Module 3.

1: Research Methodology
What Will You Learn In This Section?

 Research methodology: quantitative and qualitative methods

o Types of quantitative research: experimental, correlational, descriptive
o Types of qualitative research
o Qualitative versus quantitative comparison
 Sampling, credibility, generalizability and bias in research
Research Methodology: Quantitative And Qualitative
Methods
 All research methods used in psychology can be categorized as either
quantitative or qualitative. Data in quantitative research comes in the form of
numbers.
 The goal of quantitative research is usually to arrive at numerically expressed
regularities that characterize the behavior of large groups of individuals (i.e.
universal laws).This is much like the aim of the natural sciences in which it has
been the ideal for a long time to have a set of simple rules that describe the
behavior of all material objects throughout the universe (think about laws of
gravity in classic Newtonian physics, for example). In philosophy of science
such orientation on deriving universal laws is called the nomothetic approach.
 Quantitative research operates with variables Any characteristic that can be
objectively registered and quantified is a variable, which means “something that
can take on varying values”. Since psychology deals with a lot of “internal”
characteristics that are not directly observable, they need to be operationalized
first. For this reason, there’s an important distinction between constructs and
operationalizations.
 A construct is any theoretically defined variable, for example, violence,
aggression, attraction, memory, attention, love, anxiety. To define a construct,
you give it a definition which delineates it from other similar (and dissimilar)
constructs. Such definitions are based on theories. As a rule constructs cannot be
directly observed: they are called constructs for a reason—we have
“constructed” them based on theory.
 To enable research, constructs need to be operationalized. Operationalization of
a construct means expressing it in terms of observable behavior. For example, to
operationalize verbal aggression, you might look at “number of abusive
comments per hour” or “number of swear words per 100 words in most recent
Facebook posts.”
 To operationalize anxiety, you can look at self-report scores on an anxiety
questionnaire, levels of cortisol (the stress hormone) in your bloodstream, or
weight loss. As you can see, there are usually several ways a construct can be
operationalized; the researcher needs to use creativity in designing a good
 operationalization that captures the essence of the construct while being directly
observable and reliably measurable.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research Is Of Three Types

1) Experimental Studies:

 The experiment in its simplest form includes

a)independent variable (IV) :- The IV is the one manipulated by the researcher
b)one dependent variable (DV): DV is expected to change as IV changes.
c)while the other potentially important variables are controlled.
 For example, if you want to study the effect of psychotherapy on depression,
you can randomly divide participants into two groups:
a)the experimental group will receive psychotherapy while
b)the control group will not.
 After a while, you can measure the level of depression by conducting a
standardized clinical interview (diagnosis) with each of them. In this case, the
IV is psychotherapy. You manipulate the IV by changing its value: yes or no.
 DV is depression; it is operationalized through a standardized diagnostic
procedure. If the DV differs in two groups, you can conclude that the change in
IV “caused” the change in DV.This is why experiment is the only method that
allows us to infer cause and effect.
2)Correlational Studies.

 Correlational studies differ from experiments in that the researcher does not
manipulate any variables (there are no IVs or DVs). The relationship between
variables is measured and quantified.
 For example, to find out if there is any relationship between violent behavior
among adolescents and the amount of time they spend watching violent
television programs, you can recruit a sample of adolescents and measure their
violent behavior (by self-report, peer assessment, or even observation in natural
settings) and average number of hours per day spent watching violent television
programs.
 You can then correlate the two variables using a formula. Suppose you obtained
a large positive correlation. This means that there is a trend in the data: the more
time a teen spends watching violent shows, the more violent he is.
 However, cause and effect cannot be inferred from correlational studies. Since
you did not manipulate one of the variables, you do not know the direction of
the effect. It could be that watching violence influences violent behavior (that
would probably be the most popular, intuitive assumption). However, it is also
possible that teenagers who behave violently choose to watch violent television
programs. Or there may even be a third variable (such as low self-esteem) that
 influences both violent behavior and viewing violence on television.
What you observe “on the surface” is just that – “correlation”, the fact that one
variable changes as the other changes.
3)Descriptive Studies

 In descriptive studies, relationships between variables are not examined and

variables are approached separately.
 An example of a descriptive quantitative study might be a public opinion poll.
We ask questions (eg, “Do you support the current policies of the president?”)
and are interested in the distribution of responses to that particular question.
Descriptive studies are often used in sociology and are sometimes used in
psychology
Before you “dive deep” into the specs, do extensive research on the
phenomenon.
Qualitative Research
 Different is qualitative research. The in-depth investigation of a specific
phenomenon is its primary focus. “Depth” refers to entering the realm of human
experience, interpretation, and meaning beyond what can be objectively
measured and quantified.
 Qualitative research uses such data collection methods as interviews or
observations. Data comes in the form of texts: interview transcripts, observation
notes, and so on. Data interpretation involves a degree of subjectivity, but the
analysis is deeper than we can usually achieve with quantitative approaches. In
the philosophy of science, such an orientation towards an in-depth analysis of a
specific case or phenomenon (without trying to derive universally applicable
laws) is called the idiographic approach.
Parameter Quantitative research Qualitative research

Purpose Nomothetic approach: derive universally Idiographic approach: in-

applicable laws depth understanding of a spe
phenomenon

Data Numbers Texts

Focus Behavioral manifestations Human experiences, interpre

(operationalizations) meanings

Objectivity More objective (the researcher is More subjective (the research

discarded from the studied reality) included in the studied reality

Sampling, Credibility, Generalizability And Bias In

Research
 Sampling, credibility, generalizability, and bias are some of the characteristics
used to describe a research study and assess its quality. These characteristics are
universal to the social sciences, but quantitative and qualitative researchers may
approach them very differently, sometimes even with vastly different sets of
terms to express the same ideas. So it’s important that you understand both of
these umbrella terms and how they are broken down in quantitative versus
qualitative research.
Quantitative research Qualitative research

Overarching Experimental studies Correlational studies

concepts

Sampling Random Stratified Self- Same Quota sampling Purposi

selected Opportunity Theoretical sampling Sn
sampling Convenience s

Generalizability External validity: Population validity Construct Sample-to-population ge

 Population validity validity Case-to-case generalizat
 Ecological validity Theoretical generalizatio
Construct validity

Credibility Internal validity: to what No special term used: Credibility =

extent is the DV influenced by “validity” and “credibility” can be trustworthiness. What’s
the IV and not by some other used interchangeably findings leave on an imp
variable? If no biases occur the credibility reality?
Controlling for confounding will be high Triangulation Establishi
variables: removing or keeping Iterative questioning Ref
constant under all conditions Credibility checks Thick
descriptions

Bias Threats to internal validity: – At the level of variable Participant bias-

Selection measurement: depends on the  Acquiescence
 History method of measurement On the  Social desirability
 Maturation level of interpretation of findings:  Dominant responden
 Testing effect  Curvilinear relationships  Sensitivity
 Instrumentation  Third variable problem Researcher bias: –
 Regression to the mean Confirmation bias
 Spurious correlations
 Experimental mortality  Leading questions bi
 Experimenter partiality  Question order bias
 Demand characteristics  Sampling bias

Module 3.2: Quantitative research: the

experiment
What Will You Learn In This Section?

