Signals and Communication Technology

Sundaravadivazhagan Balasubaramanian
Gnanasankaran Natarajan
Pethuru Raj Chelliah Editors

Intelligent
Robots and
Drones
for Precision
Agriculture
Signals and Communication Technology

Series Editors
Emre Celebi, Department of Computer Science
University of Central Arkansas
Conway, AR, USA
Jingdong Chen, Northwestern Polytechnical University
Xi’an, China
E. S. Gopi, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Amy Neustein, Linguistic Technology Systems
Fort Lee, NJ, USA
Antonio Liotta, University of Bolzano
Bolzano, Italy
Mario Di Mauro, University of Salerno
Salerno, Italy
This series is devoted to fundamentals and applications of modern methods of signal
processing and cutting-edge communication technologies. The main topics are
information and signal theory, acoustical signal processing, image processing and
multimedia systems, mobile and wireless communications, and computer and
communication networks. Volumes in the series address researchers in academia
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Sundaravadivazhagan Balasubaramanian
Gnanasankaran Natarajan • Pethuru Raj Chelliah
Editors

Intelligent Robots and Drones

for Precision Agriculture
Editors
Sundaravadivazhagan Balasubaramanian Gnanasankaran Natarajan
Department of Information Technology Department of Computer Science
University of Technology and Applied Thiagarajar College
Sciences-AL Mussanah Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
Al Mussanah, Oman

Pethuru Raj Chelliah

Edge AI Division, Reliance Jio
Platforms Ltd.
Bangalore, Karnataka, India

ISSN 1860-4862     ISSN 1860-4870 (electronic)

Signals and Communication Technology
ISBN 978-3-031-51194-3    ISBN 978-3-031-51195-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0

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Preface

The agriculture domain is seeing several innovations, disruptions and transforma-

tions with the faster maturity and stability of digital technologies. There are two
important phenomena here:
1. Digitization
2. Digitalization
The digitization process is being enabled through the growing power of the
Internet of Things (IoT) and edge technologies such as diminutive sensors, stickers,
actuators, microcontrollers, single board computers (SBCs), beacons, LED sys-
tems, specks, RFID tags, bar codes, micro- and nanoelectronics, etc. These tech-
nologies are for transitioning all kinds of physical, mechanical, electrical and
electronic systems into digital systems. Digitized systems can find, connect and
communicate in the vicinity and with remote ones through a kind of networking.
Digital systems through interactions and collaborations generate a massive quantity
of multi-structured data. With 5G communication networks being pervasively
deployed and managed, digital data being generated in large amounts gets transmit-
ted to centralized data stores (databases, data warehouses, data lakes, etc.), data
analytics platforms, etc.
Then comes the digitalization process. The core idea here is how to make sense
of digital data collected from different and distributed sources. With the accumula-
tion of IoT sensors and devices, the amount of poly-structured data becomes huge.
Therefore, the complex and time-consuming process of transitioning data into
information and to knowledge is being supported through a host of path-breaking
digitalization technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI)-driven data analytics
methods.
AI is the prime factor for producing actionable insights out of data heaps, includ-
ing business workloads, IT services and devices (equipment, machinery, appliances,
instruments, robots, drones, consumer electronics, wares, connected vehicles, etc.).
In this book on precision and smart agriculture, we have incorporated well-written

v
vi Preface

chapters explaining the growing contributions of intelligent robots and drones.

There are chapters illustrating how cognitive robots empower smart farming.
Further on, there are several trendsetting and breakthrough technologies such as 5G,
edge computing, cloud-native computing, cybersecurity, blockchain, digital twins
and machine and deep learning algorithms for transforming agriculture processes to
significantly enhance agriculture yields. This book is to demystify the enabling
technologies and tools towards smart agriculture.

Al Mussanah, Oman Sundaravadivazhagan Balasubaramanian

Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India Gnanasankaran Natarajan
Bangalore, Karnataka, India Pethuru Raj Chelliah
Contents


Intelligent Computing with Drones and Robotics for Precision
Agriculture��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
Vijayakumari Kaliannan and Fatema Khalifa Said Al Saidi
Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s
World����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   19
Sreya John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose
Transforming Agriculture with Smart Farming: A Comprehensive
Review of Agriculture Robots for Research Applications����������������������������   45
T. R. Ashwini, M. P. Potdar, S. Sivarajan, and M. S. Odabas

Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model������������   63
E. Chandra Blessie, Sundaravadivazhagan Balasubaramanian, and
V. Kumutha

Digital Twins and Predictive Analytics in Smart Agriculture����������������������   87
S. Clement Virgeniya

Soil Classification and Crop Prediction Using Machine Learning
Techniques�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 101
Tilottama Goswami, Divyajyothi Mukkatira Ganapathi,
and Prakriti Goswami
 recision Agriculture: A Novel Approach on AI-Driven Farming�������������� 119
P
Elakkiya Elango, AhamedLebbe Hanees,
Balasubramanian Shanmuganathan, and Mohamed Imran Kareem Basha
Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop
Yields ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139
P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

Internet of Things-Based Smart Agriculture Advisory System ������������������ 159
Mahalakshmi Jeyabalu, Akil Shabbir Ghodi,
Sundaravadivazhagan Balasubramanian, Balakrishnan Chinnayan,
and Jayapriya Jayapal
vii
viii Contents

Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data

for Smart Farming ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 179
Meganathan Elumalai, Terrance Frederick Fernandez,
and Mahmoud Ragab

Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming ���� 207
N. A. Natraj, Sundaravadivazhagan Balasubaramanian,
K. B. Gurumoorthy, A. Purushothaman, and P. Kannan
 G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications ������������������������������ 241
5
S. R. Raja, B. Subashini, and R. Selwin Prabu
Smart Organic Agriculture in Traditional South Indian-Based
Farming System����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 265
Rakesh Gnanasekaran, Sandhya Soman, Gnanasankaran Natarajan,
and Sabah Ali AL’Abd AL-Busaidi
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling
Real-Time Monitoring and Prediction for Better Yield ������������������������������ 283
Robin Cyriac and Jayarani Thomas
Applications of UAV-AD (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Agricultural
Drones) in Precision Farming ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 307
Sandhya Soman, Rakesh Gnanasekaran, Gnanasankaran Natarajan,
and Fatema Khalifa Said ALSaidi
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable
Agricultural Development������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 327
K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming ������������������������������ 351
D. Sathya, R. Thangamani, and B. Saravana Balaji

Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming ������������������ 391
J. Immanuel Johnraja, P. Getzi Jeba Leelipushpam, C. P. Shirley,
and P. Joyce Beryl Princess
 Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future ������������������������������ 421
AI
R. Thangamani, D. Sathya, G. K. Kamalam, and Ganesh Neelakanta Lyer
Cloud Computing for Smart Farming: Applications, Challenges,
and Solutions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 463
Justin Rajasekaran, Saleem Raja Abdul Samad, and Pradeepa Ganesan

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 477
Intelligent Computing with Drones
and Robotics for Precision Agriculture

Vijayakumari Kaliannan and Fatema Khalifa Said Al Saidi

1 Introduction

The acronym IoT stands for the Internet of Things. It will connect devices, machin-
eries, and gears to the Internet with the help of technologies like wireless sensor
networks, etc. As of now, above 9 billion things are linked to the Internet. In the
future, it will cross over 20 billion things. We will also say this as an M2M (machine-
to-machine) connectivity. It can be extended to households, smart farming, smart
city, and smart agriculture. RFID, sensor-connected devices, and smart networks are
examples of IoT enablers.
In accordance with Gartner’s research, the Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a
system of physical objects equipped with embedded technology to facilitate com-
munication, as well as to sense and interact with either their internal attributes or the
surrounding environment [1]. IoT technology is a trending technology of today’s
world. It brings a new revolution in each field of the common man’s lifetime by
building the whole thing smart and intellectual. By using IoT in smart farming,
farmers can easily find live data about soil moisture and temperature to increase the
crop yield and product quality. Smart farming is one of the high-tech, capital-­
intensive methods for creating clean and maintainable food for the people.
The yield is observed with the support of sensors measuring light, moisture, and
temperature. These sensors are integrated into systems, such as IoT-based smart
farming. Planters can monitor field conditions from any position. Associating with
traditional farming, IoT-based smart farming is extremely excellent and efficient [2].
In terms of ecofriendly issues, IoT-based smart farming can produce huge bene-
fits and efficient water usage. By controlling the environmental conditions, we can
yield more crops efficiently. Everyone has a little yard and farmland, but we don’t

V. Kaliannan (*) · F. K. S. Al Saidi

Trinity College for Women, Affiliated to Periyar University, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 1

S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_1
2 V. Kaliannan and F. K. S. Al Saidi

have time and energy to maintain or manage the land, so the authors have intro-
duced the concept of IoT with the smart farming system to easily absorb the soil
moisture, water management, yield of crops, and so on [3].

2 Internet of Things

The Internet of Things (IoT) is completed through two arguments: the Internet and
things. The word “things” in the IoT refers to several IoT plans with distinctive
characters and capacity to perform isolated sensing, actuation, and live observation
of a definite data arrangement. IoT gadgets can also interchange facts in real time
with other associated nodes and applications, either directly or indirectly, or to com-
bine facts from several nodes, to process them, and to transmit them to multiple
attendants [4]. It consists of the following components:
• Input/output interface for sensors.
• Interface for connecting to the Internet.
• Memory and storage interface.
• Audio/video interface.
Wearable devices, smart watches, observing IoT smart homes, IoT smart trans-
portation systems, and IoT smart devices for healthcare are examples of IoT gad-
gets [5].

2.1 IoT Architecture

Figure 1 indicates three-layered architecture of fundamental structure of IoT.

Application layer – learning content distributed.
Network layer – used to transfer data using online network.
Perception layer – collecting the request information from the network.

2.2 Smart Farming

Smart farm (SF) refers to an integration of information technology (IT) with farm
equipment and sensors for crop growing and food production. IoT is being employed
in a variety of industries, including smart homes, smart cities, smart healthcare, and
smart agriculture. Farmers employ IoT technology to improve agricultural effi-
ciency in areas like irrigation, fertilizer, harvesting information, and climate fore-
casting by monitoring with sensors and to make better decisions. They will be able
to increase production yield and the efficiency of farming [6].
Intelligent Computing with Drones and Robotics for Precision Agriculture 3

Fig. 1 Internet of Things

architecture. (Source: Own
image)

“Smart farming” is a different thought that refers to farms to operate the Internet
of Things (IoT), robotics, drones, and artificial intelligence (AI) to enhance the
product measure and value while reducing the amount of mandatory human labor
for production [7].
Nowadays, the major problem in smart farming is shortage of labor; also, some
of the laborers do not know how to do work efficiently in a short time. The major
reasons for labor scarcity contain higher wages in nearby cities. To tackle these
issues, modern agriculture is looking to incorporate robotics and sensors with soft-
ware technologies [8].
IoT aims at supporting farmers in connecting the supply-demand gap by con-
firming great yielding, productivity, and eco-friendly preservation. Precision agri-
culture is a technique of retaining [9].
Figure 2 indicates the characteristic of smart farming using IoT technologies.

3 Sensors

In linked agriculture, IoT applications are used in many types of probes to receive
data in actual time. Agriculturalists and agro-managers rely on connected apparatus
to inspect earth circumstances and monitor yield and strength of livestock and acti-
vate drones and agricultural vehicles, which are typically in remote places with
limited broadband connectivity.
Advancements in sensor technology, including the incorporation of low-power,
miniaturized, and disposable tracking solutions along with the advent of 5G,
empower farmers to explore more opportunities for using sensing technology in
various scenarios. This technology will assist them individually or in combination
in responding to changing eco-friendly environments, enrolment, controlling, and
demand conditions [10].
4 V. Kaliannan and F. K. S. Al Saidi

Fig. 2 Smart farming. (Source: Own image)

Gateways are computer hardware devices that allow data to pass from one net-
work to another. They’re important in the smart farm environment, since they give
faithful access to sensor networks, cameras, and actuators. When it arises for live-
stock observation, irrigation controls, and perimeter investigation, poor data routing
might have negative consequences [11].
Advancements in IoT edge handling have allowed apps to run implanted in
devices rather than transfer raw data across gateways. Device administration and
decision-making can take place at or near the end points where IoT edge processing
generates data. Certain LTE-M and narrowband IoT (NB-IoT) cellular modules
allow procedures to connect directly to the mobile IoT network, with inbuilt han-
dling and loading capabilities to support agricultural applications that demand flex-
ibility right inside the module [12].

3.1 Modules

Adding cellular abilities or Wi-Fi networking to devices and other field equipment
is best done with modules. Device creators and integrators in the agro-industry must
trust the complete use of modules above a “chip-down” approach satisfactory for
other functional blocks of the strategy due to radiofrequency engineering difficul-
ties and strict governing acquiescence requirements. For farm IoT solution integra-
tors, this method to connectivity explanations provides many choices and the
greatest time-to-market ROI (return on investment) to satisfy the sector’s needs [13].
Intelligent Computing with Drones and Robotics for Precision Agriculture 5

3.2 Precision Farming

Gathering data in real time, powerful analytics, and interconnected devices to fine-­
tune responsiveness to crop and livestock variability. IoT agriculture helps growers
to understand the processes of their business better, from soil to animal circum-
stances, and in observing water control [14], improve your procedures, and put your
data to work for long-term growth and results.

3.3 Smart Irrigation

The integration of sensor-based water monitoring and management, fostering con-

nectivity, leads to the reduction of water wastage, promotes crop health, and
enhances agricultural yields. Farmers can utilize sensor-generated data to optimize
irrigation practices, satisfying demand while also preserving natural resources.
Over time, these sustainable approaches contribute to increased profitability while
simultaneously conserving water [15].
What Are Agricultural Sensors, and How Do They Work?
Agricultural sensors are devices used in a smart agriculture that compromise data
that helps farmers to observe and enhance crops by regulating changes in the
environment.
It will be controlled by using the application on mobile.

3.4 Benefits of Agricultural Sensors

Agricultural sensors have the following advantages:

• They are produced to fulfill rising food demand by enhancing harvests while
consuming the fewest assets possible, such as rainwater, enrichers, and germs.
This is accomplished through supply preservation and field mapping.
• They are easy to operate.
• They are less cost.
• They can be employed for contamination and overall condition of temperature in
addition to farming purposes.
Drawbacks of Agricultural Sensors
Agricultural sensors have the following problems:
• Internet access is required for smart farming and IoT technology. This isn’t avail-
able in underdeveloped countries like India.
• There is a widespread belief in the industry that users are always not willing to
accept the most up-to-date IoT devices with agricultural sensors.
• Essential infrastructure such as smart grids, traffic systems, and cellular towers
are not universally available. This obstructs the spread of its use much more.
6 V. Kaliannan and F. K. S. Al Saidi

4 Types of Smart Agricultural Sensors

Figure 3 indicates the drones used as a smart sensor in agriculture for smart farming.
In agriculture, smart sensors give data that benefits agriculturalists to monitor
and enhance their yields also keeping up with altering environmental and ecosystem
elements.
There are several different types of sensors that are utilized in farming for smart
agriculture.

4.1 Optical Sensors

Figure 4 indicates optical sensors in agriculture.

Fig. 3 Smart agricultural sensors. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.tractorjunction.

com/blog/types-­of-­smart-­sensors-­in-­agriculture-­for-­farming-­in-­india/)

Fig. 4 Optical sensors. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.tractorjunction.com/blog/

types-­of-­smart-­sensors-­in-­agriculture-­for-­farming-­in-­india/)
Intelligent Computing with Drones and Robotics for Precision Agriculture 7

These devices utilize light to assess various characteristics of dust particles

across different frequencies. They are typically installed on vehicles or drones,
enabling the collection and analysis of data related to soil reflectance and plant
color. Visual sensors are capable of identifying mud, organic materials, and soil
moisture content.

4.2 Electrochemical Sensors for Soil Nutrient Detection

Figure 5 indicates electrochemical sensors for soil nutrient detection for smart
farming.
It facilitates the gathering of soil chemical information. Electrochemical sensors,
specifically designed for detecting nutrient levels in soil, serve as material sensors.
Soil samples are typically sent to a laboratory for comprehensive analysis. For spe-
cialized tests, such as pH measurement, ion-selective electrodes are employed to
detect the movement of specific ions, such as nitrate, potassium, or hydrogen.

4.3 Mechanical Soil Sensors for Agriculture

Figure 6 indicates mechanical soil sensors for agriculture.

These instruments work by cutting down the earth and recording the power using
heaviness scales or weight cells. When a device penetrates the earth, it records the
land forces resulting from the soil’s critical movement. The proportion of the
strength essential to enter the soil moderate to the fore area of the tool promised
with the soil is quantified in a unit of pressure called soil mechanical resistance [16].

Fig. 5 Electrochemical sensors. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.tractorjunction.

com/blog/types-­of-­smart-­sensors-­in-­agriculture-­for-­farming-­in-­india/)
8 V. Kaliannan and F. K. S. Al Saidi

Fig. 6 Mechanical soil sensors. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.tractorjunction.

com/blog/types-­of-­smart-­sensors-­in-­agriculture-­for-­farming-­in-­india/)

4.4 Dielectric Soil Moisture Sensors

Figure 7 indicates dielectric soil moisture sensors in smart agriculture.

It assesses soil moisture content. Humidity sensors, in conjunction with rain
gauges, are strategically placed across the farm. This arrangement allows for con-
tinuous monitoring of soil moisture levels, particularly during periods of reduced
vegetation cover.

4.5 Location Sensors in Agriculture

Figure 8 indicates dielectric location sensors in agriculture.

The variety, space, and tallness of several points within the mandatory area are
resolved by these sensors. They depend on GPS satellites to accomplish this.

4.6 Electronic Sensors

Figure 9 indicates the electronic sensors in smart farming.

It’s a device that’s mounted on tractors and other field equipment to monitor how
well they’re working. The data was then sent to devices or mail to people via cel-
lular and cable communication networks.

4.7 Airflow Sensors

Figure 10 indicates the airflow sensors in smart farming.

Intelligent Computing with Drones and Robotics for Precision Agriculture 9

Fig. 7 Dielectric soil moisture sensors. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.tractorjunc-
tion.com/blog/types-­of-­smart-­sensors-­in-­agriculture-­for-­farming-­in-­india/)

Fig. 8 Dielectric location sensors in agriculture. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.
tractorjunction.com/blog/types-­of-­smart-­sensors-­in-­agriculture-­for-­farming-­in-­india/)
10 V. Kaliannan and F. K. S. Al Saidi

Fig. 9 Electronic sensors in agriculture. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.tractor-

junction.com/blog/types-­of-­smart-­sensors-­in-­agriculture-­for-­farming-­in-­india/)

Fig. 10 Airflow sensors in agriculture. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.tractorjunc-

tion.com/blog/types-­of-­smart-­sensors-­in-­agriculture-­for-­farming-­in-­india/)

Its quantities can be taken at certain areas at traveling. The necessary power is
determined by the density needed to penetrate a specified depth of soil with a given
volume of air. Various soil attributes, including compaction, structure, soil composi-
tion, and moisture content, contribute to unique characteristics.

4.8 Agricultural Sensors

Figure 11 indicates several types of agricultural probes that are used in smart
farming.
Intelligent Computing with Drones and Robotics for Precision Agriculture 11

Fig. 11 Agricultural sensors in agriculture. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.tractor-

junction.com/blog/types-­of-­smart-­sensors-­in-­agriculture-­for-­farming-­in-­india/)

Systematically, this probe calculates and monitors the air temperature, soil
humidity at various depths, rainfall, leaf humidity, chlorophyll levels, wind speed,
droplet temperature, wind direction, relative moisture, solar energy, and atmo-
spheric pressure.
There is a long list of IoT sensors that are utilized in agriculture:
(a) Weather monitoring.
(b) Automation of greenhouse.
(c) Management of crop.
(d) Livestock management and supervision.
(e) Intelligent precision for agriculture using sensors.
(f) Agricultural drones.

5 Small-Scale Farmers

Various sensors in agriculture can assist small-scale agriculturalists with a variety of

instruments and gadgets. Some farmers are unable to purchase all of the agricultural
sensors required. Farmers simply have to pay a minimal cost, which is the purchase
of a smartphone. A smartphone can save them money because it has many apps that
work with devices in your field [17].
12 V. Kaliannan and F. K. S. Al Saidi

5.1 Will Farmers Benefit from the Usage of Sensors

in Agriculture in the Future?

Agricultural robotics and technology are widely used by farmers due to the lack of
workers and the demand for feeding nutrition to an ever-increasing worldwide
population.
Machine education envisions robots and sensors to perceive and learn from their
environment through smart sensors. They have been using them for more than a year.
Using online cloud facilities and a control panel, a new novel technology permits
farmers to remotely observe insect groups in their area and make fast action to pre-
serve their harvests.

5.2 How Do Agricultural System Start with Smart Sensors?

Sensors have a plethora of applications in agriculture. Smart gadgets help farmers

to improve your plantation’s routine, production, and takings in a variety of ways.
Using and operating agricultural sensors, on the other hand, are not for everyone.
There are special considerations regarding agricultural sensors that you should
be aware of before using them.
You must select the sensors for your work to make an explanation of agriculture.
The accuracy and validity of the data gathered are serious to the achievement of
your manufactured goods, and it will be strong-minded by the excellence of your
sensors [18].

5.3 The Brain of Your Device

Every smart sensor in agriculture solutions should focus on data analytics. To

acquire meaningful visions created on the achieved data, you must have a persua-
sive capacity of data analytics and put on suitable algorithms.

5.4 Maintenance of Your Device

If the sensors are used at a specific location, they become damaged. Preserving your
system is a task that is especially important for sensors in farming. With this
instance, you must ensure that your gadget is long-lasting and simple to maintain.
Intelligent Computing with Drones and Robotics for Precision Agriculture 13

5.5 Reliable Infrastructure for Your Device

In the need of a solid internal infrastructure, make sure that your smart farming
software runs well. The internal systems must be entirely secure to prevent failure
due to security issues.

5.6 Connectivity of Device

The necessity to transfer data from a large number of agricultural devices and infra-
structure is a significant barrier to the smart farming implementation.
We trust that this information on sensors in agriculture is adequate and reliable.
This information will undoubtedly assist and guide you in your search for a clever
and dependable farm sensor [19].

6 Applications

6.1 Machine Navigation

• Tractors and huge plugging systems can be run robotically from the consolation
of home using GPS, just like the children’s toy vehicles.
• Those incorporated automated gadgets are surprisingly accurate and self-­regulate
while distinctive terrains are detected, making labor-in-depth operations less
complicated [9].
• Smartphones can comfortably find their movements into their work progress.
Figure 12 indicates how machine navigation is done in smart farming.

6.2 Harvesting Robotics

Selecting plants with agriculture robots alleviates the challenge of worker short-
ages. These robots can manage the challenges of collecting fruits and vegetables for
a day, a week, and a month. These technologies appoint a mixture of photograph
and robotic hands to perceive which berries to pluck, thereby regulating the quality.
Apples have a primary effort on agricultural robot harvesting in high-functioning
expenses.
Figure 13 indicates the harvesting robotics in smart farming.
14 V. Kaliannan and F. K. S. Al Saidi

Fig. 12 Machine navigation. (Source: Retrieved from website https://finance.yahoo.com/news/

agricultural-­technology-­companies-­finding-­themselves-­134026705.html)

Fig. 13 Harvesting robot. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.ese.upenn.edu/

centers-­institutes/)
Intelligent Computing with Drones and Robotics for Precision Agriculture 15

6.3 Remote Sensing

Figure 14 shows how drones monitor the farm or field activities.

6.4 Computer Imaging

Figure 15 indicates the computer imaging sensor in smart farming.

Computer imaging serves as a method for sensing visual information. It is placed
across the field of a farmer to reproduce photos of the farm that is digital in nature.
Crop monitoring, weather conditions, and soil quality are some of the applica-
tions in smart farming.

Fig. 14 Remote sensing. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.upl-­td.com/pdf/Annual_

Report_2020-­21.pdf)

Fig. 15 Computer imaging. (Source: Retrieved from website https://www.bloomingbackyard.

com/alkaline-­soil-­plants/)
16 V. Kaliannan and F. K. S. Al Saidi

7 Challenges

This segment discourses some of the main obstacles that must be overcome to estab-
lish the Internet of Things. To be widely accepted by the IoT community, answers
for these concerns must come from industrial, collective, authorized, economic, and
corporate backgrounds.

7.1 Standards and Interoperability

Standards are critical in establishing new technology marketplaces. Interoperability

will be more challenging if various industrialists do not utilize similar values, neces-
sitating the deployment of additional gateways to translate from one standard to
another. Furthermore, a corporation that controls many aspects of a vertical market
may be able to dominate that industry, suffocating competition and erecting obsta-
cles to entry for smaller players and entrepreneurs. Different data standards can also
tend to lock customers into a product family [20].

7.2 Security

As the Internet of Things connects more devices, malware gains decentralized

access points. Devices that are less expensive and located in physically dangerous
areas are vulnerable to interfering.
With policy-driven approaches to security and provisioning, expect to see a vari-
ety of strategies and vendors tackling these concerns.

8 Conclusion

IoT technology is being tested by researchers all around the nation to boost farm
production in a form that complements the service that is already in. We discussed
agricultural network architecture, platform, and topology to help farmers gain
access to the IoT backbone and increase crop productivity. This chapter also con-
tains a detailed analysis of present and upcoming technologies in IoT agricultural
applications, communication protocols, and other unique technology. This chapter
detailed several skills used in the field of IoT farming agriculture. Numerous impor-
tant characteristics of IoT-based farming agriculture, such as technologies, indus-
tries, and national legislation, have been delivered to support diverse stakeholders.
The management has activated to maintain IoT in agriculture, and it is estimated
that IoT in agriculture revolutionizes traditional farming techniques.
Intelligent Computing with Drones and Robotics for Precision Agriculture 17

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Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture
and Its Need in Today’s World

Sreya John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

1 Introduction

Farming and agriculture have always been an alternative to man to meet his needs
and expenses. In many cases, it has been the only source of livelihood. This trend
began thousands of years ago and has evolved in such a way that it even helped in
maintaining a balance in the economic affairs of many nations. Today, the agricul-
tural sector serves as the backbone of many countries. It plays a major role in the
social, cultural, and economic aspects of a nation [1]. The whole food industry of
the world is based on the agricultural sector, and it provides employment to many
people. Along with these advantages, there are also a few disadvantages of the
expanding agricultural sector which cannot be neglected [2]. To meet the needs of a
huge population within a short span of time, the experts are expanding the agricul-
tural sector in an unhealthy manner. To increase the yield and productivity, a high
number of fertilizers and pesticides are used which are harmful to the ecosystem
[3]. This affects the surrounding flora and fauna resulting in their extinction. The
clearing of forests and grasslands to transform them into agricultural lands are also
affecting the climatic conditions of the concerned region. Another demerit is the
overexploitation of natural resources such as land and soil [4]. As the farmland
increases in size, a large amount of fresh water is utilized for irrigation purposes.
This also affects the amount of groundwater resources and causes scarcity if contin-
ued for a longer time. As a result, studies and research were done to tackle these
issues and find an alternative to conserve our environment without affecting the
quality and quantity of crop production.

S. John · P. J. Arul Leena Rose (*)

Department of Computer Science, College of Science and Humanities, SRM Institute of
Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 19

S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_2
20 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

Agriculture has undergone many stages of development based on the circum-

stantial necessities of man and has benefited in numerous ways. This advancement
in the field of farming and agriculture was not a sudden breakthrough but the result
of long-term research and experiments involving various technological aspects.
Through the innovations at each stage, they took conventional farming that involved
manual labor, time, and energy to another level where each of these was replaced by
technology which in turn saved time and resources, improved yield production, and
made all other jobs easier. This way, ordinary farming was upgraded using various
smart ideas which resulted in smart farming. The introduction of technology in the
farming sector was a breakthrough and provided solution to all the problems [5].
Within a short span of time, Artificial Intelligence-based systems overtook the tra-
ditional farming methods. These systems were controlled by robots and wireless
networks which provided high-quality yield with less impact on the environment.
Hence, farming techniques were modified by integrating the advanced technologies
with the conventional methods to be known as smart farming. In other words, it is
the process of incorporating modern technology-based software and systems such
as drones, sensors, etc. to extract information and data to improve the quality and
quantity of agricultural products. A similar revolution, precision agriculture made
smart farming more realistic. While smart farming concentrated on the wider aspects
of the agricultural sector, precision agriculture did wonders in the core area [6]. To
be precise, it is all about measurements and observations of individual crops and
acting based on the data collected by smart farming devices. Precision livestock
farming is another area of precision agriculture that manages and monitors the wel-
fare of farm animals using technology. Devices such as wireless networks, cameras,
drones, computers, etc. are used for this purpose, and they monitor the various fac-
tors that affect the farm animals. Some of the main benefits of precision livestock
farming are improved animal health and growth, high milk production, and early
detection of diseases. Like smart farming, precision agriculture and farming are also
widely adapted as it is a multidisciplinary approach that involves collaborations
with veterinarians, scientists, engineers, climatologists, etc. These both are closely
associated processes, and together they provide us with high-quality yield
production.

2 The Evolution of Farming: From Conventional to Smart

The history of farming and cultivating crops for food production began centuries
ago. It was a significant phase in the evolution of mankind. This type of farming is
labor-intensive and requires more effort and dedication from the farmers. Various
external factors such as climate, soil condition, temperature, etc. also influenced the
traditional agriculture domain significantly. Any type of variations in these factors
affected agriculture as a whole, and visible changes were seen in the yield produc-
tion. This type of farming never guarantees a profitable income. As time went by,
the human population began increasing in an uncontrollable manner which resulted
Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 21

in an inflated need for food, land, water, other natural resources, etc. People started
clearing more and more land for cultivation as there came a drastic demand for food.
This affected nature more severely. Deforestation for crop cultivation and housing
resulted in soil erosion, landslides, and many other disasters. It is one of the major
reasons behind the extinction of many varieties of plants and animals. Another rea-
son is the increased use of fertilizers and pesticides which are harmful to farm-­
friendly microbes and animals. They are also responsible for the disintegration of
the soil quality. These harmful chemical substances enter the water bodies through
running water and deplete the water quality. This causes a threat to the living organ-
isms in the oceans and other water bodies. As the farmlands are expanding day by
day, the demand for freshwater resources is also increasing. The process of irriga-
tion requires a lot of water, and the primary source is groundwater. This groundwa-
ter reliance has reached an extent where the study reports show overused and
mismanaged groundwater resources in many parts of the world. The establishment
of industries and urbanization is also a reason behind the deterioration of land and
other natural resources.
Climatic changes and their causes on the environment are other aftereffects of
traditional farming. Recent studies have shown that agriculture contributes largely
to the increased presence of many harmful pollutants such as methane in the atmo-
sphere. Methane is a greenhouse gas, and the excess amount of it can cause a green-
house effect which results in damages such as ozone layer depletion. This increases
the temperature which causes a rise in the sea level. Damage to the ozone layer will
allow the harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the Earth’s surface which when come in
direct contact with the skin results in major skin diseases such as sunburns, cancer,
etc. In this way, conventional farming was creating many problems for humankind
and its surroundings [7]. As a result, man was forced to find an alternative to these
challenges which gave way to the establishment of smart farming. This farming
method utilizes technologies to improve crop production as well as the environ-
ment. Technology took the agriculture domain to a higher level where it not only
made the often-tedious tasks easier but also provided many solutions to various
complications of conventional farming. Smart farming and precision agriculture are
two such technology-driven farming concepts that focus on managing and preparing
the agricultural industry with frameworks to include advanced technologies such as
big data, the Internet of Things, and machine learning for tracking, monitoring,
analyzing, automating, and executing operations.

3 Intelligent Computing and AI: The Brain Behind

Smart Farming

Intelligent computing is an integration of advanced computing technologies and

various other fields such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML),
natural language processing (NLP), and deep learning (DL) to mimic human
22 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

abilities such as learning, decision-making, reasoning, and problem-solving. These

systems have the ability to analyze and process large volumes of data to make deci-
sions and thus improve their performance over time based on the experiences and
interactions. The introduction of these technologies to the agricultural sector brought
many high-level transformations and advances to farming and cultivation [8].
Artificial Intelligence has been a trending topic in computer science for many
years. It is a generally used term to describe a computer that uses intelligence to
perform a particular task. In other words, it is the ability of a machine to learn from
previous experiences to solve a particular problem. This form of learning from
experiences and replicating human intelligence is accomplished through various
algorithms which are defined specifically for this purpose [9]. As time passed by,
many advances happened in this branch of science and resulted in the development
of subsections known as machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL).
Machine learning technologies are one of the widely used mechanizations in
recent advances. It is a subset of Artificial Intelligence where the machines are
trained instead of explicitly programmed, to behave in the same way as that of the
human brain. Machine learning is a revolution as it doesn’t have to program each
application just like that of the traditional computing technologies. Instead, data
which are commonly in the form of images, text files, etc. are collected and used in
training the system. Such trained systems can produce good results when tested
with data that is similar to that of the trained ones. Some examples of machine
learning that we experience in the farming sector are the detection of diseases and
pests on the crops [10]. The machine learning algorithms are categorized into three
types of learning. They are supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning.
Regression and classification algorithms come under the category of supervised
learning where at each stage the model is taught to perform the actions using labels
and features acquired from the data [11]. There won’t be any associated labels to the
features that are collected from the data in the case of unsupervised learning. Here,
the goal is achieved only based on the features and patterns [12]. Clustering and
association rules are the common types of unsupervised learning. Based on the sim-
ilarity among the patterns, the data will be categorized accordingly. However,
decision-­making is the main element in reinforcement learning [13]. This is nothing
but the act of training the system to behave optimally in a particular environment so
that it can provide an accurate result. Even if there are many challenges while adopt-
ing machine learning techniques, their usages and numerous benefits to the man-
kind make them powerful. This gave way to other sectors and industries such as
health, farming, automobile, finances, etc. to rely on machine learning technologies
for further advances.
Deep learning is another subfield of Artificial Intelligence that uses the neural
networks to analyze and process data which is similar to the working of a human
brain. It is said to be more advanced and powerful than the machine learning as it
uses a large volume of dataset to perform the sophisticated tasks. In agriculture, DL
is used for tasks like identifying diseases in crops by analyzing images of leaves. It
can automatically detect visual signs of diseases, enabling timely interventions [14].
The unimaginable growth of all these industries in recent years is a clear evidence
Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 23

to depict the effectiveness of advanced technologies. The contributions of each sec-

tor have boosted us socially and economically [15].
Smart farming, driven by the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technolo-
gies, is revolutionizing traditional agricultural practices. The cutting-edge potential
of AI can be seen in a variety of applications, from crop health prediction to real-­
time data analysis for decision-making [16]. These developments have the ability to
transform farming methods and significantly boost production. Real-time data anal-
ysis is one of AI’s most important contributions to smart farming. Agricultural land-
scapes are surrounded by sensors and IoT devices, which create an uninterrupted
stream of data. AI algorithms are excellent at analyzing these data, obtaining useful
insights, and presenting them in a way that is easy to understand for informed
decision-­making [17]. Farmers can receive instantaneous information regarding
pest activity, temperature changes, and soil moisture levels, enabling timely inter-
ventions that maximize resource use and crop yield. Additionally, the predictive
power of AI offers a significant advancement in the way farmers monitor crop health
[18]. By the use of highly sophisticated machine learning algorithms, AI has the
ability to foresee the probable disease breakouts by analyzing the historical data
along with the real-time data. This helps the farmers to take active measures to find
remedies and protect their crops from the diseases at the earliest. Also, it promotes
environmentally friendly practices by minimizing the need for excessive pesticide
or fertilizer application. The power of AI goes beyond an individual farm and
includes an interconnected agricultural environment. It can provide thorough
knowledge which has the power to guide the entire supply chain by combining data
from multiple sources such as satellites, market trends, weather forecasts, etc. These
data-driven strategies help the farmers to make decisions on what and when to plant
and harvest the crops which enhance efficiency, cut waste, and improve the profit-
ability of the entire agricultural sector [19].
However, integration of AI in smart farming has its own challenges and draw-
backs. Some of these are listed below:
• Accessibility and quality of data: These systems require high-quality data to per-
form accurately. But a major challenge faced while integrating AI in smart farm-
ing is the unavailability and inconsistency of the datasets. Therefore, ensuring
the quality and availability of data has to be taken significantly.
• Privacy and security of data: Safeguarding famers’ details and crop information
is of utmost importance as these are sensitive and valuable data. It is important to
provide data privacy and security to the farmers while using technology-induced
farming methods.
• Initial investments and cost: Implementation of AI-based equipment is costly and
requires expertise to do the installations. The small-scale farmers and the ones
that are new to the field may find it difficult to meet such needs. Therefore,
proper funding and guidance from the authorities have to be sanctioned and
taken care of.
• These commonly faced challenges have to be addressed and rectified as the farm-
ers’ proficiency in technology can vary depending on various factors. Other than
this, there are other challenges such as unpredictable environmental factors, ethi-
cal concerns, etc. which also can occur while adapting to AI-based smart farming.
24 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

4 Cultivating Insights: ML and DL in Precision Agriculture

Machine learning and deep learning techniques have demonstrated their prowess in
analyzing complex agricultural data. This section will showcase how these algo-
rithms are employed to predict crop yields, detect diseases, and enhance crop man-
agement strategies.
Technology has taken the agriculture domain to a higher level where it not only
makes the often-tedious tasks easier but also provides many solutions to various
complications of conventional farming. Smart farming and precision agriculture are
two such technology-driven farming concepts that focus on managing and preparing
the agricultural industry with frameworks to include advanced technologies such as
deep learning and machine learning for tracking, monitoring, analyzing, automat-
ing, and executing operations [20]. There are numerous applications of machine
learning and deep learning algorithms in the field of smart farming. Currently,
technology-­oriented devices are involved from selecting a particular land for farm-
ing to processing the cultivated crops into edible food items. In the previous sec-
tions, we have seen the key features and basic functionalities of machine learning
and deep learning techniques. Now, let us see how these techniques are employed in
the agricultural sector to predict crop yields, detect diseases, and enhance crop man-
agement strategies.

