icc ell
s
5.oc c ursi ns ex ualr epr oduc tion Oc cur sinas exualr epr oduc tion
Irri
tabi lit
y
I
r r
itabi li
tyors ens i
tivityi st heabi lityofac ellt or es pondt os timul i
.Al llivingt hings
res pondt os ti
mul i.Thec hangei nac tivityofac elli sknownasi t
sr es pons et ot he
stimul us .
Movement
Movementi sthec hangei npos itionofal ivingt hing.
Typesofmovement
Nas ti
c movement :Thes e ar er es pons ess hown by a par tofa pl antt o non-
direc ti
onals ti
mul is uc h asc hangesi nl ighti ntens ity,t emper atur e orhumi dity.
Ex ampl esar ec los i
ngoft hemor ni nggl oryf lowerwhent hel i
ghti ntens i
tyi slow.
Tact icmovement :Thi siswhenawhol eor gani sm movesdi rectlyt owar dsoraway
from as ti
mul us.
1.Phot ot ax is—i fthes ti
mul usi slight .
2.Chemot ax i
s—i ft hes timul usi sc hemi c
al
3.Ther mot ax is
—i ft hes timul usi st emper atur e
Tac ticmovementoc curi n mot ile or gani smss uch asAmoeba,Chl amydomonas ,
Eugl enaandEar thwor m.
Tropi cmovement :whenapar tofapl antmovesi nr es pons et oadi rectionals ti
mul us.
Thedi r ectionoft her espons ei sr el atedt ot hatoft hes ti
mul us,andi spos iti
vei fthe
 plantpar tsgr owt owar dst hes timulusandnegat i
vei fthepar tgr owsawayf rom it .
Phot ot ropi sm:Thi si st her espons eofpl ant st olight .Thes hoot sar epos i
tively
phot ot ropi cwhi let her oot sar enegat ivelyphot otropic.
Hydr ot ropi s
m:Thi si st her espons eofpl ant st o wat er .Ther ootsar epos i
tively
hydr otr opi cwhi let hes hoot sar enegat i
velyhydr ot r
opi c.
Geot ropi sm:Thi si st he r es pons e ofpl antst o gr avity.The r ootsar e pos i
tively
geot ropi cwhi let hes hoot sar enegat ivelygeot ropi c
.
REPRODUCTI ON
Thisi st heabi l
ityofanor gani smt opr oduc eof fs pri
ngs .Thisal lowsl i
fet oc onti
nue.
Ther ear et wot ypesofr epr oduc ti
on:s ex ualrepr oduc t
ionandas exualrepr oduction.
ASEXUALREPRODUCTI ON
I
n as ex ualr epr oduc t
ion,one i ndivi
dualpr oduc esof fspring t hatar e genet i
c all
y
i
dent i
c alt oits elf.Thes eof fs pringar epr oduc edbymi tos is.Commonf ormsi ncl
ude:
1.Binar yf issione. g.,amoeba,eugl ena,par amec ium.
2.Buddi nge. g.,yeas t,hydr a,t apewor m
3.Fragment ati
one. g.,spir ogyr a,pl anarians
4.Veget at i
vePr opagat i
on:Ther ear et wot ypes–Nat ur aland Ar t
if
ici
alVeget ative
propagat ion.
Nat uralVeget at i
ve Pr opagat ion:Thi si st he us e ofnat uralpar tsofpl antst o
reproduc eand getnew i ndi viduals.Suc h par tincludess tems ,leavesand r oot s.
Exampl e:
 Plantingofc reepi ngs temse. g.el ephantgr ass .
 Plantingofunder gr ounds temsands hoot ss uc hasr hizomese. g.s peargr ass,ginger
andc annal i
ly.
 Stem t uber se. g.I rishpot ato,t igernut s
 Sucker se. g.banana,pl ant ai nandpi neappl e.
 Bulbse. g.oni oni soneofmanyf ormsofnat ur alveget ativer epr oduc ti
on.
Artifi
cialVeget at ivePr opagat ion:Thi si nvol vest heus eofi ntelli
genc ebymant o
grownewpl ant sf rom c utpor tionoft heveget ati
vebodyofanol derpar entpl ant .I
t
canbec ar r
iedoutby:
 Cuttinge. g.c ass ava,c anes ugarandmos tgar dens hrubs .
 Layer inge. g.bougai nvillea,c oc oaandc ola
 Graftinge. g.Or ange,gr apef ruit
Mar cot tinge. g.mango
DIFFERENCESBETWEENSEXUALANDASEXUALREPRODUCTI ON
SEXUALREPRODUCTI ON ASEXUALREPRODUCTI ON
Twopar ent sar ei nvol ved Onepar ent
Mei os i
sar eus edf orr epr oduc tion Mi t
os isareus edf orr epr oduction
I
tbr ingsaboutvar iation Ther ei snovar iati
on
 Popul ationgr owt hr ateiss l
ow Populationgr owt hrat ei sfast
SIMI LARTI TI ESBETWEENSEXUALANDASEXUALREPRODUCTI ON
1.Allowsf orc ont i
nuat i
onofs pec i
es
2.Of fs
pr i
nghavet hes amenumberofc hromos omesast hepar entc ell
3.Bot hmakeus eofc elldivi
sion
EXCRETI ON
Exc reti
oni st her emovalofwas t
epr oduc tofmet abol i
smf r
om t hebody.Was te
produc tsar eoughtt ober emovedbec auset heyar epoi sonousandmay/ c ancause
har mi fnotr emoved.
EXCRETORYORGANSANDPRODUCTSOFSOMEORGANI SM
1.Pr otoz oae. g.Amoeba,Eugl ena:itus esi tsbodys urfaceandc ont ractil
evac uol
efor
exc r
et i
onandex cretesc arbondi ox i
de,wat erandex cessmi nerals alt.
2.Flat wor mse. g.t apewor m:i tusesf l
amec ell
sandex creteswat er,urea,c arbon
dioxide&ni trogenouswas te.
3.Roundwor mse. g.ear thwor ms:Us esnephr idaandex cretescar bondi oxi
de,ur ea
andni tr
ogenouswas te.
4.I
ns ec t
se. g.c oc kroac h:us esMal pighiant ubulesandex cretesc arbondi oxide,water
andur icac id.
5.Flower ingpl ant se.g.hi biscus;usess tomat aandl ent i
celsandex creteswat er,
oxygen,al kal oids ,gums ,muc i
lage,li
pi ds,latex,resinandoi l
s.
6.Ver tebratese. g.Man;us eslungs ,skin,liver,kidneyandex cr
eteswat er ,c
ar bon
dioxide,mi ner als alts,sweatandni trogenouswas te

FORMSI
NWHI
CHWASTEPRODUCTSAREEXCRETED

1. LI
QUI DFORM:Ex ampl
e;ur
ea,urine,sweat,water,gum,lat
ex.
2. Gaseousform;Exampl
esare;ox
ygen,c ar
bondi oxide,ammoni
agas.
3. Sol
idforms:uri
cacidi
nsomeanimal s
,tannins
,alkaloi
dsandmuci
lagei
npl
ant
s.