 Confounding variables
 Types of experiment
 Sampling in the experiment
 o Random sampling
o Stratified sampling
o Opportunity sampling
o Self-selected sampling
 Experimental designs
o Independent measures design
o Matched pairs design; matching variable
o Repeated measures design; order effects; counterbalancing
 Credibility and generalizability in the experiment: types of validity
o Construct validity
o Internal validity
o External validity: population and ecological

Confounding Variables
 Variables that can potentially confound the relationship between IV and DV
(like Z in the above example) are called confounding variables. They contribute
to bias. These variables need to be controlled, either by eliminating them or
keeping them constant across all participant groups, so that they do not affect
the comparison.
 For example, imagine that you manipulate X and observe the resulting changes
in Y. However, every time you manipulate X, you also inadvertently change Z.
In fact, it is Z that causes Y to change, but you mistakenly conclude that X (your
IV) is the cause of Y , thereby incorrectly confirming your hypothesis. If this
sounds too abstract, consider the following example: X is sleep deprivation
(which you manipulate by waking up one group of participants every 15
minutes while they are asleep while a control group sleeps normally) and Y is
memory performance (which you measure). a simple memory test in the
morning). Without realizing that this may be an important factor, you let the
control group sleep at home while the experimental group sleeps in the lab
under the supervision of the experimenter. So
There is another variable, the Z variable: stress caused by an unfamiliar
environment. It could be that in this experiment it was the unfamiliar
environment (Z) that caused the reduction in memory performance (Y) rather
than the sleep deprivation (X).
Types Of Experiment

1. Laboratory experiments
o Laboratory experiments are performed in a controlled environment. using standardized
procedures, Truth participants are randomly allocated to experimental groups.
2. In a real environment, field experiments are carried out. The IV is manipulated
by the researcher, but the participants remain in their natural surroundings.
many extraneous variables cannot be controlled. The strength of eld experiments
 is the higher ecological validity compared to experiments in the laboratory. A
limitation is less control over potentially confounding variables, thus lower
internal validity. An example of an old experiment is Piliavin, Rodin, and
Piliavin’s (1969) subway study, in which researchers simulated a collapse in a
subway train and watched to see if other passengers came to help. To
manipulate the IV, some researchers carried a cane (cane condition), while
others carried a bottle (drunk condition).
Advantages And Weaknesses of Laboratory experiments
Advantages of laboratory experiments Weaknesses of laboratory experiments

 High degree of control :- experimenters  Experimenter bias :- experimenters’ expectations ca

control all variables and the IV and DV are results and participants may be influenced by these
precisely operationalized (defined) and expectations.
measured, leading to greater accuracy and  Problems operationalizing the IN and DN :- to gain
objectivity. measurements can become too specific and not relat
 Replication – other researchers can repeat the behavior: For example. defining ‘getting fatter’ as p
experiment to check results. two pounds per week.
 Cause and effect :- as all other variables are  Low external (ecological) Validity – high degrees o
controlled, the effect (change in the value of experimental situations artificial and unlike real life
the IN) must be caused solely by the Therefore,it can be difïcult to generalize results to o
manipulation of the IV. settings. Laboratory settings can be intimidating pla
 Isolation of variables :- in the laboratory. people may not act normally.
individual pieces of behavior can be isolated  Demand characteristics :- participants are aware the
and rigorously tested. being tested and so may unconsciously alter their be

Sampling
 A population is all of something, for example all the grains of sand on a breach.
Researchers generally do not have the means to test whole populations, so they
test a sample (part of population}. Ideally a sample is representative (contains
the same characteristics as the population. population from which it was taken)
and the term target population is used to indicate the group of people the results
are targeted at. Psychologists use several sampling techniques, each with
 strengths and weaknesses.

Random Sampling
 Each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen through
random sampling.One way to achieve this is to place all names from the target
population in a container and draw out the required sample number, while
computer programs are also used to generate random lists. This results in a
sample selected in an unbiased fashion.
Strengths Of Random Sampling Weaknesses Of Random Sampling

 Unbiased selection :- there is no bias in selection,  Impractical :- random sampling is difficult

increasing the chances of getting an unbiased and thus as it is sometimes difficult to get full detail
representative sample. a target population and not all members ma
 Generalization :- as the sample should be fairly available or wish to take part.
representative. results will be generalizable to the  Not representative :- unbiased selection do
target population. guarantee an unbiased sample; for example
females could be randomly selected. makin
 sample unrepresentative and thus the result
generalizable.

Opportunity Sampling
 Opportunity sampling involves selecting participants who are available and
willing to take part; for example, asking people in the street who are passing.
Sears (1986) found that 75 percent of university research studies use
undergraduates as participants I simply for the sake of convenience.
Strengths Of Opportunity Sampling Weaknesses Of Opportunity Sampling

 Ease of formation :- opportunity samples  Unrepresentative :- the sample is likely to be biased by excluding certa
are relatively easy to create, as they use participants and thus be unrepresentative so that findings cannot be gen
people who are readily available. the target population. An opportunity sample collected in town during
 Natural experiments :- opportunity a weekday would not include those at work or college.
sampling usually has to be used with  Self-selection :- participants have the option to decline to take part and
natural experiments, as the researcher has sampling technique thus turns into a self-selected sample.
no control over who is studied.

Volunteer (Self-Selected) Sampling

 Volunteer or self-selected sampling involves people volunteering to participate.
They select themselves as participants often by replying to adverts.
Strengths Of Volunteer Sampling Weaknesses Of Volunteer Sampling

 Ease of formation :- creating the sample requires little  Unrepresentative :- the sample will be biased, as Volunte
effort from the researchers (other than producing an be a certain ‘type’ of person and thus unrepresentativeI m
advert) as participants volunteer themselves. results not generalizable to a target population.
 Less chance of ‘screw you’ phenomenon :- as  Demand characteristics :- volunteers may be eager to ple
participants are eager to take part there will be less increases the chances of demand characteristics, for exam
chance of them deliberately trying to sabotage the participants giving the answer they think is required.
study.

