1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Terms of Reference

Following the successful construction of a Pilot Project on the Athens – Korinthos Highway
in 2002, Messrs Aktor were awarded a contract by the Greek national road authority for
similar works to be carried out over the entire highway between Iliki, Athens and Korinthos.
Included in this contract is the rehabilitation of sections by recycling / foamed bitumen
stabilisation with Loudon International nominated as consulting engineers responsible for
the design.

Four sections, totaling some 21km of highway (±600,000m2 surface area) were earmarked
for rehabilitation by recycling; the remaining ±100km is to be reinforced by the construction
of additional asphalt layers. Two of the recycling sections lie on the Athens – Iliki highway,
the other two between Athens and Korinthos. Engineers from Loudon International and
Aktor commenced work on field investigations early in July 2003 to determine the optimal
design prior to starting the recycling work in September.

1.2 Scope of This Report

This report covers the investigation, design and recommendations for rehabilitating the two
sections of existing pavement that lie west of Athens on the main Korinthos highway (see
Fig 1. Locality Plan above). Those sections falling on the Athens – Iliki highway north of the
city are covered by a second report. Each report is independent of each other.

Both sections of the existing highway comprise a six-lane, divided dual carriageway facility.
The respective distress condition and pavement composition are not the same for both
carriageways requiring that each be treated separately, defined thus:

Section 1 (This section extends westwards from ±2km west of the Elefsina Toll Station)
Carriageway AK1: Westbound (towards Korinthos) – km 30+100 to km 36+200 (6.100km)
Carriageway KA1: Eastbound (towards Athens) – km 29+800 to km 36+200 (6.400km)

Section 2 (This section extends westwards from the western end of the Kakia Skalis tunnels)
Carriageway AK2: Westbound (towards Korinthos) – km 53+970 to km 57+180 (3.210km)
Carriageway KA2: Eastbound (towards Athens) – km 53+970 to km 57+370 (3.400km)

Four separate sections of carriageway are therefore included in this report that describes
the existing pavement conditions and field investigations that were undertaken on each.
This is followed by rehabilitation design options and a discussion on these options that lead
to conclusions and recommendations.

This report is essentially concerned with matters relating to pavement rehabilitation. Not
included are assessments and/or improvements to road furniture, road safety and road
geometry.

1.3 Available Information

No as-built construction data was available and there are apparently no detailed records of
maintenance operations that have been carried out on these highways.

It was reported that the portion of highway between Athens and Korinthos that includes
Sections 1 and 2 was upgraded to a six-lane dual carriageway facility some ten years ago.
It is understood that this upgrading involved heavy earthworks for the widening of each
carriageway, followed by the construction of new pavement layers.

2
 As explained by local engineers, the presence of a New Jersey barrier along the centre
median island indicates that the pavement includes a cement-treated base (locally known
as CBM, an abbreviation for cemented base material). Where guardrails replace the New
Jersey barrier, a graded crushed stone base was substituted for CBM in the base.

The CBM base was supposedly constructed in 2 x 19cm thick layers and was overlain with
100mm asphalt base and wearing course. Investigations carried out for the Pilot Project
showed that these layers varied considerably in both thickness and strength, indicating a
high degree of non-uniformity in the pavement. In addition, premature failures that had
occurred on these sections of highway were shown to emanate from the upper portions of
the CBM, probably caused by overstressing during construction. These failed areas had
been repaired by excavating to depths varying from 75mm to over 300mm and backfilling
with hot-mix asphalt, thereby compounding the non-uniformity of the pavement structure.

No pavement information was available for those sections of highway that included a crushed
stone base. This necessitated a relatively intense programme of field investigations.

2 EXISTING CONDITIONS

2.1 Existing Road

Both carriageways generally consists of a 0.75m shoulder adjacent to the median, three x
3.8m wide lanes, plus a 2.8m wide emergency lane / shoulder adjacent to the slow lane at
the outer extremity of the pavement. The median is approximately 2m wide with a concrete
New Jersey barrier or guardrail.