4.1 Maintaining Crop Health

Constant monitoring of crops to improve their health is a time-consuming process.

There are various external and internal factors that influence the health of the crops.
Ample amount of rainfall, temperature, sunlight, and proper soil conditions are
some of the necessary aspects in plant growth [21]. Even though the plant receives
all these requirements, it doesn’t guarantee a successful crop production. Internal
aspects such as damaged seeds, diseases, pest infestation, etc. can make them barren
and unhealthy. The traditional way of tackling this issue is the manual observation
of the plants. This process requires a lot of effort and time. And the person who does
this should be an expert in all these fields, especially on varieties of diseases that
affect plants. Performing these tasks manually will be difficult, and farmers with
less knowledge will find it impossible to identify the diseases [22]. In this case,
precision agriculture can be used as a solution. Various automated systems are
developed under precision agriculture to identify the diseases affecting agricultural
crops at an earlier stage. There are also systems based on big data and other tech-
nologies to monitor external factors such as weather changes and rainfall. The data
from such systems can be analyzed to find out the optimum conditions that are
necessary for healthy crops. They are mostly in the form of Excel files and images
and collected using wireless sensors, drones, and cameras. This data will be stored
for further use by the farmers to produce high yields.
Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 25

Automated systems that analyze soil conditions are also used widely. Adding
fertilizers to an already fertile piece of land can degrade the existing quality of soil
in that region. This happens when the chemicals present in the fertilizers affect the
elements that make the land fertile. In this scenario, it is very necessary to evaluate
the soil conditions [23]. An idea of the amount of minerals and nutrients present in
the soil can tell us how much more we must provide so that the plant will be free
from nutrient deficiencies. Supplying large quantities of nutrients can degrade the
quality of both soils and crops. The excess amount of minerals will act as toxins to
the plants which can affect their growth. All these issues can be answered using
automated systems. Using sensors and other technology-based devices, they collect
the required data and will be used in the prediction systems. Another set of auto-
mated systems is used in disease and pest detection in crops. This is another signifi-
cant area that should be given great care so as to provide a high-quality yield. The
diseases affecting a plant could spread to other crops on the farm within a short span
of time. This is the same for pest infestation also. Proper identification and remedies
should be done at the earliest. Technology-driven devices and software packages are
better options than the conventional ways of tackling these issues. A wide range of
images and videos of the diseases and pests affected in the same farmland and other
farmland with the same crops will be collected using drones, software systems, and
other wireless sensor networks. Based on these datasets, an automated system will
be developed, and the developers train them using the collected data [24]. There are
various types of algorithms available for this purpose. Even now, studies and
research are done in this area to produce more accurate results. After training, the
system will be tested with a new set of data and if it shows good results will be used
in the farms for the early detection and identification of diseases and pests [25].
These techniques can also be used to provide good care and protection to the crops
in a less period. The given image (Fig. 1) shows the basic block diagram of a crop
disease identification model.

Fig. 1 Basic block diagram of a crop disease identification model. (Source: https://panteche-
learning.com)
26 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

4.2 Production of High-Quality Yield

The production of good quality yield is a challenging factor in the case of small-­
scale and large-scale farming [26]. One major reason behind this is the dependence
of yield production on various fields such as soil, climatic conditions, water
resources, temperature, etc. Hence, a healthy combination of all these factors results
in a good quality yield. Conventional farming techniques cannot be relayed in this
scenario. With their limited facilities only, a certain feature can be predicted and is
not of much use. Involving technology-based devices such as wireless sensors,
drones, AI-based robots, and software can give more accurate results [27]. These
advanced systems help us to track the crop conditions at various levels so that we
can do the necessary activities accordingly. Wireless sensor networks are mainly
used to monitor the environmental conditions that are necessary for agricultural
crop cultivation. These sensor networks are designed in a manner that has a base
system that controls all the activities and connects it to the Internet to share the
acquired data. Drones, on the other hand, do multiple activities such as fertilizer
distribution, data collection, water supply, etc., in large-scale farming. Using drones,
we could see the very minute details of a crop even if it is a large farmland. This is
helpful in the case of crop disease detection and classification [28]. Robots are other
effective tools in smart farming. They can be used to reduce human labor and a lot
of time [29]. They can be programmed and trained according to their needs. Software
packages are developed based on the collected data to predict the yield and future
results. Figure 2 is a center-pivot irrigation system which is very famous for its
efficiency and the ability to irrigate uneven terrain uniformly.

Fig. 2 Center-pivot irrigation system. (Source: https://www.infosys.com)

Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 27

4.3 Land Suitability, Yield Prediction, and Classification

Land and its surroundings are an important aspect of farming and crop cultivation.
An efficient system with the ability to gather accurate information about agricul-
tural land will be a useful tool for the farmers. Today, such prediction systems with
advanced technologies are built using machine learning algorithms. In the olden
days, to predict whether the respective land is suitable for cultivation, farmers didn’t
have many sources. Only after years of observation and experience they were able
to make partially correct decisions. Artificial Intelligence and other technologies
have brought a drastic change to the farming sector. Machine learning models built
to predict the land suitability use real-time data such as soil composition, availabil-
ity of water resources, temperature, humidity, other climatic factors such as rainfall,
and the requirements of the vegetative crops that are planned to cultivate. There are
various machine learning algorithms developed to predict such systems with high
accuracy [30]. The advantages of these land suitability prediction models based on
machine learning algorithms make them important in today’s world. They foresee
the quantity of yield produced and according to the amount a farmer can add more
of it for a higher production without causing any damage to the environment. There
is a high demand for such models, and prediction algorithms such as support vector
machine, neural networks, K-means clustering, etc. are used to build them [31].

4.4 Crop Management and Harvesting

This is another area of the agricultural sector where machine learning algorithms
are applied frequently. Crop management is an important aspect as it has a signifi-
cant role in the economy of a nation. Therefore, it is mandatory to make sure that
they are receiving proper monitoring at regular intervals of time. But it is always
difficult to manage the crops in a large farmland. And manually doing this is even
more tedious. As a solution to this, many computerized automated models are
developed to manage the crops without any human intervention. They use machine
learning algorithms and other technologies to build such systems [32]. Devices such
as drones, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), wireless sensor networks, robots, etc.
are used to collect various types of data to monitor and manage the agricultural
crops [33]. The data collected can be preserved for future uses and helps in analyz-
ing the requirements of each crop during its growth. This reduces the overutilization
of fertilizers and the exploitation of natural resources.
Many large-scale farming uses drones and helicopters for the distribution of fer-
tilizers and water. Weeds that grow among the crops are also detected and elimi-
nated using machine learning technologies. At each stage, the crops are provided
with necessary requirements for their growth and development. Many systems are
enhanced with special features which can detect and notify farmers of the presence
of diseases and pests. There are also systems that indicate the harvesting or fruit
28 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

ripening time so that the farmers can make the necessary preparations for it. Artificial
Intelligence-based devices are used for harvesting which reduces the human labor
and time. Machine-based harvesting is also a cost-effective process. This type of
innovation using machine learning algorithms has made the farming sector more
advanced and eco-friendlier at the same time. Even today, much research and stud-
ies are done in this field to make it more feasible and environmentally sound.

4.5 Seeds and Sapling Quality Prediction

Another challenging factor in crop production is the quality of the seeds used. Even
if the farmers use land that is of high quality, there is no point if they sow a dormant
or an unhealthy seed. So, it is very important to make sure that the seeds and sapling
used are healthy and productive. It was an impossible task in the olden days. But
today with the help of technologies such as machine learning, deep learning, etc.,
we can find the health of a seed within a short span of time. Predictive algorithms
are used here, and the systems that give high accuracy could be used for real farm-
ing purposes. They improve the farming sector by providing a yield that is of high
quality. Even the quantity of the crop production is also enhanced by using such
models. Figure 3 is a general pictorial representation of the crop yield estimation in
an automated model.

4.6 Reduce Ecological and Environmental Damages

Following a smart farming culture can benefit us in various ways. One main advan-
tage is the elimination of environmental hazards that have occurred because of con-
ventional farming. Agricultural pollution can be eliminated to a large extent through
eco-friendly smart farming methods. Utilization of herbicides, an alternative to
harmful pesticides, and less usage of fertilizers can reduce the emission of green-
house gases. The traditional farming process consumes a lot of fresh waters, and this
can affect the available water resources. Even if water comes under the category of
renewable resources, we must realize the fact that improper usage of all these
resources can make them disappear from this Earth itself; hence, it is important to
follow sustainable farming culture. Providing water for irrigation based on crop
needs and soil conditions can be effective to reduce water scarcity [34]. The use of
wireless sensors and software helps us to monitor the plants to find the amount of
water and other minerals required. This reduces the overutilization of water and
fertilizers. And we will be able to supply an adequate amount of water and neces-
sary fertilizers as per the analyses and records.
Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 29

Fig. 3 Crop yield estimation model. (Source: https://www.geog.ucl.ac.uk)

4.7 For an Improved Decision-Making in Farming Sector

Smart farming and precision agriculture have already started paving our path to fol-
low a systematic and planned farming. A farmer should improve his planning and
decision-making skills as he becomes more market-oriented. One of the major chal-
lenges faced by the farming sector is the pressure on everyone to be updated and
informed to make appropriate decisions. Using technologies such as GPS satellite,
drones, sensors, etc., we can gather data from history to create a predictive model so
that we can choose the suitable crops that can give higher yields. This form of
decision-making is more accurate and provides better results. Gathering other
details such as weather condition, soil nature, crop features, etc. can help us to pro-
vide them with their exact needs. As a result, computerized automated systems are
developed widely for accurate prediction and improved decision-making in the agri-
cultural sector [35].
30 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

5 Ensuring Transparency and Trust: Blockchain

in Agriculture

In recent years, blockchain technology has drawn a lot of attention due to its poten-
tial to increase openness and trust in a variety of industries, including agriculture.
The farming sector faces difficulties with regard to information asymmetry, trace-
ability, and inefficient supply chains. Using blockchain in agriculture can solve
these problems and have several advantages such as the following:
• Supply Chain Transparency: Blockchain can be used to provide a transparent and
unchangeable record of every step in the agricultural supply chain. Every trans-
action and movement, from planting and harvesting through processing, packag-
ing, and distribution, can be documented on the blockchain. This minimizes the
possibility of fraud, forgery, and unauthorized alterations by ensuring that all
parties have access to correct and up-to-date information about the products’
whereabouts of manufacture and travel.
• Quality Assurance and Traceability: A digital ledger that maintains the whole
lifespan of agricultural products, including details about the procedures
employed, certificates gained, and any quality testing carried out, can be created
using blockchain technology. Food safety may increase as a result of this trans-
parency because any problems can be swiftly found and resolved.
• Accessibility and Consumer Trusts: Greater traceability and transparency can
increase consumer trust in the items’ authenticity and quality. This may open up
new domestic and foreign markets where customers are willing to pay more for
reliable items.
• Smart Contracts and Automation: Smart contracts are agreements that automati-
cally carry out their obligations because they are written in code. Smart contracts
can automate a number of operations in agriculture, including payment settle-
ments, quality assurance, and compliance verification. For instance, if sensors or
outside data show that a farmer’s produce meets a given quality level, they can be
automatically paid.
• Integration of technological expertise and a clear understanding of the specific
challenges and opportunities within the agricultural sector can result in the suc-
cessful implementation of blockchain technology which has the potential to
revolutionize the agricultural industry by enhancing transparency, traceability,
and trust throughout the supply chain.

6 Connecting Fields: 5G’s Impact on Smart Farming

The advent of 5G technology promises unprecedented connectivity and low latency.

This section will explore how 5G is poised to revolutionize smart farming by
enabling real-time data collection, precision farming through remote-controlled
machinery, and IoT integration.
Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 31

The launch of 5G technology has the potential to significantly impact various

industries, including agriculture. The possibilities provided by 5G can be very use-
ful for smart farming, which uses cutting-edge technologies to optimize agricultural
methods. Few impacts of 5G technology in smart farming are given below:
• Monitoring of real-time data: Gathering of real-time data and its transmission are
made possible by 5G’s high-speed and low-latency capabilities. The use of sen-
sors, drones, and other IoT devices to monitor factors, like soil moisture, tem-
perature, humidity, and crop health across their fields, provide precise information
to farmers based on which they can take quick actions.
• Precision agriculture: By customizing activities to certain regions of a field, pre-
cision agriculture strives to maximize agricultural yields and resource efficiency.
Precision remote control of machinery and equipment is made possible by
5G. For instance, real-time, minimally delayed operation of autonomous vehi-
cles and drones enables precision planting, spraying, and harvesting.
• Remote operations and management: The utilization of cloud-based platforms
and mobile applications enables farmers to remotely monitor and manage their
operations. Farmers can access data, manage equipment, and make decisions
from anywhere as a result of 5G’s quick and dependable connectivity, which
improves operational effectiveness.
• Livestock management: Wearable gadgets can be utilized in livestock husbandry
to monitor animal behavior and health. Farmers can improve animal well-being
and efficiency by real-time monitoring of vital signs and behavioral patterns to
identify health issues early.
• Smart irrigation: Sensors powered by 5G can offer precise information on soil
moisture levels, enabling irrigation with the right amount of water. This can min-
imize operational expenses, increase crop quality, and reduce water waste.
• Predictive analytics: 5G enables the real-time analysis of data from a variety of
sources to produce insights and predictions. Machine learning algorithms can
analyze sensor data, weather forecasts, and historical trends to produce recom-
mendations for the best times to plant, how to prevent disease, and more.
• Supply chain management: Real-time connectivity provided by 5G can improve
supply chain traceability and transparency. Every stage of the supply chain, from
the farm to the consumer, may be watched, ensuring product quality, cutting
waste, and fostering consumer trust.
• Agri-robotics: Robotic weeding, picking, and trimming are just a few of the
advanced agri-robotics applications that 5G can support. Using 5G connectivity,
these robots may be remotely controlled and steered, improving efficiency and
lowering the need for manual labor.
• Virtual and augmented reality (VR/AR): They are immersive technologies that
enhance our sensory experiences and interactions by blending the digital and
physical worlds, in which 5G is well suited for due to its low latency. With aug-
mented reality (AR) glasses, farmers can receive information about the field they
are viewing in real time, such as crop health information or upkeep guidelines.
32 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

• Collaboration and knowledge-sharing: 5G makes it possible for farmers, profes-

sionals, and researchers to collaborate and share data easily. This helps people to
share their finest ideas, perspectives, and solutions to agriculture-based problems.
Despite the significant advantages of 5G for smart farming, there are some chal-
lenges to take into account:
• Infrastructure: An extensive infrastructure and a proper network coverage are
required for 5G installation which limits it to the urban areas due to the poor
network in rural areas.
• Cost: For farmers, especially small-scale enterprises, installing 5G infrastructure
and buying appropriate devices can be expensive.
• Data privacy and security: They are more important as more data is produced and
sent, especially sensitive agriculture data.
• Spectrum and regulatory issues: Spectrum allocation and regulatory frameworks
may have an impact on the availability and deployment of 5G networks.
Therefore, the low-latency connectivity and the high speed of 5G network have
the potential to change smart farming enabling real-time data collection, remote
monitoring, precision agriculture, and advanced analytics. The agricultural industry
may experience a gain in productivity, resource efficiency, and sustainability as the
technology develops and becomes more generally available.

7 Harvesting Insights: Big Data Analytics

in Precision Agriculture

Big data analytics in precision agriculture is a significant advancement in modern

farming practices which has the potential to transform raw agricultural data into
actionable insights. By incorporating cutting-edge data analytics, precision agricul-
ture, which adapts cultivation methods to specific circumstances, has undergone a
revolution. This integration makes it easier to extract important insights from enor-
mous and varied datasets, which results in improved agricultural processes. The
acquisition and merging of data from multiple sources form the basis of precision
agriculture. A huge amount of data is produced by sensors, drones, weather stations,
machines, and satellite pictures. Big data analytics easily integrates these various
data sources, giving farmers a thorough understanding of the state and dynamics of
their farms. The basis for making informed decisions is this thorough knowledge.
The interpreting and processing abilities of big data analytics are essential in
making sense of the gathered data. Huge amounts of data are searched through by
sophisticated algorithms and models, which then reveal complex patterns, trends,
and connections. It also reveals major relationships between crop yields and ele-
ments including soil type, irrigation intensity, and temperature variations [36].
These observations assist farmers aiming for increased output with beneficial guid-
ance. The predictive ability of big data analytics in precision agriculture is among
Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 33

its most alluring features. The technology may predict future circumstances and
results by examining historical and real-time data. The capacity to predict problems
and opportunities gives farmers the flexibility to proactively modify their strategies
and plans. Big data analytics also provides prescriptive advice in addition to predic-
tions. These practical recommendations allow farmers to adjust planting timings,
irrigation schedules, and fertilization methods. Precision agriculture is primarily
driven by resource optimization, and big data analytics is essential to attaining this
goal [37]. Waste is minimized, and environmental effect is decreased by adjusting
the distribution of resources like water, fertilizers, and pesticides based on unique
field conditions. The technology also assists in the early detection of pests, illnesses,
and other hazards to crops. Monitoring many data sources enables quick responses
that stop and lessen these problems. Another factor that sets apart precision agricul-
ture driven by big data analytics is the customized decision-making. The technology
permits the study of data that is unique to particular fields within a field. This level
of specificity enables farmers to customize their choices to the distinctive qualities
of each region, leading to improved efficiency and results [38]. The insights from
big data analytics lead to cost savings in an economic perspective. The profit mar-
gins of farmers are boosted by greater resource use, higher yields, and reduced
operational inefficiencies. Therefore, we can say that the integration of big data
analytics in precision agriculture represents a fundamental change in the agricul-
tural industry as it improves productivity, sustainability, and responsiveness which
made precision agriculture a cornerstone of contemporary agricultural methods.

8 Orchestrating Farms: The IoT Revolution

The Internet of Things (IoT) has enabled smart devices and sensors to gather real-­
time data from agricultural fields. It is a network of interconnected machines, sen-
sors, and systems that communicate and share information digitally. The IoT
technology has transformed the conventional agricultural activities by facilitating
real-time data gathering, analysis, and automation. As a result, many areas of farm-
ing are managed precisely and efficiently. The major areas enhanced by IoT tech-
nology are discussed below:
• Developments in irrigation using IoT: Irrigation has typically relied on predeter-
mined schedules or manual monitoring, which can result in inefficient water use
and unequal distribution. IoT uses sensors embedded in the ground to monitor
soil moisture levels and send information to a central server. The precise amount
of water required in various fields is then calculated using this data. Automated
irrigation systems can be remotely managed and changed based on current infor-
mation. This methodical technique reduces wasteful use of water, encourages
ideal crop growth, and even guards against overwatering, which can result in soil
erosion.
34 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

• Pest control using IoT: Agricultural sector faces an ongoing difficulty in control-
ling diseases and pests. IoT-enabled technologies provide a preventative strategy
for pest management. Temperature, humidity, and other environmental elements
that affect insect behavior can be monitored in the field by sensors. Potential
insect outbreaks can be predicted using this data along with information from
weather forecasts and historical trends [39]. IoT technologies also enable farm-
ers to apply interventions like targeted pesticide spraying precisely where and
when needed by providing them with notifications and recommendations. This
decreases the need for extensive chemical use, lowers expenses, and has a mini-
mal negative influence on the environment.
• Livestock management using IoT: Livestock and dairy farming are an important
area of agricultural sector. Milk, dairy products, eggs, meat, etc. are essential in
our day-to-day life. They also provide us with other beneficial things such as
manure and wool and even help in farming. Therefore, it is very important to
monitor the health and welfare of these animals. To improve dairy farming, we
must receive products that are of high quality and quantity without affecting or
disturbing their health and life. IoT technologies provide solutions such as real-­
time monitoring and better animal care for livestock husbandry [40]. These sys-
tems use wireless sensor networks, cameras, software, robots, etc. to monitor,
analyze, and collect the data. Using this data that are collected, the farmers could
identify the animals with poor health. They can also use robots to feed them and
guide them to grazing in the fields. Artificial Intelligence-based devices are used
in large farms to milk the cows and to reduce labor to a large extent. Farm ani-
mals can be monitored at any time from any location using drones and cameras.
This type of tracking of farm animals helps farmers from losing them. Even the
behavioral abnormalities of the cattle due to any diseases or pests also can be
easily notified if the farmers follow a visual tracking system. This type of auto-
mated model helps to preserve the data and records easily and provides an insight
into the financial and operational aspects. Farmers also can get familiarized with
each animal through such automated models even if there are a large number of
animals. Wearable gadgets with sensors can monitor an animal’s health, activity
level, and even behavioral habits. Farmers are able to remotely check on the
health and welfare of their cattle by enabling the transmission of this data to
cloud-based platforms [41]. Alerts are generated if anomalies are found, allow-
ing for prompt intervention. IoT technology also helps feed distribution be opti-
mized, ensuring animals get the proper quantity of nourishment. This method
encourages healthier animals, more output, and lower mortality rates. There are
various other fields that use IoT to flourish in today’s farming practices. All these
examples show how seamlessly integrating technology into farming practices
can enhance the efficiency, sustainability, and productivity of the agricul-
tural sector.
Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 35

9 Digital Twins, Mobile Applications, and Cloud Computing

for Smart Farming

A digital twin is a virtual representation of a physical object or system, such as a

farm, a field, or even a single plant. In order to build a dynamic and interactive vir-
tual counterpart to the actual agricultural environment, this method makes use of the
power of cutting-edge technologies, such as sensors, Internet of Things (IoT)
devices, and data analytics. Smart farming uses digital twins as crucial instruments
for accurate decision-making and process optimization. Farmers can view data in
real time gathered by sensors positioned throughout their fields and livestock. The
digital twin is then fed with this information to produce a virtual depiction of the
farm’s conditions. The ability of digital twin approach for predictive modeling and
analysis is one of its significant benefits. Farmers can learn more about how various
factors, such as weather patterns, soil moisture levels, and planting methods may
interact and affect crop growth by simulating these factors. Farmers may proactively
modify their practices to enhance yields and resource efficiency, thanks to this fore-
sight. The benefits of digital twin idea also extend to sustainability and risk manage-
ment. Within the virtual environment, farmers can model the effects of pest
outbreaks, droughts, or extreme weather conditions. As a result, they can create
mitigation techniques and backup plans that they can quickly use when similar cir-
cumstances arise in real life.
The introduction of mobile applications revolutionized the agricultural sector
drastically as it gives farmers immediate access to vital information, empowering
them to make knowledgeable decisions and manage their businesses more success-
fully. These smartphone apps provide a variety of benefits across several facets of
agricultural management in the context of smart farming. Through sensors and IoT
devices, farmers can remotely monitor their fields, crops, and livestock to stay
informed on important elements like soil moisture, temperature, and animal behav-
ior. Rapid responses to developing situations and prospective problems are made
possible by this rapid connectivity [42]. Additionally, these apps are essential for
precision agriculture since they let farmers create precise field maps, specify plant-
ing zones, and optimize machinery routes. Such capabilities enable precision seed-
ing, variable-rate fertilizer and pesticide delivery, and tailored irrigation, all of
which boost agricultural yields and resource utilization. Mobile apps also speed up
data gathering and analysis by enabling farmers to directly input data on planting
plans, yields, and pest observations into their devices. Farmers are given the tools
they need to make data-driven decisions so they may achieve greater results. In
summary, mobility in agriculture is transforming how farmers run their businesses,
promoting improved effectiveness, sustainability, and success in the context of con-
temporary farming.
The adoption of cloud computing technologies in agriculture has ushered in a
new era of productivity and connection, revolutionizing conventional farming meth-
ods and paving the way for farming in the clouds. Delivery of computing services
through the Internet, including storage, processing power, and data analytics, is
36 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

referred to as cloud computing. This technology has several advantages for agricul-
ture and has completely changed how farmers operate and make decisions. The
capacity to store and access enormous volumes of data from anywhere at any time
is one of the main benefits of cloud computing in agriculture. Cloud-based plat-
forms allow farmers to upload and preserve information about soil characteristics,
crop yields, weather patterns, and other topics. A comprehensive digital record of
all agricultural activities is kept in this central location, enabling data-driven
decision-­making. Furthermore, having access to this information enables farmers to
work with professionals, researchers, and other interested parties, exchanging
knowledge and insights that help them make well-informed decisions. Precision
agriculture also greatly benefits from the use of cloud computing. Farmers can pro-
duce precise field maps and remotely monitor conditions by combining data from
numerous sources, including sensors, drones, and satellite photos. Cloud computing
also improves agricultural risk management. By running models and simulations on
cloud platforms, farmers can simulate various scenarios and make predictions about
possible outcomes. For example, they can determine how different weather condi-
tions affect agricultural growth or forecast the effects of shifting market pricing.
Farmers may create risk mitigation plans and make well-informed decisions that
can protect their revenue, thanks to this proactive approach.
The successful convergence of digital twins, mobile applications, and cloud
computing has ushered in a new era of extraordinary creativity and efficiency in the
quickly changing environment of modern agriculture. A wave of change in smart
farming has been sparked by the dynamic interaction of digital twins, which provide
virtual representations of the real world; mobile applications, which give farmers
access to real-time insights and management tools; and cloud computing, which
offers scalable data storage and processing capabilities. This effective trio enables
farmers to adopt sustainable practices, allocate resources efficiently, increase pro-
ductivity, and make educated decisions. A future where agriculture is not just
smarter but also more resilient, productive, and tuned in to the changing require-
ments of an expanding globe is promised as these technologies continue to develop
and converge.

10 Case Study in Leaf Disease Detection

The case study detailed here demonstrates the integration of technologies to provide
the agricultural sector with more accurate results within a short span of time which
can enhance the soil management and disease control strategies to another level.
Case study on disease detection: The applications of machine learning technolo-
gies in different fields are discussed in the previous sections. Advances related to
vegetative crops and their high-quality production are a prominent area as it can
benefit under any circumstances. One major problem that is influencing the produc-
tion, quality, and quantity of the crops is the varieties of diseases and pests affecting
the plants. This is damaging the food industry and agricultural sector as a whole.
Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 37

The mutated variations of diseases are a real challenge to the farmers. Many auto-
mated systems are designed as a solution to tackle this issue. These models use
machine learning technologies to detect and classify diseases accordingly. Each
model is designed with many sophisticated algorithms at every step in order to gen-
erate an accurate result. Here is a system that is built using the latest machine learn-
ing algorithms to identify the diseases affecting the common vegetative crops.
Figure 4 shows the general block diagram of an automated crop disease identifica-
tion system.
These are the major steps in a disease detection model. The first and foremost
activity is to gather the necessary data which must be fed to the system. In most
cases, leaf images are used as data as they contain diseases, symptoms of diseases,
and various other details. Pest and infections also affect other parts such as roots,
stem, fruits, and flowers of the plants, and therefore, they can also be used as data-
set. Once these images are collected, they must undergo preprocessing. It is done
using various algorithms, resizing images without any data loss and with the help of
many filtering techniques. This step is mainly taken to eliminate the presence of
noise and other distortions that exist in the image. The unwanted portions of the
image such as the background and other parts that don’t contain the disease or
symptoms also can be removed during this stage. This is an important step as further
processes depend on the preprocessed image.
The preprocessed images are then segmented using various segmentation algo-
rithms. These algorithms help us to segment the image into multiple partitions, and
the formations of smaller sections are based on the similar characteristics of the
pixel values. Watershed segmentation, canny edge detection, etc. are some of the
conventional segmentation algorithms available. Recently, many hybrid algorithms
are developed to obtain more accurate results. These segmentation algorithms help
the system to extract the necessary features easily which results in proper feature
extraction. They are extracted from the dataset fed into the system and are used to
train the system to get familiarized with diseased and healthy leaf images. This

Fig. 4 The general block diagram of an automated crop disease identification system
38 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

helps the system to identify a diseased leaf image when tested using a similar image.
There are algorithms to perfectly extract the features from a data, and this is a cru-
cial step to develop an accurate model.
Here, we have taken two common rice leaf diseases such as brown spot disease
and leaf smut which are great threats to rice production (Figs. 5 and 6, respectively).
The images of diseased and healthy rice leaves were collected from here and prepro-
cessed using the median filter to remove the noise. The unwanted background por-
tions were also removed. After segmentation, the features that represent each disease
were extracted to train the system. The features extracted for leaf smut are the black
lesions present on the leaves and the dry, gray-colored leaf tips and the brown-­
colored large lesions for brown spot disease.

Fig. 5 Leaf smut disease

Fig. 6 Brown spot disease

Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 39

10.1 Dataset

The dataset used here is collected from an online dataset repository known as UCI
machine learning repository. A total of 470 images are taken and divided into a
training and testing set of 422 images and 48 images, respectively.

10.2 Classification

The final step is the classification of images into the two categories, diseased or
healthy. Again, there are various classification algorithms available to classify the
input image. In our work, we have taken three supervised classification algorithms.
Each one is trained and tested using our dataset, and the obtained experimental
results along with the comparative study of each algorithm are shown here.

10.2.1 K-Nearest Neighbor Algorithm

It is one of the simplest algorithms that can be used in both classification and regres-
sion problems. This algorithm determines the K-nearest neighbors, and based on
this neighbor weight, they determine the label of the samples. The aim of this algo-
rithm is to classify the testing set by calculating the distance between the test sam-
ples and the training samples. The equation used here is

D  u,vi     f   u f ,vi  f
fF
(1)
where D is the training set with vi training samples and u is the testing sample. In
this algorithm, the k values are based on the data values. After performing the clas-
sification, it is observed that the accuracy on the testing set is 91.6% when k value
is taken as 1 and accuracy is 72.95% when the k value is 3.

10.2.2 Decision Tree

This is another classification algorithm that is used widely. Here, the algorithm par-
titions the dataset into two sections by taking a suitable value as the root. The split-
ting of the data continues till the values in each group become homogeneous. The
decision tree algorithm is based on a greedy approach known as iterative dichoto-
mies3 (ID3). In this method, the tree is constructed using concepts such as entropy
and information gain which are borrowed from information theory. Here, entropy
calculates the values that do not belong to the class. If all the values are of the same
type, then it shows zero entropy. And when the values are different from that of the
group, the entropy becomes positive. The given Eq. (2) shows the entropy value:
40 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

i 1
E   Pi log 9 Pi
c (2)
Here, c represents the number of classes.
The next node in the tree is selected using the information gain concept. The
node with highest information gain is determined for this purpose. That is calcu-
lated using Eq. (3):

Sv
G  S ,A   E  S    E  Sv 
S
(3)
In this equation, A denotes the known value, G is the gain, and E represents the
Entropy. Sv is the subset of A as it has the value v in it. The test set gave an accuracy
of 97.91% after performing classification using the decision tree algorithm.

10.2.3 Naïve Bayes Classifier

This is another commonly used classification algorithm that works according to the
Bayes theorem. Naïve Bayes classifier is known as a probabilistic classifier as the
prediction is based on the probability of an object. For this, first, the dataset is rep-
resented using a frequency table. A likelihood table is generated by finding the prob-
abilities of the selected features, and the posterior probability is calculated using the
Bayes theorem. The equation to select the best hypothesis is given by the following:

 i 1
 amP  y    P  xi | y  
y n
(4)
The accuracy obtained after performing Naïve Bayes classifier by the test set is 56%
which is very less compared to that of K-nearest neighbor and decision tree classi-
fication algorithms.

10.3 Result

Table 1 shows the accuracy of the three classification algorithms when trained and
tested using diseased and healthy rice leaf images.
The comparison of the accuracy obtained from the three classifiers is shown in
the given graph (Fig. 7).
Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture and Its Need in Today’s World 41

Table 1 Accuracy of the Classifiers Accuracy (%)

three classification algorithms
KNN classifier 91.6
Decision tree 97.91
Naïve Bayes 56

Fig. 7 Accuracy obtained from the three classifiers

11 Conclusion

Technological advances have transformed conventional farming practices to another

level. Today, it is known as smart farming which uses intelligent robots and smart
machines to propel the agricultural industry forward. A huge transformation has
occurred since machine learning technologies invaded the agricultural sector. The
rapidly increasing population is putting a tremendous pressure on the natural
resources and grasslands for their food and other requirements. Due to this, many
problems such as global warming, soil erosion, deforestation, climatic changes, etc.
have been stimulated, making the situation even more serious. Fortunately, modern
farming methods equipped with machine learning technologies are making it pos-
sible to meet the challenges faced by the industry. In this chapter, we have discussed
the various applications and roles of machine learning technologies in smart farm-
ing. Many diagnostic applications powered by these highly advanced technologies
are used by the farmers to retrieve complete information and find correct remedies
to combat the diseases.
To innovate and improve the potential of advancing technology, agricultural
experts and other technologists are expected to provide their maximum effort and
enthusiasm. Besides, it is our duty to educate and spread the importance of precision
agriculture. We must encourage everyone to embrace new technologies such as
machine learning, Artificial Intelligence, etc., as they have the potential to increase
yield and productivity.
42 S. John and P. J. Arul Leena Rose

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Transforming Agriculture with Smart
Farming: A Comprehensive Review
of Agriculture Robots for Research
Applications

T. R. Ashwini , M. P. Potdar, S. Sivarajan, and M. S. Odabas

1 Introduction

At present, the world population is around 7.4 billion, and by 2050, it would reach
around 9.6 billion approximately [40]. Coming to Indian context, population is
increasing day by day as it is around 1.44 billion now. The FAO of the UN has pro-
jected that 60% extra increment of food per annum may be needed by the middle of
the current century [101]. Keeping this in mind, there is an urgent need to boost the
farm produce to fulfill the target demand [41]. The solution lies in either enhancing
food production from the available land area or reducing food demand [51].
However, industrialization, as well as urbanization, demands for production of more
food grains because the value-added and processed food need more raw materials.
Under the circumstances, there is no magic stick to achieve the goal, but technologi-
cal interventions during recent time offered mankind to achieve the same. In this
regard, it may be stated that by properly adopting the latest technologies applicable
to the farming sector, the so-called “impossible” things can be achievable, which is
the strength of the recent technological development.

T. R. Ashwini (*)
Department of Agronomy, VIT School of Agricultural Innovations and Advanced Learning
(VAIAL), Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]
M. P. Potdar
Department of Agronomy, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India
S. Sivarajan
Department of Agri Engineering, VIT School of Agricultural Innovations and Advanced
Learning (VAIAL), Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
M. S. Odabas
School of Agriculture, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 45

S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_3
46 T. R. Ashwini et al.