Stratified Sampling
 This method relies more on theory. First, you choose the essential traits that the
sample needs to have. Then, you look at how these characteristics are
distributed in the target population (you can use statistical data from various
agencies for this). After that, you recruit your participants in a way that keeps
the sample’s proportions the same as the population’s.For example, imagine that
your target population is all students at your school. The characteristics you
decide are important to the goal of study are age (elementary school, middle
school, high school) and grade point average — GPA (low, average, high).
 You study school records to find the distribution of students in these categories
For a stratified sample, you need to ensure that your sample has equal
proportions. For each cell of this table, you can either randomly sample or use
other approaches. In any case, stratified sampling is special in that it is based on
theory and provides
that the theoretically determined basic characteristics of the population are fairly
 and evenly represented in the sample. This may be an ideal choice when you are
certain of the baseline characteristics of the participants and when available
sample sizes are not large
Experimental Designs
 There are three main types of experimental design: the repeated measures
design. The independent groups design and the matched pairs design.
Independent Groups Design

 In independent groups design [IGD] uses different participants in each of the

experimental conditions, so that each participant only does one condition (either
the experimental or control condition). Different participants are therefore being
tested against each other.
Strengths Of ( IGD )Sampling Weaknesses Of (IGD )Sampling

 No order effects :- as different participants  It needs multiple participants: – each one fulfills only o
do each condition there are no order condition. twice as many participants are needed as for
effects. Whereby the order in which the measures design (RMD).
conditions are done may have an effect on  Group differences :-Individual differences, rather than
the outcome manipulations, may account for differences in results b
 Demand characteristics :- participants do two conditions. For example, participants in one condit
one condition each, so there is less chance may be more intelligent than another condition. This is
that they can guess the purpose of the minimized by random allocation of participants to each
study and act accordingly. condition.
 Time saved :- both the sets of participants
can be tested simultaneously, which not
only will save time but also effort.

Repeated Measures Design

 In a repeated measures design (RMDJ each participant is tested in all conditions

of an experiment. Participants are therefore being tested against themselves.
Matched Pairs Design

 A matched pairs design {M PD} is a special kind of EMU. Different, but

similar, participants are used in each condition. Participants are matched on
characteristics that are important for a particular study, such as age. Identical
(monozygotic} twins are often used as they form perfect matched pairs, sharing
identical genetic characteristics.
Strengths Of ( IGD )Sampling Weaknesses Of (IGD )Sampling

Order Effects: – since both conditions are met by Multiple participants: – each meets only one condition and twice
different participants, there will be no order effects. participants are needed as for RMDs.
Demand characteristics: – participants fulfill one Matching is difficult:It is impossible to match all participant vari
 condition each, so there is less chance that they will an unmatched variable may be crucial.Even two close individual
guess the purpose of the study. different levels of motivation or fatigue at any given moment.
Group differences: – as participants match, there Time – consuming :- it is a lengthy process to match participants
should be less chance of participant variables
(individual differences) influencing the results.

Credibility And Generalizability In An Experiment:

Types Of Validity
As you have seen, credibility and generalizability are umbrella terms used to
characterize the quality of research studies. When it comes to experiments
specifically, these terms are very rarely used. Instead, the quality of experiments is
characterized by their design, internal and external validity.

Validity Of Construction

 Construct validity characterizes the quality of operationalizations. As you know,

the investigated phenomenon is first defined theoretically as a construct and
then expressed using observable behavior (operation). Operationalization
enables empirical research. At the same time, when interpreting the results, the
research findings are linked back to the constructs. Going from
operationalization to construction is always a bit of a leap. The construct
validity of an experiment is high if this leap is justified and if the
operationalization provides sufficient coverage of the construct.
 For example, in some research studies, anxiety has been measured with a fidget
meter, a specially designed chair that registers movements at various points and
thus calculates the degree of “shaking”. Subjects will be invited into the
laboratory and asked to wait in a chair, unaware that the experiment has already
begun. The reason is that the more nervous you are, the more you get into the
chair. Is fidget meter data a good operationalization of anxiety? On the one
hand, it is an objective measure. On the other hand, fidgeting can be a symptom
of something other than anxiety. Also, the relationship between anxiety and
increased concussion must first be demonstrated in empirical research.
Internal Validity

 Internal validity characterizes the methodological quality of the experiment.

Internal validity is high when confounding variables have been controlled and
we are quite confident that it was the change in the IV (not something else) that
caused the change in the DV. In other words, internal validity is directly related
to bias: the lower the bias, the higher the internal validity of the experiment.
Biases in the experiment (threats to internal validity) will be discussed below.
External Validity

 External validity characterizes the generalizability of the results in an

experiment. There are two types of external validity: population validity and
 ecological validity. The degree to which findings from a sample can be applied
to the intended population is referred to as “population validity. “Population
validity is high if the sample is representative of the target population and an
appropriate selection technique is used. Ecological validity refers to the extent to
which findings from an experiment can be generalized to other settings or
situations. It is related to the artificiality of the experimental conditions. In
highly controlled laboratory experiments, subjects often find themselves in
situations that do not resemble their everyday lives. For example, in memory
experiments they are often asked to memorize long lists of trigrams.
 There is an inverse relationship between internal validity and ecological
validity. To avoid bias and control for confounding variables, you make
experimental procedures more standardized and artificial. This reduces the
ecology validity. Conversely, in an effort to increase ecological validity, you
can allow more freedom in how people behave and what settings they choose,
but that would mean you lose control over some potentially confounding
variables.
Natural And Quasi-Experiments

 In natural experiments the IV varies naturally; the experimenter does not

manipulate it, but records the effect on the UV. For example, Costello et al
(2003) studied the mental health of Native Americans on a reservation. During
the study a casino opened, giving an opportunity to study the effect of
decreasing poverty on mental health. In quasi- experiments the IV occurs
naturally, such as in a study of gender where males and females are compared.
Natural and quasi- experiments are often used when it is against the rules l to
manipulate an IV. in such studies random allocation of participants is not
possible.
Advantages Of Field And Natural Experiments

a) High ecological validity :- due to the ‘real world’ environment, results relate to
everyday behavior and can be generalized to other settings.
b) No demand characteristics :- often participants are unaware of the experiment,
so there are no demand characteristics.

Weaknesses Of Field And Natural Experiments

a) Less control :- it is more difficult to control extraneous variables, so causality is

harder to establish.
b) Replication :- since the conditions are never exactly the same again, it is
difficult to repeat field and natural experiments exactly to check the results.
c) Ethics :- when participants are not aware that they are in an experiment it incurs
a lack of informed consent. This applies more to field experiments, since in natural
experiments the IV occurs naturally and is not manipulated by the experimenter.
d) Sample bias :- since participants are not randomly allocated to groups. samples
may be not comparable to each other.

Module 3.3: Quantitative research: correlational

studies
What Will You Learn In This Section?