2.8m ± 3.8 - 3.8 - 3.8 - 0.75m 3.8 - 3.8 - 3.8 -

3-3.5m
20cm 3.85m slow 3.85m 3.85m fast shoulder 3.85m fast 3.85m 3.85m slow
emergency
emergency lane middle lane lane middle lane
lane
lane lane lane

V-drain ±2m New

(where Jersey
present) barrier

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of dual carriageway cross-section.

The geometry of the road may be described as curvilinear with long large-radius horizontal
curves separated by relatively short tangents as the alignment follows the southern
coastline of Greece. The vertical alignment is rolling in sympathy with the surrounding hilly
terrain.

Surface drainage appears to be competent with concrete-lined side drains at the outer edge
where the superelevation sheds water in that direction. Where runoff is towards the centre-
line, slots at the base of the New Jersey barrier or lined drains behind the guardrail lead the
water into drop-inlets under the median. These are drained by collector pipes running
parallel to the road, under the median, before discharging into one of the cross-drain
culverts.

2.2 Traffic

The design traffic is 30 million equivalent 80kN axles.

3
3 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS

With limited information available on the existing pavement structure, it was considered
necessary to carry out intensive field investigations. These are explained in detail in the
following sections and summarised under Section 3.6.

3.1 Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) Survey

The Department of Transportation Planning and Engineering of the National Technical

University of Athens (NTUA) carried out a comprehensive FWD survey during July/August
2003. Deflection measurements were recorded at 100m intervals along each traffic lane
and shoulder (i.e. 4 measurements per 100m of each carriageway) using a Dynatest 8002
testing device. A description of the methodology employed and sections tested, as
compiled by the NTUA is included and appears in Appendix A.

The FWD survey was necessary for two reasons; first to assist in delineating the pavement
into uniform sections of equivalent pavement strength and secondly to provide information
for analysing in-situ pavement components that are necessary as primary input for
structural modelling to determine rehabilitation strategies.

The maximum deflection was analysed using the "cumulative sum" method to identify
sections with similar response, known as "uniform sections". These uniform sections were
then checked by analysing the Surface Curvature Index (SCI = maximum deflection –
deflection 300mm from load centre) and adjusted when necessary. The uniform sections
derived from these analyses are shown in Figure 3 below.

Section 1
km 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

30+3 31+100 34+000

30+06

Carriageway AK1 to to to
31+1 34+000 36+160

29+8 30+300 33+000 34+000

Carriageway KA1 to to to to
30+3 30+000 34+000 36+200

Section 2
km 53 54 55 56 57 58

54+000 55+200 56+200 56+8

Carriageway AK2 to to to to
55+200 56+200 56+800 57+2

54+000 56+300
Carriageway KA2 to to
56+300 57+400

Figure 3. Preliminary uniform sections derived from FWD deflections

3.2 Visual Assessment

Detailed visual inspections of the various sections of road were carried out during
July/August 2003, in general accordance with the South African technical guidelines “TRH

4
 6: 1985 – Nomenclature and Methods for Describing the Condition of Asphalt Pavements”
and “Draft TRH12: 1997 – Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Investigation and Design”. The
sections of road were pre-marked every 20m, referenced from survey stations that were
provided by Aktor.

The detailed visual inspection was carried out by walking the road and noting the different
forms and severity of distress evident in the pavement, as well as other pertinent aspects
with regards to drainage, cut / fill conditions, vegetation and surfacing type.

3.2.1 Athens to Korinthos, Section1. (Carriageways AK1 and KA1)

This section starts approximately 2 kilometres

west of the Elefsina toll station, extending
westwards towards Korinthos.

The existing surface is asphalt. The surfacing is

showing signs of severe cracking; the main types
of cracks being longitudinal cracks, star
patterned, and crocodile cracks. The majority of
these surfacing cracks (as illustrated in Figure 4)
are classic thermal cracks normally associated
with volume changes due to temperature
variations – these generally occur in aged or stiff
asphalt. Secondary crocodile cracks have Figure 4: Surfacing cracks
propagated from these initial cracks, primarily
along the surfacing construction joints. Cracking is confined mainly to the slow and middle
lanes with isolated areas in the fast and emergency/shoulder lanes.