In agriculture, the introduction of robotics and smart agriculture technologies

has aided data gathering and advanced analytics, allowing farmers to make better
farming decisions and save money on inputs and labor. As farmers accepted more
technology in the pursuit of higher yields throughout the years, the concept that
“bigger is better” has come to dominate farming, making small-scale enterprises
unprofitable. However, advancements in robotics and sensing technology are threat-
ening to destabilize the current agrarian model. “Intelligent robots can change the
costly robots and become feasible for small and marginal farmers” says Robotics
Engineer George Kantor at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Blackmore (2017) believes that agriculture may be more efficient and sustainable
by switching to a robotic agriculture system.
Although many innovations are in use, most of them are in the prototype stage.
“The big companies are not investing in agricultural robots because of lack of busi-
ness,” says Blackmore (2017). Agriculture 4.0 is a new wave of precision agricul-
ture that began in the early 2010s, thanks to the advancement of many technologies
such as low-cost sensors and actuators with high-performance cellular communica-
tion with high bandwidth, microprocessors with a cheap cost, cloud-based ICT sys-
tems, and big data analytics. Finally, researchers and agriculture pioneers are
thinking to bring one more revolution in agriculture mainly based around robotics
and artificial intelligence in Agriculture 5.0. By integrating digital tools, sensors,
and control technologies, agricultural robotic design and development are accelerat-
ing in modern agriculture [68, 69]. These advancements include anything from digi-
tizing plants and fields by gathering precise and detailed data (temporal and spatial)
in real time to completing complex nonlinear control tasks for the navigation of
robots. The use of robots and smart farming technology in digital farming is gener-
ating a growing interest in automation, transforming field jobs into high-tech indus-
trial tasks that are attracting investors, professional engineers, and businesses. Many
of these robots are in prototype stage. They can currently do a variety of farming
tasks, such as crop reconnaissance and phenotyping [7, 11], seeds and sowing [22,
76], automated robotic weeding and targeted spraying [6, 92], real-time crop moni-
toring and fertilizing [82], robotic irrigation [16], selective harvesting [9, 27, 46,
89], pruning [102], and pollination [90].

2 Robots

The term “robot” comes from the Czech word robota, which means “forced labor.”
It refers to a mechanical entity created by humans and typically controlled through
an electromechanical system. These devices utilize software engineering to simplify
complex tasks. Agricultural robotics involves the use of automation in the field of
life sciences, encompassing areas such as agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. In
farming processes, intelligent robots are deployed to perform appropriate actions, at
precise locations and times, with optimal efficiency. Implementing automation in
agriculture has led to significant advancements and cost and time savings for
Transforming Agriculture with Smart Farming: A Comprehensive Review… 47

farmers. Although the movie Runaway in 1984 portrayed agrorobots as scouts

removing insects from corn leaves, the field of robotics in agriculture is still rela-
tively young. In fact, the first agricultural field robot was not introduced until a later
period [44]. In this review paper, an extensive literature survey has been performed
to identify robotic applications in various agricultural operations right from planting
to harvesting throughout the crop growing season. A total of 102 journal articles
have been surveyed to analyze the importance of robotics in agriculture and under-
stand the challenges involved. The limitations in this technology and suggestions
for future work have also been discussed.

2.1 Working of Robots

Robots possess remarkable capabilities in terms of mobility and perception. To

navigate and operate effectively in unfamiliar environments, robots rely on multiple
sensors. These sensors transmit valuable information to the controller in the form of
electronic signals, providing crucial data about the robot’s surroundings. By employ-
ing specialized sensors, robots can acquire information that surpasses the limita-
tions of human senses. The controller, often referred to as the robot’s “brain,” plays
a pivotal role in governing its actions. It acts as a computerized command center,
enabling the robot to execute programmed tasks and facilitating connections with
other systems. This connectivity allows robots to collaborate with other machines,
processes, or even fellow robots, enhancing their functionality and versatility.
Actuators or drives serve as the “engine” of the robot, generating the necessary
motion for various tasks. These actuators can be hydraulic, pneumatic, DC, stepper,
or servo motors, depending on the specific requirements of the robot’s design. The
robot arm, comprising the shoulder, elbow, wrist, and fingers, closely resembles the
structure of a human arm. It facilitates the precise positioning of end effectors and
sensors, enabling them to fulfill their predetermined functions effectively. Lastly,
the end effectors represent the robot’s final connection point. These components
serve as interfaces with the surrounding environment, allowing the robot to interact
with objects and perform tasks. End effectors encompass a wide range of tools and
devices tailored to specific applications, expanding the robot’s capabilities in vari-
ous contexts.

3 Current Status of Agricultural Robots [44]

The agricultural industry has witnessed significant advancements in robotics and

automation, including the MF-Scamp robot developed by Blackmore. This robot
performs scouting, weeding, and harvesting tasks, saving labor time and costs.
However, its implementation may pose challenges for small-scale farmers due to
increased costs. The Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences has developed the
48 T. R. Ashwini et al.

Autonomous Plant Inspection (API) platform, which uses RTK GPS for autono-
mous field reconnaissance, resulting in a 75% reduction in herbicide usage.
Hohenheim University’s Sub Canopy Robot ISAAC 2 assesses crop health using
sensors and GPS technology, though complete weed eradication is still being pur-
sued. Deepfield Robotics’ BoniRob performs various agricultural tasks and has
demonstrated over 90% effectiveness in weed eradication. However, it remains lim-
ited to laboratory usage due to high costs. The lettuce bot in California utilizes
robotics, computer vision, and machine learning to recognize lettuce plants and
eradicate weeds. Although it has implications for organic farming, its inability to
utilize organic fertilizers restricts its application. These agricultural robots offer
efficiency and cost benefits but require further development and cost reduction.
Small-scale farmers should consider the impact and viability for their operations.
CROPS, a project by the European Union, involves clever robots designed to
detect and evaluate the maturity of fruits in crops. These robots can navigate through
the fields, locate ripe fruits hidden behind leaves, and use grasping mechanisms to
detach them. Additionally, they can perform targeted spraying of foliage by analyz-
ing specific sites. However, challenges remain in recognizing hidden fruits due to
their diverse forms and sizes. HortiBot, developed in Denmark, is a robust tool car-
rier primarily used for high-tech plant nursing, with a focus on controlling weeds. It
reduces labor costs by performing repetitive tasks such as mechanical weeding and
optimizes herbicide usage, thus lowering herbicide costs. Nonetheless, HortiBot has
drawbacks such as high short-term expenses, the need for skilled operators, and
limited suitability for small farms. Despite these limitations, it offers innovative
technology to enhance farmers’ productivity. AgBot II, an Australian prototype,
aids farmers in decision-making regarding herbicides, insecticides, fertilizers, and
irrigation. It utilizes sensor networks, historical data, satellites, and drones to assist
farmers in farm management decisions.
India’s AgriBot, developed by students at BITS Hyderabad, performs essential
farming functions, including harvesting, spraying, sowing, and weed removal. Its
design is based on image processing, and motor control is achieved through a relay.
AgriBot aims to increase productivity, speed, and precision while reducing labor
costs in India’s agrarian economy. Vitirover, a solar-powered robot from New
Zealand, operates at a speed of 500 meters per hour. It effectively removes grass and
weeds within a short distance from grape vines using sensors and a GPS system.
The use of technology-friendly gadgets in grape vines is vital for farmers. These
agricultural robots demonstrate advancements in automation and technology, offer-
ing potential solutions to labor-intensive tasks, improving productivity, and reduc-
ing costs in various farming practices worldwide.
Transforming Agriculture with Smart Farming: A Comprehensive Review… 49

4 Applications of Robotic Technology in Agriculture

4.1 Seeds and Sowing

Sunitha et al. [76] developed an agricultural robot as a superior substitute for tradi-
tional manual seed sowing and expensive tractor technology. The robot can autono-
mously plow the land, localize its path, and traverse without human intervention. It
utilizes cost-effective dc locomotion motors, a Raspberry Pi CPU for efficient pic-
ture processing and motor control. Due to wetland limitations, the limited area can
be plowed through robots, and the seeder sows the seeds in the same pattern. The
proposed system combines plowing and seed sowing, offering an affordable and
efficient solution for farmers. Divya et al. [22] found that the equipment performed
well for dry clay soil, with a seeding accuracy of 94.8% compared to seeding on a
flat surface. In sandy soil, the accuracy was 82.8%, and in very coarse soil, it was
72.4%. Ryu and Han [64] developed a vision-assisted robotic transplanter with a
success rate of 98% for seedling transplantation. The end effector positioning accu-
racy was within 1.0 mm, sufficient for the task. Griepentrog et al. [32] proposed a
kinematic model to calculate seed positions, while Swapnil et al. [77] created a
robot for autonomous plowing and seed dispensing, reducing labor and seed waste.

4.2 Crop Scouting and Phenotyping

Obtaining timely and reliable data for plant phenotyping is a crucial task that
requires leaf-level physiological and chemical trait measurements [67]. The interac-
tion between complex plant features and the environment is at the core of plant
phenotyping [26]. Quantitative assessments of plant phenotypes during the growing
season are essential [93]. However, measurement manually is time-consuming,
challenging, and error-prone. To address this, robotics has emerged as a promising
solution, enabling minimal involvement of humans and monitoring automatically.
Over the past decade, numerous automated high-throughput field-based phenotyp-
ing platforms have been developed. These platforms utilize sensors like RGB, depth
or hyperspectral cameras, light curtains, and infrared radiometers to traverse short-­
row crops [2]. Furthermore, an autonomous field survey mobile robot platform with
a customized manipulator and gripper has been created for transporting imaging
sensors and GPS devices, enabling autonomous navigation and data collection in
greenhouse and open-field agriculture environments. Researchers have also inte-
grated various multispectral imaging devices and LiDAR sensors into adapted
mobile robot platforms for automatic monitoring and the creation of reconstructed
3D point clouds, which can generate computer images of trees and plants [68, 69].
Measurement of physiological and chemical traits at the leaf level is crucial in
plant phenotyping for monitoring plant health. Manual measurement is time-­
consuming and error-prone. Atefi et al. [7] developed a robotic system with a
50 T. R. Ashwini et al.

MATLAB GUI to automate leaf phenotyping in maize and sorghum. The robot
accurately predicted chlorophyll, water content, and potassium, but not nitrogen and
phosphorus. Maize had a 78% grasping success rate, while sorghum had 48%. The
robot’s data complements image-based phenotyping, which requires manual mea-
surements to establish correlations with picture data [29, 54, 56]. Sorghum is a
valuable biofuel feedstock, but manually assessing its growth attributes limits
research scalability. A high-throughput robotic phenotyping device was developed
to capture side-view stereo images and measure stem diameter [11]. Image-derived
features correlated well with manual measurements. To quantify plant surface area,
the point cloud data was transformed into a triangle mesh using the greedy projec-
tion triangulation method. Moving least squares smoothed noisy and overlapping
surfaces [49, 63]. Sorghum’s architectural features such as plant height [65], leaf
area index [55], and leaf angle [62, 80] have been shown to strongly influence bio-
mass yield.

4.3 Robotic Weeding

Novel weeding technologies are being developed to reduce manual effort and herbi-
cide usage in farming. These robots can work in harsh environments with limited
space and uneven surfaces. The Danish Farm Research Authority has created a four-­
wheel-­drive weed-seeking robot that replaces manual hoeing. To reduce the need
for herbicides, the navigation system is used by the intelligent hoe to identify the
crop rows. Vision-guided intra-row cultivators eliminate the need for chemical weed
control by mechanically targeting weeds within sugar beet rows. Additionally,
autonomous mobile robots with two independently driven wheels are being utilized
for various agricultural operations.
By using image interpretation features, weed detection cameras mounted on
weeders aid in the identification and distinction of crop and weed. The robot’s
weeding arm/weeding equipment removes weeds or sprays herbicide on them with-
out harming the crop plants (Anon 2017). Several experiments using various dis-
criminating and classification strategies have been conducted to detect weeds
automatically. To segment individual weed leaves, Manh et al. [48] employed para-
metric deformable templates, Sokefeld et al. [74] used Fourier descriptors and shape
parameters to identify more than 20 weed species, and Søgaard [103] used feature-­
based models to assess 19 weed plants.
Researchers have utilized artificial neural networks [17, 31] and image process-
ing techniques [30, 87] for weed classification in agriculture. Manual weed scouting
takes about 0.7 man-hours per year per hectare [58]. Autonomous field scouting
using GPS and GIS technologies can cover 4.32 hectares per hour. Herbicide sav-
ings of 30% to 75% are possible with decision assistance systems for patch spraying
[33, 103]. Selective weed detection and post-processing enhance chemical applica-
tion. Mechanical and chemical methods are used for weed removal, with row-based
removal requiring high-speed sensing and mechanisms for effective treatment.
Transforming Agriculture with Smart Farming: A Comprehensive Review… 51

Several weed control robots have been developed, focusing on strategies such as
mechanical weeding [57], flaming [21], selective chemical spraying [45], and elec-
tric discharging [72]. Mechanical weeding is gaining more attention due to its pes-
ticide-free approach [57]. Researchers have used real-time crop row detection and
computer vision systems to guide hoes and rotary hoes for inter-row and selective
in-row weed eradication, achieving removal rates of up to 53% [78, 83]. Autonomous
robots with multiple tools, including hoes, brushes, and springs, are also being
developed for intra-row and in-row weeding [53]. Integrated weed management
systems aim to maximize weed treatment efficiency by combining different strate-
gies [18, 98]. Automated weed and crop classification has achieved over 90% accu-
racy in distinguishing and removing weeds, regardless of delays, topography, or
crop growth stages [42, 92].
In direct-seeded scenarios with high crop emergence rates and low to moderate
weed densities, the combination of special context, plant form, and color proved to
enhance the resistance of the robotic weed management system to variations in
plant appearance and weed species [6]. However, during a field test on an organic
sugar beet field at the first true leaf stage, the robot only removed 1% of the sugar
beets and 41–53% of the weeds. Of the weeds not removed, 31% were growing too
close to crop plants, and 18% were in areas where sugar beet seeds did not germi-
nate. A visual navigation system implemented in a simulated paddy field allowed a
weeding robot to move at a speed of 156.07 mm/s while effectively following the
rice seedling line [99, 100]. Robotic weeding has demonstrated automatic, precise,
and efficient control of weeds near or within crop rows [28]. CNNs, a deep learning
technique, particularly models like Inception v3, GoogLeNet, and DenseNet, have
shown success in crop/weed detection and classification, even in uncontrolled illu-
mination conditions [23, 36, 37, 50, 104]. The Drop on Demand (DoD) robotic
system has effectively controlled all weeds in field trials,pote reducing herbicide use
by tenfold and serving as an alternative to conventional spraying [81]. By utilizing
the Department of Defense technology, herbicide consumption can be minimized
by over 90%, reducing environmental and health concerns while potentially elimi-
nating the need for manual in-row weeding. Robotic systems are also exploring
targeted spraying to confine herbicide application to weeds and mechanical meth-
ods to eradicate weeds without herbicides [52, 92].

4.4 Nutrient Management

Fertilizer technology plays a crucial role in agricultural development [79] by

addressing issues such as escalating costs of inorganic fertilizers and decreased soil
fertility [4]. Integrated nutrient management and need-based application of fertiliz-
ers have gained importance among farmers. Nitrogen, an essential macronutrient for
plant growth, is often limited in crop yield [5]. Effective nitrogen fertilization man-
agement is vital, but detecting nitrogen insufficiency early is challenging [14]. In
recent decades, machine vision and digital image processing techniques have been
52 T. R. Ashwini et al.

developed in greenhouse engineering, offering low-cost image acquisition equip-

ment for noncontact phyto-monitoring. These technologies enable the determina-
tion of plant health status [3, 82], detection of nutrient deficiencies [75, 82], and
identification of viral and fungal diseases [20, 60, 66]. Various imaging approaches,
including visible range cameras, thermography [88], chlorophyll fluorescence [38],
and spectral sensors [12, 97, 105], provide valuable data. Combining artificial vision
and pattern recognition systems has been suggested for assessing nutrient concen-
trations, while machine vision-enabled robotic systems allow real-­time plant health
and growth monitoring [70, 82]. Such advancements not only increase plant produc-
tion efficiency and quality but also reduce nitrogen fertilizer usage, minimizing
environmental risks and cutting production costs.

4.5 Fertilizers Will Be Spread by Flying Robots

A flying robot keeps an eye on the crops’ progress. The robot can fly autonomously
and apply fertilizer on its own, thanks to camera equipment and an automatic fertil-
izing mechanism in the front.

4.6 Robotic Irrigation

The mechatronic sprinkler is a robotic irrigator designed to provide customized

water and chemigation rates to specific areas, including field corners. This technol-
ogy addresses the issue of water scarcity in arid environments and dry seasons by
efficiently applying water where it is needed. The sprinkler operates autonomously,
utilizing solar power as an energy source [96] or employing other innovative meth-
ods such as RFID, iris systems, or human excitation [34, 73]. Continuous improve-
ments are being made to reduce human involvement in irrigation processes. The
system described by Khriji et al. [39] utilizes wireless sensor networks for farmers,
while Bodunde et al. [16] present an adaptive sprinkler irrigation robot based on
Zigbee communication. With a tank capacity of approximately 5 L, the sprinkler
can empty in less than 100 s, completing a full sprinkling cycle in around 2 min and
30 s. This Zigbee is cost-effective and has a high network capacity, long life span,
and minimal damage to farmland, plants, and pipes during installation.

4.7 Pollination

Researchers have been working on the development of autonomous pollinators that

can effectively spray crops, similar to targeted weed-spraying robots [1, 13, 43, 47].
These advancements aim to enhance fruit cultivation efficiency by providing a
Transforming Agriculture with Smart Farming: A Comprehensive Review… 53

viable alternative to natural kiwifruit pollination, which has become increasingly

challenging. The high costs associated with labor and inefficient use of expensive
pollen have made it difficult for many farmers to adopt alternative methods. To
address these issues, precision agriculture is focusing on the development of intel-
ligent robotic devices. In a recent study by Williams et al. [91], a groundbreaking
kiwifruit pollination robot was created and tested. The results showed that the
robotic system was able to target and pollinate 79.5% of flowers at a speed of
3.5 km/h while consuming a pollen amount comparable to that of a commercial
Cambrian operator. Additionally, the study found that kiwifruits pollinated at a
speed of 1 km/h by the robot exhibited the same high quality as commercially
farmed ones.

4.8 Pruning

Researchers have proposed a robotic system for automatic grape vine pruning [106],
using trinocular stereo cameras, computer vision, artificial intelligence, and a
robotic arm. The system captures images, creates a 3D model, selects pruning tar-
gets, and performs cuts. It achieves pruning times comparable to humans, but reli-
ability needs improvement for commercial viability [102].

4.9 Selective Harvesting

Traditional fruit and vegetable picking is labor-intensive and costly, prompting a

need for automated harvesting. However, current technology has only achieved a
33% success rate in picking sweet pepper fruit, taking an average of 94 s per fruit
[35]. Selective harvesting, which involves harvesting specific sections of the plant-­
based on quality criteria, requires the ability to recognize quality factors before
harvest and to harvest without damaging the remaining crop [15]. Agriculture’s
unstructured environment necessitates complex machine learning approaches [8,
61], but advancements in machine vision, deep learning, sensing, and end effector
manipulation have facilitated the use of robots in this field. Although various har-
vesting robots have been developed for crops like melons [24, 25], oranges [59],
cucumbers [84–86], tomatoes [19, 95], sweet peppers [10], and strawberries [94],
commercialization is limited. Recent studies have shown success rates ranging from
26% to 86% in different fruit-harvesting robots [71]. Accurate and real-time fruit
detection in the canopy is crucial for successful commercial harvesting, and while
recognizing fruit in 2D photos has become reliable, accurately pinpointing fruit and
canopy structure in three dimensions remains challenging [8, 72].
54 T. R. Ashwini et al.

5 Other General Agricultural Robots

5.1 Demeter (Used for Harvesting)

Demeter is an autonomous crop-cutting robot named after the Roman goddess of

agriculture. It can chop wheat and alfalfa without human intervention, working tire-
lessly and increasing productivity. Equipped with cameras, it can differentiate
between cut and uncut crops. Demeter can be controlled remotely or taught a spe-
cific path to follow with its precise onboard sensors and computer control. The
system offers three levels of automation, starting with “cruise control” for steering
and controlling the harvester. The “drone” feature enables one operator to control
multiple harvesters, and finally, a fully autonomous machine can harvest an entire
field independently.

5.2 Robot for Weed Control

Novel weeding technologies are being developed to reduce manual effort and herbi-
cide usage in farming. These robots can work in harsh environments with limited
space and uneven surfaces. The Danish Farm Research Authority has created a four-­
wheel-­drive weed-seeking robot that replaces manual hoeing. Vision-guided intra-­
row cultivators eliminate the need for chemical weed control by mechanically
targeting weeds within sugar beet rows. Additionally, autonomous mobile robots
with two independently driven wheels are being utilized for various agricultural
operations.

5.3 Forester Robot

This innovative robot is designed specifically for tasks such as wood cutting, tree
care, tree pruning, and extracting pulp and hardwood in forests. It utilizes special-
ized jaws and axes to efficiently chop branches. With its six-legged movement sys-
tem, the forester robot autonomously coordinates its legs, while a human operator
controls its navigation through the forest.

5.4 Fruit-Picking Robot

Fruit-harvesting robots have been an established concept since the early 1980s,
revolutionizing crop harvesting. To fully develop this technology, collaboration is
needed from high-tech industries, agricultural groups, and farm equipment
Transforming Agriculture with Smart Farming: A Comprehensive Review… 55

manufacturers. These robots must be capable of picking ripe fruit without damaging
the tree’s branches or leaves while also being mobile enough to access all areas of
the tree. They require advanced intelligence and humanlike interaction with their
surroundings, utilizing touch, sight, and image processing. By using video image
capture and color detection, the robots can distinguish between fruit and leaves. If
fruit is obstructed, an air jet can clear the way for better visibility. The robot arm,
wrapped in rubber, features five degrees of freedom for precise movement. The
gripper mechanism, powered by motors, hydraulics, or pneumatics, applies enough
pressure to detach the fruit without crushing it. Significant progress has been made
in France with end effectors that can harvest apples and citrus, resulting in robots
collecting over 75% of the crops

5.5 Micro-flying Robot

Scientists worldwide are reverse engineering insect mechanics to develop miniature

robots for various applications. The tiniest microrobot, entered in the genius book
of world records, has propellers enabling high-flying capabilities. Its impressive
skills include precise landing on potato chips and swift takeoff by flapping wings.
These experiments aim to explore operational fields, such as scanning battlefields,
locating victims in rubble, and capturing images in agricultural fields. The mini
robot’s potential use in agriculture includes combating weeds and insects, promis-
ing advancements in crop protection.
Some of the robots discussed here are field robots, while others are mobile
robots. They alter their appearance to meet the needs of the situation. Mobile robots
are those that can move around in relation to a medium. The entire system is in sync
with its surroundings.

6 Conclusion

Agricultural robots have been developed to address various challenges in the farm-
ing sector. These robots utilize DC motors, which offer efficient performance and
cost-effectiveness, particularly when it comes to plowing and seed planting tasks.
One significant advantage of autonomous robotic weeding devices is their potential
to decrease reliance on agrochemicals such as herbicides and pesticides. By enabling
real-time treatment, these robots contribute to reducing pollution and promoting
sustainability in agriculture. In the context of greenhouse crops, machine vision-­
equipped robotic systems can be employed for online plant health and growth moni-
toring. These robots assess leaf physiological and chemical properties, offering a
means to complement image-based high-throughput plant phenotyping. This inte-
gration of technologies holds promise for enhancing plant phenotyping capabilities.
The use of Zigbee-based wireless plant irrigation robots overcomes the limitations
56 T. R. Ashwini et al.

of fixed sprinkler systems and saves valuable space in agricultural operations. By

efficiently and autonomously managing irrigation, these robots contribute to opti-
mizing water usage and improving crop yield.
Farmers stand to benefit significantly from the adoption of farming robots. For
instance, they can save approximately 20% on cereal scouting, 12% on sugar beet
weeding, and 24% on inter-row weeding tasks. Additionally, agricultural robots can
facilitate harvesting through real-time data sensing, processing, and utilization of
robotic vehicles. Precision monitoring and harvesting with the assistance of agri-­
robots can help alleviate labor shortages and rising labor costs in the industry while
also ensuring high food quality during the harvesting process. As the global popula-
tion continues to grow, the farming sector faces increasing pressure to meet food
demands. Agricultural robots have emerged as a potential solution to address man-
power shortages while enhancing productivity. These robots integrate various tech-
nologies such as machine vision, image processing, and mechatronics into a single
platform, enabling autonomous agricultural operations and offering a promising
option for the future of farming.

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Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield
Prediction Using Hybrid Model

E. Chandra Blessie , Sundaravadivazhagan Balasubaramanian ,

and V. Kumutha

1 Introduction

Driven by technological advancements and data-driven methodologies, smart farm-

ing has emerged as a vital role in modern agriculture. An integral aspect of smart
farming is crop yield prediction, a vital element that empowers farmers and stake-
holders in agriculture to make well-informed decisions, optimize resource alloca-
tion, and safeguard food security in an ever-evolving global landscape. In the age of
precision agriculture, where data analytics, sensor technologies, and machine learn-
ing reign supreme, crop yield prediction has evolved into an indispensable instru-
ment for elevating productivity, sustainability, and overall efficiency within the
agricultural sector. This introductory exploration dives deep into the importance,
obstacles, and hopeful prospects of crop yield prediction [1] in the context of smart
farming, illuminating its capacity to bring about a transformative shift in how we
cultivate and harvest crops worldwide.
In the era of smart farming, machine learning techniques have evolved as a pow-
erful tool for various agriculture fields. Among them is the prediction of crop yield

E. C. Blessie (*)
Department of Computing (Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning), Coimbatore
Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Balasubaramanian
Department of Information Technology, University of Technology and Applied Science-AL
Mussanah, Al Mussanah, Oman
V. Kumutha
Department of Computer Science, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher
Education for Women, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 63

S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_4
64 E. C. Blessie et al.

[2]. Several ML algorithms can be utilized for predicting crop yields in the context
of smart farming, and they can be classified into various categories. The support
vector regressor (SVR) technique is a supervised machine learning technique uti-
lized for solving classification and regression tasks. SVRs [3] offer a robust and
adaptable framework for forecasting crop yields, especially when working with
datasets that display intricate, nonlinear connections among variables. Train the
SVR by utilizing historical data, where the chosen features serve as inputs and the
target variable is the crop yield. The SVR’s objective is to establish an optimal deci-
sion boundary that effectively distinguishes various yield levels. Following training,
employ the trained SVR to forecast crop yields for forthcoming seasons or time-
frames, incorporating pertinent data like upcoming weather forecasts, environment
factors, and soil conditions as input. The K-nearest neighbor (KNN) algorithm rep-
resents a straightforward supervised machine learning technique capable of address-
ing both classification and regression tasks. Predicting crop yield, an unknown
feature value, can be accomplished by utilizing the values of the nearest known
neighbors. This is achieved by calculating the Euclidean distance between data
points to envisage crop yield depending on given constraints. A supervised learning
technique decision tree (DT) may be implemented to solve both regression and clas-
sification issues. The structure of this classifier resembles a tree, with every leaf
node representing the outcome, branches demonstrating decision rules, and core
nodes reflecting dataset properties. In the training phase, the DT algorithm identifies
the optimal feature for segmentation of data using a metric like entropy or Gini
impurity. These metrics measure the level of disorder or diversity within the data
subsets. The aim is to pinpoint the features that give maximum information gain or
minimum impurity post-split. Within the domain of decision trees, when predicting
a target for a dataset, the task initiates at the root of the tree. The root feature values
are compared with the attributes of the record. Based on this assessment, the respec-
tive branch associated with that data is pursued, guiding the traversal to the subse-
quent node.
Ensemble algorithms [4] also show a crucial function in forecasting crop yield
by combining the predictions of multiple machine learning models to enhance accu-
racy and robustness. Some of the notable ensemble algorithms used in this context
are gradient boosting (GB), AdaBoost, and extreme gradient boosting (XGB).
Gradient boosting stands as a potent boosting technique, amalgamating multiple
weak learners to form a formidable learner. In this method, each subsequent method
is trained to diminish the loss function, like mean squared error or cross entropy, of
the former method applying gradient descent. The method computes the gradient of
the loss procedure in relation to the calculations made by the current ensemble for
each process [5]. Subsequently, it prepares a new weak model to diminish this gra-
dient. The calculations generated by this novel technique are incorporated into the
ensemble, and this iterative procedure continues till a predetermined terminating
condition is achieved. AdaBoost, short for Adaptive Boosting, belongs to the
ensemble of boosting classifiers. Its primary objective is to enhance classifier accu-
racy by integrating several weak classifiers. Adaptive Boosting is an iterative
ensemble approach, where a strong classifier is constructed by amalgamating
Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 65

multiple initially weak performing classifiers. This incorporation aims to create a

high-­accuracy robust classifier. The fundamental principle of AdaBoost revolves
around adjusting the weights of classifiers and training the data samples iteratively.
This iterative process ensures precise predictions, especially for atypical
observations.
XGBoost [6] is an open-source software library that implements highly opti-
mized distributed machine learning algorithms utilizing the gradient boosting
framework. XGBoost is a scalable and remarkably precise implementation of gradi-
ent boosting, designed to maximize computational efficiency and enhance the per-
formance of machine learning models. Specifically engineered to harness the
potential of computing power for boosted tree algorithms, XGBoost revolutionizes
the building of trees by leveraging parallel processing instead of sequential methods
like GBDT. Employing a level-wise strategy, it efficiently evaluates the quality of
potential splits across the training set by scanning through gradient values and uti-
lizing partial sums.
This study presents an empirical analysis focusing on utilizing ML algorithms
and ensemble-based approaches for predicting crop yields. By employing ensemble
techniques, which combine the predictions of various ML models, we aim to har-
ness the collective wisdom of these models to achieve more accurate and robust
predictions.
In this analysis, we explore diverse ML algorithms including support vector
regressor (SVR), K-nearest neighbor (K-NN), and decision tree regressor (DTR) to
forecast the crop yield in the first phase. During the second phase, we investigate
ensemble methods like gradient boosting (GB), AdaBoost, and extreme gradient
boosting (XGB), which integrate the predictions from multiple base models, lever-
aging the strength of each individual model to enhance overall prediction accuracy.
The dataset used in this analysis is carefully investigated and preprocessed to
ensure relevance and accuracy. It encompasses a wide array of features crucial for
crop yield prediction. Through comprehensive experimentation and evaluation, we
seek to demonstrate the comparative performance of individual ML models and
ensemble methods. The prediction is done based on the evaluation metrics. By
improving prediction accuracy, farmers and stakeholders can make better-informed
decisions, optimize resource management, and ultimately work toward a more sus-
tainable and productive agricultural sector.
Results indicate that ensemble methods significantly improve prediction accu-
racy compared to individual models. The ensemble approach mitigates biases pres-
ent in single models, leading to more reliable and precise crop yield predictions.
Moreover, this study demonstrates the significance of feature selection and hyper-
parameter tuning in achieving optimal model performance.
This article is well organized as follows: Sect. 2 introduces a review of predicting
crop yield by both machine learning and ensemble learning algorithms. Section 3
defines the existing ML and Sect. 4 about Ensemble methodologies in detail fol-
lowed by the hybrid approach in Sect. 5. The empirical examination of the crop
production forecast is examined in Sect. 6. The conclusion is given in Sect. 7.
66 E. C. Blessie et al.

2 Literature Review

Purushotam Naidu et al. [7] proposed a hybrid machine learning ensemble model
for crop prediction. The ensemble model used is voting technique. The model pre-
sented in this study is structured utilizing a set of five diverse learning algorithms:
support vector machine (SVM), Naïve Bayes, random forest, K-nearest neighbor
(KNN), and logistic regression. The results demonstrate that the proposed hybrid
ensemble model gives improved prediction accuracy than other algorithms. Van
Klompenburg et al. [8] have done a thorough systematic literature review (SLR) to
extract and amalgamate the approaches and attributes applied in the prediction of
crop yield. Based on their study on deep learning algorithms, they found out that
these algorithms are better than machine learning algorithms.
Mishra et al. [9] studied on different week regressors such as SVR, ridge, lasso,
and linear and proposed a strong predictor to enhance the predictive performance of
the learning problem. They demonstrated that the forecasting model shows indi-
vidual regressors may lack strength, but the boosted model exhibits robust regres-
sion capabilities. Priya et al. [10] emphasized their work on predicting crop yield
using the random forest algorithm based on available data, specifically focusing on
Tamil Nadu’s real data. The study involved constructing models and evaluating their
performance with sample data. The results suggest that the random forest algorithm
proves to be effective for precise crop yield prediction. Banu et al. [11] presented
crop yield prediction by leveraging historical data encompassing weather patterns,
soil characteristics, rainfall metrics, and past crop yields. Employing a machine
learning algorithm, particularly the random forest, enables an analysis of crop
growth concerning prevailing climatic conditions and biophysical alterations, lead-
ing to enhanced solutions for the agricultural system. The study also involves the
creation of a web application to forecast overall crop yield as well as yield for spe-
cific crops. Furthermore, the system offers recommendations to farmers regarding
the appropriate fertilizer for their chosen crops.
Agarwal and Tarar [12] focused on an approach based on deep learning tech-
niques which gives improved accuracy by taking into consideration the climatic and
soil condition of the land. While LSTM and RNN are used as deep learning algo-
rithms in aforementioned work, SVM is used as a machine learning algorithm.
Nosratabadi et al. [13] propounded innovative crop yield prediction techniques
leveraging hybrid machine learning approaches. The study assesses the effective-
ness of two hybrid models: artificial neural networks-imperialist competitive algo-
rithm (ANN-ICA) and artificial neural networks-gray wolf optimizer (ANN-GWO)
for accurately predicting crop yields. Sunitha Devi et al. [14] presented an inventive
deep learning strategy proficient in effectively capturing and fusing spatial and tem-
poral attributes, representing a significant advancement over conventional method-
ologies that frequently struggle with these facets. This method accurately predicts
crop produces by a notably low error rate, capitalizing on the resilience with distinc-
tive hybrid architecture blending WaveNet and LSTM. This introduces a novel
standpoint to agricultural yield predictions. The proposed approach outperformed
the existing approaches.
Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 67

3 Machine Learning Methodologies

3.1 Decision Tree Regressor

The decision tree is a supervised learning technique utilized to both regression and
classification tasks, although it is often supported for addressing classification prob-
lems. Operating as a tree-structured classifier, its internal nodes symbolize dataset
features, branches signify decision rules, and every leaf node signifies an outcome.
The splitting process initiates at the root node and progresses throughout a
branched tree structure, culminating at a leaf node (terminal node) holding the algo-
rithm’s prediction or final result. The construction of decision trees typically fol-
lows a top-down approach, selecting the most suitable variable at each stage to split
the item set. Each sub-tree within the decision tree model can be depicted as a
binary tree, in which a decision node is subdivided into two nodes depending on
specific criteria. In this paper, we will consider regression trees, a type of decision
tree where the target variable or terminal nodes can encompass continuous values,
often real numbers. Conversely, when the target variable is capable of assuming a
discrete set of values, these trees are termed classification trees.
In decision tree regression [15], the algorithm examines an object’s features and
constructs a tree-like model to predict future data, generating meaningful continu-
ous output. Continuous output implies that the result is not limited to specific, dis-
tinct numbers or values but rather encompasses a broader, uninterrupted range. The
framework of DTR given in Fig. 1 depicts the step-by-step procedure.