 What is a correlation?
o Effect size
o Statistical significance
 Limitations of correlational studies
o Causation cannot be inferred
o The third variable problem
o Curvilinear relationships
o Spurious correlations

What Is A Correlation?
 In contrast to experiments, correlational studies do not alter any variables, so
causality cannot be inferred. The relationship between two or more variables is
mathematically quantified and measured.
 The way this is done can be graphically represented using scatter plots. Suppose
you are interested in investigating whether there is a relationship between
anxiety and aggression in a group of students. To do this, you will take a sample
of students and measure anxiety using a self-administered questionnaire and
aggression through observation during breaks. You get two scores for each
participant: anxiety and aggression. Assume that both scores can take values
from 0 to 100. The entire sample can be graphically represented by a scatter plot
 Each dot on the scatter plot represents one person. The coordinates of each dot
give you the score obtained for each one from variables. For example, Jessica’s
anxiety score is 70 (coordinate on the x-axis) and her aggression score is 50 (y-
axis coordinate). The entire scatter plot looks like a “cloud” of participants in a
two-dimensional space of two variables. Correlation is a measure of the linear
relationship between two variables.
 Graphically, the correlation is the straight line that best approximates this
“cloud” in a scatterplot. In the above example, the correlation is positive
because the cloud of participants is elongated and there is a tendency: as X
increases, Y increases, so if an individual scored high on variable X, that person
probably also scored high on variable Y and vice versa. This is where the name
“correlation” comes from: two variables are “correlated”. Remember that
correlation does not imply causation: we cannot say that X affects Y, nor can we
say that Y has X. All we know is that there is an association between the two.
 The correlation coefficient can vary from -1 to +1. The scatter plots below show
some examples:
A positive correlation demonstrates the tendency of one variable to increase as
the other variable increases.
An inverse tendency is demonstrated by a negative correlation: The other
variable decreases when one increases.
 The steeper the line, the stronger the relationship. A perfect correlation of 1 (or -
1) is a straight line with a slope of 45 degrees: when one variable increases by
one unit, the other variable increases (or decreases) by exactly one unit. A
correlation close to zero is a straight line. It shows that there is no relationship
between the two variables: the fact that a person scored high or low on variable
X tells us nothing about their score on variable Y. Graphically, such scatter plots
are more like a circle or a rectangle.
Correlational Studies Have Several Major
Limitations.
1. As already mentioned, correlations cannot be interpreted in terms of causation
2. “The Third Problem with Variables” There is always the chance that there is a
third variable that explains the correlation between X and Y and is correlated
with both of them. For example, cities with more spa salons also tend to have
more criminals. Is there a connection between the number of criminals and the
number of spa salons? Yes, but once you take into account the third variable,
city size, this correlation becomes meaningless.
3. Curvilinear relationship: The connections between the variables may not always
be linear. For instance, the well-known Yerkes-Dodson law in industrial
psychology states that arousal and performance are linked: Performance
improves as arousal rises, but only to some extent.When arousal levels exceed
this point, performance begins to decline. Optimal performance is observed
when arousal levels are moderate. This can be seen in the scatter plot below.
However, this relationship can only be captured by looking at the graph. Since
correlation coefficients are linear, the best they can do is find a line that best fits
the scatter plot. Thus, if we were to use correlational methods to find a
relationship between arousal and performance, we would probably end up with
a small to medium correlation coefficient. Psychological reality is complex and
there are many potentially curvilinear relationships between variables, but
correlational methods reduce these relationships to linear, easily quantifiable
patterns.
4. Spurious correlations. When a research study involves calculating multiple
correlations between multiple variables, there is a possibility that some of the
statistically significant correlations would be the result of random chance.
Remember that a statistically significant correlation is the one that is different
from zero with the probability of 95%. There is still a 5% chance that the
correlation is an artifact and the relationship actually does not exist in reality.
 When we calculate 100 correlations and only pick the ones that turned out to be
significant, this increases the chance that we have picked spurious correlations.
Sampling And Generalizability In Correlational
Studies
 Correlational research employs the same sampling techniques as experiments.
After determining the target population in accordance with the study’s goals, a
random, stratified, opportunity, or self-sampling sample is taken from the
population.
 In correlational research, the representativeness of the sample is directly related
to the generalizability of the findings. In experiments, this is very similar to
population validity.
Credibility And Bias In Correlational
 Bias in correlational research can occur at the level of measurement of variables
and at the level of interpretation of findings.
 Various biases may occur at the level of measurement of variables that are not
specific to correlational research. For example, if an observation is used to
measure one of the variables, the researcher must be aware of all the biases
inherent in the observation. When questionnaires are used to measure variables,
biases inherent in questionnaires become a problem. The list goes on.
 On the level of interpretation of findings, the following considerations represent
potential sources of bias.
1) Curvilinear relationships between variables (see above). If this is suspected,
researchers should generate and study scatter plots.
2) “The Third Variable Problem”. Correlational research is more credible if the
researcher considers potential
“third variables” in advance and includes them in research to explicitly study the
links between X
and Y and this third variable.
3) Spurious correlations. To increase credibility, the results of multiple
comparisons should be interpreted with caution. Effect sizes should be
considered together with the level of statistical significance.
Module 3.5: Qualitative research
What Will You Learn In This Section?

 Credibility in qualitative research

o Triangulation: method, data, researcher, theory
o Rapport
o Iterative questioning
o Reflexivity: personal, epistemological
o Credibility checks
 o Thick descriptions
 Sampling in qualitative
o research
o Quota sampling
o Purposive sampling
o Theoretical sampling
o Snowball sampling
o Convenience sampling

Credibility In Qualitative Research

 Credibility in qualitative research is the equivalent of internal validity in the
experimental method. As you have seen, internal validity is a measure of the
extent to which an experiment tests what it is supposed to test. To ensure
internal validity in experimental research, we need to make sure that it is the IV,
not anything else, that causes the DV to change. To achieve this, we identify all
possible confounding variables and control them, either by eliminating them or
holding them constant across all groups of participants.
1.) Triangulation
This refers to the combination of different approaches to data collection and
interpretation. There are several types of triangulation, all of which can be used to
increase the credibility of a study..

2.) Establishing A Relationship.

 Researchers should ensure that participants are honest. For example, the
researcher should remind participants of voluntary participation and the right to
withdraw so that responses are obtained only from participants who are willing
to contribute. It should be clear to the participants that there are no right or
wrong answers and in general a good relationship should be established with the
participants so that they change their behavior as little as possible in the
presence of the researcher.
3.) Iterative Questioning.