Longitudinal cracks are a common feature at construction joints in the asphalt surfacing,
probably caused by differential movement between the adjacent surfacing layers and/or
poor compaction at the joint. Transverse cracking is also evident in some sections, mainly
as extended thermal cracks.

Localised failures with severe crocodile cracking and pumping of fines from the underlying
base material (with related depressions) were evident in the cemented base section,
indicating that crushing of the CBM surface has occurred. This failure mechanism was
identified previously on the Pilot Project.

Extensive patching was observed along large

areas of the slow and middle lanes (see Figure 5)
intensifying towards the western end of Section 1.
These patches fall in the CBM sections and are
clearly evidence of the intensive mill and backfill
with hot mix asphalt carried out several years ago.
Some patches (<5%) show cracks at the edges
and, in some cases, have failed with severe
crocodile cracks occurring within the patch.

The riding quality over this section has suffered as

a result of the extensive patching operations.
Distress categorisation for this project has adopted
the criteria defined in the South African guideline Figure 5. Patching in CBM sections.
document "Draft TRH12: 1997 – Flexible Pavement
Rehabilitation Investigation and Design”. Sound, warning and severe categories have been
assessed for individual 100m linear sections, separating the carriageway cross-section into
the various trafficked lanes, emergency, slow, middle and fast. A summary of this analysis
appears in Table 1 below. The detailed assessment is contained in Appendix B.

5
 Table 1. Summary of Visual Distress
Cracking Deformation and Rutting Patching
Distress Sound Warning Severe Sound Warning Severe Sound Warning Severe
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Criteria
<5 5 – 15 > 15 <5 5 – 15 > 15 < 10 10 - 30 > 30
(% / unit area)
KA1 Shoulder 94 6 98 2 92 3 5
Slow 39 19 42 86 8 6 72 17 11
Middle 23 31 46 100 77 16 7
Fast 77 20 3 100 89 6 5
AK1 Shoulder 92 8 100 100
Slow 32 34 34 74 13 13 71 10 19
Middle 35 34 31 100 71 11 18
Fast 89 11 100 94 3 3

Concrete kerbs / channels (as shown in Figure 6)

along the outside of the shoulder edge drain
surface-water runoff to drop inlets. Where
superelevated, open drains or gravel verges occur.
The inlets to the drains and the drains themselves
appeared clear of debris and functional. Several
drainage-related problems were observed where
the concrete channel lip was some 20 to 40mm
higher than the surfacing (detailed in Figure 6),
thereby restricting water from entering the drain.

New jersey barriers with inlet slots (at the base) or

guardrails with concrete kerbs and channels
(behind the guardrails) were evident along the Figure 6. Step surfacing / channel
median.

3.2.2 Athens to Korinthos, Section 2. (Carriageways AK2 and KA2)

This section is located immediately west of the topographic feature known as Kakia Skalis.
Due to construction activities on the tunnels project at Kakia Skalis, the decision was taken
to start the visual inspection at km 54 where
the new works tied in the original alignment.

A thin overlay was recently applied over the

original surface over large portions of the
slow and middle lanes as a holding
measure (see Figure 7) to prevent pieces of
asphalt “popping” out of the pavement
surface. The underlying surfacing is
severely cracked and deformed due to
aging. Whilst the thin overlay assists in
holding the blocks of underlying asphalt
together, it does little to hide these defects –
cracks from the underlying surface are
already reflecting through this thin overlay.
Figure 7: Thin overlay and chip loss
As illustrated in Figure 7, the areas not recently overlaid (the emergency lane and fast
lanes) are characterised by loss of aggregate from the aged asphalt.