Decision Tree Generation

Train dataset Select best Divide X
Gini index attribute in dataset into
or dataset X smaller
Gini ratio using ASM subsets
Preprocessing
Missing Value Recursively repeat the
process for each
child node
Collect Data Normalization

Dimensionality
Reduction Tree

Test dataset

Prediction

Class Label Numerical value

Model Evaluation
Overfitting

Fig. 1 Framework of decision tree regressor

68 E. C. Blessie et al.

Step-by-Step Procedure for Decision Tree Algorithm

1. Collect the data, and apply preprocessing techniques such as filling in missing
values, dimensionality reduction, and normalization.
2. Select an attribute selection metric to identify the optimal feature for dividing
the data at each node.
3. Choose the most suitable feature as the root node, guided by the selected attri-
bute selection measure.
4. Partition the dataset into subgroups based on the values of the chosen feature
(root node), where each subgroup corresponds to a branch stemming from the
root node.
5. a. Within each subset (branch), iterate through attribute selection to identify the
most appropriate feature for the subsequent tree level.
b. Continue this recursive process till terminating condition is obtained (e.g.,
attaining a highest depth, no notable improvement in impurity reduction, or
attaining a lowest count of representatives per leaf).
6. Define stopping criteria to cease tree expansion, mitigating the risk of overfit-
ting. These criteria may encompass an extreme allowable depth, a limited quan-
tity of samples per leaf, or a minimal enhancement in impurity reduction.
7. Allocate a class label or value to every leaf node by considering the predomi-
nant class or the mean (in the case of regression) of the samples present within
that node.
8. Perform pruning to mitigate overfitting by eliminating redundant branches or
nodes that do not notably enhance predictive accuracy.
9. Visualize the decision tree to grasp its structure and comprehend how features
are utilized for classification or regression.
10. Use the trained decision tree to make predictions of class labels (for classifica-
tion) or numerical values (for regression) for unseen data.
11. Assess the model’s performance by employing suitable metrics like precision,
accuracy, recall, mean squared error, F1-score (for classification), or R-squared
(for regression).
Features of Decision Tree Regressor
• Decision tree regressors can handle both categorical and numerical features,
determining the data split based on the specific feature type.
• The structure of decision trees enables high interpretability and ease of under-
standing. It provides a clear view of how the model formulates predictions based
on the input features, making it intuitive for users to comprehend.
• Decision trees have the capability to capture intricate, nonlinear associations
between features and the target variable, enhancing their versatility for address-
ing a diverse set of regression problems.
• Methods such as pruning, imposing a cap on the tree’s maximum depth, and
establishing a minimum amount of samples per leaf are implemented to mitigate
overfitting and craft a more generalized model.
Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 69

• Decision tree regressors exhibit robustness to outliers within the dataset, show-
ing little impact on their performance, thus proving their resilience in the pres-
ence of noisy data.
Advantage of Decision Tree
• Intuitive and user-friendly.
• Capable of handling both categorical and numerical data.
• Robust against outliers, minimizing the need for extensive data preprocessing.
• Predicting using a decision tree is quick, requiring a logarithmic time complexity
in the count of data points for every prediction.
• A decision tree is the most promising approach to establish relationships between
variables and identify the most impactful variable.
Disadvantage of Decision Tree
• Susceptible to overfitting.
• Demand assessment of performance metrics.
• Careful parameter tuning is essential.
• Prone to biased tree creation if certain classes dominate the dataset.
• Decision trees are not mainly suited for effectively handling continuous numeri-
cal variables.

3.2 K-Nearest Neighbor (K-NN) Algorithm

K-nearest neighbors (K-NN) are considered as the most straightforward machine

learning algorithms, built upon the values of supervised learning. The K-nearest
neighbor (K-NN) algorithm functions depending on the hypothesis of likeness
between a new data instance and the existing cases, assigning the new instance to
the category that closely matches the available categories. By retaining and analyz-
ing all available data, the K-NN algorithm facilitates straightforward classification
of new data points, efficiently placing them into the most fitting category. The
K-nearest neighbor (K-NN) algorithm is versatile, suitable for both regression and
classification tasks, although it finds primary application in classification. Being
nonparametric, K-NN avoids assumptions about the underlying data distribution,
enhancing its adaptability and effectiveness.
In the training stage, K-NN algorithms preserve the complete training dataset for
reference. During prediction, K-nearest neighbors (K-NN) compute the distance
among the input data point and each training instances, employing a specified dis-
tance measure, namely, Euclidean distance. Following this, the algorithm recognizes
the K closest neighbors to the input data point depending on these distances. In clas-
sification circumstances, the algorithm designates the prevailing class label among
the K neighbors as the forecasted label for the initial given values. In regression, it
computes either the mean or the weighted mean of the target values from the K neigh-
bors to anticipate the value for the initial given values. Figure 2 depicts the step-by-
step procedure for KNN.
70 E. C. Blessie et al.

Preprocessing
Missing Value
Calculate the distance (Euclidean and
Manhattan distance)
Collect Data Normalization

Dimensionality
Reduction
K Train dataset

Test dataset

Prediction

Class Label Numerical value

Model Evaluation

Fig. 2 Framework of K-nearest neighbor

Step-by-Step Procedure for KNN

1. Load and preprocess the data.
2. Select K, representing the quantity of closest neighbors, which is a critical hyper-
parameter affecting the model’s performance, one and the other classification
and regression tasks.
3. Calculate the distance (like Euclidean or Manhattan distance) between the target
data point (the one intended for classification or prediction) and every data point
within the training set.
4. Choose K training instances that exhibit the shortest distances to the new data
point, identifying them as the K-nearest neighbors.
5. In classification problem, identify the most frequent class label among the
K-nearest neighbors, and allocate it to the newly generated values. For regres-
sion, compute the mean of the target values belonging to the K-nearest neigh-
bors, and allocate it to the recent data point.
6. In classification, the forecasted class label for the new data point is determined
by superiority voting. In regression, the predicted value for the new values is the
average derived from the K-nearest neighbors.
7. Evaluate the K-NN model’s performance by employing suitable metrics like
accuracy, mean squared error, or other relevant measures based on the specific
task, whether it’s classification or regression.
8. When there’s a requirement to classify or predict new data points, iterate through
steps 4–7 for each of the new data points.
Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 71

Features of KNN
• K-nearest neighbors (KNN) operate as a supervised learning technique, utilizing
labeled input datasets to forecast the outputs of data points.
• This algorithm is among the simplest in machine learning, allowing for easy
implementation across diverse problem domains.
• Primarily relies on feature similarity, where KNN evaluates a data point’s simi-
larity to its neighboring points and assigns it to the class it closely resembles.
• K-nearest neighbors (KNN) do not involve learning a specific model.
• It predicts outcomes based on the similarity between an input sample and each
training instance.
Advantages of KNN
• Implementation is straightforward.
• Demonstrates robustness to noisy training data.
• Enhances effectiveness with a larger training dataset.
• It can adeptly manage scenarios with multiple classes.
• Its versatility lies in its suitability for both regression and classification
applications.
Disadvantages of KNN Algorithm
• Requires determination of the value of K, which can be complex at times.
• Involves high computation costs due to calculating distances between data points
for all training samples.
• Predictions become sluggish with high values of N.
• The algorithm is responsive to irrelevant features.
• Need substantial memory storage.
The input features (x1,x2,……xn) are fed into the model, and SVR often employs
a kernel function (e.g., linear, polynomial, radial basis function) to map the input
features into a higher-dimensional space as shown in Fig. 3. SVR aims to minimize
the cost function by optimizing the parameters. This optimization involves finding
the optimal weight vector u and bias b.
Step-by Step Procedure of SVR
1. Gather the dataset, perform preprocessing techniques such as scaling and filling
the missing values, and perform feature engineering and feature selection.
2. Select Kernel like polynomial, linear, or radial basis function (RBF), and fine-­
tune the hyperparameters.
3. Instantiate the SVR model with the selected kernel and hyperparameters.
4. Train and assess the SVR model using the training data and test data, respectively.
5. Fine-tune the model by optimization technique.
6. Do prediction on unseen data.
Features of SVR
• Support vector machines (SVMs) excel in high-dimensional feature spaces, ren-
dering them suitable for intricate real-world problems.
72 E. C. Blessie et al.

Fig. 3 Framework of support vector regressor

• Support vector machines (SVMs) are proficient in handling both binary and mul-
ticlass classification tasks with effectiveness.
• The kernel trick enables SVMs to manage nonlinear relationships by implicitly
projecting the input data into a higher-dimensional feature space without the
need for explicit transformation computations.
• SVMs demonstrate lower susceptibility to overfitting, primarily due to their
objective of maximizing the margin, especially when suitable regularization
parameters are chosen.
• SVMs usually involve a small number of hyperparameters for tuning, namely,
the regularization criterion, and also the choice of kernel, simplifying their use
and implementation.
Advantages of SVR
• Efficient in high-dimensional scenarios.
• Memory-efficient by using a subset of training points (support vectors) for the
decision function.
• Flexibility in choosing varied kernel functions for decision-making, involving
the option to describe custom kernels.
• Resistance to overfitting.
• Support vector machines (SVMs) demonstrate strong performance even with
small training datasets.
Disadvantages of SVR
• Support vector machines (SVMs) can incur high computational costs, particu-
larly with large datasets. Training time and memory demands escalate consider-
ably with an increase in the number of training samples.
• Support vector machines (SVMs) involve crucial parameters like the regulariza-
tion parameter and the selection of the kernel function. The performance of
SVMs can be highly influenced by these parameter settings. Inadequate tuning
may result in suboptimal outcomes or extended training durations.
Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 73

• Support vector machines (SVMs) yield binary classification outputs and do not
directly estimate class probabilities.
• Support vector machines (SVMs) have the ability to generate intricate decision
boundaries, especially when nonlinear kernels are employed. However, this
complexity can pose challenges in interpreting the model and grasping the fun-
damental patterns within the data.

4 Ensemble Learning Algorithms

4.1 Boosting Methods

Boosting has emerged as a popular method for addressing binary classification

tasks. By transforming weak learners into strong learners, these algorithms signifi-
cantly enhance predictive capabilities. The fundamental principle underlying boost-
ing involves constructing an initial model on the training dataset and subsequently
building additional models to correct errors made by the previous ones. This itera-
tive process continues until errors are minimized, resulting in accurate predictions
for the dataset. The three main boosting algorithms are AdaBoost, gradient boost-
ing, and extreme gradient boosting.

4.1.1 AdaBoost

The AdaBoost algorithm, also known as Adaptive Boosting, is a boosting technique

employed as an ensemble technique in the realm of machine learning. Its designa-
tion as Adaptive Boosting stems from the reassignment of weights to each instance,
with notably higher weights allocated to instances that were classified incorrectly.
AdaBoost, an ensemble technique, combines several weak classifiers to enhance
classifier accuracy. AdaBoost operates as an iterative ensemble method, sequen-
tially creating a robust classifier by amalgamating multiple weak classifiers. This
amalgamation is strategically designed to transform initially weak performers into
a high-accuracy strong classifier. The fundamental concept driving AdaBoost
revolves around setting classifier weights and training data samples in each iteration
to prioritize accurate predictions, particularly for atypical observations.
Step-by-Step Procedure for AdaBoost
1. AdaBoost begins by giving equal weights to all training samples. Each sample
has an initial weight of 1/N, where N is the total number of samples.
2. A model is constructed using a subset of the data.
3. Predictions are created for the entire dataset using this model.
4. Bias is computed by evaluating the predictions with the original values.
5. In the subsequent model creation, elevated weights are assigned to data points
with incorrect predictions.
74 E. C. Blessie et al.

6. The determination of weights can be based on the error value; for instance,
higher error results in a greater weight assigned to the observation.
7. This iterative process continues until the error function stabilizes or the maxi-
mum limit of estimators is reached.
The depicted diagram in Fig. 4 illustrates the creation of the initial model, with
subsequent identification of errors by the algorithm. Misclassified records from the
first model are utilized as input for generating the next model.
This iterative procedure continues until the specified condition is satisfied. As
illustrated, “n” models are constructed by incorporating errors from the preceding
model. This exemplifies the fundamental operation of boosting. The models denoted
as 1, 2, 3,…, N represent distinct models akin to decision trees. All variants of
boosting models operate on this common principle.
Features of AdaBoost
• The weak learners employed in AdaBoost are decision stumps, which are deci-
sion trees with a single split.
• AdaBoost operates by assigning higher weights to instances that are challenging
to classify and lower weights to those already effectively handled.
• AdaBoost algorithms are versatile and can be operated for classification issues as
well as regression drawbacks.
• AdaBoost constructs a sequence of weak learners in a stepwise manner, with
each subsequent weak learner placing increased emphasis on rectifying the
errors of its predecessors. It allocates higher weights to misclassified samples,
enabling subsequent models to concentrate on challenging-to-classify instances.
• AdaBoost effectively addresses the bias-variance trade-off through the amalga-
mation of weak models. By integrating a range of weak learners, it mitigates bias
and consequently lowers the overall error.

Fig. 4 Framework of AdaBoost

Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 75

Advantages of AdaBoost
• AdaBoost enhances the accuracy of weak machine learning models.
• AdaBoost is resistant to overfitting as it processes every model sequentially and
assigns weights to them, promoting better generalization.
• It also provides the flexibility to be united with any machine learning algorithm,
requiring no additional parameter tuning.
• It demonstrates versatility as it could be utilized with both text and numeric data.
• Ability to manage intricate data and feature interactions.
Disadvantages of AdaBoost
• AdaBoost relies on high-quality training data as it is highly sensitive to noisy
data and outliers.
• AdaBoost may encounter challenges with imbalanced datasets where one class
has a considerably larger number of samples than others.
• AdaBoost can incur high computational costs, particularly with large datasets
and complex models. Consequently, the training process might be prolonged and
necessitate additional resources.
• AdaBoost can be easy to interpret.
• AdaBoost might assign higher weight to features highly correlated with the tar-
get variable. This potential bias in the model can result in inaccurate outcomes.

4.1.2 Gradient Boosting

A powerful boosting technique called gradient boosting joins several weak learners
to produce robust and strong learners. Using gradient descent, each successive
model in this process is prepared to minimize the cost function of the previous tech-
nique, which might be anything from mean squared error to cross entropy. In every
iteration, the method determines the gradient of the loss function with respect to the
predictions made by the current ensemble and then trains a new weak method to
minimize this gradient. This new model’s forecasts are supplemented to the ensem-
ble, and the process is repetitive until a predetermined stopping threshold is met.
The residual errors from the previous predictor are used as labels for each predictor
during training. Gradient-boosted tree is a technique that uses CART (classification
and regression trees) as its foundation learner. Figure 5’s schematic illustrates gra-
dient-boosted trees being competent for regression problems.
The residual errors (r1) in the training set are then determined using the predic-
tions labeled y1(hat) from Tree1. Subsequently, the feature matrix X and the endur-
ing error r1 from Tree1 are used as labels for training Tree2. The new residual, r2,
is ascertained using the anticipated outcomes, r1(hat). Till all N trees in the ensem-
ble are trained, this iterative procedure is continued. A key component of this
method is shrinkage, which is the process of increasing each tree’s prediction
thereby the learning rate (eta), that spans from 0 to 1. This helps strike a balance
among the eta and the amount of perceptors; a reduced learning rate requires
76 E. C. Blessie et al.

r1=y1 - y1 r2=r1 - r1 r3=r2 - r2 rN=rN-1 - rN-1

Predict

Tree 1 Tree 2 Tree 3 Tree N

Train

(X, y) (X, r1) (X, r2) (X, rN-1)

Fig. 5 Framework of gradient boosting

compensatory increase in estimators to achieve desired method performance. With

all trees trained, predictions can be performed.
Features of Gradient Boosting
• Decision trees are utilized as the weak learner in gradient boosting.
• The gradient descent process is utilized to minimize the loss during the addition
of trees.
• Gradient boosting, being a greedy algorithm, can rapidly overfit a training
dataset.
• The predictions of each tree are sequentially aggregated.
• Gradient boosting algorithm operates based on three primary components: weak
learners, the loss function, and an additive model.
Advantages of Gradient Boosting
• Fast in training process especially on large dataset.
• Efficient in handling categorical features.
• This algorithm is proficient not only in handling numerical datasets but also in
efficiently managing categorical data.
• Due to its ensemble learning approach, interpreting and managing data with the
gradient boosting model are more straightforward.
• It provides the flexibility to utilize a range of loss functions (e.g., regression loss,
classification loss), enabling customization based on the specific problem
at hand.
Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 77

Disadvantages of Gradient Boosting

• The inclination to address every error from predecessor nodes can lead to overfit-
ting of the model.
• Training complete gradient boosting models on CPUs can be computationally
expensive and time-consuming.
• Very difficult to interpret the final model.
• Sensitive to outliers.
• Training the model might demand additional time and resources compared to
simpler algorithms.

4.1.3 XGBoosting

XGBoost is a powerful ensemble learning algorithm in the field of data science.

XGBoost, a gradient boosting algorithm extensively utilized in the field of data sci-
ence, represents an implementation of gradient boosting engineered for exceptional
efficiency, adaptability, and portability. XGBoost operates by combining numerous
weak learners into potent learner. A weak learner refers to a machine learning model
that exhibits slight improvement over random guessing. However, through their
combination, these weak learners synergize to create a strong learner with signifi-
cantly enhanced accuracy. XGBoost functions by training huge decision trees.
Every tree is trained on a particular subset of the data, and the predictions from
these individual trees are aggregated to produce the ultimate prediction.
Figure 6 shows the framework of XGBoost. It constructs decision trees using a
depth-first approach. It greedily splits the data at each node, optimizing the objec-
tive function to find the best split.
Features of XGBoost Algorithm
• XGBoost (extreme gradient boosting) employs a range of regularization tech-
niques to mitigate underfitting or overfitting, ultimately enhancing the model’s
performance.
• For each node, XGBoost uses parallel processing.
• XGBoost (extreme gradient boosting) alleviates the need for imputing missing
values, as the model inherently handles them. By default, XGBoost autono-
mously determines whether these values should belong to the right or left node
during the learning process.
• XGBoost employs cache optimization techniques to efficiently manage and uti-
lize computational resources.
• XGBoost possesses the capability to identify and extract insights from nonlinear
patterns within data.
Advantages of XGBoost
• It exhibits higher efficiency compared to alternative machine learning algorithms.
78 E. C. Blessie et al.

Data set: (X, Y)

F1(X) F2(X) Fm(X)

Tree1 Tree2 Tree m

Compute Compute α1 Compute Compute α2 Compute Compute αi Compute Compute αm

Residuals Residuals Residuals Residuals
(F1) (F2) (Fi) (Fm)

Fm(X)) = Fm-1(X) + αm hm(X, rm-1)

Fig. 6 Framework of XGBoost

• The XGBoost algorithm operates at a high execution speed, providing rapid and
efficient output thanks to its parallel computation capabilities.
• XGBoost is equipped with a built-in functionality to manage missing values.
When encountering a missing value at a node, XGBoost attempts both left- and
right-hand splits, investigating the path that results in greater loss for every node.
• XGBoost is proficient in managing extensive datasets, parallelizing computa-
tions, and mitigating overfitting.
• It shows efficient execution speed.
Disadvantages of XGBoost
• XGBoost is sensitive to outlier.
• Difficult in visualization and interpretation.
• It’s more demanding to fine-tune due to the abundance of hyperparameters.
• Without proper tuning of XGBoost parameters, overfitting is prone to occur.
• It overfits the model if the model is not stopped too early.

5 Hybrid Model

A hybrid model that integrates the predictive capabilities of decision tree regressor,
K-nearest neighbors (KNN), and support vector regressor (SVR) through ensemble
algorithms like AdaBoost, gradient boosting (GBoost), and XGBoost offers a
Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 79

powerful approach for robust prediction. The decision tree regressor excels in cap-
turing nonlinear relationships and intricate feature interactions. Conversely,
K-nearest neighbors (KNN) utilize proximity-based learning, considering nearby
data points. Support vector regressor (SVR) is particularly adept at managing com-
plex patterns and high-dimensional spaces. When their strengths are combined
using ensemble methods like AdaBoost, GBoost, and XGBoost, the model achieves
superior predictive accuracy by leveraging the diversity and complementary capa-
bilities of these base learners.
AdaBoost, as an example, iteratively fine-tunes instance weights, prioritizing
challenging cases and enhancing the overall model performance. On the other hand,
GBoost and XGBoost enhance predictions by progressively incorporating weak
learners, with each one rectifying prior errors, culminating in a precise and resilient
predictive model. This hybrid strategy effectively amalgamates the unique strengths
of each algorithm, producing a potent and adaptable predictive model suitable for
diverse applications, such as crop yield prediction. The general framework of our
crop yield prediction system is given in Fig. 7.

Machine Learning Ensemble

Algorithms Algorithms
Decision Tree Prediction
Data AdaBoost
Regressor
Training
Dataset Gradient
KNN Prediction
Boosting

Support Vector Prediction Extreme Gradient

Preprocessing Regressor Boosting

Test New Crop

Dataset Yield Data Final Prediction

Crop Yield
Prediction

Fig. 7 The general framework of our crop yield prediction system

80 E. C. Blessie et al.

6 Experimental Analysis

6.1 Dataset Description

The crop yield prediction dataset consists of 756 rows and 12 columns. It also
includes several factors that can potentially influence or are related to crop yield.
These factors are represented by the columns in the dataset (Table 1).
These elements incorporate soil nutrient levels; temporal, geographic, cultivated,
and harvested areas; and crop yield. Thorough analysis and understanding of these
components can assist in predicting crop yield and enhancing agricultural practices
to achieve improved productivity. The scatterplot in Fig. 8 shows crop yield divided
by years categorized by the states. Each point on the plot would represent a data
entry, with one axis representing the year and the other axis representing the
crop yield.
The box plot showing crop yield vs. state given in Fig. 9 offers a visual represen-
tation of the distribution and statistical summary of crop yields for different states
in the dataset. Each box represents the crop yield distribution within a specific state.
The central line within each box represents the median yield for the respective state,
providing a measure of the typical yield. The top and bottom edges of the box
specify the third quartile (Q3) and the first quartile (Q1), correspondingly. This
provides insight into the range where the bulk of crop yields fall within a spe-
cific state.

Table 1 Dataset description for crop yield prediction

Factors Description
State The specific state or region for which the data is recorded,
indicating a geographical factor
Year The year in which the data is recorded, indicating a temporal factor
Nitrogen (%) The percentage of nitrogen in the soil, a soil nutrient factor
Nitrogen (pounds/acre) The amount of nitrogen in pounds per acre, indicating soil nutrient
content
Phosphorus (%) The percentage of phosphorus in the soil, another soil nutrient
factor
Phosphorus (pounds/acre) The amount of phosphorus in pounds per acre, representing soil
phosphorus content
Potash (%) The percentage of potash in the soil, a soil nutrient factor
Potash (pounds/acre) The amount of potash in pounds per acre, indicating soil potash
content
Area planted (acres) The area in acres that was planted for cultivation, representing the
cultivated land area
Harvested area (acres) The area in acres that was harvested, indicating the actual
harvested land area
Lint yield (pounds/ The lint yield in pounds per harvested acre represents the crop
harvested acre) yield
Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 81

state
Arizona New Mexico
California North Carolina
1750 Mississippi Oklahoma
Arkansas South Carolina
Louisiana Alabama
1500 Georgia Missouri
Tennessee Texas

1250
Crop Yield

1000

750

500

250

1970 1900 1990 2000 2010

Year

Fig. 8 Crop yield divided by years categorized by the states

Fig. 9 The box plot showing crop yield vs. state

This visual representation facilitates a comparative examination of crop yields

across distinct states, presenting disparities in yield distribution and pinpointing
states with potential high or low yields. It offers a brief outline of the yield distribu-
tion, assisting in the evaluation of state-wise crop productivity and guiding agricul-
tural decision-making.
The bar chart given in Fig. 10 presents a visual comparison of crop yields across
the initial ten states in the dataset. Each bar characterizes a state and the height of
the bar associated with the crop yield in pounds per acre for the particular state. This
visualization allows for a quick assessment of the relative crop productivity among
these states.
82 E. C. Blessie et al.

70000

60000

50000
Unit Yield

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
California

Arizona

Mississippi

Arkansas

New Mexico

Missouri

Louisiana

Georgia

Tennessee

North Carolina
State Name

Fig. 10 Comparison of crop yields

Table 2 Parameter list for regression techniques

Machine learning and
ensemble techniques used Parameters
K-nearest neighbor (KNN) Value of K, metrics = “minkowski”
Support vector regressor Kernel type = “rbf”, Degree (Degree of the polynomial kernel
(SVR) function)
Decision tree regressor Criterion, splitter, max_depth
(DTR)
AdaBoost n_estimators = 100, base_estimator = model3, learning_rate = 1
Gradient boosting (GB) n_estimators = 10,000, learning_rate = 1
Extreme gradient boosting n_estimators = 5000, max_depth = 7, eta = 0.1, subsample = 0.7,
(XGB) colsample_bytree = 0.8, booster = ‘gbtree’, base_score

6.2 Parameter Discussion

In this experiment, the parameters with their values taken for result analysis are
given in Table 2.

6.3 Result and Discussion on Machine Learning Model

We conducted experiment on crop yield dataset using machine learning algorithms

such as K-nearest neighbors (KNN), support vector regressor (SVR), and decision
tree regressor (DTR). The result shows that decision tree regressor outperforms the
Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 83

other two ML algorithms. The prediction done by DTR used AdaBoost, XGBoost,
and gradient boosting to predict a target variable. We measured the performance of
each model using mean squared error (MSE), a common metric used to evaluate
regression models. Table 1 shows the MSE values of ML algorithms.
The decision tree regressor (DTR) yields lower MSE of 20922.607374918778
when compared to other two algorithms. This demonstrated that DTR is the best
model with the lowest mean squared error (MSE) among the three models.

6.4 Result and Discussion on Hybrid Model

From Table 3, we see that the ML algorithm decision tree regressor (DTR) performs
well for crop yield prediction. DTR is used as base learner in ensemble methods like
AdaBoost, gradient boosting, and XGBoost. DTR is chosen as the weak learner in
AdaBoost because of its capabilities to capture nonlinear relationship in the data.
Gradient boosting also uses DTR as weak learner as it fits the weak learners sequen-
tially to the residual errors of the previous models. XGBoost enhances the tradi-
tional gradient boosting by adding regularization. The number of estimators used in
the ensemble learning technique is 1000, and the base estimator used is DTR. Table 2
shows that the gradient boost regressor performs well with a mean squared error of
26600.09. It captures intricate patterns in the relationship between soil types and
crop yield. AdaBoost achieves a good balance between bias and variance. In this
experiment for crop prediction using soil types, XGBoost regressor exhibited the
best performance with the lowest mean squared root. The result suggests that
XGBoost is the most promising choice for accurately predicting crop yield based on
soil types (Figs. 11, 12 and 13).
Table 3 MSE values of all Algorithms MSE
approaches K-nearest neighbors 27923.50
Support vector regressor 97451.28
Decision tree regressor 20922.60
AdaBoost regressor 14463.70
Gradient boost regressor 26600.08
XGBoost regressor 13193.10

Fig. 11 Real and projected values using AdaBoost

84 E. C. Blessie et al.

Fig. 12 Real and projected values using gradient boosting

Fig. 13 Real and projected values using XGBoosting

7 Conclusion

In conclusion, the main objective of forecasting the optimal crops for cultivation by
farmers was achieved. A hybrid model was built by using ensemble techniques to
minimize the mean squared error which ultimately increases the accuracy. This
study infers that the current research significantly improves prediction compared to
existing methodologies. The empirical analysis on crop yield prediction using the
AdaBoost, gradient boosting, and XGBoost (AdaBoost-gradient-XGB) hybrid
model has proven to be highly effective and promising. This hybrid approach com-
bines the strengths of AdaBoost, gradient boosting, and XGBoost algorithms,
resulting in an ensemble model with superior predictive performance. The AdaBoost
algorithm, known for its ability to sequentially correct errors and improve predictive
accuracy, significantly contributes to the hybrid model. By focusing on challenging
instances and adjusting instance weights iteratively, AdaBoost enhances the mod-
el’s robustness. Gradient boosting, on the other hand, sequentially adds weak learn-
ers to correct errors from previous iterations, further refining the predictive
capabilities of the hybrid model. XGBoost, with its efficiency and capability to
handle complex patterns, enriches the ensemble by improving predictive accuracy.
This hybrid model excels in handling a diverse range of features, including
numerical and categorical variables, making it versatile and applicable to various
Empirical Analysis of Crop Yield Prediction Using Hybrid Model 85

agricultural datasets. It effectively addresses the issues associated with crop yield
prediction by leveraging the complementary strengths of these individual algorithms.
The empirical analysis demonstrates that the AdaBoost-gradient-XGB hybrid model
outperforms standalone algorithms, offering more accurate and reliable crop yield
predictions. Also, XGB outperforms AdaBoost and gradient boosting algorithms.
The integration of ensemble learning and hybridization in this manner presents a
valuable approach to enhancing predictive modeling in the domain of agriculture.

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Digital Twins and Predictive Analytics
in Smart Agriculture

S. Clement Virgeniya

1 Introduction

Michael Grieves gave the concept of digital twins in 2002 [1]. Almost all fields like
manufacturing, aerospace, healthcare, defense, transportation, construction, educa-
tion, and obviously agriculture are making its footprint in digital twin. It is actually
a replica involving all geometrical components and material properties and con-
nected to real world through IoT and sensors [2].
In the aspect of healthcare industry, medical procedures were virtually created.
This reduces the stress of medical practitioners in doing complex surgical operation.
Analytics twinned with this virtual representation helps to further analyze and pre-
dict in advance. Moreover, separate distinct record is maintained for every single
individual containing all the medical records starting from ECG, X-rays, MRI if
any, and blood sample records. This helps in forecasting future outcomes in health
of individuals. Many instruments for medical industry developed, test the product,
and check its reliability. It creates models for disorder. This helps better learning
about disorder strength and provides proper ailment before involving in-person
activity. Nowadays, many medical students use this during their training period
which gives them practical experience. It is also used in managing resources in
hospitals and visualizing medicine utilizations, bed and room availability, etc.
Although there are several booms, security of patient data, privacy, and other ethical
issues need to be considered while implementing in healthcare.
In the aspect of education, digital twins and predictive analytics together have
great achievement in today’s education. They provide customized learning approach
for students depending on their strength and weakness by collecting data, and this

S. C. Virgeniya (*)
PG Department of Computer Science, Dr. Umayal Ramanathan College for Women,
Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 87

S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_5
88 S. C. Virgeniya

data is analyzed for future educational needs. It helps to design course curriculum,
and it is also used in future enhancement in course syllabi. Also, it checks for
resources such as availability of classrooms, Internet, etc. It helps to identify weak
students and provide strategies to improve their learning. Although there are many
pros including decision-making by institutions and student support, there is every
possible risk for security of student data.
Digital twin in smart cities helps to design and plan urban areas. It creates 3D
model for developing cities for constructing roads, buildings, bridges, tunnels, etc.
It reduces traffic by having collaboration with sensors and IoT platform. It can also
decrease accident and control traffic congestion. They are widely used in monitor-
ing the environmental condition of our country. It includes managing noise levels,
weather forecasting, and monitoring air and water quality index. An alert about
seismic waves is also given. Hence, digital twins in conjunction with predictive
analytics give a comprehensive view of urban environment.
Digital twins are used widely in aerospace and automotives. It helps in designing
vehicles, aircrafts, etc. It creates prototypes of aircrafts before actual implementa-
tion. It is also helpful in monitoring the vehicles and aircraft in real time.
In agriculture, there is always an increasing demand for food. This is because of
increasing population and lack of proper utilization of food supplies and due to the
attack of pests and weedicides to plants. Furthermore, environmental factors and
climatic changes also affect agriculture growth. Keeping this situation in mind, digi-
tal twin arose in agriculture known as smart farming or smart cultivation. Digital
twin along with predictive analytics is actually revolutionizing the entire agriculture
sector. Digital twin is divided into physical and virtual space. Physical virtual space
involves many steps. First and foremost, it involves the following:
1. Preparing soil where soil is plowed, leveled, and manured
2. Sowing involving appropriate selection of seeds
3. Manuring
4. Irrigation
5. Weeding at appropriate time
6. Harvesting when the crop is fully matured
This physical stream is very complex, whereas virtual space has a different way of
approaching this issue as shown in Fig. 1.
First step is monitoring soil. There are a number of sensors which are used to
monitor the pH and moisture level of soil and also pollutant in soil. These sensors
also check the nutrient present in soil. Yield and health of plants depend upon soil
quality. All the sensors are connected through IoT, and real-time data is collected
from soil sensors at regular interval of times. Apart from data storing in cloud, real-­
time data analytics is also done with deep leaning and machine learning algorithms
to give future insights of data. This is termed as predictive analytics.
Involving machineries like tractors gives knowledge to and fro and helps in con-
trolling machinery. Digital twin uses robots in agriculture. It is used to model design
and develop prototypes. Sensors are also involved in managing water supply to
Digital Twins and Predictive Analytics in Smart Agriculture 89

Fig. 1 Digital twin in agriculture

crops. Weather forecasting sensors check the climatic condition and water the plants
appropriately.
The present study focuses on smart farming involving cloud, IoT, and predictive
analytics. Many farmers were not aware of digitalization of agriculture. They rely
on old methodologies and techniques for finding crop diseases like manually seeing
affected crops after the occurrence of disease, not aware of soil nutrient and pH
level. This results in decreasing the yield and profit of farmers. Few years back, it
also created a situation where many farmers created suicide due to decreased yields
in their farmland [3].
However, with the advent of digitalization, the previous scenario is completely
revoking. Moreover, it could be prevented in advance if prior knowledge is given to
farmers. This is the main aim of digital twin technology. Checking plant disease and
inspecting soil and water nutrient level, temperature, moisture level, pH level, etc.
could be completely made automatic and digitalized with less man power with the
help of IoT, cloud, and predictive analytics [4].
Moreover, drones [5] are also used in keeping the plants healthy. They are used
in monitoring the health of plants, monitoring the water supply of plants, identify-
ing weeds, monitoring the presence of cattle, etc. [6]. Drones are equipped with
GPS, cameras, and sensors as depicted in Fig. 2. In the coming years, 80% of farm-
ers will use drones in their fields.

2 Literature Survey

Sun et al. [7] discussed digital twins in healthcare industry in particular in the mus-
culoskeletal system. The authors focused on its usage in medical industry before
using in real time. Inspite of its limitations in the availability of data, fusion of data,
simulation, which restricted the usage of Digital twin. The authors proposed new
90 S. C. Virgeniya

Fig. 2 Drones in agriculture [5]

trends in big data and IoT technologies which created real-time monitoring for
humans especially elders.
Chakshu et al. [8] proposed inverse analysis approach which helps in monitoring
and preventing medical conditions. However, there are some issues with clinical
environment where only one type of heart disease is addressed and deep learning is
applied on virtual database which dwindles accuracy of model. The authors also
gave a solution to tackle the same using transfer learning.
Vikhman et al. [9] gave the prospective of digital twins in education. The author
laid emphasis on grasping the process of involving digital twins in education. The
author discussed social effects of implementing digital twin. He also discussed the
complexity and unexpected effects and other sociotechnological consequences.
Nikolaev et al. [10] developed a simulation-driven product. The authors intro-
duced a module for PG students for designing, prototyping, and testing complex
systems like unmanned aerial vehicle.
Sepasgozar et al. [11] developed a digital pedagogy. The instructors could see the
students’ performance and give feedback instantly. The students were given online
mixed reality modules to help them solve real-life problems like how a tunnel bor-
ing machine works, knowledge on running an excavator, etc.
Deng et al. [12] gave a systematic review of implementing digital twins in smart
cities. The authors elaborated the techniques, applications, and theories concerned
with digital twins in smart cities. A self-perceiving, self-determining, self-organiz-
ing, self-executing, and adaptive platform is built via mapping technology, IoT dis-
cernment, computing, simulation, and deep learning [12].
Digital Twins and Predictive Analytics in Smart Agriculture 91

White et al. [13] said that digital twins improve the manufacturing process. With
the advent of IoT and sensors, 3D model of a city can be made online before bring-
ing them into practice. Thus, this open public model gathers feedback where the
public can give their suggestions and can report problems in their area. It is also
used in flood expulsion planning.
Verdouw et al. [14] analyzed how digital twins could advance smart cultivation.
The authors stated that smart farming would no longer need close proximity for
monitoring the crops. It not only represents actual states but also analyzes historical
states and makes future decisions.
Pylianidis et al. [15] identified two distinctive characteristics of digital twins in
agriculture: First, many digital twins involve directly or indirectly living systems
and perishable products. However, their integration with the physical twin can be
difficult. The second one lies in the spatiotemporal dimension of their operation.
Mohamed et al. [16] gave the importance of smart agriculture. The authors used
IoT in connecting agriculture fields and all other applications. They also integrated
IoT with UAV and robots and discussed the limitation of implementing in develop-
ing countries.
Farooq et al. [17] discussed the concept of IoT in agriculture. The authors threw
light on smart farming including cloud, big data, and analytics. They also studied
the importance of security in storing agriculture data.

3 Digital Twin Steps

The first and foremost step is setting sensors in the fields. The sensor appropriate to
the field is chosen and installed in the fields. Placement of sensors should be well
planned considering the depth, location, and gap between each sensor. The overall
work is illustrated into different stages in Fig. 3.
The various data-capturing sensors and their purpose are listed in Table 1.