 In many research projects, especially those involving sensitive data, there is a

risk that participants will distort the data either intentionally (lying) or
unintentionally to try to create a certain impression on the researcher. Finding
ambiguous answers and returning to the topic later while reformulating the
question can help researchers gain deeper insight into a sensitive phenomenon.
4.) Reflexivity

 Researchers should consider the possibility that their own biases may have
interfered with observations or interpretations. It is likely that due to the nature
of qualitative research, which requires the involvement of the researcher in the
reality being studied, some degree of bias is inevitable. However, researchers
must be able to identify the findings that may have been most affected by these
biases and, if so, how.
5.) Credibility Checks.

 This refers to checking the accuracy of the data by asking the participants
themselves to read the interview transcripts or field notes from the observations
and confirm that the transcripts or notes are an accurate representation of what
they said (thought) or did. This is often used in interviews with interviewees
who are given transcripts or notes and are asked to correct any inaccuracies or
provide clarification.
6.) Thick Descriptions.

 This refers to explaining not only the observed behavior itself, but also the
context in which it occurred so that the description becomes meaningful to an
outsider who has never observed the phenomenon firsthand. In essence, it boils
down to describing a phenomenon in sufficient detail to be understood
holistically and in context. For example, imagine that a stranger smiled at you.
 This decontextualized behavior may be reported as “minor”, merely stating a
fact, or it may be placed in context (who, where, under what circumstances) to
make sense. To provide comprehensive descriptions, researchers should reflect
on everything they observe and hear, including their own interpretations, even if
some of these details do not seem significant at the time. Thick descriptions are
also referred to as “rich” descriptions; these terms are interchangeable.
Sampling
 In quantitative research, the representativeness of the sample (and thus the
ability to generalize the results to the wider population) is ensured by random
selection. In random sampling, each member of the target population has an
equal chance of being included in the sample. In other words, random selection
is probabilistic. However, sampling in qualitative research is improbable. These
are the most commonly used types of sampling in qualitative research.
Module 3.6: Qualitative research methods
What Will You Learn In This Section?

 Observational techniques
 Interview
 Case study
Observational Techniques
 Observations involve watching and recording behavior, for example children in
a playground. Most observations are naturalistic (occur in real world settings)
but can occur under controlled conditions
 There are two main types of observation:
1)Participant observation
It involves observers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied
to gain a more ‘hands-on’ perspective. for example. Zimbardo’s (1913) prison
simulation study that examined the behavior of prisoners and guards, where
Zimbardo took on the role of ‘prison superintendent’ (Haney et al, 1973).
2)Non-participant observation
It involves researchers not becoming actively involved in the behavior being
studied
 Observations can also be:
1)Overt :- where participants are aware they are being observed. for example
Zimbardo’s prison simulation study (Hanev at al., 1973}.
2)Covert :- where participants remain unaware of being observed, for example
Festinger’s (1957) study where he infiltrated a cult that was prophesying the end
of the world.
Advantages Of Observational Techniques Weaknesses Of Observational T
  High external validity :- since observations usually.r occur in  Cause and effect :- causality ca
natural settings participants behave naturally and so results can be inferred, since the variables are
generalized to other settings. observed ,not manipulated, and
 Practical method :- can be used in situations where deliberate little control of extraneous vari
manipulation of variables would be unethical or impractical, for  Observer Bias:- observers may
example studying football hooliganism. It is useful where what they want to see1 through
cooperation from those being observed is unlikely and where the can be reduced by establishing
full social context for behavior is needed. It is particularly useful observer reliability
when studying animals or children.  Replication :- the lack of contro
variables means conditions can
be repeated exactly to check th
 Ethics :-if participants are unaw
being observed. issues of invas
privacy and informed consent a

Observational Design
 There are several ways in which data can be gathered in naturalistic
observations, including visual recordings such as videos and photographs, audio
recordings, or on-the-spot notetaking using agreed rating scales or coding
categories. The development of effective behavioral coding categories is integral
to the success of observational studies.
1) Behavioral Categories

 Observers agree on a grid or coding sheet on which to record the behavior being
studied. The behavioral categories which are chosen should be able to reflect
what is being studied.
2) Field Notes

 Field notes are qualitative descriptions recorded by observers during or soon

after a study is conducted. The purpose of such notes is to permit a deeper
meaning and understanding of the phenomena being observed.
3) Sampling Procedures

 In observational studies, it is difficult to observe all behavior, especially since it

is usually continuous. Categorizing behaviors helps. but a decision must also be
made about what type of sampling procedure (data recording method) to use.
Types of sampling procedures include:
a)Event sampling: – counting the number of times a certain behavior occurs in a
target individual or individuals.
b) time sampling: – counting behavior in a set time frame. for example,
recording what behavior occurs every 30 seconds.
Inter-Observer Reliability
 Interobserver reliability occurs when independent observers code behavior in a
reasonable way (for example, two observers agree on a score of ‘3’ for safe
 driving) and reduces the likelihood of observer bias when the observer sees and
records behavior in a subjective way (ie, sees what they want to see )
 Relativity between onlookers should be laid out before perception starts and is
more straightforward to accomplish. The behavioral categories are distinct and
do not overlap.
Interviews
 Interviews involve researchers asking face-to-face questions, for example.
 There are Four main types:
1. Structured
2. Unstructured
3. Semi-structured and
4. focused group interviews

Advantages Of Interviews Weaknesses Of Interviews

 Complex issues :- complicated or sensitive issues  Interviewer effects :- interviewers may uncons
can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by bias answers, such as by their appearance; for
making participants feel relaxed and able to talk. women may be less willing to talk about sex w
 This is particularly true of unstructured interviews. interviewers. Interviews are also subject to dem
 Ease misunderstandings :- any misunderstood characteristics and social desirability bias.
questions can be explained and individual questions  Interview training :- a lot of skill is required to
can be adapted so they are understood by all unstructured interviews, particularly concernin
participants. sensitive issues, and such interviewers are not
find.
 Data analysis :- semi structured interviews produce
 Ethical issues :- participants may not know the
both quantitative and qualitative data, which can be
purpose of an interview and there is also the d
used to complement each other. Structured
participants may reveal more than the wish.
interviews produce quantitative data that can be
 Participant answers – interviews are not suited
easily analyzed.
participants who have difficulty ,or putting the
 Replication :- the more standardized or structured feelings, opinions, etc. into words.
an interview, the easier it is to replicate.  Loss of control :- with focus group interviews
Unstructured interviews are less easy to replicate, less control than in one-to-one interviews and
but it should be possible for other researchers to can be lost through irrelevant discussion.
review data produced.
 Ecological validityI:- focus group interviews are
often conducted in more naturalistic settings, so
findings relate more to real life settings.
 Reduced cost :- focus group interviews process
several people at once, so are relatively cheaper to
conduct.