Isolated cracking and deformation is also evident in the emergency lane of the eastbound
carriageway, KA2. The westbound carriageway, AK2, has a concrete edge beam and
gravel verge between km 54.0 and km 56.2. The remainder of this carriageway has a
concrete side drain. The eastbound carriageway, KA2, has a deep concrete side drain
6
 along the emergency lane between km 54.0 and 56.0. The remainder of this carriageway
also has the normal shallow concrete side drain.

Due to the overlays masking defects, no attempt was made to tabulate / categorise distress
levels. The detailed assessment is included in Appendix B.

3.3 Test Pit Investigations

A total of eleven test pits were excavated to a total depth of 1m at the locations shown in
Table 2, below. Each testpit was selected with the objective of positioning at least one
testpit within each uniform section identified from deflection measurements (refer section
3.1 above). Also included were areas of severe distress as well as areas with little or no
distress in an attempt to understand the mechanisms causing distress in the pavement.
Test pits were excavated using a Wirtgen W1000 milling machine to remove the asphalt
and layers of cemented base material. A backhoe excavator was then used to remove the
underlying materials to a depth of 1m.

The overall objective of excavating these test pits was to identify the pavement profile. This
included:

- individual layer composition;

- the precise thickness of each individual layer; and
- in-situ conditions of the materials within the individual component layers.

Representative samples from each different layer encountered were retained for laboratory
testing, including bulk samples from the upper layers for foamed bitumen mix designs.
Standard soil tests (CBR, Atterberg limits and sieve analysis) were carried out in order to
classify the pavement materials. Results of all laboratory tests appear in Appendix C3.

Table 2. Test Pit Locations – Athens to Korinthos Highway

Section Direction Location
Section 1 Athens to Korinthos km 30+400 Middle lane
Carriageway AK1 km 33+500 Slow lane
km 35+900 Slow lane
Korinthos to Athens km 31+300 Slow lane
Carriageway KA1 km 32+500 Middle lane
km 35+100 Slow lane
Section 2 Athens to Korinthos km 54+380 Middle lane
Carriageway AK2 km 55+580 Slow lane
km 56+480 Middle lane
Korinthos to Athens km 54+980 Middle lane
Carriageway KA2 km 56+780 Slow lane

Three general types of pavement structure were identified from these test pits, as illustrated
in Figure 8, below. These pavements are totally different and fall within three categories:

- Thick Asphalt Pavement, consisting of thick asphalt layers (in excess of 20cm), in
places overlying a layer of penetration macadam on granular material;
- Cemented Base Pavement, consisting of a relatively thin asphalt surfacing on a
cement-treated base (CBM) of varying thickness and strength overlying both processed
(crushed) and natural granular material; and
- Granular Base Pavement, consisting of asphalt of varying thickness (12cm to 17cm)
overlying high-quality crushed granular material on natural granular material.

Photographs of all test pits together with detailed logs are included in Appendix C.

7
 Thick Asphalt Cemented Base Granular Base
Pavement Pavement Pavement

Asphalt. Asphalt.
Total thickness Total thickness
Several layers 8 – 16cm 12 – 17cm
of asphalt.
Total thickness Stabilised
23 – 44cm crushed
Limestone
25 - 40 cm Crushed
(full depth not Limestone
recovered in 25 - 60 cm
Penetration many cores) (not recovered
macadam during coring)
± 15cm

Crushed Crushed Crushed

Limestone Limestone Limestone
(Drainage layer) (Drainage layer) (Drainage layer)
Natural
Natural granular
granular
Natural granular Natural granular subgrade
subgrade subgrade
subgrade

Figure 8: Pavement Structures

3.3.1 Thick Asphalt Pavement (Figure 9.)

This pavement comprises several layers of asphalt, paved at various stages of upgrading
and maintenance. The total thickness of these
layers was measured as varying between 23cm and
44cm. The condition of the different layers of Asssppphhhaaalllttt
A
A
asphalt is highly variable, ranging from a dry, brittle
condition to relatively flexible. The condition clearly
depends on age and the initial quality of asphalt
when paved.