Fig. 3 Stages in digital twin technique

92 S. C. Virgeniya

Table 1 Sensor and its purpose

Name of the sensor Purpose
Soil moisture sensor Retrieves moisture content of soil
Soil pH Gets pH values of the soil
Light intensity Checks whether sunlight is present or not
CO2 CO2 level is observed
Air, temperature, and humidity sensor Air, temperature, and humidity are observed
Fire sensor Fire sensor alarms if there exists fire
GPS Tracks location
Water level Checks water level
Gas sensor Checks for hazardous gas
Soil nutrient sensor Checks the nutrient level of soil

Fig. 4 Data acquisition from different sensors [19]

3.1 Data Acquisition

IoT platform plays a major role in acquiring data [18]. A model of data acquisition
from various sensors is depicted in Fig. 4 [19].
The sensors are activated via actuators. It is maintained by central actuator man-
ager. The data from these sensors is further taken into cloud. They are either con-
nected using WI-FI connection or through low-power wide area network which
Digital Twins and Predictive Analytics in Smart Agriculture 93

transfers data. Sensors have reliable power supply either through batteries, solar
panels. etc. Sensors are connected through microcontroller like Arduino or low-cost
Raspberry Pi. These microcontrollers are involved in receiving data from sensors
and also responsible for storage.

3.2 Storage in Cloud

There are different types of storage systems ranging from relational databases,
NoSQL, cloud, warehouses, Hadoop distributed file system, and time series database.
Cloud-based system like Amazon, Azure, and Google Cloud is economical and easy
to use. A well-defined schema is first designed so that structured data makes it easier
to store and retrieve. Appropriate APIs are used to store data in real-­time streams.

3.3 Expert Analytics

It includes data preprocessing, feature extraction, and visualization. Data prepro-

cessing and feature extraction are important steps in bringing data visualization
better and accurately. Depending on the structure of data, it is normalized. Invalid or
duplicate streams give wrong decision. So, it is eliminated.
It is always good to evaluate the performance of data after preprocessing. Secure
encryption technique is followed to maintain the security of data, since farmers are
unaware about data hacking.

3.4 Predictive Analytics

Predictive analytics is a class of supervised learning algorithms [4]. There are two
main types, namely, supervised and unsupervised learning algorithms [20] with
classification and regression problems. Since it is a categorical regression, algo-
rithms like linear regression and logistic regression are used [21] in predicting
the output.
Algorithms under predictive analytics are listed in Fig. 5. Before undergoing
analytics, it is actually compared with historical data that is already present.
Analyzing future trends from past data already present is known as predictive ana-
lytics. In this paper, five different algorithms depicted are used. It is observed that
depending upon the data present, the accuracy and performance of the algo-
rithm vary.
94 S. C. Virgeniya

Fig. 5 Predictive analytics algorithms

3.5 Report and Indication

Various data visualization tools are available to indicate the status of the crops now
and then. Apps help farmers to know the status of the crops immediately. Sensors
placed at intervals in the fields (Fig. 6) sense data at hourly or daily basis and send
to the experts to analyze. Experts provide insights of data using predictive analytics
algorithms and report the same visually so that farmers could understand.
Initially, the data collected is raw. This means it won’t make any sense if a farmer
sees that data. It should be preprocessed; outliers have to be removed and structured
in such a way that it can be easily predicted with the predictive analytics algorithms
illustrated in Fig. 5.

3.6 Snap Decision-Making

It helps farmers make appropriate decision at the right time. If water level increases,
the pH value is imbalanced, and the pests attack or if there is fire nearby, it alerts
farmers about its presence and take decisions. Figure 6 shows the overall smart
work in agriculture to decision-making via apps. The data collected from sensor
reading through IoT is stored in cloud in real streams.
In parallel, historical data is also present in database. Experts analyze the data,
preprocess, extract valuable features, and apply machine learning algorithms to find
crop status. Finally, status of crops is visualized to farmers via apps, and hence they
could make appropriate decision about plants’ health condition.
Digital Twins and Predictive Analytics in Smart Agriculture 95

Fig. 6 Smart work in agriculture

4 Experimental Study

Experimental results show a detailed view of applying predicting analytics algo-

rithms in predicting crop disease. Five different algorithms as depicted in Fig. 5 are
used, and neural network algorithm gives better performance.
Neural network algorithm used here is convolutional neural network (CNN or
ConvNet). Since images of crops are sensed in a grid-like structure, CNN is used.
CNN’s architecture has three layers, namely, convolutional layer, pooling, and fully
connected layer. CNN is a product of two matrices. One matrix is known as kernel
and other is receptive. The kernel’s height and width are small and depth is large
[22] (Fig. 7).
Two-dimensional image called activation map is produced during forward pass,
and sliding size of the kernel is called a stride. Convolution layer [22] is calculated
using Eq. (1):

W  F  2P
Wout  1
S (1)
where
Spatial size is represented as F.
96 S. C. Virgeniya

Fig. 7 Architecture of a CNN [23]

Stride is represented as S.
Amount of padding is represented as P.
Wout is represented as the size of output volume.
The operation of CNN is given in Fig. 8.
CNN is based on three key points: sparse interaction, parameter sharing, and
equivariant representation [22]. Sparse interaction, where a portion of input is
involved for interaction. This is made possible by making the kernel smaller. Only
few important and meaningful pixels are chosen among thousands of pixel (depicted
in Fig. 8). Through this, only lesser amount of memory is required, and it also
increases the accuracy of the model.
Pooling layer replaces the output by nearby inputs. In this layer, spatial size is
small with less computations. Pooling operation is performed on every slice. Slicing
operation is portrayed in Fig. 9. Max pool is very commonly used. If an activation
map is of size W × W × D, then the pooling layer is calculated using Eq. (2):

W F
Wout  1
S (2)
In a fully connected layer, all the neurons are connected to one another preceding
and succeeding layer.
In the present study, cotton leaves collected from Kaggle are being considered
for applying predictive learning algorithms. It consists of diseased and fresh cotton
leaves. This repository is used as historical dataset for comparing with sensor data
arriving at real streams. Data is preprocessed, and predictive learning algorithms are
applied to find the diseased plant.
The metrics used to evaluate the algorithms are given from Eqs. (3) to (6):
Digital Twins and Predictive Analytics in Smart Agriculture 97

Fig. 8 Convolution operation [24]

TP
Precision 
TP  FP (3)
TP
Recall 
TP  FN (4)
 Precision  recall 
F1 score  2   
 Precision  recall  (5)
TP  TN
Accuracy 
TN  TP  FN  FP (6)
Table 2 describes the training and validation accuracy of plants, and Fig. 10 repre-
sents the same visually for data stored in database.
98 S. C. Virgeniya

Fig. 9 Pooling operation. (Source: O’Reilly Media)

Table 2 Accuracy of predictive learning algorithms

Algorithm Training accuracy (in %) Validation accuracy (in %)
Decision tree 99.04 91.08
Logistic regression 89 84
Linear regression 88.24 84.23
Neural network 99.67 94.87
Naïve Bayes 66 67

Fig. 10 Training and validation accuracy

Digital Twins and Predictive Analytics in Smart Agriculture 99

It is observed that decision tree algorithms give an accuracy of 99.04% for train-
ing and 91.08% for validation. Logistic regression gives an accuracy of 89% and
84% for validation. Linear regression gives an accuracy of 88.24% for training and
84.23% for validation. Neural network gives an accuracy of 99.67% for training and
94.87% for validation. Naive Bayes gives an accuracy of 66% for training and 67%
for validation.

5 Conclusion

The present study depicted the digital environment in setting smart agriculture-­
based environment. It also threw light on data acquisition from sensors, storage,
processing, expert analytics, report generation, and finally informing farmers
through apps.
In this paper, cotton leaves are tested for diseased and healthy leaves. Five differ-
ent algorithms are being implemented, and neural network-based convolutional
neural network achieves higher accuracy. Likewise, data from other sensors are also
taken and analyzed. Due to insufficiency of data availability, the proposed work
targets cotton leaf disease alone. Yet there are a number of other issues to be consid-
ered like monitoring soil moisture level, pH level, nutrient level, etc. But due to the
lack of data, they are under process.
Smart agriculture is a developing area in developed and developing countries.
This system would be more useful for farmers if it comes in the market. This system
could be affordable for croft lands since affording sensors to the entire land is cost-­
effective. Many areas practice such technology placing sensors at distance.
As the popularity of smart agriculture is growing, many industries are involving
them in their work. If this comes into reality, many farmers would be benefitted,
reducing their manual work, saving their time and money, and increasing the yield.
It also helps farmers to make more informed decision about the plant growth and
availability.
For this, farmers need to be given general awareness about how to implement and
activate sensors and apps and how to incorporate those in their field. Prior training
before implementation will help farmers to do better. If this is possible, then suicide
due to less yield would never happen in our country.

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Soil Classification and Crop Prediction
Using Machine Learning Techniques

Tilottama Goswami, Divyajyothi Mukkatira Ganapathi,

and Prakriti Goswami

1 Introduction

Soil is the most precious natural resource on Earth which plays a major role in eco-
system sustainability. Both food and fabric needed by the world for survival depend
on successful agriculture. For successful agriculture, farmers need to be acquainted
with knowledge of soil characteristics that best suit a particular crop to increase
productivity. Adoption of modern agricultural techniques for soil preparation, crop
selection, and seed selection can improve crop yield production, leading to a more
sustainable agricultural development. Soil obtained from the Earth’s crust comes in
different particle sizes, shapes, and compositions.
Classification of soil makes it much more convenient to study them and arrive at
a certain generalized conclusion pertaining to crop cultivation. Any classification
system must provide the expected engineering properties of a soil after detailed
investigation and experiments. This serves as a language of communication between
engineers across the globe. Classification is done to have a commonly accepted
pedagogy of soils universally.

T. Goswami
Department of Information Technology, Vasavi College of Engineering,
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
D. M. Ganapathi (*)
Department of Information Technology, University of Technology and Applied Sciences – Al
Musanna, Al Musanna, Sultanate of Oman
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Goswami
Department of Environmental Science, School of Earth Sciences, Central University
of Rajasthan, Ajmer, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 101
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_6
102 T. Goswami et al.

The lowest category of soil classification is called soil series. A soil series serves
as the foundation for the placement of that soil series within the soil family and
provides a record of the soil qualities required to create soil interpretations. The
features of all soils belonging to a specific soil series would be uniform across the
terrain [1]. Machine learning algorithms can be used to categorize the soil series
data [2]. In order to identify appropriate crops based on geographic factors that are
suitable for the soil series of a specific place and its climatic circumstances, the find-
ings of such classification can also be integrated with crop databases. Consequently,
the soil dataset and the crop dataset can be used for classification. The datasets
consist of chemical and geographical attributes of soil and crops. This will contrib-
ute to precision agriculture which will help farmers get an informed farming strat-
egy based on the soil health parameters like rainfall, climate, fertilizer, nitrogen
content in soil, humidity, temperature, etc. Numerous variables, including meteoro-
logical, geographic, organic, political, and economic considerations, have an impact
on plant crop output. Farmers may find it difficult to cultivate numerous crops,
especially if they are not familiar with market prices. The soil series data may then
be classified using machine learning classification and regression algorithms. Next,
suitable crops can be predicted, and finally the crop yield can be regressed. ML
includes a lot of practical ways for figuring out the input and output link in yield and
crop prediction. For a range of tasks in agriculture, including yield prediction, smart
irrigation, crop disease prediction, crop selection, and weather forecasting, machine
learning techniques are applied. The following is how the chapter is structured.
Section 2 discusses various taxonomies for classifying dirt. The crop forecast is
briefly discussed in Sect. 3. The importance of remote sensing and machine learning
methods in this field is discussed in Sect. 4. Section 7 brings the chapter to a close.

2 Soil Classification

Various soil classification systems are available which are going to be discussed in
the following paragraphs.

2.1 Soil Classification Based on UNESCO Soil Map

and USDA System

The authors in [3] aggregated various soil classification systems used in India since
ancient times and the factors they based their classification systems on. Agriculture
has always been the traditional occupation of Indians, and a vast amount of knowl-
edge regarding soil nature and fertility has been passed on among agriculturists for
generations. This study talks about the native classification that had been used,
which was based on three main factors – soil fertility, climate, and revenue system
of the land.
Soil Classification and Crop Prediction Using Machine Learning Techniques 103

Classification based on soil fertility mainly included two types of soil, “urvara”
and “anurvara,” which mean fertile and sterile, respectively. They were further
divided into different classes based on crop suitability and the source of their irriga-
tion. On the other hand, climate-based classification focused on the nature of the
soil and its characteristics in respective climatic conditions. Classification of soil is
mainly based on dry, wet, and moderate (neither dry nor wet) land conditions.
Citations from ancient texts like “Vishvavallabha” and “Jala-Bhumi: Krishi-Sukti”
also helped enumerate the significance of soil characteristics like color and taste.
Lastly, the revenue system focused on the productivity of land to generate revenue.
This led to considering factors such as slope, texture of the soil, availability of
water, crop yield, etc.
Subsequent efforts to classify the soil diversity of India in modern times led to
the formation of the first soil map. This was further revised and simplified to a
simple three-level classification where numerous soil families could be grouped
together, making it easier for research purposes like the international correlation
with foreign soil systems and soil mapping.
The paper [4] studied extensively on the huge diversity of soils present in the
Indian subcontinent. India, with its diverse physical features and physiographic
regions, has the largest variety of soils compared to other similar-sized countries in
the world. Initiatives for soil classification in India date back to the nineteenth cen-
tury, when soils were divided into four major groups – red soil, black soil, Indo-­
Gangetic alluvium, and laterite soil. The World Soil Map Project then generated the
FAO/UNESCO soil map of the world, where the revised soil map of India consisted
of 23 major classes.
The need of remapping soil was required for the purpose of sustainable resource
management and efficient use and conservation of soil. India was divided into seven
major zones, namely, northern, southern, western, eastern, northeastern, central,
and islands. The soil resources in these regions were analyzed on the basis of water-­
holding capacity, nutrient capacity, base saturation, etc. Soil families were observed,
and the cause for changes was analyzed. An increase in the number of soil families
was an indicator of soil variation. The northeastern region (NER) was found to have
a greater number of soil families per million hectares compared to other zones due
to hilly conditions having different soil-forming processes and different physio-
graphic features. Other factors like microbial population were also recorded to be
found more in rain-fed ecosystems followed by mountain ecosystems. The current
factors in these ecosystems enabled better drainage of surface soils which favors
higher microbial growth.
The diversity of soil in India equals those found in temperate regions, thus dis-
qualifying assumptions and generalizations of diminished soil quality and nutrients.
Indian soil was also classified according to the USDA soil classification system
developed by the US Department of Agriculture. The varying presence of these 12
soil orders were important in understanding the past of soil formation, which then
helped analyze predictive models for the future. Global warming and the climate
change in the Quaternary have had an impact on the quality of the soil. It has been
found that soil has become increasingly calcareous and sodic, which ultimately
104 T. Goswami et al.

affects the physical and chemical properties of soil particles. Such changes can
affect the crop yield and land productivity. CaCO3 concentration in soil stipulates a
decrease in the mean annual rainfall which results in alkaline and calcareous soil
formation. Such examples show the significance of proper soil grouping and how it
can help in decoding the change in climate pattern, using soil taxonomy as the key
to accessing the vast memories stored in the soil.

2.2 Soil Classification Based on UNESCO Soil Map

and USDA System

Another methodology used for soil classification is based on images as mentioned

in [5]. This paper considered using soil identification based on image analysis tech-
niques. The target of this study was the soil of Bangladesh, for analyzing the maxi-
mum use of land resources available for agricultural purposes. The samples collected
for research were classified into eight different datasets – clay, compost, agronomy,
EPI, loamy, silt, sandy, and SI. Image analysis is based on characteristics of soil like
color and texture. The Munsell color chart has been used for identifying the type of
soil and also helps in understanding the relationship between the color of the soil
and organic carbon content. RGB image processing helped in the detection of iron
and carbon in soil. CIElab, CMYK, and XYZ mode image processing were used to
detect other soil factors like moisture content and other soil variables like nitrogen,
clay, and sand to name a few. The study further presents and experiments with an
algorithm that combines Q-HOG (quartile histogram-oriented gradients), φ-pixels,
and a new selection method for classifying soil types.

2.3 Soil Characteristics Based on the Unified Soil

Classification System (USCS) and AASHTO

The paper [6] surveyed the characteristics of soil in Indonesia to get data based on
the suitability of soil for the construction of buildings. Samples were taken from
Jababeka I and Lippo Cikarang to analyze the swelling potential of soil found in
these samples. The aim of this study was to analyze the plasticity of soil. Soil plas-
ticity refers to the ability of soil to adjust to changes in shape without forming
cracks in the soil. Some soils like expansive soil are often labeled problematic in
civil or geotechnical engineering, because of their ability to change (swell or shrink)
with change in moisture content. Since the properties of soil are largely dependent
on the composition and size of the grain, the classification system used in this study
is Unified Soil Classification Systems (USCS). USCS describes the mechanical
properties of soil – texture and grain size. The AASHTO soil classification system
developed by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation is
based on the quality of soil for planning construction purposes and was also used as
a guide for classification.
Soil Classification and Crop Prediction Using Machine Learning Techniques 105

2.4 Land Suitability Binary Classification System

Based on FAO

The paper [7] describes in detail about FAO land suitability classification. This clas-
sification developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) uses suitabil-
ity, in other words, the fitness of land as criterion for soil classification. The two
orders in this classification are S and N, where S denotes suitability and N denotes
unsuitable land. These orders are further divided into moderately suitable, margin-
ally suitable, unsuitable with suitability potential, and so on, based on varying
degrees of suitability of lands. These depend on subclasses, which are limitations
used to assess the suitability of land. Some examples of subclasses include climatic
conditions (c), wetness limitation (w), topographic limitations (t), etc. These limita-
tions help in providing a qualitative evaluation of land. This classification system
also has land suitability units and the Capability Index which helps in understanding
the relative importance of land development.

2.5 Land Suitability Assessment Based on Soil Vegetation

Indices from Satellite Data

In this paper [8], the authors wished to create a land suitability system based on soil
vegetation indicators derived from satellite remote sensing. The aim of this study
was to evaluate land conditions for optimal planning in agricultural sectors. Samples
were collected from Rangpur, Dinajpur, Kurigram, and Gaibandha districts of
Rangpur Division, northern part of Bangladesh, where most of the inhabitants have
agricultural livelihoods. Vegetation indices (Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index [SAVI]
and Atmospherically Resistant Vegetation Index [ARVI] to name a few), land sur-
face temperature, slope, and elevation were factors which helped in assessing the
land suitability of samples. Analysis was based on land suitability classification by
the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The aim of using FAO suitability
classification was to assess per unit suitability of land for crop production and
develop a yield map.
A tool for spatial planning, the land suitability rating system evaluates the adapt-
ability of crops in Canada [9]. discusses the land suitability rating system (LSRS)
and how it can be used to identify trends or changes in crop distribution. Based on
climate, soil, and landscape potential, LSRS is used to determine a land’s rate of
appropriateness. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada first released LSRS in 1995.
The current version of LSRS, a site-specific tool, can be used with any soil map that
contains data from the Canadian Soil Information Service. Classes and subclasses
make up the LSRS system’s basic organizational structure. According to how much
a crop’s potential to be produced on a certain piece of land is constrained, suitability
classes range from 1 to 7.
106 T. Goswami et al.

2.6 Area-Specific Soil Classification

Many classification systems are area-specific, tuned according to the climatic or

physiological conditions of that area. For example, the land suitability rating system
is specific only to Canada. The need to assess and map soil conditions on a global
scale brought about a different soil classification system, which does not depend on
the climatic conditions of a single area but rather focuses on the physical and chemi-
cal properties of the soil. USDA soil classification system developed by the US
Department of Agriculture is one such example. There are other soil classification
systems which focus on the physical and behavioral properties of soil. These are
useful for anthropogenic activities related to soil, such as construction and engineer-
ing purposes.

3 Crop Prediction

Crop recommendation, yield production, and measuring losses are some of the
objectives related to crop growing on agricultural land. Numerous variables, includ-
ing genotype, climate, and their interplay, establish crop prognostic qualities. A
fundamental comprehension of the functional linkages between agriculture and
interfering variables like genetics and climate is necessary for accurate crop predic-
tion. It is important for decision-making at global, regional, and local levels.
Forecasts for yield are based on variables related to soil, weather, environment, and
plants. Decision support models are often used to extract important crop traits for
prediction purposes. One can use remote sensing data to estimate the amount of
light plants receive and predict yields. Remote sensing data is a powerful tool for
estimating yields. It provides information about growing crops and their environ-
ment and can estimate crop yields. Predicting yields under different climatic condi-
tions can help farmers and other partners provide basic guidance related to
agronomic and product decisions. The model can be used to select the best crops
and their yields for a region. This also increases the value and profit of agriculture.

3.1 Crop Monitoring Using Remote Sensing

and Deep Learning

Numerous studies have influenced national and local agricultural policies, and
remote sensing and statistical approaches have been widely employed for crop
assessment at the regional, national, and global levels. The majority of the sensing
systems have been satellite-based. But as UAVs have proliferated and sensing tech-
nology has improved, field-scale analysis has emerged as a new option. Deep learn-
ing architectures have emerged as a result of recent developments in data acquisition
capabilities, computational platforms (especially utilizing massively parallel
Soil Classification and Crop Prediction Using Machine Learning Techniques 107

processing using high-performance GPU boards), and big data structures. These
architectures are now capable of carrying out tasks that were previously impractical
to carry out using traditional machine learning techniques. These architectures are
characterized by their reliance on sizable heterogeneous datasets and their ability to
learn directly from raw data without the need for a separate feature extraction stage.
Rice crop classification and yield estimation using multi-temporal Sentinel-2
data: a case study of terrain districts of Nepal in paper [10] stressed on how factors
like climate change and increasing population are affecting agricultural production
in terms of food security, crop productivity, and sustainability, particularly in devel-
oping countries. Agriculture occupies a large portion of the national economy of
Nepal, a developing country. Despite the number of crop monitoring systems avail-
able on a regional to global scale, Nepal falls short due to the lack of timely, good
quality, complete data. Using a deep learning approach, this study used Sentinel-2
(S2) imagery which is freely available, to classify and estimate the yield of crops.
The target area for this study is the 20 districts of the Terai region in Southern Nepal,
which is 49% of the total agricultural land of Nepal.
The main technique for rice crop classification and yield estimation was a deep
neural network (DNN). For the yield estimation method, two CNN (2D and 3D
convolutional neural network) designs were developed. These two architectures’
performances were evaluated using the RMSE (root-mean-square error) metric. To
evaluate these models’ performance and determine their correctness when applied
to the provided dataset, performance metrics like F1-score were also examined.

3.2 Predicting Crop Losses with Remote Sensing

and Machine Learning

The authors in [11] proposed a method where the fusion of agricultural data with
remote sensing data would help in addressing the problems caused by disasters.
Ethiopia, the area chosen for this study, is often plagued by droughts which has
immense adverse effects on the agricultural sector. Forecasts of agricultural outcomes
or warnings of impending drought conditions can help government bodies, authori-
ties, and communities to prepare in advance and, thus, minimize consequences.
The main objective of this study was to come up with scalable, machine learning
models that can predict crop losses due to drought, relying only on data present
from earlier growing seasons.
Five cereal crops were chosen for this study – wheat, barley, maize, teff, and
sorghum. Data regarding previous crop losses in Ethiopia was sourced from the
Central Statistical Agency Agricultural Sample Survey. Data for other variables,
like precipitation and water availability, was also collected.
The machine learning models are trained on average crop losses reported by
farmers from 2010 to 2015 collected by Ethiopia’s Central Statistical Agency. This
data combined with remote sensing data from satellites helped this study to come up
with a model that predicts crop losses sooner in higher spatial resolution compared
to other existing models.
108 T. Goswami et al.

4 Role of Remote Sensing and Machine Learning Techniques

4.1 Data Preparation

Data preparation is one of the most fundamental steps for machine learning.
Machine learning tasks are mostly classification and regression. Appropriate feature
selection represents the true data and is helpful for accurate prediction.

4.2 Data Acquisition

For soil classification and crop yield domain, data can be collected from various
sources, which is the first fundamental step as shown in Fig. 1. One of the sources
is remote sensing satellite data that can be collected in the form of images, from a
geographical location (region of interest) which can be lithological data, climatic
data, and agricultural data. The images are hyperspectral or multispectral. Another
source of collecting soil features is from wet lab experiments compiled at national
level and stored in regional datasets.
Data collection is in the form of comma-separated files (CSV), excel sheets, or
tabular data. The GeoTIFF files are in the form of raster image file types that collect
the satellite and aerial image data. The dataset can be generated in the form of TIFF
and CSV files when extracted from the GeoTIFF files. The dataset generated is
mixed data consisting of numerical or continuous values, categorical values, and
image data.
For using machine learning models, data wrangling and preprocessing of data
are required to have clean and suitable features. These processes include handling
missing values and outlier detection.
Data transformation preprocessing steps include normalization, scaling, and fea-
ture engineering. The soil data, climate data, and crop-related data consist of mixed
data consisting of categorical, numerical, and image data. The categorical and
numerical data after preprocessing is made input to multilayer perceptron (MLP),
and the image data is fed to convolutional neural network (CNN).
Datasets. Some of the datasets in demand for this type of work are as follows:

Fig. 1 Data preparation

Soil Classification and Crop Prediction Using Machine Learning Techniques 109

• Soil Dataset: There are 207 soil datasets available on data.world. It consists of 16
attributes like PH, EC, OC, OM, N, P, K, Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, sand, silt, clay, CaCO3,
and CEC.
• Crop Dataset: It consists of four attributes – temperature, humidity, PH, and
rainfall.
• Yield Dataset: It consists of six attributes – nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potas-
sium (K), organic care (Og), PH, and temperature.
Considering the crucial dimensions of space and time, it is important for machine
learning algorithms to function on big datasets given the increasing proliferation of
very large datasets. The data cannot be stored in the main memory if it is too huge.
Similar to this, processing huge datasets would be impossible if learning time did
not increase linearly with the quantity of training examples.
Consider the following when a dataset is too big for a certain learning algorithm:
• Use a limited subset rather than the entire dataset for training.
• Never evaluate performance using training data.
• Parallelization utilizing nearest neighbor approaches can be utilized to decrease
learning’s temporal complexity.

5 GIS and Remote Sensing

These methods take thermal emissions from soils into consideration for the soil
series identification [12–16]. The information retrieved can be used by farmers as a
base map to decide the type of crop to be cultivated, and the amount of fertilizers
and pesticides to be applied. Researchers have used this technique for soil salinity
mapping [17] too.
Geographic information systems (GIS): Similar to remote sensing, GIS helps in
real-time analysis of soil, referred to as digital soil mapping (DSM) [18, 19].
Given a certain region or area of study, a ground survey should be carried out to
gather soil data at various sites. Each soil sample would have its geolocation infor-
mation tagged on it (soil sample number, date, latitude, longitude, and elevation).
The nutrient content, composition (or type) (percentage of sand, silt, and clay),
moisture content, texture, and other qualities, such as the acidity or pH level, will all
be determined by laboratory examination of the soil sample that was taken. The GIS
database should subsequently be populated with the mapped data from the
soil survey.

6 Soil Classification Using Machine Learning Methods

The adoption of machine learning techniques to understand soil science research is

referred to as pedometrics [20, 21] and has successfully been able to predict and
classify soils and their distribution in space and time [22–24]. The soil classification
110 T. Goswami et al.

systems such as the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) [25], Unified Soil

Classification System (USCS) [26], OSHA Soil Classification System [27], and
Indian standard soil systems [28] classify the soil series based on various soil
attributes.
Below, we discuss some of the most commonly used techniques in soil mapping.
In this section, we discuss some of the ML models and different variants of the
algorithm that have been used in soil science mapping.

6.1 Machine Learning Implementation

Agriculture depends on predicting the best crop to grow, and in recent years,
machine learning algorithms have become quite important in this process. In this
age of data science and technology, the agriculture sector has a lot to gain from cor-
rectly applied methods. Two essential machine learning techniques are feature
selection and classification. The goal of feature selection is to extract the most cru-
cial dataset attributes.
Based on a benchmark that has been established, such as classification perfor-
mance or class separability, which is essential in machine learning applications, it
comprises choosing a part of relevant attributes from a larger collection of original
attributes.
Datasets are collected from different resources and then divided into two sets,
usually in the ratio of 80:20 as training vs. test dataset:
(i) Training Dataset: The data originally used to train the model as a first part of
learning.
(ii) Testing Dataset: The dataset used to verify how good the model has learned the
concept during training process.
Different supervised algorithms mentioned below are commonly used to create
learning models. Their results are compared using appropriate performance
measures.

6.1.1 Random Forest

Random forest integrates the soil inventory data with the available digital data using
flexible statistical models and GIS tools, generating soil attributes [29]. Random
forest is an ensemble learning technique that works on multiple decision trees dur-
ing the training process and increases the prediction accuracy.
It finds a relationship between soil data and predictor data for prediction pur-
poses. The model, in its simplest form, looks like the following:

y ~ f  x1  x 2  x3    ,
Soil Classification and Crop Prediction Using Machine Learning Techniques 111

where y is a response variable, xs are predictor variables, and ε is the associated

error [30]. Random forests for soil characterization are widely in use [31] due to
their resistance to overfitting.
Furthermore, if the considered dataset is very large, principal component analy-
sis (PCA) can be used which will reduce the dimensions of the dataset without any
information loss, using orthogonal linear transformations optimally describing the
variance. Before proceeding with the analysis, the dataset is normalized. The result
of PCA is a covariance matrix which is symmetric.

6.1.2 Support Vector Machines

This methodology builds a linear discriminant function that widely separates the
critical border instances – referred to as support vectors – from each class.
This technique, which utilizes a linear kernel to categorize photographs of soil,
is known to be effective in high-dimensional spaces for classifying soil texture [32].
A significantly faster and simpler similarity function is the linear kernel function.
Cross validation is a method that can be used to gauge the accuracy of an SVM
classifier.
The SVM model performs by providing the highest accuracy in soil classifica-
tion, leading to prediction of soil properties, climatic factors, and crop production
[33, 34]. Better precision accuracy can be achieved by fine-tuning the parameters in
the training model.
By making it feasible to include nonlinear variables in the function, the instance-­
based method in this model overcomes the constraints of linear borders and enables
the formation of quadratic, cubic, and higher-order decision boundaries.
PSO-SVM facilitates nonprobabilistic binary linear classification (particle
swarm optimization-support vector machine). Using this method, one or more tar-
get classes may be found. Data is represented by a single dot (or point). It spreads
as a result of the numerous distinctions among the various groupings.
According to where they fit within the gap, those new instances are divided into
a number of target classes.
When the input datasets are unlabeled, nonlinear classification is feasible.
Unsupervised learning is used to classify the data because there are no goal classes
to assign to the instances. Following the construction of the function-based clusters,
additional instances may be added.

6.1.3 Multiple Linear Regression

When the outcome class is numeric, this model is a staple method to consider and
express the class as a linear combination of the attributes with predetermined
weights. This model can be used to study relationships between multiple variables,
112 T. Goswami et al.

where one is a continuous dependent variable and others are independent variables.
It is represented as follows:

Y  m1 x1  m2 x 2  m3 x3  mn xn  c.

where Y is the predicted variable; m1, m2, and m3 are the regression coefficients;
and e denotes the random error.
This model allows for the systematic description and comparison of soil proper-
ties and for the determination of the relationship between the selected soil proper-
ties [35].

6.1.4 Deep Learning and Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN)

Deep learning is a subset of machine learning, where automated feature engineering

is attained using more than three layers (hence, it’s called deep). Work carried out in
[36] discusses the use of spectroscopy to classify soil types. The classification is
based on the CNN model. This model is a kind of deep learning technique which
takes a grid as input, such as an image [37]. The application of deep learning frame-
works [38, 39] using TensorFlow and Keras is used for soil classification as dis-
cussed in [40, 41] with a dataset comprising 903 soil images with a good accuracy.
The paper [2] proposes soil classification using machine learning. The main
objective of this study was to create a model for classifying different types of soil
series, along with suggestions of suitable crops for growth. Soil series were taken
from six upazilas in the Khulna District of Bangladesh as samples for this study.
Database regarding soil was taken from Soil Resource Development Institute,
Bangladesh, and a crop database was generated based on different types of soil
found in each upazila. Three machine learning methods were used to find soil
class – weighted K-NN (K-nearest neighbor), bagged tree, and Gaussian Kernel-­
based SVM (support vector machine). The authors in [42] proposed a method that
would predict the estimate of crop yield in a specific area, based only on geographi-
cal and climatic data using machine learning. Karnataka, India, is the state of focus
in this study. The factors used are rainfall, season, area, crop, and production.
Regression algorithms like K-nearest neighbor (KNN), Gaussian process regression
(GPR), decision tree (DT) regressor, and support vector regression (SVR) were used
in this study followed by a feature scaling process for accuracy.
Images may be recognized using deep learning since feature extraction can be
done without the use of artificial processing. In other words, even for photos where
feature extraction is challenging, great accuracy can be attained. Deep learning is
frequently employed in research because it is effective with substances like sand
and clay, which are challenging for humans to characterize objectively. Compared
to the traditional approach, the support vector machine approach has the benefit of
requiring less training time because there are fewer parameters to be tuned.
Consequently, it is essential to carry out a procedure known as cross validation.
Splitting the sampled data into training and validation and model training and
Soil Classification and Crop Prediction Using Machine Learning Techniques 113

validation is part of this process. The training and validation procedures must be
repeated with a number of modifications in order to divide the data in such a way
that as much of it is chosen as training or validation data.

6.1.5 Ensemble Learning

Most recent research focus on using this technique for soil classification [43]. This
technique takes into consideration multiple learning algorithms resulting in better
soil and crop predictions. Prominent schemes used in this regard are bagging, boost-
ing, and stacking [44, 45].
The algorithm mentioned in Fig. 2 generates a diverse ensemble of classifiers
obtaining excellent results.
Commonly used ensemble algorithms are random forest and gradient boosting
machine [46, 47].
A big dataset can be divided into manageable chunks using the bagging-like
scheme technique, and models can be learned separately for each one. The results
can then be combined via voting or averaging. The benefit of boosting is that fresh
chunks can be weighted according to the classifiers discovered from earlier chunks.
The potential to derive performance guarantees led to the introduction of the con-
cept of boosting machine learning research. It can be demonstrated that as the num-
ber of iterations rises, the combined classifier’s error on the training set approaches
zero relatively quickly. The boosting algorithm is shown in Fig. 3.

6.1.6 Rotation Forests

Rotation forest is an ensemble learning technique that tries to provide precise clas-
sifiers and has been widely utilized by academics to find precise land use maps
[48, 49].

Fig. 2 Bagging algorithm

114 T. Goswami et al.

Fig. 3 Boosting algorithm

To build an ensemble of decsion trees, this method combines random subspace

and bagging techniques with principal component feature creation.
The input properties are split into k distinct subsets in each cycle. Each subset is
subjected to principal component analysis in order to produce linear combinations
of the qualities that are rotations of the original axes. The values for the derived
characteristics are calculated using the k sets of principal components. Each itera-
tion’s input to the tree learner is made up of these. This strategy can provide compa-
rable performance to random forests with a lot fewer trees.
Soil Classification and Crop Prediction Using Machine Learning Techniques 115

7 Conclusion

The significance of soil classification systems is that it helps researchers to predict

the behavior of soil – which further helps in maximizing outputs in different sectors
like agriculture, geotechnical engineering, construction, etc. The latest use of soil
classification systems also includes finding out a sustainable way to use soil judi-
ciously and predict climate pattern changes. Different classification systems have
different criteria/factors which help group soils based on attributes. Therefore, there
is no particular ideal soil classification system. Instead, it depends on the field of
study and their relation to soil and its characteristics. The crop recommendation is
based on many related factors, such as climate factors, soil health factors, and geo-
graphical location. Predictive analytics can help the agricultural community to plan
crop plantation and production, provided the feature data captured from the sample
collection give a true representation of the ecosystem belonging to the region of
interest. In the future, predictive analytics and prescriptive analytics can be done
using machine learning and deep learning technologies. The fields of geoscience
and remote sensing provide advanced help in studying the present condition and
progress of the land area, crop state, and its yield and soil health status.
Agribusiness crop yields may be increased by carefully selecting the optimum
crops and putting in place supportive infrastructure. Several factors, including the
weather, soil fertility, availability of water, water quality, crop prices, and others, are
taken into consideration while developing agricultural projections. Since machine
learning can anticipate crop productivity based on factors like location, weather, and
season, it is crucial for predicting agricultural production. This helps farmers choose
the crops they want to produce on their land in an informed manner.