Design Of Interviews
 Aside from deciding whether to use a structure. unstructured or semi structured
interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about who
would make the most appropriate interviewer. Several interpersonal variables
affect this decision:
a)Gender and age :- the sex and age of interviewers affect participants’ answers
when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature.
b)Ethnicity :- interviewers may have difficulty interviewing people from a
different ethnic group to themselves. Word el al. (1974) found that white
participants spent 25 per cent less time interviewing black job applicants than
white applicants.
c)Personal characteristics and adopted role:- interviewers can adopt different
roles within an interview setting and use of formal language, accent and
appearance can also affect how someone comes across to the interviewee.
 Interviewer training is essential to successful interviewing. Interviewers need to
listen appropriately and learn when to speak and when not to speak.
 Non-verbal communication is important in helping to relax interviewees so that
they will give natural answers. Difficult and probing questions about emotions
are best left to the end of the interview when the interviewee is more likely to be
relaxed1 whereas initial questions are better for gaining factual information.
 Interviews are generally seen as a qualitative research method. Interviews can be
followed by a more targeted survey, which asks questions targeted at a specific
area and which are framed in such a was; so as to produce quantitative data.
Case Studies
 Case studies are in depth, detailed investigations of one individual or a small
group. Typically, they include interesting experiences, behavioral details, and
biographical details. Case studies allow researchers to examine individuals in
great depth. Behavioral explanations are outlined in subjective ways and
describe what an individual feels or believes about specific issues.
 A case study can also take place as a detailed analysis carried out over a period
of time (longitudinal study) on a topic of interest (case) that yields findings
relevant to a particular context.
Advantages Of Case Studies Weaknesses Of Case Studies

 Rich detail: – Case studies highlight human diversity and  Unrepresentative Because no two c
provide a deep understanding of individuals. Case studies are studies are the same, the findings c
about “real people, they have a sense of truth about them applied to other studies; however,
because they are about them. The subject of the information is always seek behavior-related unive
a real person. not a typical sum from many. truths.
 The only possible method to use:-case studies allow  Bios of Researchers: Case study re
psychologists to study unique behaviors or experiences that may interpret or report findings wi
could not be studied in any other way. The method also makes making the findings suspect..
it possible to examine “sensitive” areas. where other methods  Reliability of memory: case studie
would be unethical as the effects of sexual abuse. depend on the participants having
accurate memory
 Useful for contradicting a theory:- findings from a single case
study can disprove (disprove) a theory.

Module 3.7: Data Analysis

What Will You Learn In This Section?

 Forms of data analysis

 Measures of central tendency
 Presentation of quantitative data
 Statiscal Testing
Forms Of Data Analysis
Meta-Analysis

 Meta-analysis is a statistical technique for combining the findings of several

studies of a certain research area, for example Bulik et al’s (200W meta-analysis
of therapies for anorexia nervosa, taken from several studies As a meta analysis
involves combining data from lots of smaller studies into one larger study, it
allows the identification of trends and relationships that would not be possible
 from individual smaller studies. The technique is especially; helpful when a
number of smaller studies have found contradictory or weak results, in order to
get a clearer view of the overall picture.
Content Analysis

 Content analysis is a method of quantifying qualitative data through the use of

coding units and is commonly performed with media research. It involves the
quantification of qualitative material, in other words, the numerical analysis of
written, verbal and visual communications.
 For example, Davis (1990} analyzed ‘lonely hearts’ columns to find out whether
men and women look for different things in relationships.
 To classify the analyzed content, such as the number of times women
commentators appear in sports programs, content analysis requires coding units.
Words, themes, characters, and time and space are all options for analysis. The
times these things don’t happen can likewise be significant.
Strengths Of Content Analysis Weaknesses Of Content Analysis

 Ease of application :- content analysis is an  Descriptive :- content analysis is purely descriptive a

easy-to- perform, inexpensive research not reveal underlying reasons, for behavior, attitudes
method, which is noninvasive, as it does not  Flawed results :- limited lay availability of material,
require contact with participants. observed trends may not reflect reality. Negative eve
 It works in conjunction with other methods: instance, receive more attention than positive ones. L
content analysis can be used to confirm the causality :- content analysis is not performed under c
results of other methods of research and is conditions and therefore does not show causality.
especially useful as a longitudinal tool
(finding trends; alterations over time).
 Reliability :- establishing reliability is simple
as a content analysis is easy to replicate
through others using the same materials.

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics provide a summary of a set of data obtained from a sample
that applies to the entire target population. They include measures of central
tendency and measures of dispersion.

Measures Of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency are used to summarize large amounts of data into
averages (typical data pont scores). There are three types:

1. The median,
2. The mean
3. The mode
4. The Range
1.) The Median

 The median is the central score in a list of random scores. With an odd number
of scores, the median is the middle number. With an even number of scores, the
median is the midpoint between the two middle scores and therefore may not be
one of the original scores.
Advantages Of The Median Weaknesses Of The Median

 It is not affected by extreme ‘freak’’ scores.  It is not as sensitive as the mean, because not all the
 It is usually easier to calculate than the mean. are used in the calculation.
 It can be unrepresentative in a small set of data. For
 The median can be used with ordinal data
{ranks}. unlike the mean.

It can be unrepresentative in a small set of data. For example:

1, 1,2,3, 4, 5. 6, 7. 3 — the median is 4.

2.) The Mean

 The mean is the midpoint of the combined era set of values and is calculated by
adding all the scores and dividing by the total number of scores.
Advantages Of The Median Weaknesses Of The Median

 It is the most accurate measure of central tendency as  It is less useful if some scores are skewed, s
it uses the interval level of measurement where the there are some large or small scores.
units of measurement are of equal size (for example,  The mean score may not be one of the actua
seconds in time) the set of data. For example:
 It uses all the data in its calculation.

For eg;, 1,1, 2,3, 4, 5,6, 18 :- the mean is 4.1 (1+1+2+3+4+5+6+18 = 39; 39/7 =
4.1)

3.) The Mode

 The mode is the most common, or ‘popular’, number in a set of scores.

Advantages Of The Mode Weaknesses Of The Mode

 It is less prone to distortion by extreme values.  there can be more than one mode in a data set.
 It sometimes makes more sense than the other measures of  It does not use all the scores.
central tendency. For example, the average monitor of
children in a British family is better described as 2 children
{mode} rather than 1.73 children (mean).

For example, for the set of data 2, 3, 6, 7, 7,7, 9, 15,16, 20, the modes are 7.

4) The Range
 The range is calculated by subtracting the lowest value from the highest value in
a set of data.
Advantages Of The Mode Weaknesses Of The Mode

 It is fairly easy and quick to work  It can be distorted by extreme ‘freak’ values.
out.  It does not show whether data are clustered or spread evenly
 It takes Full account of extreme the mean.
values.
For example, the range of the two sets of data below is the same (21 – 2 = 19},
despite the data being very different.