In Section 1 (Carriageway KA1), between A

Asssppphhhaaalllttt
A
approximately km 30+500 and km 32+500, a
penetration macadam layer (coarse aggregate Peeennneeetttrrraaatttiiiooonnn
P
P
treated with bitumen) was found beneath the m
mmaaacccaaadddaaam mm
asphalt. This penetration macadam layer was
encountered in isolated areas within some of the CCCrrruuussshhheeeddd
other sections. It is understood that this formed part meeessstttooonnneee
llliiim
m
of the original road prior to upgrading to dual
carriageway Figure 9: Thick asphalt pavement

Where there was no penetration macadam, the asphalt was underlain by 20 – 30cm of
graded crushed limestone. The graded crushed limestone was generally of very dense
consistency with moisture contents marginally below optimum moisture content. The
plasticity index (PI) of the crushed limestone was determined from laboratory test results to
be generally non-plastic. However, some results of 7 to 9 were obtained on samples taken
from Section 2.

The subgrade was constructed from weathered limestone gravel material obtained from
local cuttings and borrows. These weathered limestone gravels were generally dense to
medium dense in consistency with moisture contents slightly below or close to optimum
moisture content. The natural weathered limestone gravel is highly variable in quality. PI
8
 values range from non-plastic to 19 and CBR strengths (at 95% of modified AASHTO
density) ranging between 40 and 120%. Some limestone gravels with high coarse fractions
show CBR values in excess 100% (see Appendix C3 for detailed results).

3.3.2 Cemented Base Pavement (Figure 10.)

The cemented base pavement was found at the extremities of both Sections 1 and 2.

The asphalt overlying the cemented base ranged

from 8 to 16cm in thickness and was in similar
condition to the pavement with thick asphalt layers. Asssppphhhaaalllttt
A
A

The cemented base material was constructed from Ceeem

C
C meeennnttteeeddd
m
a graded crushed limestone. The test pits and BBaaassseee 111
B
some of the recovered cores show that the C
C meeennnttteeeddd
Ceeem
m
cemented base consists of 2 layers with the total BBaaassseee 222
B
thickness between 25 and 40cm. The consistency
of the material, found in the test pits and recovered CCCrrruuussshhheeeddd
cores, is very dense but the limited recovery of the meeessstttooonnneee
llliiim
m
CBM from some of the cores seems to suggest that
weak planes exist within these layers. In addition, Weeeaaattthhheeerrreeeddd
W
W
the CBM in some cores sheared and fragmented meeessstttooonnneee
llliiim
m
whilst coring. Test results indicated that the in-situ
moisture content of this material was well below
optimum moisture content. Figure 10. Cemented base pavement

Underlying the cemented base layers is a graded crushed limestone layer, approximately
15cm thick. The material in this layer has properties similar the crushed limestone found in
the base of the granular base pavement (described below). The consistency of this layer
was recorded as very dense and the moisture content as slightly moist.

The subgrade material is natural weathered limestone as described above for the thick
asphalt pavement.

3.3.3 Granular Base Pavement (Figure 11.)

Asssppphhhaaalllttt
A
A
This pavement type was found mainly in Section 1
between km 30+500 and km 34+000 on the Athens
– Korinthos carriageway (AK1) and on both Crrruuussshhheeeddd
C
C
meeessstttooonnneee 111
llliiim
m
carriageways for most of Section 2.
Crrruuussshhheeeddd
C
C
The asphalt found on these sections of pavement meeessstttooonnneee 222
LLLiiim
m
was in similar condition to that found on the other
pavement types. The total thickness of the asphalt
Weeeaaattthhheeerrreeeddd
W
W
layers ranged from 12 to 17cm. The asphalt in llliiim
meeessstttooonnneee
m
Section 2 is severely cracked and a thin overlay was
recently applied to prevent pieces of surfacing
becoming dislodged with passing traffic.