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Precision Agriculture: A Novel Approach
on AI-Driven Farming

Elakkiya Elango, AhamedLebbe Hanees,

Balasubramanian Shanmuganathan, and Mohamed Imran Kareem Basha

1 Introduction

Nearly $150 billion is currently the overall market value of drone technology uti-
lized in all sectors of the economy, including commercial and government applica-
tions, and this value is likely to keep rising in the near future. Among the many other
areas, agriculture is one where the use of drones will continue to grow. Drones in
agriculture can aid in enabling better agricultural methods to handle difficulties in
the future. Farming drones are viewed as the newest cutting-edge technology that
will be essential to feed the expanding population, which is expected to reach nine
billion people by the year 2050, with a corresponding increase in the need for food
of more than 70%. Furthermore, the employment of drones in agriculture will be
crucial in the battle over extreme climate conditions, which continuously trouble
farmers and imperil nutrition security in several regions around the world. Figure 1
enlightens the commercial uses of drone technology in farming and agriculture.

E. Elango (*)
Department of Computer Science, Government Arts College for Women,
Sivagangai, Tamil Nadu, India
A. Hanees
Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, South Eastern University
of Sri Lanka, Sammanthurai, Sri Lanka
B. Shanmuganathan
Department of Computer Science, DDE, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India
M. I. Kareem Basha
Department of Computer Application, Merit Haji Ismail Sahib, Arts and Science College,
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 119
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_7
120 E. Elango et al.

TerrainMap
Solar Panel
ping
Inspection
Health
Assesment
Livestock
Monitoring
Figure1: Commercial
Irrigation Applications of Drone
Monitoring Technology in Agriculture and
Farming Soil and Field
Analysis

Crop mapping and

surveying
Crop Planting Seed Planting

Fig. 1 A few commercial uses of drone technology in farming and agriculture [1]

2 Terrain Mapping

Drones are the ideal equipment for performing terrain mapping because of their
natural capacity to survey large areas of land. AI drones are already being produced
by businesses like Folio3 [2] that can be programmed to carry out a variety of activi-
ties, such as terrain mapping for better management of the agricultural sector.
Farmers employ contemporary drones fitted with LiDAR and other sensors to map
the landscape across large areas of land as a scouting tool for land preparations.
Drones with advanced computer vision skills can provide farmers with real-time
feedback while correctly mapping the terrain for effective field planning and man-
agement. This process would be flawless if automated terrain mapping with drones
were used, which is desperately needed in the field of civil engineering. Folio3 has
created AI-based solutions for this. Drones make sure that the region being studied
is being recorded live using 3D cameras. Through a variety of CAD systems, this
stream can be utilized to gather data for the creation of 3D models. The drone is
deployed over the field or region under consideration and equipped with a 3D cam-
era and a LiDAR detector.
By strengthening a layering of a terrain image utilizing the collection of multi-
spectral of the terrain that used an autonomous 4 × 4 copter UAV (unmanned aerial
Precision Agriculture: A Novel Approach on AI-Driven Farming 121

vehicle) armed with a multispectral camera on board, our goal is to provide farmers
with an integrated tool for determining and assessing real-time greenery.

2.1 Working Techniques

Figure 2 shows the suggested architecture. Our goal is to use visual mosaicing
methods to integrate spatial data from the nearby infrared (NIR) image as well as
the abovementioned sensor data into a spatial multispectral image of both harvest
terrains. This study is an ongoing research project that combines methods for mosa-
icing a landscape with NDVI calculations used on rice crop fields. The main com-
ponents of the system, as shown in Fig. 2, are a base station, an advancing technology
pelican quadcopter, and a connected multispectral camera. Table 1 provides a con-
cise summary of the system’s key parameters. The pelican is provided with such a
GPS waypoint navigation system with only a 1-m precision. Data from the sensors
is sent to the ground station using the 2.4-GHz XBee network. Tetracam ADC Lite
multispectral camera was intended to capture apparent light wavelengths greater
than 520 nm and near-infrared frequencies up to 920 nm.

Fig. 2 Unmanned UAV-based aerial surveillance and sensing structure

Table 1 Pelican quadrotor Parameter Description

specifications Amount of rotors 4
Maximum weight for launching 1650 g
Payload 650 g
Flight time (with payload) 10 min
Maximum manual speed 15 ms−1
Maximum autonomous speed 3 ms−1
Recommended fighting area 1 km2
Battery LiPo 6100 mAh
Processor MastermindIntelCoreTMi7
122 E. Elango et al.

The primary use of this product is for light frequencies scattered and absorbed by
plants and crop coverings. The weight is 200 gf (making it suitable for UAV applica-
tions). Because the images this camera produces are in raw format, we had to con-
vert them using the Pixel Wrench 2 program to JPEG, TIFF, etc. With a field of view
of 100 × 75 m and a height above ground of 122 m, this camera can capture images
with a ground resolution of 48.8 mm per pixel.

3 Solar Mapping

Drones and artificial intelligence are used by raptor maps [3] to detect and forecast
solar farm outages as followed in Fig. 3.
In rural locations where the availability of electricity is intermittent, solar energy
is a preferable option to conventional electricity [4]. Solar cells are used in the cur-
rent generation of solar energy converters to convert energy. The main disadvan-
tages of these silicon-based solar cells are their low conversion efficiency and higher
cost as a result of their larger size. Utilizing nanomaterials, which have greater
efficiency of convergence and are smaller than silicon solar cells in size, is a more
recent trend in the conversion of solar energy. The lower solar irradiation captured
by these solar energy converters is another factor contributing to the poorer conver-
sion. The solar radiation captured by devices using sun-tracking mechanisms can
only be slightly improved. By tracing the Sun path from east to west in the morning
and from west to east in the evening, these traditional solar-tracking technologies
will attempt to gather a little extra energy.
However, because the route and angle of the Sun vary with the seasons and hemi-
spheres, this system is unable to harness its full potential. The most energy can be
gathered whenever the devices understand and follow the Sun’s movement across
the year. The systems in typical smart farming controllers, however, need to be

Fig. 3 Raptor maps uses drones and AI to detect and forecast solar farm outages
Precision Agriculture: A Novel Approach on AI-Driven Farming 123

trained using machine learning algorithms. Only when a solar panel made of nano-
materials can follow the Sun’s direction will the maximum amount of energy be
harvested. To do this, a machine learning technique is used.
Reinforced machine learning uses feedback to learn from the environment. An
appropriate response will be rewarded, and an improper response will be penalized.
Although the Sun route varies depending on the season, this approach is acceptable
for our goal of continuously tracking the Sun path throughout the year. The rein-
forcement algorithm picks up knowledge from its surroundings.
For utility-scale solar farms, this entails either visiting hundreds of acres and
meticulously evaluating thousands of panels by hand or, more frequently, inspecting
just a representative sample of panels in an effort to spot systematic problems. In
some circumstances, expensive examinations by a small aircraft may be used.

3.1 Working Techniques

In the past year, conducted research, contrasting its 100% IR drone inspections with
pertinent manual inspection scenarios across four sites in terms of time, expense,
and outcomes [5].
• Site 1: 74 MW in Sumrall will undergo a 100% IR drone inspection for mainte-
nance as opposed testing to clamp and 20% IV curve tracing testing.
• Site 2: A 30-MW maintenance project in Sprague, Connecticut, will use 100% IR
drone inspection as opposed to eye inspection and Voc/I scat the combined box
testing.
• Site 3: For the commissioning of a 21 MW in Rincon, Georgia, a 100% IR drone
inspections were assessed to a 100% custom IR scanning procedure and 15% IV
curve mapping analysis.
• Site 4: 100% IR drone inspection compared to 100% IV curve tracing testing for
the commissioning of 12.5 MW in Herald, California.
According to relevant data from the four sites, manual inspections increased
inspection efficiency by 97% as compared to drone inspections. The turnaround
time is remarkably rapid given the volume of data handled during a normal exami-
nation (about 800 pictures per MW). The analysis and delivery of each of these
inspections took less than 5 business days.

4 Livestock Monitoring

In today’s livestock operations, it’s critical to manage animal health and spot prob-
lems early. Wearable devices and thermal imaging cameras might be used to track
livestock’s anxiety levels, eating habits, and movement patterns in addition to vital
indications like temperature. There may be opposition to implanted and orally
124 E. Elango et al.

ingested sensors if society becomes more compassionate and aware of animal

health issues.
Wearable technology have the distinct advantage of being the least intrusive
method of making farming “wiser,” especially whenever tied to other technologies
like decision support systems. Governments uphold norms for the well-being of
cattle, which the agricultural industry is required to abide by. Keeping track of the
livestock’s head count is necessary for the procedure, but it can be difficult when
herds are dispersed across large open fields. When physical cattle-herding is done
on-site, it takes a lot of time and effort. It could be expensive because farmers may
need to traverse grassland, bushes, wind, and snow in order to track and hunt for
them. In this job, counting people too close to the cows, or cattle, frequently leads
to accidents, especially when the cows are stressed. Since cattle are heavier than
humans and are capable of moving extremely fast, cattle frequently injure people by
kicking or crushing them. Agitated cattle pose a special risk, and handling them
properly requires training. Furthermore, because cows move, hide behind one other,
or stand behind obstructions like large hay bales or trees, hand head counts can
require several tries to get it right. Even when the animals are lying down, counting
can be challenging.
Farming and livestock monitoring are two positive applications where AI has a
big potential to improve human life. The production of the farm is increased, and
operational costs are decreased by automatically tracking the cattle [6]. The use of
drones to monitor livestock has attracted a lot of interest from farmers. The number
and behavior of the livestock may be ascertained from the drone’s livestock photo-
graphs, which are then relayed in real time to the monitoring equipment so that
farmers can take appropriate action. This strategy is quite effective, particularly
when it comes to keeping an eye on the cattle on a sizable agricultural property and
locating human poachers.
Due to the similarities in some species’ physical characteristics, this application
sometimes misclassifies animals, which results in inaccurate information being
given to farmers. False information can also be effectively conveyed through the use
of lighting and background effects. The use of drones in livestock monitoring has
been the subject of numerous research as shown in Fig. 4. The usage of a drone with
a quadcopter-like layout for sheep livestock surveillance was proven by Al-Thani
et al. [7]. The drone’s components include a Raspberry Pi Module V2 with both a
machine learning algorithm to measure the sheep and monitor its location, an
ArduPilot Mega (APM) flight controller, and a 4G connection.
It can be expensive because farmers may need to traverse grassland, bushes,
wind, and snow in order to track and hunt for them. It was found that when com-
pared to offline processing, online processing gave findings that were more accurate
and looked more promising. Li and Xing [8] investigated how many drones would
be needed to follow and monitor the livestock with the least amount of equipment.
Each animal was given a GPS collar so the drone’s receiver could receive informa-
tion about its location and health. The study also used the density-based clustering
technique DBSCAN to address the minimal average drone-animal distance. This
approach yielded more cattle covered than the traditional K-means clustering tech-
nique, with a smaller average drone-animal distance.
Precision Agriculture: A Novel Approach on AI-Driven Farming 125

Fig. 4 Livestock monitoring

The convolution neural network (CNN) technique was implemented by Rivas

et al. [9] to examine the images produced by the GoPro Hero 5 camera that was
mounted on the drone to detect cattle in real time. This detecting module has incor-
porated a Raspberry Pi to power the algorithm, allowing for instantaneous livestock
counting without the need to first analyze the photographs on a distant computer. Xu
[2] used a Mask R-CNN algorithm to categorize cattle using photos from a DJI
Mavic Pro drone, and the results of an experiment showed 96% classification accu-
racy and 92% counting accuracy.

4.1 Working Techniques

The pipeline of the processing is shown in Fig. 5. We use a drone to record videos
of the pasture before identifying and counting the cows. As described in the subsec-
tions below, the pipeline is made up of various stages such as data fetching, cow
detection, and data visualization.

4.1.1 Data Fetching

The machine learning model’s limitation enables just one image to be used for a
given input. As a result, we had to separate the recorded footage into a series of
frames, identify cows, and note where they were in each frame. In plenty of other
words, we created for each individual frame; a counting and a listing of cow loca-
tions are provided.
126 E. Elango et al.

Fig. 5 Processing pipeline

4.1.2 Cow Detection

FeiYang [5] investigated the accuracy performance of two previously trained mod-
els for the detection of cows. Among them, YOLO-v3 was just one [10]. We set up
MXNet from the Gluon CV Toolkit package. We prepared each image into one of
the three grids, measuring 8*8, 16*16, and 32*32, in accordance with the input
structure of the model. We discovered that YOLO (You Only Look Once) is a decent
compromise between accuracy and speed even if it does not have the maximum
accuracy. To integrate YOLO-v1 and YOLO-v2 data, Redmon et al. [11] found
YOLO-v3 was an improved version [12]. Particularly when identifying small
objects, although maintaining the performance gain of many other YOLO
approaches, it improves the detection rate. The image is divided into several sec-
tions of various sizes using the YOLO-v3 model.
The item parameters are then classified based on the computed probability.
YOLO-v3 applies the Darknet-53 modeling approach that has 53 convolution oper-
ations. This convolution layer is followed by a batch normalization layer and a
faulty ReLU layer that serve as the kernel function. The discovered outcome is just
not optimal since the model’s frame rate, which requires about 10 s, is too stagnant
to enable a real-world application. Additionally, the precision is not high enough,
particularly whenever the image’s cows stack on top of one another and resulting in
extra counting.

4.1.3 Data Visualization

It investigated a different pre-trained Mask R-CNN model for the aforementioned

reasons. We integrated R50-FPN-3x and installed the Detectron2 package that is
given access via Facebook. Just Mac or Linux systems running Google Colab can
Precision Agriculture: A Novel Approach on AI-Driven Farming 127

be utilized to evaluate this model. Instance segmentation is carried out by Mask

R-CNN, which requires accurate segmentation in addition to proper localization of
the identified objects. Thus, instance segmentation integrates semantic segmenta-
tion with object detection. Faster R-CNN (FCN) is enhanced by Mask R-CNN. Each
containing a proposal candidate box is semantically divided.
The instance segmentation Mask R-CNN framework consists of three steps:
(i) Target detection – It entails drawing a bounding box around the observed object.
(ii) Target classification – It entails identifying the target’s associated class to iden-
tify if it belongs to a person, an automobile, or another category.
(iii) Pixel-level target segmentation – The foreground and backdrop must be segre-
gated for each goal. These model’s outcomes are the bounding box position, its
classified label, and also the label probabilities. The quantity of cows is used to
determine the bounding box coordinates for every frame.

5 Soil and Field Analysis

The foundation of a productive farm is a healthy soil. One of the most crucial farm
resources is the soil. It serves as a vital reservoir of water and nutrients for crops.
Each kind of soil contains unique characteristics. Farmers could always just enhance
the soil’s quality by regulating nitrogen levels and soil pH even when soil texture
can indeed be altered. Periodic soil analysis serves as one of the key elements in
regulating soil health [13].
A significant farming technique is soil analysis, which establishes the precise
quantity of crop nutrients that exist in the soil. Furthermore, it offers a clear over-
view of numerous chemical, physical, and biological aspects of the soil. The follow-
ing are some of the most fundamental but important micronutrient measurements
such as (i) measuring the amounts of calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus,
and nitrogen, (ii) analysis of soil pH, and (iii) measuring the amount of organic mat-
ter, accessible lime, and humus.
Albeit with today’s modern advanced farming techniques, it can be challenging
to keep the appropriate nitrogen balance within the soil as shown in Fig. 6. Nitrogen
deficiency will cause crops to suffer, but if chemical-intensive agricultural methods
are not used correctly, topsoil might suffer long-term harm. Fortunately, current
revelations are providing farmers and researchers with a seeing glimpse of the prob-
lem. To prevent losses from such dangers, artificial intelligence in farming is play-
ing an important role in soil analysis prior to planting, crop health or maturity level
monitoring, pesticide management, wind forecasting, and other natural disaster
prediction.
Different algorithms are used for agricultural analysis in artificial intelligence
(AI) and machine learning (ML) systems that track the quality of the soil and fertil-
ity. Utilizing both supervised and unsupervised techniques, machine learning appli-
cations enhance data methodologies and produce adequate data for statistical
128 E. Elango et al.

Fig. 6 Successful farm production starts with healthy soil

solutions to issues needing various methods. Farmers can identify potential nutrient
deficits in soil quality using artificial intelligence technology, especially electronic
technologies for deep learning.

5.1 Soil and Field Analysis Using Artificial Intelligence Model

We develop AI-based techniques that enable self-driving vehicles, robotics, drones,

weed-controlling machinery, and certain other comparable equipment to enter the
agricultural sector. All of these technologies will aid in boosting agricultural pro-
ductivity on a massive scale.

5.2 Latest Developments in Soil and Crop Remote Sensing

5.2.1 Platforms and Sensors

Working Techniques

While there are already many technologies used for remote sensing [14] including
satellites, aircraft, balloons, helicopters, unmanned aircraft, and towers, the much
more potential platforms for smart farming are microsatellites and multirotor
drones. Figure 7 explicates the types of remote sensing of soils and crops.
• Optical Domain – A number of sensors can be utilized for remote sensing and
monitoring soils and crops. Inside the optical signals, data can be gathered that
are multispectral and hyperspectral (visible, near-infrared, and shortwave-­
infrared wavelength ranges: 400–2500 nm). While hyperspectral sensors often
realize maximum (1–10 nm) and continuous spectra, multispectral sensors fre-
quently capture reflectance profiles in just few broad (10–100 nm) spectral
bands. The bulk of satellite sensors have at least four spectral bands in the visible
to near-infrared range, even if hyperspectral satellite sensors aren’t yet practi-
Precision Agriculture: A Novel Approach on AI-Driven Farming 129

Recent Remote Sensing of

Crops and soils

Sensor Platforms

Optimal Domain Thermal Domain Microwave Domain

Fig. 7 Recent remote sensing of soil and crops

cally viable. Ongoing (fairly frequent) monitoring of the planet’s surface is made
possible by the functioning of a constellation or collection of connected satel-
lites. This spatial resolution can be utilized in large agricultural areas all over the
world (1–10 m).
• Thermal Domain – In catching the thermal emission from a range (3–15 m),
thermal sensors like thermographs and infrared thermometers could be utilized
to determine the target surfaces’ intensity, warmth, and reflectivity. Thermal sen-
sors are borne in just a few satellites, such as Landsat 8; however, their spatial
resolution and revisit frequency are inadequate for most smart farming applica-
tions. A basic tool determining the outer temperature of soil, leaves, or canopies
is a portable infrared thermometer. Recently, a portable thermograph has been
used to evaluate plant covering in order to detect water shortages and infections.
Compact and lightweight thermal imaging cameras nowadays are available for
unmanned aerial vehicles.
• Microwave Domain – Microwave satellite sensors (SAR (synthetic aperture
radar)) seem to be very attractive for precision farming, especially in monsoon
regions because they are hardly affected by clouds. Electromagnetic fingerprints
including such scattering coefficient, radiation, and polar metric fingerprints
within the microwave domain can be utilized to detect changes in crop cultiva-
tion or soil condition. In fact, Inoue et al. [15] used an exploratory study to show
how rice development causes unique seasonal variations in the polar metric
backscattering signature of a wide broad range of frequency bands.

6 Seed Planting

The agricultural sector is currently suffering in rural areas for this single reason. No
laborers are available for planting, and even if they were, they would demand more
money. However, the crucial thing to remember is that farming is what the former
130 E. Elango et al.

depends on [16]. The whole planting equipment is attached to the bottom of the
drone, and the planting drone contains a seed container where seeds are stored and
a funnel into which seeds will fall. According to estimates, the planting drone is
capable of carrying 1–5 kg of seeds at a time. We can seed approximately 10,000
plants in a single day with the aid of two operators and ten drones; if the number of
operators and drones rises, they will plant approximately 35,000 plants in a single
day. Despite how heavily India relies on agriculture, it nevertheless is well short of
integrating the latest technologies to create high-quality farms. Unmanned aerial
vehicle (UAV) applications in remote sensing, photogrammetry, and precision farm-
ing has indeed started in industrialised countries. It is incredibly efficient and might
alleviate a farmer’s workload.
UAVs [17] generally come with sensors and cameras for assessing crops as well
as sprinklers for applying pesticides. Various UAV models have already been used
for both military and commercial applications. Yamaha creates the very first UAV
model for use in agriculture. For use in agricultural pest management and crop
monitoring. Crop monitoring using the Yamaha RMAX, an unmanned aircraft. In
precision agriculture, inductive reasoning to UAVs evaluates their viability for
activities involving precision farming, crop height measurement, and tree planting,
among others.

6.1 How Reforestation Works

Figure 8 explains how reforestation works. In blend with our custom pods and
accelerated seed planting, we use an assortment of advanced unmanned aerial vehi-
cles [18].

Fig. 8 Reforestation working process

Precision Agriculture: A Novel Approach on AI-Driven Farming 131

Types of Seed Planting in

Advanced UAV Technology

Multispectral Mapping Spraying Tree Planting

Drone Drone Drone

Fig. 9 Types of seed planting (advanced UAV)

Figure 9 illustrates three methods of seed sowing utilising sophisticated UAVs

(unmanned aerial vehicles):
(i) Multispectral Mapping Drone: We gather data to determine the best microsites
to plant each tree and our growing seedlings.
(ii) Spraying Drone: We give our seedlings nutrients and continuous support for
the first crucial years.
(iii) Tree Planting Drones: We mount drones with pneumatic firing devices and use
our software to fire pods into selected sites.

7 Crop Planting

Drone technology is utilized to monitor crops, assess crop growth, locate severe
damage to crops, and identify areas that need more irrigation and fertilization. It
offers 2D and 3D visuals, enabling farmers to gauge plant development, crop yields,
and sturdiness. Analyzing the 2D/3D imagery could provide insightful information
about crop growth and highlight manufacturing inefficiencies [19]. Near-infrared
(NIR) light is monitored and sensed by drones using sensors. Sturdy plants fluo-
resce while scattering NIR, but inferior plants absorb more NIR while reflecting
more light energy, making NIR useful. The NIR approach provided farmers with
detailed maps of information about plant nutrition and far more closely monitors
interventions. Drone crop surveillance provides significant crop vegetation index
surveillance using spectral analysis of high-resolution radar data for various places
and crops, allowing for the observation of both positive and gloomy crop growth
dynamics.

7.1 Working Techniques

Agronomists can then employ spectroscopic analysis to examine crop health and
calculate yield utilizing UAV imagery. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
(NDVI), which is already employed via satellite surveillance to evaluate the quality
132 E. Elango et al.

of substantial regions of greenery, including rainforest, represents the most crucial

statistic in this situation. The variations in visible and near-infrared light reflected
and absorbed by vegetation are used to determine NDVI. While reflecting a large
amount of near-infrared light, healthy vegetation absorbs the majority of light
waves. In comparison to healthy vegetation, unhealthy vegetation radiates both
more visible light and less infrared light.

7.2 Crop Yield

When it comes to concerned crop conditions, NDVI only offers a superficial study
of vegetation coverage. Crop health and many other traits can be thoroughly ana-
lyzed by computer vision algorithms that have been taught with customizable data
labels. Phenotyping plants require a lot of time and effort, and it might be difficult
to phenotype crops over a wide geographic range. Crop phenotyping [20] is being
scaled up significantly by drones outfitted with sophisticated sensors and cameras,
enabling farmers to examine their plants over vast and varied geographical regions.
A younger group of scalable crop phenotyping is exemplified by drone-enabled
increased crop phenotyping (HTPP).
With over 98% reliability, the model classified and graded the variety of indi-
vidual lettuces. The system would assess the size of each lettuce and determine how
much of a crop was covered. In order to focus on trouble spots using fertilizer or
irrigation, it gives growers information regarding how well lettuces are developing
in certain areas within a possibly broad territory. Several efforts had trained machine
learning algorithms with non-NDVI typical RGB camera pictures using polygon
identification, picture annotation, binary classification, and bounding box. A capa-
bility of such approaches has only been constrained by the amount of information
provided by the pictures; machine learning algorithms are better suited for making
use of the enormous amounts of information which high-resolution photographs
could provide, given that perhaps the algorithms are properly trained and evaluated.

8 Crop Mapping and Surveying

In a drone research, an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is used to gather airborne

data utilizing downward-facing sensors such as RGB or multispectral cameras and
LiDAR payloads. Throughout the study, the area was shot by a drone equipped with
an RGB camera. Each image is labeled with given parameters. These maps can also
be required to obtain data, including such quantitative measures or high precision
distances. Drones have the potential to operate at considerably lower heights than
manned aircraft or satellite imagery, which allows for such rapid, inexpensive, and
autonomous collection of high-resolution, high-accuracy data.
Precision Agriculture: A Novel Approach on AI-Driven Farming 133

8.1 Using Drones for Surveying in AI

Figure 10 explains surveying drones in AI.

• Land Surveying/Cartography – In locations with poor quality, obsolete, or even
no information, surveying drones produce high-resolution orthomosaics and
intricate 3D models. These make it possible to swiftly and efficiently construct
very accurate cadastral mapping, especially in challenging or difficult circum-
stances. Using the imagery, surveyors also can identify elements like signs,
hedges, road markings, sprinkler systems, and sewers. These very same photo-
graphs could create extremely intricate contour models, contour lines, and divi-
siveness after being post-processed with photogrammetric software, in addition
to 3D restorations of ground areas or constructions.
• Development and Land Management – Drone-captured aerial imagery signifi-
cantly speeds up and simplifies topographical investigations for land planning
and maintenance. This appears to be accurate for site selection, allotted design,
and actual implementation of streets, structures, and facilities.
• Precise Measurements – Researchers can make extremely precise ground and
distance assessments because of high-resolution orthophotos.
• Stock Pile Volumetric Measurements – Volumetric measurements can also be
taken from identical imagery using 3D mapping software. For inventory or
­performance evaluation, this quick and affordable technique of fluid column is
especially helpful for calculating stockpiles in crushers and quarries addition-
ally; they may accomplish this far more safely than if they were to personally
gather the information by climbing upward and downward a stack. Drones are

Land Surveying/ Cartography

Land Management and Development

Using Drones
in surveying Precise Measurements

Stockpile Volumetric Measurements

Slope Monitoring

Urban Planning

Fig. 10 Using drones in surveying

134 E. Elango et al.

collecting information from above, so site procedures won’t be hampered. The

quick sampling frequency makes it possible to take a picture of the website at a
particular moment in time.
• Slope Monitoring – From the DTMs and DSMs produced using drone images,
gradient data can be extracted using computerized GIS technique. The locations
can be categorized and utilized for gradient surveillance reasons, particularly
landslide hazard mitigation and prevention, depending on how precipitous the
ground’s surface is. The Earth’s motion can be monitored as well as its speed
measured using orthomosaics collected at various intervals. This information can
be used to anticipate catastrophes and guard against possible harm to bridges,
railroads, and roadways. Drones offer more detailed statistical collection as com-
pared to conventional methodologies, in which sensors are mounted on specific
sites. Since all these places are frequently difficult to find or perhaps even haz-
ardous, drones with PPK capabilities that don’t necessitate the setting out of
several GCPs are ideal for this scenario.
• Urban Planning – Urban areas are becoming more congested and complicated,
which necessitates meticulous planning and hence time-consuming and expen-
sive information gathering. Drones allow urban planners to collect a large amount
of current data rapidly and with far less personnel. Planners can assess the loca-
tions’ current social and ecological characteristics and take into account the
effects of various scenarios to the content captured in this way.

9 Irrigation Monitoring

Because of the growing population, there is a steady demand for nourishing feed,
which puts impacts on food producers and suppliers to provide high-quality food in
sufficient quantities worldwide [21, 22]. Three main elements affect crop yields: the
accessibility of nutrients (fertilizer and insecticides), the amount of water available
(irrigated agriculture), and the weather conditions. Water and nutrients are becom-
ing physically limited from expanding numerous needs for water as well as the
rapid depletion of fossil fuels as just a result of global warming and climate change
at the same time.
Conventional ways of crop health monitoring take a long time and are ineffec-
tive, particularly for wider areas covering a lot of land. To address the issues with
conventional farming, numerous academics have created a variety of AI-based
frameworks [17, 23]. The technology uses aerial photographs or unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) with HD cameras to collect cropped imagery. Artificial neural net-
works, such as convolution neural networks (CNNs), are trained just on image his-
togram using them as a dataset (ANN) [24, 25].
From photos that are given to CNNs, valuable features are extracted, and fore-
casts regarding crop diseases are made. The process delivers superior answers for
Precision Agriculture: A Novel Approach on AI-Driven Farming 135

determining the number of herbicides to be applied and the ideal time to apply a
herbicide since it is efficient at continuously monitoring the condition of plants.
Researchers can use weather prediction in the automated irrigation system. Why do
we say that, exactly? A device which warns that the soil is parched but we don’t
need to water since it will rain in a few hours seems like a fascinating used scenario.
Nowadays, every nation around the globe is required to do using freshwater incred-
ibly efficiently. Over one-third of the worldwide people will experience total water
shortages by 2025, according to current research on the global water crisis. For this
reason, drip irrigation, which is utilized like an automated irrigation system for
small farms, is just one of the irrigation systems being used to enhance usage
of water.

10 Health Assessment

Plant health monitoring with drones is successful. Drones having thermal and infra-
red sensors is frequently utilized to collect real-time footage for precision agricul-
ture analysis. Bespoke crop health monitoring software is available from companies
such as Folio3, which can be utilized to rapidly determine its chlorophyll concentra-
tion and calculate soil quality using crop pictures captured in the thermal and infra-
red spectra. The amount of visual and near-infrared radiation that plants reflect
changes according to their state of well-being and degree of stress [26]. Drones
having sensors that can examine crops in visible and near-infrared light can be used
to monitor crop’s overall health over time.

11 Conclusion

AI and smart farming are really the agricultural sector’s destiny. They will enhance
farming by assisting in the early detection of plant pathogens and illnesses while
raising the overall caliber of something like the harvest. AI-based crop production
forecasting that is accurate will assist nations in achieving food security. As we will
see, artificial intelligence has significant advantages for the agricultural sector. It
enables better interaction, greater effectiveness, and cheaper manufacturing.
Although innovation is the new big thing for agriculture, it cannot function indepen-
dently. However, there are a number of obstacles to using AI, such as a shortage of
varied samples and a steep learning curve. Issues over privacy and security and a
lack of digital literacy are further issues. Farmers now need to produce more food to
support a rising population as the world’s population rises, and the advent of robot-
ics and a digital workforce can provide robotic aid.
136 E. Elango et al.

12 AI’s Future in Agriculture

As drones are really being designed to function as robotic pollinators and to inte-
grate smart applications, the future of drones in farming is also bright. Drones are
really potent and reasonably priced technology that could help deal with the issue of
rising food scarcity. Customers can acquire delicious fresh food year-round thanks
to genetically manipulated nutrients and packaged foods, which imply farms must
rely on data to design longer seasons, wider farms, or various growing periods.
Given that the majority of cutting-edge innovations are only utilized sizable, well-­
connected fields, the AI’s future in farming will need to place a strong emphasis on
universal coverage. The future of machine learning automated agricultural goods
and data science in agriculture would be secured by expanding accessibility and
reach even to tiny farms in rural countries around the world.

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Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture
for Sustainable Crop Yields

P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

1 Introduction

Farmers today are not getting a proper yield in agriculture because of several chal-
lenges encountered in various situations beginning with sowing, harvesting, and
selling products. Farmers are also confronting unexpected natural disasters, such as
crop infection from mice, rats, insects, birds, and diseases in leaves, among other
things. To combat this, farmers require a different methodology from the beginning
to the finish of each cultivation.
Pervasive automation is a technology that decreases human labor, often known
as sophisticated smart farming technology. Farmers employ numerous technologies
in diverse scenarios to achieve good yields in their crops. This study highlights the
potential of 5G technology to bring in a new era of smart and efficient farming, with
applications ranging from real-time monitoring to autonomous farming operations.
It promises to greatly improve the agricultural sector’s sustainability, productivity,
and responsiveness [1]. India’s agricultural sector is the largest producer of pulses,
rice, wheat, spices, and spice products in world, and 8% of India’s gross domestic
product (GDP) provides employment to 50% of the country’s workforce. Illiteracy
is the big drawback of farmers in agriculture field, since most of the farmers are
aged and don’t have the knowledge about current trends and technology. They are
unaware of updates arriving in agriculture field. Most of the people in India depend
on agriculture, but water scarcity really affects farmers and people. Farmers are

P. Geetha (*)
PG Department of Computer Science, Dr. Umayal Ramanathan College for Women,
Karaikudi, India
R. Karthikeyan
Department of Computer Science, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 139
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_8
140 P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

unable to handle the recent updates like GPS, mobile apps, Facebook, and Twitter,
so the recent trends in agriculture are not aware of them. This leads to contingency
expenses in agriculture due to natural calamities, disease/fungal infection in crops,
improper storage mechanism of crops, lack of market demand products, broker’s
intervention, and lack of money investment by farmers. Most farmers are economi-
cally weak so they can’t get the past rainfall history data, new disease information,
and statistics about fertilizer growth. Karunathilake et al. [8] provides insights into
the rapidly evolving field of precision agriculture, emphasizing its potential to trans-
form existing farming practices. It discusses recent advances, ongoing problems,
and precision agriculture’s optimistic trajectory and significance in the future of
agriculture and sustainable food production.
This research aims to apply profitable agriculture to those farmers living in rural
area to get more yields on their cultivation with the support of pervasive automation.
The progression of agricultural practices from traditional approaches to the modern
concept of Agriculture 5.0 emphasizes the need for technological advancement to
meet the growing demand for high-quality food in a world with an ever-increasing
population:
Agriculture 1.0: The era of old farming practices and manual labor with low produc-
tivity. Agriculture 2.0: The introduction of technology during the first Industrial
Revolution, which resulted in greater food production and decreased physi-
cal labor.
Agriculture 3.0: Increased automation through embedded systems, software devel-
opment, and communication technologies, as well as the use of green renewable
energies and information technology.
Agriculture 4.0: The rise of precision agriculture fueled by data collection and anal-
ysis and the use of Industry 4.0 technologies.
Agriculture 5.0: The next step in agricultural evolution, characterized by autono-
mous robotic farming, integrated artificial intelligence (AI), and unmanned oper-
ations. This concept aims to address issues such as population increase,
urbanization, resource scarcity, and environmental protection, ushering in a new
era of farm productivity and profitability. Environmental protection ushers in a
new era of agricultural productivity and profitability.
Precision agriculture focuses solely on field-level precision and variability,
whereas Agriculture 4.0 embraces a larger range of technology and practices that
extend beyond field-level precision to farm-level management and integration.
Agriculture 5.0 marks the peak of this evolution, including AI-driven autonomous
systems and decision assistance for sustainable and highly efficient farming prac-
tices. Jha et al. [7] highlight the significance of automation, particularly AI-driven
solutions, in addressing the challenges faced by agriculture. It discusses various
technologies and their potential to enhance agricultural practices, improve produc-
tivity, and mitigate environmental impacts.
Farmers initially relied on manual labor and draughts for farming, as well as
minimal irrigation systems based on soil gravity and conventional crop selection
and agricultural practices with limited use of fertilizers and pesticides. Later, the
Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Yields 141

advent of revolutions such as steam engines and mechanical reapers for improved
plowing and planting techniques coincided with the birth of scientific agriculture
through the use of early chemical fertilizers. When the green revolution began,
high-yield crop types and hybrid seeds, as well as the use of synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides, led to advances in irrigation technology and the expansion of farm
machinery. The end of the twentieth century focuses on sustainability and organic
farming, with the adoption of biotechnology, particularly genetically modified
crops. Precision agriculture and remote sensing improved agricultural storage and
transportation. Agricultural techniques have evolved over generations since the
beginning of the twenty-first century due to the integration of digital technology and
IoT. Monitoring is carried out using autonomous machinery and drones. Advanced
devices are used in climate-smart agriculture and sustainability practices. Block
chain and traceability systems were introduced to measure crop productivity in
advance.