Data set one: 1, 3. 4. 5. 5. 6.1 3. 91 11

Data set two: 2, 5, 5. 9, 10, 12. 13. 15, 16, 13, 21

Standard Deviation

 Standard deviation is a measure of the variability (spread) of a set of scores from

the mean. The larger the standard deviation, the larger the spread of scores will
be.
 Standard deviation is calculated using the following steps:
1. Add all the scores together and divide by the number of scores to calculate the
mean.
2. Subtract the mean from each individual score.
3. Square each of these scores.
4. 4 Add all the squared scores together.
5. Divide the sum of the squares hy the number of scores minus 1. This is the
variance.
6. Use a calculator to 1ar world: square root. about variance. This is the standard
deviation.
Percentages

 Percentages are a type of descriptive statistic that shows the rate, number or
amount of something within every 100. Data shown as percentages can he
plotted on a pie chart. Data can be converted into percentages by multiplying
them as a factor of 100;
 for example, a test score of 67 out of a total possible score of 80 would be;
67/80 x 100= 83.75%
Correlational Data

 Correlational studies provide data that can be expressed as a correlation

coefficient , which shows either a positive correlation, negative correlation or no
 correlation at all. The stronger a correlation, the nearer it is to +1 or -1.
Correlational data is plotted on a scattergram which indicates strength and
direction of correlation
Presentation Of Quantitative Data
Bar Charts

Example of Bar Chart

 Bar charts show data in the form of categories to be compared, like male and
female scores concerning chocolate consumption. Categories are placed on the
 x-axis{(horizontal) and the columns of bar charts should be the same width and
separated by spaces.
 The use of spaces illustrates that the variable on the x-axis is not continuous
(For eg, males do not at some point become Females and vice versa). Bar charts
can show totals, mean s. percentages or ratios and can also display two values
together. For example male and female consumption of chocolate as shown by
gender and age
Histograms

Example of Histograms
 Histograms and bar charts are somewhat similar, but the main difference is that
histograms are used for continuous data, such as test scores The continuous
scores are placed along the axis. while the frequency of these scores is shown on
the y-axis (vertical). There are no spaces between the bars since the data are
continuous and the column width for each value on the x-axis should be the
same width per equal category interval.
Frequency Polygon (Line Graph)

Example of Line Graph

 A frequency polygon is similar to a histogram in that the data on the x -axis are
continuous. The graph is produced by drawing a line from the midpoint top of
each bar in a histogram. The advantage of a frequency polygon is that two or
more frequency distributions can be compared on the same graph
Pie Charts

Example of Pie Chart

 Pie charts are used to show the frequency of categories as percentages. The pie
is split into sections, each one of which represents the frequency of a category.
The sections are color-coded; with an indication given of what each section
represents and its percentage score.
Tables

 Results tables summarize the main findings of data and so differ from data
tables which just present raw, unprocessed scores (ones that have not been
subjected to statistical analysis} from research studies. It is customary with
 results tables to present data totals (though percentages can also be shown) and
relevant measures of dispersion and central tendency.
Normal Distribution

 The idea of normal distribution is that for a given attribute. For example IQ
scores, most scores will be on or around the mean, with decreasing amounts
away from the mean. Data that is normally distributed is symmetrical, so that
when plotted on a graph the data forms a hells shaped curve with as many scores
below the mean as above it
Statistical Testing
Inferential Testing

 Research studies produce data that in order to make sense, have to be analyzed.
This can be achieved using descriptive statistics (measures of central tendency
and dispersion, graphs, tables, etc.)to illustrate the data. But a more
sophisticated means of analysis is the use of inferential testing, which allows
researchers to make inferences (informed decisions) about whether differences
in data are significant (beyond the boundaries of chance) that can be applied to
the whole target population which a sample represents.
 In order to decide which statistical test to use it needs to be decided:
1) Whether a difference or a relationship between two sets of data is being tested
for.
2) What level of measurement the data is. There are three basic levels of
measurement: nominal, ordinal, and interval ratio.
3) What design has been used: either IGD or RMD (including MPD), as it is
regarded as a type of RMD).
Selecting An Inferential Test

 Once it has been determined

1.) whether a difference or relationship is being sought between two sets of data,
2.) what level of measurement has been used. and
3.) whether an IGD or a RMD has been used, the appropriate statistical test can
be selected.
Nature Of Hypothesis Level Of Measurement Type Of Research Design

Independent (unrelated) Repeated(Related)

Difference Nominal data Chi-squared Sign test

Ordinal data Mann-Whitney U test Wilcoxon (matche

Interval data Independent t- test Related t-test

 Correlation Ordinal data Spearman’s rho

Interval data Pearson product m

Probability and significance

 Probability is denoted by the symbol p in and concerns the degree of certainty

that an observed difference or relationship between two sets of data is a real
difference/relationship, or whether it has occurred by chance. It is never a 100
percent certainty that such differences in relationships are real ones, that is,
beyond the boundaries of chance. This is why it is impossible to prove
something beyond all doubt, so an accepted cut-off point is needed and in
psychology, and in science generally, a significance (probability) level of p <
0.05 is used. This means there is a 5 percent possibility that an observed
difference or relationship between two sets of data is not a real difference, but
occurred by chance factors. This is seen as an acceptable level of error.
Type I And Type II Errors

 A Type I error occurs when a difference/relationship is wrongly accepted as a

real one: that is. beyond the boundaries of chance, because the significance level
has been set too high. This means the null hypothesis is wrongly rejected. For
example, if a pregnancy test revealed a woman to be pregnant when she was not.
With a 5 percent significance level this means, on average, for every 100
significant differences/relationships found, 5 of them will have been wrongly
accepted.
 A Type II error occurs when a difference relationship is wrongly accepted as
being insignificant; that is, not a real difference/relationship, because the
significance level has been set too low (for example, 1 percent). This means that
the null hypothesis would be wrongly rejected. For example, a pregnancy test
reveals a woman not to be pregnant when she is.
 The stricter the significance level is, the less chance there is of melting a Type I
error, but more chance of making a Type ll error and vice versa. An ICine way
to reduce the chance of making these errors is to increase the sample size.
 A 5 percent significance level is the accepted level, as it strikes a balance
between making Type I and Type II errors.
Statistical Tests

Sign test :- used when two sets of data have a predicted difference that is at least
nominal and a RMD has been used.