The granular base material is similar to the graded

crushed limestone found in the other pavement Figure 11. Granular base pavement
sections. The granular base is generally in two
layers with the total thickness ranging from 25 to
60cm. A possible third layer was included where the total thickness exceeds 30cm but the
construction horizon was not always obvious.

The consistency of the material in the graded crushed limestone layers was dense to very
dense with moisture contents well below optimum moisture content. The plasticity index of
9
 the material within these layers ranged from non-plastic to 9. The CBR values obtained at
95% modified AASHTO compaction were all in excess of 70% (see Appendix C3 for
detailed results).

The material in the subgrade is natural weathered limestone, as described above for the
thick asphalt pavement.

3.4 Core Investigation

In addition to the test pit investigation, 81 cores were drilled within these two sections. The
purpose of extracting these cores was to determine:

- the extent of the three pavement structures identified in the test pit investigation;
- the asphalt thickness; and
- where present, the thickness of the CBM layers.

The core investigation confirmed the pavement structures identified from the test pits and
provided the information required to identify uniform sections of similar pavement structure.
These uniform sections, originally identified from deflection measurements, can be refined
and identified from these investigations, as illustrated in Figure 12 below.

Section 1
Km 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

Granular Base Cemented Base (CBM)

CBM

Carriageway AK1
30+300 to km 34+000 34+000 to 36+160

Granular
Thick Asphalt Base Base Cemented Base (CBM)
Carriageway KA1 CBM 33+0
30+300 to 33+000 to 33+900 to 36+200
34+0

Section 2
Km 53 54 55 56 57 58

Granular Granular
Granular Base CBM
Base Base
54+000 56+800
Carriageway AK2 55+200 56+200
to to
to to
55+200 57+200
56+200 56+800

CBM
Granular Base
56+300
Carriageway KA2
to
53+969 to 56+300
57+369

Figure 12. Uniform sections defined from core and test pit information
Many cores drilled through CBM failed to recover all the bound material. From those
successively recovered in Section 1, eight CBM cores were selected for unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) testing and the results appear in Table 3.

Table 3. UCS test results on selected core samples

Carriageway Location (km) Position in pavement UCS (MPa)

10
 KA1 30+200 Upper base / slow lane 10
AK1 30+200 Lower base / middle lane 9
KA1 30+500 Upper base / slow lane 11
AK1 34+500 Upper base / middle lane 9
KA1 34+500 Upper base / fast lane 12
AK1 34+800 Upper base / slow lane 11
AK1 34+800 Upper base / middle lane 16
KA1 35+900 Upper base / slow lane 14

Detailed core logs are included in Appendix D.

3.5 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) Investigation

DCP probes were driven on both carriageways at intervals varying between 200m and
300m. The number of probes driven at each location varied between two and four, one per
lane (including the shoulder), alternating between the inner and outer wheel-paths. The
purpose of conducting this survey was to determine the underlying support conditions, the
results indicating in-situ bearing strengths / stiffness, as well as consistency.

The asphalt, CBM and most of the crushed limestone material could not be penetrated by
the DCP. A large impact-type masonry drill was therefore employed to drill a hole to a
depth of ±600mm from where the DCP probe was started. A standard depth of 1000mm
(one rod) was probed, providing information on the material lying in the horizon of ±600mm
to 1000mm below road surface level.

Raw DCP data (number of blows / depth of penetration) was reduced using the DCP
Analyzer software package. All analyses are included in Appendix E.

Analyses revealed a relatively consistent subgrade extending over the entire area of road
investigated. These results were used as primary input for the analysis of FWD data (back
calculations), thereby improving the confidence of the results thus obtained.

3.6 Summary of Field Investigations

The following pages summarise the findings of all field investigations. Four pages are
included, one for each carriageway for both Sections 1 and 2. All uniform sections are
detailed together with the relevant parameters for each component identified in the existing
pavement structure. Since this highway is part of the primary road network in Greece,
statistical analyses have been followed in determining the 95th percentile (level of
confidence) for all parameters that are required for pavement design purposes. These
values are shown in the table associated with each uniform section.

11