2 Review of Literature

The agriculture industry is at the forefront of a technological transformation, with

smart agriculture, powered by data analytics, machine learning, and IoT, changing
farming practices. In this collection of chapters and titles, we look at the many fac-
ets of smart agriculture, putting light on its transformational potential.
This study goes into the world of smart farming, a paradigm change facilitated
by information and communication technology that includes machinery, equipment,
and sensors networked inside network-based, high-tech agricultural systems. It
investigates how modern technologies like as the Internet of Things (IoT) and cloud
computing are set to alter agriculture, paving the way for the incorporation of robot-
ics and artificial intelligence into farming practices. While these developments carry
enormous promise, they also pose a new set of obstacles [2].
The primary goal of this research [3] is to evaluate the effectiveness of deep
learning in agriculture by comparing it to other established artificial intelligence
models typically utilized in the agricultural sector.
Ghobadpour et al. [4] investigate the developing environment of green energy-­
powered off-road electric cars and autonomous robots in the agricultural sector. It
addresses the significant issues confronting agriculture, such as population expan-
sion, rising energy demands, labor constraints, and environmental problems such as
global warming. The study emphasizes the significance of switching to renewable
energy sources and electric agricultural vehicles in order to realize smart farming in
Agriculture 5.0.
Aide et al. [6] emphasize the crucial role of soil in helping to mitigate climate
change through carbon sequestration. It examines numerous tactics and factors for
improving soil health and maximizing carbon storage in various habitats, particu-
larly deciduous forests.
142 P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

Kumar [9] proposes an IoT-driven method to safeguard crops from wild animal
attacks, emphasizing the relevance of technology in modern agriculture and the
potential benefits it provides to crop security and farming practices.
Andrew et al. [10] investigates the potential of precision agriculture to improve
productivity and resource utilization when compared to traditional agricultural
practices, resulting in cost savings and greater yields. It focuses on two feasibility
studies incorporating IoT solutions: automated irrigation for crop farming and auto-
mated animal monitoring for livestock farming. The studies demonstrate the utility
of various IoT technologies in everyday life.
Mondal and Rehena [11] intend to boost agricultural productivity and adapt to
changing climatic conditions by utilizing IoT-based smart farming approaches, ulti-
mately contributing to sustainable and efficient farming practices.
Suzuki et al. [12] describe an agricultural cloud support system that makes use of
support vector machine (SVM) technology. Using sensor data, this SVM-based
smart irrigation system changes the amount of water applied to crops automatically.
By doing so, it enables persons without agricultural knowledge to properly and
efficiently regulate irrigation in greenhouse horticulture, potentially enhancing crop
yields and sustainability.
This research describes a revolutionary low-power and cost-effective IoT net-
work intended exclusively for smart agriculture. The network employs a custom-­
developed sensor to detect soil moisture levels. This breakthrough offers great
promise for improving the sustainability and affordability of smart agricultural
practices [14].
Expert system technology has the potential to be extremely useful in the agricul-
tural sector. This study is meant to present several features of agricultural expert
systems. It also suggests a structural vision of an agricultural expert system that will
be extremely beneficial to farmers in increasing productivity, conserving nature, and
producing less pesticide-contaminated food [15].
Machine learning is vital in crop yield prediction and agricultural decision-­
making. This study [19] conducted a systematic literature review (SLR) to assess
the algorithms and features typically employed in agricultural yield prediction stud-
ies. Fifty of the 567 retrieved studies were chosen for in-depth study. Temperature,
rainfall, and soil type were the most commonly used features, with artificial neural
networks serving as the leading algorithm. Additionally, the study ran an extra
search to discover deep learning-based studies, indicating Convolution Neural
Networks (CNN) as the most prominent deep learning algorithm in crop production
prediction research, followed by long short-term memory (LSTM) and deep neural
networks (DNN). This detailed evaluation provides insights for future research in
this topic. These works highlight the transformative impact of technology in agri-
culture and provide useful insights for future research in this dynamic subject.
Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Yields 143

3 Methodology

3.1 Rule-Based Agriculture System (RBAS)

The rule-based agriculture system (RBAS) methodology starts with smart agricul-
ture and precision agriculture which are the two main aspects carried out in this
work. This all-encompassing approach to modern smart agriculture includes a num-
ber of tactics targeted at optimizing agricultural practices in response to changing
environmental conditions. The procedure starts with a comprehensive examination
of environmental elements such as climate, soil quality, and weather patterns. This
study informs crop selection by utilizing innovative technology and data-driven
insights. Once crop selection has been chosen, the tactics apply to all stages of the
agricultural lifecycle, from planting and culture to harvest and crop sale. Smart
technology and data-driven decision-making are critical in optimizing each of these
stages, guaranteeing effective resource allocation, precision irrigation, and timely
pest management. Furthermore, the techniques emphasize maximizing profitability
throughout the crop cycle. This entails using real-time market data and demand
estimates to make informed judgments about crop sale timing and pricing. Overall,
these adaptation tactics reflect a comprehensive and technology-driven approach to
modern agriculture, with the goal of increasing productivity, sustainability, and
profitability in the face of changing environmental conditions. This research has
three phases, namely, (i) survey, (ii) growth, and (iii) warehouse:
• The first phase is survey, that is, before the seed or crop process, which is various
kinds of tests performed in water, soil, and suitable fertilizers for the land to
improve better productivity and check for climate and rainfall record of the cur-
rent area. It starts with data collection in various forms like GPS-based yield
monitors, ground-related soil test, structure, and chemical properties like nitro-
gen levels on each field which seed suits most on that field, Mobile alerts for
weather-related information monitor the field conditions and soil moistures.
• The second step is to select high-quality seeds or crops that improve early crop
growth in tropical or cold regions. Spacing between crops or seeds is also impor-
tant to promote growth. Additional fertilizers, such as herbicides and pesticides,
are required to obtain adequate yields. Fencing is a technique used to protect
crops from birds, insects, and animals. Predicted decisions are informed to farm-
ers regarding how, when, and where to sow, water and fertilizer, pesticide, and
harvest and how to manage the data in real time to improve their product.
• The third phase is warehouse, which includes harvest, storage, procurement, and
trading/marketing in a timely manner. Large amount of farming data are stored
in database, and farmers are to make a timely decision to improve the yield in
agriculture.
Plants and ecosystems must be studied further if the Earth is to survive and thrive
in the face of human and animal population increases [5]. The four different types
of landforms are mountain or hill, forest, plain field, and seashore represented as
144 P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

Kurinji, Mullai, Marutham, and Neithal. Target beneficiaries are farmers living in
rural areas with illiteracy background, where they cannot get the recent updates in
agricultural technology. The research objectives are stated below:
• To use pervasive automation in agricultural sector to reduce human workload.
• To find the best profitable agriculture for farmers in rural areas.
• To find the problems faced by the farmers and eradicate them.
• To extend the support for farmers to get maximum yield in crop cultivation.
• To educate farmers using various devices like mobile devices and drone.
• To provide historical data of market demand products in agriculture.
• To provide weather information and rainfall data to farmers.
• To practice farmers getting better yield even in difficult situations.
• To provide training in marketing aspects for farmers.
The three phases of rule-based agriculture system (RBAS) starts with land sur-
vey, plant growth, and value addition of agricultural products with the help of ware-
housing (Fig. 1).
The RBAS is further subdivided into various stages starting from soil analysis to
technology integration. Several regulations and best practices in agriculture must be
followed in order to produce higher crop yields. Furthermore, the integration of IoT
(Internet of Things), robotics, and drones can considerably boost a country’s agri-
cultural sector. Here are some agricultural production guidelines, followed by an
explanation of how these modern technologies can help: Farmers can improve crop
output and promote agricultural sustainability by taking the following 12 steps:

Fig. 1 Three phases of rule-based agriculture system (RBAS)

Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Yields 145

• Soil analysis and preparation Begin with soil testing and apply the essential
amendments for optimal soil health.
• Crop selection and planning Choose appropriate crops and plan rotations to
avoid soil depletion.
• Seed selection and preparation Use high-quality seeds that have been pest- and
disease-treated.
• Planting and early crop care Use precision planting, efficient watering, and inte-
grated pest management.
• Crop monitoring and maintenance Keep an eye on nutrients, pests, diseases, and
watering, and prune as needed.
• Harvesting and postharvest handling Harvest at the suitable stage, treat with
care, and store properly.
• Record keeping and data analysis Maintain records and analyze data to make
educated decisions.
• Continuous learning and improvement Stay current on agricultural break-
throughs and adjust practices.
• Sustainable practices Implement sustainable strategies to safeguard the environ-
ment and increase productivity.
• Market access and marketing Establish market connections and look for value-­
added opportunities.
• Risk management Create ways to mitigate weather, pest, and market risks.
• Technology integration Utilize IoT, drones, and precise equipment for efficient
crop management. Adapting these processes to specific crops and local condi-
tions can lead to increased agricultural productivity and resilience in agriculture.
Smart technologies such as IoT (Internet of Things) help in soil monitoring,
weather forecasting, and livestock monitoring; robotics in precision planting,
weeding and pest control, and harvesting; and drones in aerial imaging, crop
spraying, and livestock management (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 The 12 stages of extended rule-based agriculture system (RBAS)

146 P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

Marques and Pitarma [13] emphasize the importance of monitoring and manag-
ing environmental parameters in agricultural settings to improve energy efficiency
and productivity. Real-time monitoring allows for the early detection and rectifica-
tion of unfavorable conditions, optimizing resource usage, and protecting crops
from disease. The study describes an autonomous method for monitoring agricul-
tural surroundings that makes use of the Internet of Things (IoT). The field of smart
agriculture is undergoing a fundamental transition as a result of technological
breakthroughs, data analytics, and machine learning. This work investigates several
aspects of smart agriculture, ranging from the categorization of IoT farm sensor
data using machine learning and web semantics to the integration of AI and ML for
improving crop yields and resource efficiency. Precision agriculture, in which
technology-­driven practices are used for effective farming, and the importance of
IoT in linking the world through smart gadgets are both highlighted. Furthermore,
the collection provides a thorough examination of genetic engineering’s merits and
downsides in agriculture. These chapters and titles, taken together, provide insights
into the changing terrain of smart agriculture and its potential to revolutionize the
farming business.

4 Strategies for Adaptation

Market-driven crop farming that takes into account environmental conditions is a

comprehensive method that balances profitability and sustainability. It optimizes
crop selection and production practices to fulfill market demands while protecting
the local ecology, resulting in a win-win situation for farmers, consumers, and the
environment. The study of Mariammal et al. [16] focuses on predicting the suitabil-
ity of crops for cultivation based on soil and environmental variables, with machine
learning techniques used to assist farmers in crop choices. The development of a
unique feature selection approach called modified recursive feature elimination
(MRFE), aimed at discovering critical features for crop prediction, is a fundamental
element of this research. To determine the effectiveness of the MRFE approach, it is
compared to other classifiers such as kNN, NB, DT, SVM, RF, and bagging. The
results show that the MRFE strategy, especially when combined with the bagging
classifier, beats other feature selection methods in terms of accuracy (ACC), with a
phenomenal 95% ACC. The study emphasizes the significance of precise crop pre-
diction in agriculture, as well as the potential benefits of MRFE in supporting farm-
ers with crop selection. Bhadouria et al. [17] emphasize the substantial concerns
that changing climatic circumstances, particularly global warming and climate vari-
ability, bring to agriculture. It emphasizes that climate change has become a world-
wide concern, necessitating urgent policy formulation at both national and
international levels. One of the worries raised is the melting of Himalayan glaciers,
which could dramatically affect temperature regimes critical for the growth of
numerous crop species. To solve these difficulties, the current generation must
Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Yields 147

devise methods to offset the negative effects of environmental changes on agricul-

tural products. Proposed options include biodiversity conservation, agricultural
practice adaptation, and the search for plant species that can tolerate varied environ-
mental pressures, both abiotic and biotic. These initiatives are regarded as necessary
steps in combating the detrimental effects of climate change.

4.1 Crop and Technology Awareness for the Formers in Three

Different Phases

The term smart agriculture refers here to a wide range of information technology in
agriculture field to support farmers in agriculture activities. This research has three
phases; each phase has information technology involvement for better productivity.
By improving the pervasive automation in every phase, farmers can handle any situ-
ation which affects the crop in a different manner.
In first-phase survey, farmers must know the following before they start
cultivating:
• He should have a working knowledge of GPS mobile-supported device with
Internet connection.
• He should have the working knowledge of camera drones.
• He should have the rainfall database for a period of year in rural area.
• He should do water/soil test for minerals available and chemicals required
for land.
• He should know the demand in market-rich product in every season.
• He should get alerts regarding weather conditions.
• He should have the knowledge of disease management for crops in seasonal
timings.
• He should have the three-phase fully automatic mobile starter [work from home
by calling motor start/stop].
• His own ideas and implementation knowledge about the agriculture cli-
mate change.
• Source of water [well water/bore well water/river canal irrigation/rain
water-based].
For second-phase crop, farmers must know the following:
• Previous database of crop growth-related information.
• When, where, and how to sow and irrigate.
• Record every week snapshot of grown crop to cross validate from the first week
of crop/seed stimulates.
• Managing drought by drop water cultivation.
• Analyzing the crop images regularly through drone-based images.
• Adding proper fertilizers to boost up crops through historical data.
148 P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

• Using pesticides and herbicides for insect infection in crop through disease man-
agement and rectifying the diseases.
• Restricting birds and animals from crops till harvesting.
For third-phase harvest, after harvesting, farmers must know the following:
• Store matured seed/crops in underground or surface level to maintain its nature.
• Take a snapshot of seed/crop and cross verify the image with database.
• Check the quality and quantity of seed/crop.
• Analyze the demand in market with current requirement of crops/seed.
• Analyze market strategy trading/marketing/processing/retailing that best suits
for better profit.
Human-machine integration for smart agriculture (Fig. 3) explores the study of
the dynamic and exciting topic of smart agriculture, addressing future innovation,
difficulties, and opportunities. These innovations show the transformative potential
of technology in determining the future of agriculture. The future of smart agricul-
ture is in the hands of technologies such as IoT (Internet of Things). Automation of
skills includes data-driven farming, chat bots, and drone technologies, such as soil
and field analysis, planting, crop spraying, crop monitoring, irrigation, and crop
health assessment.

loT (Internet of Automated

Data analytics irrigation
Things) in
agriculture

Climate Automated
monitoring Crop
Monitoring
Remote Weather Robotic
sensing forecasting farming
Sensor Image Drones in
technology recognition agriculture
Precision
Agriculture
Crop rotation Weather-Based
planning Decisions Predictive
modeling
Crop health Computer
monitoring Harvest Timing vision Machine
Learning
Variable rate
technology (VRT)

Soil moisture
sensors Sustainable
Pest and disease agriculture practices
management

Fig. 3 Human-machine integration for smart agriculture

Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Yields 149

4.2 Analysis of Environmental Conditions and Crop

Suggestion for Namakkal District

Improving crop yields and increasing precision agriculture need extensive monitor-
ing and analysis of many environmental conditions. Temperature, pressure, wind
speed, humidity, rainfall, rainfall days, average daylight, sunshine length, UV index,
and cloud cover are all aspects to consider. Farmers and agricultural experts can
make informed judgments and implement precise strategies to maximize crop
growth and yield by painstakingly examining these elements. This data-driven
method enables agriculture to adapt to changing weather conditions, optimize
resource allocation, and ultimately boost agricultural yields while lowering environ-
mental impact. Namakkal District-based environmental conditions and crop sug-
gestions were provided based on the district graph details retrieved from [20].
Figure 4 shows the environmental factors for crop cultivation and the importance of
the plan. Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 show the environmental condi-
tions of Namakkal District one by one.
Figure 16 shows the spatial information of Namakkal District (red in color),
Tamil Nadu, India.
Here is a summary of the weather statements provided for Namakkal, India [21]:
• The driest month in Namakkal is January, with 3.8 days of rain and 6 mm of
precipitation.

Fig. 4 Environmental factors for crop cultivation

150 P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

Fig. 5 Wind

Fig. 6 Visibility

• Annual rainfall: Namakkal receives rain on approximately 180.4 days out of the
year, for a total of 698 mm.
• January, October, and December have the lowest UV index, with an average
maximum UV index of 6. The months from March through May have the great-
est UV index, with an average maximum UV index of 8.
Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Yields 151

Fig. 7 UV index

Fig. 8 Temperature

• The hottest months in Namakkal are April and May, with an average high tem-
perature of 37.8 °C.
• April has the lowest relative humidity, with an average relative humidity of 49%.
• May is the sunniest month in Namakkal, with an average of 11.7 h of sunshine
per day.
152 P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

Fig. 9 Sunshine days

Fig. 10 Rainfall

• June offers the year’s longest days, with an average of 12 h and 48 min of day-
light. October is the wettest month, with 22.9 days of rain and 175 mm of
precipitation.
• The most humid month is November, with an average relative humidity of 78%.
Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Yields 153

Fig. 11 Rainfall days

Fig. 12 Pressure

• November has the least amount of sunshine, with an average of 5.9 h.

• The coldest month is December, with an average high of 29.2 °C and a low of
20.3 °C. The shortest days are in December, with an average of 11 h and 30 min
of daylight.
154 P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

Fig. 13 Humidity

Fig. 14 Daylight/sunshine hours

Based on meteorological observations in Namakkal, India, the following conclu-

sions can be taken about acceptable crops for cultivation:
1. Dry Conditions Namakkal has its driest month in January, with little precipita-
tion and only 3.8 days of rain. This means that drought-tolerant crops or those
with a short growing cycle may be more suitable during this time.
Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Yields 155

Fig. 15 Cloud cover

Fig. 16 Spatial information of Namakkal (red color), Tamil Nadu, India

156 P. Geetha and R. Karthikeyan

2. Annual Rainfall With around 180.4 days of rain per year and an annual precipi-
tation of 698 mm, crops that can thrive in locations with moderate rainfall and
can also tolerate occasional heavy rains, such as rice or some varieties of mil-
lets, may be feasible possibilities.
3. High UV Index The months of March through May have the greatest UV index,
suggesting intense sunlight. Sun-loving vegetables (e.g., tomatoes, eggplants)
and crops utilized in oil production (e.g., sunflowers) may perform well.
4. Hot Months April and May are the hottest months, with average high tempera-
tures of 37.8 °C. Heat-tolerant crops such as sorghum, pearl millet, or drought-­
resistant pulse types may be suitable alternatives during these months.
5. Low Humidity April has the lowest relative humidity at 49%, which may favor
crops that are less sensitive to fungal infections. However, irrigation solutions
for water-demanding crops may need to be addressed during this time period.
6. Sunniest Month May has the greatest sunshine, with an average of 11.7 h per
day. This time of the year is ideal for crops that require plenty of sunlight for
growth and fruiting.
7. Longest Days June has the longest days with 12 h and 48 min of daylight,
allowing crops to thrive for longer periods of time.
8. Wettest Month October is the wettest month, with substantial rainfall (22.9 days
of rain and 175 mm of precipitation). Crops that can endure severe rainfall and
waterlogging, such as paddy rice or some vegetable kinds, may thrive during
this season.
9. High Humidity November is the wettest month, with an average relative humid-
ity of 78%. This period may be ideal for crops that benefit from increasing
moisture levels.
10. Shorter Days and Cooler Temperatures December features the shortest days
and the coldest temperatures. Crops that flourish in milder circumstances or
have a longer growing season may be more appropriate during this time.
The crop selection in Namakkal should take into account the changing weather
patterns throughout the year. Diversifying crops to reflect seasonal climate varia-
tions can help optimize yield and reduce risks associated with extreme weather
occurrences. Additionally, good irrigation and water management practices are
critical for successful agriculture in this region. Crop yield prediction is an impor-
tant part of agricultural planning and decision-making. Statistical models have tra-
ditionally been utilized for this purpose, but they are time-consuming and
labor-intensive. This research [18] investigates the use of deep learning models,
specifically recurrent neural network (RNN) and long short-term memory (LSTM),
to forecast wheat crop yields in northern India. The RNN-LSTM model surpasses
typical machine learning models in terms of accuracy by exploiting deep learning’s
capacity to extract features from huge datasets. The results show that the RNN-­
LSTM model delivers more accurate predictions and is a potential strategy for agri-
cultural yield prediction in the region.
Embracing IoT and Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Yields 157

5 Conclusion

This study proposes a structured strategy to agricultural management divided into

three distinct stages, survey, growth, and warehousing, with the help of rule-based
agriculture system (RBAS). The crop suggestions based on Namakkal District can
be extended to various other areas to obtain a greater yield based on several environ-
mental parameters. The overall theme of automation, precision agriculture, and the
use of IoT-based technology binds these stages together. This human-machine col-
laboration permits thorough data analysis, allowing us to obtain insights into his-
torical data and present trends and future predictions in crucial areas such as soil
quality, weather conditions, fertilizer consumption, and sophisticated agricultural
practices. In the field of machine learning in agriculture, we explore crop production
guidelines, alternative cropping systems, agricultural finance, and cooperative
development. The future of agriculture depends on our ability to accept these break-
throughs, adapt to changing environments, and build a brighter, more sustainable
future for future generations.

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Internet of Things-Based Smart
Agriculture Advisory System

Mahalakshmi Jeyabalu, Akil Shabbir Ghodi,

Sundaravadivazhagan Balasubramanian, Balakrishnan Chinnayan,
and Jayapriya Jayapal

1 Introduction

The Internet era provides a lot of automation tools for data analysis, and it is the
need of the hour to develop new analytical tools to manage the big data. For task
automation, machine learning and expert systems are of primary importance to
study the behavior of computer thinking to involve computers in sensible work,
known as “computational intelligence.” In India, agriculture is the major backbone,
and it is an immediate requirement to deploy technology to agriculture. There is a
need for the integrated framework to focus on the development of new tools for crop
management, especially the plants that contain various important medicinal compo-
nents. This research work involves a multidimensional approach to the data, and the
main aim is to create a secured automation tool, to help the stakeholders in the crop
management.
Smart agriculture is a beneficial use case in data analytics and IoT, as they bring
precision farming to agriculture to maximize the yield per unit of land fit for farm-
ing by using futuristic farming methods. In digital India, the technology enables the
systems to support the agriculturalists in many ways including sustainable growth.
IoT sensors provide information to farmers about crop type, rainfall acquired,
pest infestation, and soil nutrition that are required for the prediction of yield. The
main aim is to create a smart environment using enabling technologies for sensing

M. Jeyabalu (*) · A. S. Ghodi · B. Chinnayan · J. Jayapal

Department of Computer Science, CHRIST (Deemed to be University),
Bangalore Yeshwanthpur Campus, Karnataka, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Balasubramanian
Department of Information Technology, University of Technology and Applied Sciences, AL
Mussanah, Oman

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 159
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_9
160 M. Jeyabalu et al.

soil moisture and nutrients, early pest and disease identification and control, and
precision farming. The Specific focus towards the research work is to design and
develop a secure agro-advisoru framework and smart environment for farmers
through IoT, supporting agriculturalist in their activities to the elite outcome of the
crops and getting up-to-date information on soil, livestock and climatic conditions
with the help of sensor devices.
The tremendously scalable and availability feature, in addition, offers a shared
pool of resources between a large number of services, making cloud computing a
most notable computing pattern. This article focused on multidimensional data ana-
lytics as an automation tool, which too provides insights to agriculturalists and prac-
titioners. Hence, protection of data is considered.
In connection with this, a cryptographic service, one of the most notable features
for data encryption, is offered as a service from the cloud paradigm, which provides
the privilege for the users to convert the data to unintelligible format, when received
from the sensors used to measure various metrics, by means of the application mod-
els deployed. Generally, data storage takes multiple patterns in the sensors, used
depending on the type of the metrics imposed. It is then transferred by the embed-
ded software applications, for evaluation, storage, and sharing, using software such
as Arduino, eclipse Internet of Things, Kinoma, open Internet of Things device, etc.
This phase gives a wide variety of objective functions for specific problems and has
a lot of security vulnerabilities for the data being transferred from the open-source
embedded sensors.
This research article focuses specifically on the data from IoT sensors in one
phase and the prediction of crop management for smart agriculture in another phase.
The received data from sensors is then passed to the analytics tool, since it is the
most required tool for predicting as well as assisting the agriculturalists and the
practitioners to make use of the digitally available software and embedded applica-
tions to enhance the plant yields, finally leading to smart farming.
Sensors provide the data that may be an image file (the leaves/roots) or may be
the soil optimum pH values (decimal values including nutrients values) or may be
simple CSV files (inclusive of entire data) and image dataset for finding the disease
symptom of the leaves. The proposed application model for data encryption is the
first phase of this research work, which will alter the file, and decryption takes place
only upon the privileged authenticated access.
The article proceeds as follows: Sect. 2 states the primal information on the
Internet of Things, data security services available on the cloud, and prediction
techniques found in the literature. The primary notations are briefly explained as
mathematical preliminaries in the preceding sections. The meta-heuristic simulated
annealing algorithm, which is one of the optimization techniques for the key gen-
eration of the cryptographic process, is clearly stated separately. Then, the article
covers the multilayer perceptron, artificial neural network algorithm for the classifi-
cation of crops acquired from the sensor data/satellite images, etc. Followed by the
classification technique, the prediction of disease symptoms in various parameters
was discussed. The experimental result section then comprised of the analysis
between the trained the tested dataset for five sample different dataset and the
Internet of Things-Based Smart Agriculture Advisory System 161

accuracy rate of prediction. Finally, the conclusion section comprised the result
yield from the given algorithm that clearly states the pros of using the deep learning
algorithms for the smart agriculture.

2 Related Research Work

Ayaz et al. [1] elaborated on the wireless sensor network communication techniques
with the Internet of Things, which is in association with smart farming methods.
Every individual process holds a different application, developed and deployed for
a specific purpose, which was briefly explained by the authors of this work. The
authors explored the specific use of the application for agricultural practitioners in
varied ways right from the sowing until the harvesting period.
Channe et al. [2] elaborated data on multidisciplinary application models for
smart agricultural systems. The advantage explained by the author’s works involves
IoT sensors, cloud computing, mobile computing, and big data analysis for the
improved farming system.
Gnanasankaran and Ramaraj [3], in their research work, discussed about the
effective yield of paddy cultivation in specific geographic regions, using smart
farming. Crop monitoring using machine learning techniques is detailed in their
research model.
Pendyala et al. [4] discussed temperature monitoring sensors for smart agricul-
ture using the NodeMCU. The authors reported how the connected sensors did auto-
matic watering while the threshold range is met and automatically noted the change
of degrees in the soil field.
High-volume data analytics involves precision farming to provide farmers with
crop yields along with the individual component’s values, pest control infestation,
and soil nutrition for individual types [5].
The authors reported on the protection against various open medium threats and
vulnerabilities and the way cloud encryption service offers various features to its
users [6]. Tremendous scalability suggests cloud is the best way for computing ser-
vices [7].
Patil and Khairnar [8], in their detailed research work, discussed IoT-based smart
farming systems. The authors of the work reported on the devices used for sensing
plants on various parameters without manual intervention. The thus collected
parameters were evaluated and processed for further data processing.
Ray [9] elaborately discussed the Internet of Things to overcome real-life prob-
lems by power fact-IoT notion exploration. The author explained the various frame-
works available for industrial needs accordingly.
Sheetal et al. [10] discussed the dampness and soil nutrient values of the grains
during the rainfall duration. Arduino has been widely used by the authors to control
the contact process.
Sivachandran et al. [11] reported on the integrated soil analyzer, which includes
the evaluation of soil nutrients and other metrics. The system, explained by the
162 M. Jeyabalu et al.

authors, is an integrated model, which holds a signal control unit for finding the
threshold values, a process control for finding the difference in the pH values, and
an LED display to show the extracted results from the sensors embedded. The meth-
ods stated by the authors of the work discussed on the nutrient’s evaluation such as
potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus, pH, and temperature change (Fig. 1).
Srinivasan et al. [12] explored other ways for crop maintenance using the
WSN. The author stated various wireless sensor applications, threats, and issues
found in the model, and the solution enhanced smart cultivation. The authors also
explained various computational methods that are in practice for agriculture mod-
ernization with the aid of the cloud and its enhancement in decision-making for
agricultural practitioners. Also, the authors explored the way how wireless sensors
are deployed for smart farming.
The author reported on numerous wireless applications, and the issues and
threats in their data security. Along with that, in a determined way, various cloud
techniques available for the smart agriculture solution for stakeholders are also pro-
vided by the authors of the work. Encryption as a service from cloud offers an
application to inarticulate the thus received files [13]. A new computational arche-
type, cloud in the technology era, offers resources such as infrastructure, platform,
software, security, database, etc. as a shared service (pay-as-you-use) whenever and
wherever on demand [14].

Fig. 1 Related research work by various authors between 2015 and 2022
Internet of Things-Based Smart Agriculture Advisory System 163

3 Preliminaries

3.1 Importance of the Proposed Research Work in the Context

of the Current Status

The designed and deployed research work objective is to implement a new auto-
mated software tool that helps the agriculturalist and other stakeholders such as the
medical practitioners. This work helps to extract the potential information (nutrition
and medicinal component information) for the specific crops and plants for specific
geographical location using computational intelligence. Nowadays, there exist a lot
of automated tools and websites to list information about crops and their uses. The
proposed work differs in a way that it works based on the geographical location and
the crop variety suitable for the location and their data management.
As an integrated tool, it also focuses on maintaining the nutrition information of
the crops and any relevant medicinal values of the crop using IoT. The IoT has its
scope in the varied arenas that include the things for the connection, the software
solutions used for embedded connections, the platform on which it will take place,
the applications that are to be included, and the geographic regions, where it is
going to be implemented. IoT enables the ease of access and connection between
things and their associated applications making it easier to share the data between
the devices easier.
To enhance customer experience and for further evaluation, various smart devices
are available in the market such as smart phones, smart wearable gadgets, etc., to
collect and formulate the data from the users based on their requirements and usage.
This drastic improvement requires proper data analytics to predict the near future.
The Internet of Things and Industry 4.0 discuss the above-said statement and work
on how easier access can be done to create a technology-driven environment.

3.2 Encryption Service for Secure IoT Data Storage in Cloud

Cloud, a new computing technology, renders varied service to the users with
enhanced scalability and reliability. One among them is the encryption services, to
ensure security and authenticity of the data, which is the most important feature
taken into consideration in this research work.
Data encryption is basically converting the cosigner information into an inarticu-
late format to the consignee using cryptography algorithms. In this given research
article, we proposed the combination of traditional block cipher methods along with
the optimization technique, as an encryption service to the users. The interesting
fact is that the data is now received from various sensors in the fields and prepro-
cessing is also done.
The data thus received from the sensors may be reported in a multidimensional
way, since it includes temperature data, humidity data, water range sensing, nutrient
164 M. Jeyabalu et al.

values, etc. Hence, preprocessing is a must for data encryption. Symmetric key
generation is considered for this work implementation since varied data blocks are
included. For stronger key generation, an improved cipher blockchain symmetric
key algorithm is proposed, along with the hybridization of the traditional meta-­
heuristic algorithm to suboptimal key generation.
The proposed technique promises that the key generated as a result of the hybrid-
ization results in the minimum execution time and generates keys on varied bit
sizes, like 64 bits–512 bits. The wireless sensor devices are used at the end of the
system and the tools, which observe data from crops, transfer the collected data,
through any open medium on the cloud. The given research work as a first phase
proposes a novel methodology for smart farming by including a smart sensing sys-
tem for data security through cloud paradigm.

3.3 Simulated Annealing: A Meta-Heuristic

Optimization Algorithm

In ease of way, varied data-type files can be encrypted using the meta-heuristic
approach for better results. For ease of access, the fundamental notation to generate
the key, as well as blocks of data, matrix method is followed. The elements of the
matrix are represented in zero and one binary format. Consider M as a matrix and
then Mxy as a square matrix, for which x indicates the row and y indicates the col-
umn (Fig. 2). For data encryption, the data received from the sensors after prepro-
cessing is broken down into several words such as w1, w2, etc. assigned with the
binary string.
For better evaluation results, cipher blocks are considered for the formation of
the matrix structure. Since it is a predefined and constant structure, the data can be
encrypted and decrypted in a fast rate and with minimal execution time. The square
matrix may be of any size, say, 4 * 4 and 8 * 8 are precisely fixed depending on the
data received from the sensors, and the number of rounds for the cryptographic
process is fixed. In the case of decryption, after key generation forms the improved
block ciphers and pseudorandom number generators, a strong key value is con-
structed. The cryptographic method proposed in this article stands against various

Fig. 2 8 × 8 Matrix
structure (Ref. [1])
Internet of Things-Based Smart Agriculture Advisory System 165

vulnerable threats in the open channel. The blockchain structure of the matrix is the
self-synchronizing mode, which leads to less error propagation.

3.4 Optimization Technique and Objective

Function Formulation

For fortified key generation, various traditional optimization techniques can be

combined with the cipher blocks. A suboptimal key from the optimization technique
will improve the authenticity of the data being encrypted. The objective function is
developed to find either the suboptimum or local minimum feasible solution.
Optimization algorithms were evolved to find the objective function to be either the
maximum or the minimum for the given problem. Based on the requirement, a fea-
sible solution may be attained.
For the key generation (Fig. 3), the finest meta-heuristic simulated annealing
algorithms are considered. The simulated annealing (SA) algorithm is one of the
meta-heuristic algorithms, also probabilistic. It is used for specific objective

Fig. 3 Block diagram of encryption and decryption process. (Source: https://doi.

org/10.1007/978-­981-­13-­7968-­0_4)
166 M. Jeyabalu et al.

functions, in discrete to find the global optimum solution in a large search space. It
is also considered as an alternate technique to that of a gradient descent algorithm.

4 Proposed Methodology

The given research work focuses on multidimensional data analytics, for crops and
plants, that especially classifies the disease from the deep learning models. This
research work involves a multidimensional approach to the data, and the main aim
is to create an automation tool, to help the stakeholders in the crop management
using machine learning algorithms (Fig. 4). Agriculture crop management is imple-
mented through big data (crops and plants) analytics to help farmers in making
informed decisions for enhancement of cultivation and information on the disease
symptoms and remedies.

Fig. 4 Factors for smart agriculture – key drivers

Internet of Things-Based Smart Agriculture Advisory System 167

The proposed research work involves the analysis of satellite images or images
captured with sensors implanted. The research work will identify crop management
in chosen areas. This will provide timely information to farmers in crop manage-
ment for better agriculture processes and further management support.

4.1 Precision Agriculture

The proposed analytical tool aims to develop a prediction system to identify disease
symptoms at earlier stage and provide a solution for agricultural crop nutrients that
helps the agricultural practitioners. This system obtains better precision based on
sensors using IoT. The model attempts to provide a complete, integrated solution for
the decision-making support for the agriculturalists focusing on crop protection and
providing them with balanced nutrient management strategies. Many factors such as
weather, soil testing, sampling at regular intervals, soil fertility of the land, supply
of water requirements, bio and organic manures, lack of macronutrients and micro-
nutrients, medicinal component function, and deficiency symptoms are taken into
consideration to reach an enhanced result.

4.2 Prediction Algorithm

The proposed research work extracts the input from the temperature sensor, leaf and
stem sensor to know its components, and humidity sensor to monitor the climatic
changes. Soil sampling is done as the primary process. The following is the proce-
dure and algorithm for prediction.
Process Involved
• Collection of data from the temperature (DHT11) and humidity sensor
• Soil sampling
• Data collection from the leaf extracts to find out the disease components
• Data preprocessing
• Data security
• Prediction on yield and cultivation
In the conventional agricultural process, the attributes include soil value and its
nutrient optimum pH values, temperature range between certain intervals, rainfall
values, and climate changes, along with manual intervention. In the proposed
method, the strategy deployed works as a multidimesional data model, and detect
the capability to predict the exact cultivation, yield as well as individual compo-
nents uses. In traditional strategies, based on the previous past outcomes, pest con-
trol and precision are done, whereas, on the other hand, this research work focuses
on integrated tool. A machine learning algorithm with a suboptimal method is used
168 M. Jeyabalu et al.

to predict. The proposed research work involves the MLP-NN (multilayer percep-
tron neural network) to deeply analyze the components of crops.

4.3 MLP-NN (Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network)

Neural networks are created as in the form of interlinked nodes/neurons through

tight coupled connections between them. Artificial neural network is one among the
trained interlinked connections, used as estimation models for data analytics. ANN
is formed by three different layers named as input, hidden, and output. The input
layer is a compilation of several nodes that holds the input values, while a hidden
layer is located as the middle layer, in which the function puts weights to the inputs
and channels them through an activation function as the output. Finally, the output
layer produces the output for a given objective function.
Perceptron falls under the supervised learning algorithm, intended to do binary
classification on the data provided. Perceptron belongs to a linear classification of
the data and breaks the given problem into simpler terms. Basically, a vector is con-
sidered as input, weights, and channels are included for the training of the data
received from the sensors. MLP-NN sets better results for both linear and nonlinear
data, including all the parameters in the three-layer setup. Perceptron algorithm
provides better MSE (mean square error) value, regression analysis can be done
easier, and feature selection for the training data can be done easier.
The below given is feed-forward neural network model (Fig. 5), which comes
under linear classification, for which the classification of the data or the prediction
of the given data is done by the output layer streaming. In multilayer perceptron,

Fig. 5 Block diagram

depiction of MLP with
single layer
Internet of Things-Based Smart Agriculture Advisory System 169

Fig. 6 Perceptron with n input

similar to the feed-forward network, the input data moves in the forward direction
from input to output (Fig. 6). As per the traditional way, the neurons in the multi-
layer perception are trained with the back-­propagation learning algorithm for given
data prediction. MLPs are designed to give suboptimum to any continuous function
and can solve problems that are nonlinear.