1. Chi-square: used when the difference between two sets of data is predicted, the
data are at least nominal, and lGD are utilized.. There is also a possibility to use
chi-square as a test of association (relationship).
2. Mann-Whitney :- used when the difference between two sets of data is
predicted, the data is at least ordinal level, and IGD has been used.
3. Wilcoxon signed rank: – used when there is a difference in between the two
numbers of sets of the data, the data are at least ordinal level, and RMD or MPD
has been used.
4. Independent (unrelated) t-test: used when a difference between two sets of data
is predicted, the data are normally distributed, the data are at the interval ratio
level, and the IGD has been used.
5. Repeated (related) t-test: used when the difference between two sets of data is
predicted, the data are normally distributed, the data are at the interval ratio
level, and the RMD or MPD was used.
6. Spearman’s rho :- used when two sets of data are predicted to have a
relationship (correlation) that is at least ordinal in level and consist of scores
from the same person or event.
7. Pearson Product Moment: – utilized when two arrangements of information are
anticipated to have a relationship (connection) that is regularly disseminated,
have no less than one stretch level, and come from a similar individual or
occasion.
A Worked Example Of The Sign Test

 A food manufacturer wants to know if its new breakfast cereal, “Fizz-Buzz,”

will be as popular as its previous offering.
“Kiddy-Slop”. Ten participants will try both and choose which they prefer. One
participant prefers the existing product, seven the new product, and two like
both equally.
To calculate the sign test:
1)Insert the data into a table as above.
2)Use a plus or minus sign to indicate the direction of difference for each
participant.
3)to figure out the value that was seen. Count the instances of the less common
sign (this is s). This is equivalent to 1 for this situation.
4)Get the critical value from a critical value table. This shows the maximum
value that is significant at a given level of probability. For this you need the
value of N, the number of pairs of scores, omitting scores without a + or – sign.
In this case N = 8.
Work out whether you have used a one tailed (directional hypothesis) or a two-
tailed (non- directional hypothesis)? This affects what the cv (critical value) will
be – we will assume here it is two-tailed.
5)A significance level of p <0.05 is normally used.
6)The cv is found from a critical values table
Level Of Significance For A Two Tailed Test 0.05 0.25 0.01
 Level Of Significance For A One-Tailed Test 0.10 0.05 0.02

N – – –

5 0 – –

6 0 0 –

7 0 0 0

8 1 0 0

9 1 1 0

10 1 1 1

11 2 1 1

12 2 2 1

13 3 2 2

14 3 3 2

15 3 3 3

16 4 3 3

17 4 4 3

18 5 4 4

19 5 5 4

20 5 5 5

Conclusion:-

 The critical values of s in the sign test. Note: N = E, two—tailed hypothesis.

significance level p < 0.05, cv = 0, observed value s = 1
 The observed value s is 1 and the cv is 0. Therefore not significantly accept the
null hypothesis.
 It might surprise you that 7 preferences for one product against 1 preference for
another product is not a difference beyond the boundaries of chance, but this is
probably because the sample was too small, that is1 there were not enough
participants to show such a difference.
Module 3.8: Ethics in psychological research
Ethics is an integral part of psychological research because it involves research
with living beings (humans and animals). This is one of the things that
distinguishes the humanities from the natural sciences – ethically, the study of
human beings is not the same as the study of material objects.

Ethical Considerations In Conducting The Study

The following list outlines the main ethical considerations that must be addressed
when conducting a research study in psychology.

Informed Consent.

 A study’s participation must be voluntary, and participants must fully

comprehend the nature of their involvement, including the study’s objectives,
the tasks they will perform, and the data collection strategy. Scientists ought to
give however much data as could be expected and in the most clear conceivable
manner, subsequently the name “informed” assent. Consent should be obtained
from parents or legal guardians if the participant is under the age of 18..
Protection From Harm

 Participants in the study must be shielded from harm, both physical and mental,
at all times. This incorporates conceivable negative long haul outcomes of
partaking in an examination study.
Anonymity And Confidentiality

 Frequently, these two terms are used interchangeably., but they refer to slightly
different things. Participation in a research study is confidential if there is
someone (for example, the researcher) who can connect the results of the study
to the identity of a particular participant, but terms of the agreement prevent this
person from sharing the data with anyone.
So, the participant provides personal data, but the data stays confidential under
the research agreement. Participation in a study is anonymous if no one can
trace the results back to a participant’s identity because no personal details have
been provided. An example of anonymity would be filling out an online survey
without providing your name.
Withdrawal From Participation

Participants must be made aware that they are free to withdraw from the study at
any time because their participation is voluntary. Researchers cannot attempt to
persuade participants to stay or prevent them from withdrawing.

Deception.
 Because it would alter their behavior, the true goals of the study frequently
cannot be revealed to the participants.(for example, due to social desirability).
So a degree of deception needs to be used. In some research methods deception
is part of the process (for example, covert observation). Researchers must be
careful and if deception is used, it must be kept to the necessary minimum.
Debriefing

 Participants must be fully informed about the nature of the study, its true goals,
and the use and storage of the data following it. If they wish, they must be given
the opportunity to examine their results and withdraw the data. It must be made
clear that deception was used. Participants must be shielded from any potential
harm, including long-term effects like recurrent uneasy thoughts. In some cases,
such as sleep deprivation studies, psychological assistance must be provided to
monitor the participant’s mental state for some time after the study.
Ethical Considerations In Reporting The Results
The following list gives the main ethical considerations to be addressed when
reporting results.

Data Fabrication

 Psychologists who fabricate data run the risk of losing their licenses, and this is
a serious ethical violation. If an error is discovered in results that have already
been published, reasonable steps should be taken to correct it, such as
publishing the error or retracting the article.
Plagiarism

 Presenting parts of someone else’s work or data as your own is unethical.

Publication Credit.

 A publication’s authorship should accurately reflect each author’s relative

contributions. For example, the APA Code of Ethics specifically states that if a
publication is based primarily on the work of a student, the student must be
listed as the first author, even if his or her professors co-authored the
publication..
Sharing Research Data For Verification.

 The data used to arrive at the conclusions presented in the publication should
not be withheld by researchers.
 The journey from raw data (in the form of a matrix with numbers for
quantitative research or text/transcript for qualitative research) to inferences and
conclusions is full of intermediate decisions, interpretations and inevitable
omissions.
 Any independent researcher’s request to share raw data should be granted,
provided that both parties use the data in an ethical and responsible manner.
Replicating an analysis is a healthy expression of scientific curiosity. This
means, for example, making the shared data file anonymous (deleting names or
other identifiers) and using the shared data file only for the stated purposes.
Handling Of Sensitive Personal Information

 This refers to how the results of the study are communicated to individual
participants. Handling of information obtained in genetic research. Research
into genetic influences on human behavior, such as twin studies, adoption, or
family studies, can sometimes reveal private information to one individual about
other members of his family.