5 Experimental Setup Discussions

The stated proposed work is implemented using Python (Keras and TensorFlow)
and deployed in the private cloud for data access management and security. The
specific objective is to implement the deep learning technique MLN-ANN, for the
classification of the crop images (leaf images for sample five crops), for smart agri-
culture. Using various sensors, the flawless monitoring of the crops and plants are
achieved. The extracted data, on other hand, safely imported to cloud as encrypted
data for further process.
In the data collection procedure, a total of ten different crop images are included
for the experimental work. The dataset thus comprised entirely the image dataset
and all the preprocessing, and the prediction is done using the AWS SAGEMAKER –
GPU(G2Boost) for better results. The crop leaves considered for the prediction of
the disease symptoms and rectifications are as follows: grapes, apple, strawberry,
cotton, tomato, ragi, and paddy.

5.1 Data Preprocessing

The preliminary stage is the preprocessing of the dataset to remove the duplicated
or null valued data. As in the case of the image dataset, the unclear data are removed
using Python Keras. The dimension of the image is considered as the parameter so
that all the images can be equally preprocessed.
170 M. Jeyabalu et al.

5.2 Classification of the Leaves

Figures 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 are the input dataset (image captured from the various
sensors), sequentially apple, strawberry, tomato, potato, and cotton between regular
time intervals. The images are collected from the sensors imbibed to it and also
acquire the data under different parameters such as geographic locations, tempera-
ture, soil nutrient management, humidity, and water level.

5.3 Algorithm

The following is the procedure to obtain the images from the sensors and the pro-
cess flow to train and test the data. The classification of the images under different
factors and prediction on the tested dataset for various disease symptoms is clearly
stated stepwise in the given algorithm:
Step 1: Define the MLP-ANN model.

Fig. 7 Apple leaves (both diseased and non-diseased)

Internet of Things-Based Smart Agriculture Advisory System 171

Fig. 8 Strawberry leaves (both diseased and non-diseased)

Fig. 9 Tomato leaves (both diseased and non-diseased)

Step 2: Define the models (sequential models).

Step 3: Extract the layers of the images acquired.
Step 4: Convert the acquired images to 2D.
172 M. Jeyabalu et al.

Fig. 10 Potato leaves (both diseased and non-diseased)

Fig. 11 Cotton leaves (both diseased and non-diseased)

model = models.Sequential
([
    Layers converted to 2D layers.Conv2D(32, (3, 3), activation='
relu', input_shape=(224, 224, 3)),
    layers.MaxPooling2D((2, 2)),
Internet of Things-Based Smart Agriculture Advisory System 173

    layers.Conv2D(64, (3, 3), activation='relu'),

    layers.MaxPooling2D((2, 2)),
    layers.Conv2D(128, (3, 3), activation='relu'),
    layers.MaxPooling2D((2, 2)),
    layers.Flatten(),
    layers.Dense(128, activation='relu'),
    layers.Dense(4, activation='softmax')
])

Step 5: Compile the model.

model.compile(optimizer=object',
loss=finding entropy of data
metrics=['accuracy'])
model.summary()

Step 6: Load and preprocess the training and testing data.

Train the datagenerator form the keras library # tf.keras.prepro-

cessing.image.ImageDataGenerator(rescale=1./255)
Test the datagenerator form the keras library
#tesdatagen from keras.preprocessing.image.ImageDataGenerator(re
scale=1./255)
train_datagenaratorflow_from_directory using data path, size
and mode
train_data_path,
target_size=(224, 224),
batch_size=32,
class_mode='categorical'
)

Step 7: Train the data.

object = model.fit(
train_generator,
steps_per_epoch=len(train_generator),
epochs=1 - n,
validation_data=test_generator,
validation_steps=len(test_generator),
)

Step 8: Evaluate the model.

174 M. Jeyabalu et al.

Model: mode/type

Layer (type) Output shape Param #

conv2d_6 (Conv2D) (None, 222, 222, 32) 896
max_pooling2d_6 (MaxPooling2D) (None, 111, 111, 32) 0
conv2d_7 (Conv2D) (None, 109, 109, 64) 18496
max_pooling2d_7 (MaxPooling2D) (None, 54, 54, 64) 0
conv2d_8 (Conv2D) (None, 52, 52, 128) 73856
max_pooling2d_8 (MaxPooling2D) (None, 26, 26, 128) 0
flatten_2 (Flatten) (None, 86528) 0
dense_4 (Dense) (None, 128) 11075712
dense_5 (Dense) (None, 4) 516
Include trainable and nontrainable parameters using the checkpoints.

5.4 Result Analysis

The experimental results acquired as a result of the deep learning classification

algorithm are presented below. The implementation is done with the Python lan-
guage (with required libraries), under the configuration of Windows 10 operating
system with Core i7 and 8 GB RAM. The image optimization is done with AWS
SageMaker. The obtained results are encrypted with varied key sizes and block sizes
from 64 bits, 128 bits, and 256 bits, and the results based on various parameters are
analyzed. Various types of leafs are experimented and tested. The below given
graphs (Figs. 12, 13, and 14) show the results obtained from both trained and tested
data by using the MLP-ANN algorithm.
Reviews investigate a lot of algorithms with own pros and cons on the way of
parameters being analyzed. By exploring various parameters, the efficiency and
strength of the algorithm are investigated. Time complexity and computational
complexity are the two main constraints for any algorithm being experimented.

Fig. 12 Training and test results of the apple and tomato leaves
Internet of Things-Based Smart Agriculture Advisory System 175

Fig. 13 Training and test results of the cotton and strawberry leaves

Fig. 14 Training and test results of the potato leaves

Considering this note, the experimented MLP-ANN algorithm ends with less time
complexity and in computational complexity. The input in the image dataset, which
is converted to 2D data after preprocessing, ends in faster computations.
After examining all the parameters from the obtained results, the multilayer per-
ceptron algorithm is a better choice for the image dataset for less computational
complexity and time complexity with higher accuracy rate. As the graph indicates,
the X-axis scale denotes the accuracy rate, and the Y-axis scale indicates the total
number of epochs for the system. From the listed graphs, it is clear that the accuracy
rate of disease prediction in the crops and plants is close nearly to 97.1%.
176 M. Jeyabalu et al.

Table 1 Various parameter value comparison between existing and proposed algorithm (Ref. [15])
Parameter
Algorithm (accuracy rate)
Random forest 0.928
SVM 0.965
VGG-19 0.962
Inception-v3 0.97
Multilayer perceptron ANN 0.971

5.5 Comparative Study

A comparative analysis is performed for the examined algorithm with the state-of-­the-
art algorithms in various parameters. Also, the proposed algorithm achieves the spe-
cific objective with high speed and lower computational complexity. The high
voluminous data is being stored and accessed from the cloud, with data security.
Optimized encryption algorithm is used for the cryptographic process (Table 1).

Comparative Analysis
Multi Layer Perceptron (ANN) 0.971

Inception-v3 0.97

VGG -19 0.962

Algorithm
SVM 0.965

Random Forest 0.928

0.9 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98

Accuracy rate

6 Conclusion

The proposed research work looks for better and more efficient crop cultivation.
The integration of new techniques will improve the prediction of each and every
component of plants and crops and thus helps agriculturalists in decision-making.
This proposed research work considered multidimensional aspects of the data to
Internet of Things-Based Smart Agriculture Advisory System 177

make the results more specific. To achieve this, various smart sensors for data col-
lection and cloud for data security and sharing are also involved. As a result from
various reviews and studies, the multilayer perceptron ANN algorithm shows better
results close to the deep learning inception V3 algorithm. In the future, this study
extends to find different nutrient components in the crop leaves for the ease of use
for medical practitioners.

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24 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measen.2022.100441
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms
on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming

Meganathan Elumalai , Terrance Frederick Fernandez ,

and Mahmoud Ragab

1 Introduction

Many countries’ economies rely heavily on the agriculture industry. Food costs are
on the rise as producers try to keep up with demand from a growing global popula-
tion. India’s agriculture is well-known. Most people are farmers. Plant diseases
reduce agricultural productivity, nullifying any gains. Identifying and treating plant
diseases early can save a farm from destruction. Many illnesses can swiftly spread
and damage a crop due to microorganisms in its surroundings. Viruses, fungi, bac-
teria, and other microbes cause these disorders [1]. Crop diseases directly affect
production and quality [2]. At the outset, illness detection is essential to hinder mas-
sive expenses and reduce pesticide excessive utilization. In less developed nations
and on smaller ranches, growers diagnose crop ailments by watching physical
symptoms. To meet expanding customer needs and reduce the environmental impact
of chemical inputs, researchers have devised accurate, rapid, and reliable methods
for early diagnosis of crop diseases [3, 4]. Several solutions have been proposed to
automate illness identification. Direct and indirect techniques identify crop diseases
automatically [5–7].
Direct approaches include molecular and serological techniques, which allow
precise and direct detection of disease-causing pathogens but take a long time to

M. Elumalai (*) · T. F. Fernandez

Institute of Computer Science and Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha
Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
M. Ragab
Information Technology Department, Faculty of Computing and Information Technology,
King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 179
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_10
180 M. Elumalai et al.

collect, handle, and analyze samples. Morphological change and transpiration rate
can be utilized to diagnose illnesses and predict crop health. Indirect disease detec-
tion uses fluorescence and hyperspectral imaging [8]. Low-income farmers gener-
ally have trouble obtaining hyperspectral equipment due to its expensive cost,
inconvenient size, and restricted availability, despite the fact that hyperspectral pho-
tographs provide more data than conventional shots [9]. Electronics stores sell
cheap digital cameras.
Farmers must analyze every crop frequently to detect illnesses, which is complex
and time-consuming. Drones will accomplish this duty, removing the need for
humans and saving time. Drones are also called DRONEs. Drones/UAVs can be
remotely or computer controlled. Drones are replacing satellites in agricultural
applications. Early drones were used for combat and surveillance. UAVs may cap-
ture high-quality images affordably. They can take sharp photographs at low alti-
tudes. Farming drones are gaining popularity quickly. This study employs machine
learning and image processing to identification illness in plant leaves [10]. We use
the drone’s Raspberry Pi-connected camera to capture plant leaves. All plant leaves
can detect disease early. Viruses are also undetectable by the human eye, a light-­
sensitive microscopy, or both. A skilled eye can see the mosaic leaf pattern, yellow-
ing, or crinkling of virus-infected leaves. Fungal diseases cause leaf spots, leaf
yellowing, and bird-eye-shaped fruit spots. Bacterial diseases can be identified by
reddish-brown patches, bacterial oozing after cutting a leaf, etc. Leaf analysis
requires picture processing [11, 12].
Preprocessing removes image noise after collection. Histogram equalization
improves high-intensity image quality. After that, each pixel and leaf part is split for
feature extraction. Image segmentation uses clustering and genetics. This review
focuses on approaches and algorithms for automatic crop disease identification
using image processing and spectroscopy. COVID-19 affects food production and
distribution [13, 14]. Many farmers lacked access to labor, seeds, fertilizer, and
pesticides, resulting in fewer crops [15]. This is due to basic agricultural, know-­
how, limited electricity, and inexperienced farmers. Agriculture supports 73% of
India’s population. India is affected. Farmers continue to apply insecticides and
fertilizers after the seeds sprout. Spraying insecticides and fertilizer with the old-­
fashioned approach takes longer and has lower yields [7]. Due to COVID-19, con-
ventional farmers had trouble tracking when and where they sprayed crops, fertilizer,
and pesticides [16]. Drones can help with agriculture problems [17].
Farmers utilize drones to see their crops from above. Water, soil, pests, and fun-
gus infections are all included. Infrared and visible drone crop shots show detail.
Insights concerning plant health can be extracted from these photographs. This sys-
tem can track monthly or hourly yields. Farmers can manage their crops more suc-
cessfully with greater crop data [18, 19]. The drone’s equipment can inform
precision agriculture research. “Payload” is a drone’s carrying capacity. This
research focuses on crop health monitoring and herbicide use. We looked at how
pesticide-spraying drones have progressed and how far we’ve gone in producing an
accurate drone.
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming 181

2 Background

Manually identifying agricultural diseases is labor-intensive and error-prone, mak-

ing it impracticable for most farms. Sickness detection using automation is faster
and more reliable [20]. We’ll review the outcomes of each study [21, 22] in turn.

2.1 Classification of Diseases of Crops and Its Signs

Bacteria, fungi, viruses, and depletion can damage crops. Pathogens are separated
into autotrophs, which feed on living tissue, and saprophytes, which eat disintegrat-
ing materials [23]. The disease affects crop growth and development clearly.
Strange-colored leaves are an early indicator of plant illness [24]. The form and
texture of leaves assist diagnose numerous illnesses. Leaf images can identify mil-
dew, rust, and powdery mildew [25, 26]. Figure 1 and Table 1 list the three most
common plant diseases.

2.1.1 Virus Diseases

The symptoms of infectious plant diseases are the most challenging to recognize
and diagnose, and they are often misunderstood as indications of nutritional short-
age or injury because there is no reliable signal that can be tracked over time. Insects
such as whiteflies, leafhoppers, aphids, and those that crawl on cucumbers fre-
quently carry viruses.

2.1.2 Fungal Diseases

Downy mildew, anthracnose, and powdery mildew are all fungus-caused foliar dis-
eases. Old, lower leaves that are spotted with grayish green or are drenched in water
are the first to show symptoms. These areas become darker and fungal growth
occurs as the infection develops.

Bacteria Disease Viral Disease Fungal Disease

Fig. 1 Pathogens: viruses, fungi, and bacteria

182 M. Elumalai et al.

Table 1 Symptomatology and categorization of a few diseases of the leaves

Plant Pathogen
leaf Diseases Symptoms category
Rice Brown spot/Bipolaris oryzae Whitish-gray center Fungi
Blast leaf/Pyricularia oryzae An irregular dark brown
Cavara
Cotton Foliar leaf/Stemphylium solani Spot of light yellow color with Fungi,
Areolate mildew/Cercospora dark brown margins bacterial, virus
Leaf spot/Alternaria spot Tanned brown spot Fungi
Bacterial blight/Xanthomonas Circular dark brown leaf spots Fungi
campestris to black Bacterial
Halo yellowish green
Tomato Early blight/Alternaria Dark ring spot around it yellow Fungi
tomatophila The dark spot is growing rapidly Fungi
Late blight/Phytophthora Curly and yellowish leaf Fungi
infestans Soaked in the water ringed by a Virus
Powdery mildew/Leveillula yellow halo
taurica
Yellow curl/ infectious tomato
chlorosis virus
Wheat Rust/Puccinia triticina Eriks. Pale leaves spots Fungi
Powdery mildew/Blumeria White gray or brown spot Fungi
graminis Halo yellowish green Bacterial
Bacterial blight/Pseudomonas
syringae

2.1.3 Bacterial Diseases

Vegetables are particularly vulnerable to the virulence of certain diseases. They gain
access to the crop not via direct contact but rather via preexisting openings or
wounds. Pests, insects, and even picking and pruning tools can cause damage
to crops.

3 Machine Learning and Image Processing

in Disease Identification

The investigation and diagnosis of leaf diseases rely heavily on image processing
[27]. Figure 2 provides a glimpse into the various methods used by the authors to
identify the sickness in the leaves through image processing and artificial
intelligence.
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming 183

Imgae Imgae
Imgae Pre-processing
Acquisiotion Segmentation

Histogram equalization Clustering Method

HSV, HIS, RGB Filter-General Region growing
Hyperspectral Customized Filter Thresholding based
Database
Thermal Color space Wastershed methods
Conversation Variational methods
Fuzzy based

Imgae Classification Feature extraction

Healthy
SVM (RBF) Shape (Hu moments, SURF,
K-Nearest Neighbor SIFT, HOG)
ANN, BPNN Texture(Haralick)
Random Forest Color (color histogram)
Naive Bayes
Decision Tree
Diseased

Fig. 2 Various techniques for identifying leaf diseases

3.1 Deep and Transfer Learning in Disease Identification

In the last 10 years, the agricultural sector has benefited greatly from the implemen-
tation of deep learning [28, 29] and transfer learning. Fine-tuning outperforms a
freshly trained CNN model, according to Mohanty et al. Neural networks (NN) are
often used to analyze hyperspectral data for early disease diagnosis [21, 30].
Photographs are the first step in sickness diagnosis [27]. Digital cameras or imaging
systems can usually retrieve images. Noise in raw photographs must be removed.
The second stage, picture preprocessing, removes unwanted distortions and boosts
contrast to make image features more apparent and legible. Gaussian functions
reduce visual noise by gently blurring images. The third process, picture segmenta-
tion [31], divides the region of interest (ROI) to emphasize significant
characteristics.
Extraction of features is the fourth phase, and it reveals the hidden data and spe-
cifics in an image [32]. The characteristics of the leaves, such as their form, texture,
and color, are commonly used in crop diagnosis. The selected features become a
feature vector that is supplied to the classifier. You can tell one type of object from
another by using this vector. Classification is the last process [33]. Keep in mind that
not every classifier will work for every situation. The feature vector created in the
fourth phase is then used by the classifier to identify the photos by placing them into
one of the several categories. The categorization job serves this aim with its two
stages, training and testing. Its ability to combine training sets improves diagnostic
accuracy over rival machine learning systems, i.e., hyperspectral imaging to detect
184 M. Elumalai et al.

Table 2 Transfer and deep learning research for agricultural disease identification
Year Authors Model Accuracy (%)
2020 [38] MobileNet, R-CNN 70.53
2020 [39] DNN, SURF, GOA 98.28
2019 [40] CNN-Multichannel 93.67
2019 [41] InceptionV3 and CNN using a hierarchical approach 97.74
2019 [42] Nine-layer deep CNN 96.46
2018 [43] CNN, Faster R-CNN 91.67
2018 [28] OverFeat, VGG16, AlexNet 99.53

and classify tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) disease pre-symptomatically [34]. It was
evident that BPNNs performed better than SVMs, RFs, LDAs, ELMs, and LS-SVMs
and examined hyperspectral imagery as a noninvasive method for detecting TMV
illness in the beginning stages. The BPNN model was 95% accurate, while the che-
mometric models were 80% [35].
Table 2 shows that the number of researchers engaged in deep learning has risen
considerably, notably in 2018. CNNs, AEs, RNNs, and limited Boltzmann machines
are common crop image classification models. So many articles have been written
about utilizing deep learning to diagnose agricultural diseases. Ma et al. developed
a DCNN model that could recognize more than four cucumber diseases [36]. In
contrast with more standard techniques like the SVM, naive Bayes, and AlexNet,
the DCNN identified cucumber illnesses with 93.4% accuracy and deployed a dense
YOLOV3 model to avoid overfitting. Despite wavering lights, tangled fruit, and
intricate backgrounds, they applied their method to apple orchards [37].

3.2 Hyperspectral Imaging (HIS) Used to Identify Disease

Hyperspectral photography has made gains in detecting abiotic and biotic plant
stresses [44, 45]. For collecting harmonic and temporal information, hyperspectral
imagery incorporates visualization and spectroscopy. Hyperspectral reflectance is
utilized to distinguish healthy and diseased TSWV tobacco leaves. Zhu and others
employed the best EW wavelength for hyperspectral imaging with SPA to detect
early TMV infection. Hyperspectral data is multicollinear due to associated spectral
values. EWs simplify the hyperspectral analysis, maximize data use, and speed pro-
cessing. The subsequent projection technique (SPA) [46], partial least squares
regression models [46], and genetic algorithms (GAs) [47] have all been used to
address multicollinearity.
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming 185

3.2.1 Internet of Things’ Use in Leaf Disease Detection

Table 3 shows in the agricultural sector the IoT has led to significant improvements.
Farmers can use IoT applications to monitor their fields from anywhere and be
informed about the state of their crops and the weather at any time. Farmers can
better prepare for the upcoming harvest by using IoT technologies [48]. As an added
bonus, they can safeguard their harvest by identifying crop illnesses in their earliest
stages and thereby preventing further spread. There’s no denying the importance of
agricultural IoT apps in boosting agricultural output and lowering crop losses due to
illnesses.
Finally, the crop disease identification and classification models were assessed
using a variety of measures, such as sensitivity, precision (P), recall (R), quality
measure (QM), and F1 score, which are model-specific. Here, we present a set of
statistical evaluation measures that can be utilized to conduct a quantitative analysis
of the efficacy of models for detecting agricultural diseases that make use of deep
and transfer learning:

TP
Precision 
 TP  FP 
Precision (P) is the fraction of true positives (TP) to the sum of TP and false posi-
tives (FP). P is averaged across classes for multiclass categorization:

TP
Sensitivity 
 TP  FN 
A test’s sensitivity/recall (R) measures both false positives and false negatives
(FN). R calculates the mean of many classes:

Table 3 Analysis of the existing research on IoT infrastructure

Researchers Detection techniques and algorithms Parameter evaluation
[49] The RideNN Cycling Neural Network, based The SCA-based RideNN model
on the SCA, is used in an IoT-based model for was 91.56% accurate
monitoring and detecting plant diseases
[50] IoT models utilizing GLCM, RFC, and RFC-GLCM-based disease
k-means clustering detection and classification were
99.99% accurate
[51] Utilizing support vector machines and K-means The farmer receives
clustering in an Internet of Things instantaneous text message
warning
[48] RiceTalk is an IoT platform that employs an AI Net prediction accuracy was
model 89.4%
[52] The Internet of Things system uses deep Constant tracking of
learning and transfer learning to remotely environmental conditions
monitor rice crops
186 M. Elumalai et al.

TN
Specificity 
 TN  FP 
Specificity is measured by the ratio of negative to healthy samples. This metric
evaluates a model’s false-negative predictions:

TP  TN
Accuracy 
 TP  TN  FP  FN 
The percentage of accurately labeled samples relative to the total number of sam-
ples labeled is the accuracy. This metric is used to evaluate a model’s performance
as a whole:

F1 _ score  2   Sensitivity  Precision   Sensitivity  Precision 

The F1 score combines precision and recall. Class F1 is a multiclass classification

task’s weighted average, where
TP: True positives refer to the exact count of picture specimens that were correctly
detected as contaminated.
FP: False positives are the number of samples of images that were wrongly labeled
as contaminated.
TN: The percentage of true negative images that were accurately labeled as healthy
is denoted by the symbol TN.
FN: The percentage of erroneously classified clean images is denoted by the
metric FN.

4 UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle)

Today’s drones are GPS-based autopilot vehicles, not radio-controlled devices.

Size, landing, aerodynamics, number of rotors, altitude, range, and endurance are
some ways to define drones. However, there are two primary categories of drones in
this article, both of which are dependent on the presence or absence of wings or
rotors. Some of the application of drone is shown in Table 4 [30, 53–55]. Drones can
have either fixed or rotational wings. Helicopter, quadcopter, hexacopter, etc. are all
names given to drones with different numbers of rotors. In this paper, we’ll go into
the specifics of how a hexacopter is built and how it can be used to spot leaf dis-
eases. Octocopters, a type of helicopter, can carry the most spray since it has a larger
payload than other helicopters.
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming 187

Table 4 Modern drone application technology

Application Description
Agriculture This research discussed ML using a drone to identify plant diseases. The
author used a quadcopter, AutoML, and Inception v3 to take these
photographs
Agriculture This page discusses leaf diseases like leaf minor, downy mildew, and yellow
spot. GSM-enabled Raspberry Pi, K-means clustering, and a k-n classifier
helped him diagnose
Agriculture The paper describes a pesticide-spraying drone that can be operated from
afar using a smartphone and a Wi-Fi module
Horticulture and This idea proposes using a drone to spray pesticides only when needed to
agriculture reduce pesticide consumption and enhance harvests. Drones and object
recognition are used
Agriculture The author used inception and convolutional neural networks to identify
illnesses in apple leaves

4.1 Fixed-Wing UAV

These UAVs achieve the necessary lift with the use of aerofoil-shaped, fixed wings.
In Fig. 3, we see a typical example of a fixed-wing UAV (Fig. 3a).

4.2 Helicopters

It generates lift and propulsion using a single set of horizontally revolving wings
mounted to a middle pole, such as UAVs like the one depicted in Fig. 3b. A helicop-
ter can take off and land vertically, move forward and backward, and hover in one
location. For this reason, helicopters can be used in places that are too crowded or
too far away for conventional aeroplanes to reach.

4.3 Multi-copters

UAVs can be lifted and maneuvered with the help of rotorcraft with numerous sets
of horizontally revolving blades (usually four to eight), as seen in Fig. 3c. The pro-
cessing of data derived from satellite images of tiny plants is challenging.
Additionally, satellite photos are dependent on favorable lighting and weather con-
ditions. UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) are a more efficient means of gathering
this kind of visual information since they can take pictures at precisely the position,
altitude, and frequency that the user specifies. Technology based on different drones
is explained with its task in Table 5, and it also has the advantage of being an instan-
taneous data analyzer and a completely automated tool for weed and insect control.
188 M. Elumalai et al.

Fig. 3 Types of UAVs: (a) Fixed-wing drones, (b) helicopters, (c) multi-copter drone

4.4 Discussion

In Table 6, researchers in this field use image processing, machine learning, and
deep learning to identify and classify plant ailments. According to the results, the
support vector machine [50, 56], the random forest [57, 58], the artificial neural
network [39], and the convolutional neural network (CNN) [42, 43] are the methods
most frequently used in research. Most studies have used data from PlantVillage,
and histogram equalization has been employed to boost contrast, while median,
Gaussian filter, and Gabor filters have been put to use for denoising and picture
enhancement in the preprocessing stage [40]. In order to find the region of interest
in an image, the k-means and fuzzy c-means algorithms perform color-based seg-
mentation. Histograms of directed gradients, local binary patterns, and gray-level
co-occurrence matrices can capture plant texture, form, and color (HOG), beginning
with broad classifications.
Related Crop Disease Identification and Pesticide-Spraying Work
The group used many different types of neural networks, including artificial-neural
networks, probabilistic neural networks, back-propagation neural networks, convo-
lutional neural networks, and Inception v3.Disease categorization is a primary
application of the SVM and NN. The fundamental benefit of NNs is that they are
created from existing data and are also tolerant of noise. By mapping the input fea-
ture vector nonlinearly onto a high-dimensional space, the SVM provides excellent
classification performance. Table 7 outlined the benefits and drawbacks of certain
classifiers. However, SVMs should be avoided in cases of extremely noisy data and
used the principal component analysis (PCA) dimensionality reduction method
when the input vector contained several redundant variables [67]. In addition, the
classification procedure has been entirely automated using the convolutional neural
network (CNN), faster R-CNN, Vgg16, and ResNet50 models as well as using a
novel approach called the extreme learning machine (ELM), which provides
improved speed, performance, and generalization at a reduced computing cost [68].
In this context, we compare the effectiveness of ten deep learning models on the
PlantVillage dataset: AlexNet, ResNet-101, GoogleNet, DenseNet201, Vgg16
Inceptionv3, Squeeze Net InceptionResNetv2, ShuffleNet, and MobileNets [69].
propose a 2020 autonomous UAV yellow rust disease monitoring system.
Table 5 Intelligent, efficient agricultural technology
Leaf disease Feature Drone technology
References Description Crop Disease detection algorithm classifier Type Task Camera
[59] Machine learning and Tomato Bacterial AutoML, Not used any Quadcopter Image capturing 8 MP Sony
UAVs were discussed for spot Inception_V3 camera
plant disease diagnosis
[60] This paper covered rice Rice Crown Convolutional SVM, GLCM Quadcopter Position Raspberry Pi
disease detection and IoT/ sheath rot neural networks classifiers, and mapping and camera
ML location mapping (CNN) HTTP protocol disease detection
[61] This research discusses Plant Cannabis, Convolutional Not used any DJI Mavic Weed Hyperspectral
image processing and diseases Tridax, neural networks air 2 identification X-ray imaging
convolutional neural goose grass and image camera
networks for weed processing
recognition in plants
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming
189
190 M. Elumalai et al.

Table 6 Identification of crop disease-related research

Title Methodology Advantages Disadvantages
Disease detection We offer a DL-based The proposed method While leaves were
in tomato plants solution to tomato was 99.51%, 98.65%, utilized to diagnose
through transfer sickness detection using and 97.11% accurate. tomato disease, stems
learning and C-GAN to generate The C-GAN and branches certainly
convolutional artificial tomato leaf mitigates the effects played a role. The
neural network-­ pictures for data of overfitting and research focused on
generated images improvement. Pretrained improves the infected tomato plants
[4] DenseNet121 models are generalizability of
fine-tuned with synthetic the network
and real data to identify
tomato leaf diseases
Color histogram This study provides a new 100% specificity, The results of the
and supervised method for identifying 99.3% sensitivity, classification indicate
classifier for oil healthy oil palm leaves. and 99.67% accuracy that an error occurred
palm leaf disease The 8-bin color channel prove the suggested because a leaf was
detection [22] histogram is divided into method’s incorrectly identified as
RGB, LAB, HSI, and effectiveness. This healthy
HSV characteristics. method yields Only oil palm leaf
K-means clustering simpler, more robust disease was studied
segments leaves. ANN features
uses 41 PCA-selected
features
Diseases on rice The suggested technique SVM + HOG using a The LBP fundamental
leaves: using detects three leaf-­ polynomial kernel operator can’t capture
image processing damaging illnesses using function may identify certain trends
to identify them IP and ML. This protects plant illness. The
young plants for farmers. proposed work
Before using Otsu enhances earlier
thresholding for attempts’ precision
segmentation, photos are (94.6% vs. 92.5%)
preprocessed to improve
image quality and reduce
distortions. LBP and HOG
extract partitioned space
features. SVM classifies
these features with 94.6%
accuracy
Using image We took a six-step Disease affects The authors didn’t
processing for a strategy for IP. Raspberry Alternaria Alternate’s mention any other
farm-wide Pi-connected webcam graphical interface diseases, and the results
automatic plant captured moving leaves. achieved 95.16313% aren’t clear
disease detection After preprocessing, precision. An illness
and warning segmenting, and k-means alert system
system [5] clustering, perimeter and
illuminance were
extracted. This analysis
classified leaf diseases. A
sickness alarm and buzzer
alert the farmer
(continued)
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming 191

Table 6 (continued)
Title Methodology Advantages Disadvantages
IoT plant disease An IoT-based control Low-cost IoT model Temperature, humidity,
detection [62] system was built to presented. Low-­ and leaf cover
monitor pests and income farmers can constituted the entire
illnesses on a three-tiered buy it to stop the model. Inaccurate
tree farm. Initial plant disease spread parameter assessments
health was computed. A are another problem.
computerized system From these
could also determine unpredictable starting
illness closeness. A points, many
disease detection characteristics
mechanical framework developed.
incorporating humidity, Uncategorized plant
temperature, and shadow leaves make it
sensors has been created. impossible to identify
Arduino code analyzes infections
sensor data to track plant
growth. Data is transferred
to the cloud over WI-FI
for analysis after
collection. These data are
compared to evaluate the
plant’s overall health
Digital image This article discusses The algorithm was Commonplace
processing for image analysis for early evaluated on photos approaches were used
leaf disease leaf disease detection. of infected leaves for the paper’s research
detection in Automated disease from five different
plants [27] detection minimizes farm plant species (corn,
monitoring. Various IP tomato, bell pepper,
and ML approaches are peach, and grape)
utilized to identify with a 75% success
diseases; a genetic rate
optimization strategy was
employed after k-means
picture segmentation to
optimize outcomes, and
SVM was used for disease
classification
Clustering This approach uses This study identifies This paper mostly
algorithm for K-means clustering to damaged photos focused on very standard
plant pest identify plant insects. quickly and and traditional methods
detection in Disease recognition accurately. K-means
digital images requires acquiring, clustering’s accuracy
[63] preprocessing, and speed are evident
segmenting, and benefits over other
categorizing images. The methods
median filter and
boundary detection
techniques were used to
minimize the noise in
RGB-to-HSV leaf images.
K-means grouped photos
(continued)
192 M. Elumalai et al.

Table 6 (continued)
Title Methodology Advantages Disadvantages
Using image Modeling plant disease According to the The system does not
processing and with ML and IP. First, 148 findings, the automatically select the
multiclass leaf disease images are suggested method infected segment from
support vector analyzed. There are two has a diagnostic the three options
machine to detect plant groups. The training accuracy of displayed
and classify plantset has 73 pictures; test set 92.8571% for plant
diseases [64] has 75. Segmentation diseases
identifies pathogenic leaf
regions. 9 of 13 texture
features were computed
using the designated RGB
subset. Grayscale images
assess consistency,
differentiation, vitality,
and coherence. SVM
separates healthy and
diseased leaves
Using Black rot, Apple scab, and Model accuracy is In this study, we focused
evolutionary Cedar rust were just some increased by 18.03%, solely on foliar diseases
optimization of of the apple leaf illnesses to a mean of 98.28%, that can affect apples
deep neural that a DNN was able to when using the
network features detect and categorize DNN-SURF method.
for plant leaf using GOA and Robust A basic model’s
disease detection Accelerated Feature applicability is
[39] SURF. Disease greater than that of a
categorization was metric one
accomplished by means of
DNN after SURF feature
extraction and GOA
optimization
Image processing IP and SVM were used to The system detects The algorithm’s structure
for leaf disease diagnose plant diseases. leaf disease faster is complex, and its
detection [65] We grayscale an RGB and cheaper than accuracy is not specified
image, improve it with traditional methods
AHE, extract 13 textural
features with GLCM, and
identify plant illnesses
with SVM. More than 500
images with varying
brightness levels (0–2500)
were shot to train and test
the system
(continued)
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming 193

Table 6 (continued)
Title Methodology Advantages Disadvantages
Automatic In this study, we The model’s accuracy In comparison to other
disease detection developed strategies for drops to 81% from methods, DAML error
in plants utilize a disease diagnosis in plants 99% if the origin and rates were 22.2 per 50
CNN and a small with minimal resources. destination domains shots and 42.6 per 5
amount of The networks used were differ greatly from shots
training data [3] DAML and CNN triplet one another The fundamental model
topologies. Detection is beneath different
methods for novel strategies
diseases were trained on a
large dataset consisting of
anywhere from 5 to 20
images per disease
Machine learning IP and ML determined The SVM’s The presented approach,
for identifying whether employees were effectiveness in which is based on CNN,
leaf diseases [66] sick. Kaggle has 12,949 high-dimensional has a high degree of
photos. The approach spaces gives it a leg accuracy. However, it
involves image up on competing takes a lot of effort and
segmentation, feature classifiers with time to train the model
extraction (shape, color, an 80% success rate
texture), and SVM was achieved by the
classification SVM while
Agricultural The scientists described a RFC-GLCM leaf Lighting and camera
applications of way to use IoT to locate disease classification angle in agriculture
IoT-enabled plant diseased banana trees. 80 obtained 99.99% affect the system’s
disease detection hill banana plants are accuracy on the hill precision
and classification photographed at 256 × banana dataset.
[50] 256 pixels. Image Experts help farmers
preprocessing grayscales with plant disease
it. Histogram equalization and environmental
is used when employing changes
k-means clustering on a
scaled gray image. The
cloud analyses extracted
GLCM features. RFC
extracts traits to classify
hill banana illnesses.
Agriculture experts
analyze data. Remote
monitoring of soil
humidity and temperature
can minimize climate-­
related and infectious
diseases
194 M. Elumalai et al.

Table 7 Comparing different classifiers

Classifier Advantages Drawbacks
Artificial neural More efficient and precise than Strict because there is only one possible
network (ANN) KNN and MMC category for the information
Random forest Ability to accurately identify Time and space limitations in
massive datasets processing
Multiclass Aids in dividing up data into Non-applicable in cases of noisy data
support vector manageable chunks
machine
Least square Quick and easy to understand A sparse appearance requires the use of
SVM pruning techniques
K-nearest There was zero investment in Each individual instance takes more
neighbors (KNN) training time and money to test, and the system
is more susceptible to noise and
produces lower yields
Extreme learning Less time spent training and more When a complicated model is
machine (ELM) consistent results overfitting, it loses
Naïve Bayes Less information is needed for Confidence may suffer if conditions are
training. When an independent independent of one another
variable holds true, it outperforms
competing methods
Penalized It helps when there are a lot of Expensive computation
discriminant noisy features in the problem
analysis (PDA)
CNN/deep Since feature extraction is no Training requires a lot of information,
learning longer necessary, classification which is both time-consuming and
times are reduced costly to compute. They need more
powerful hardware, like a GPU
Transfer learning This facilitates the use of CNN on Pretrained models don’t always contain
problems for which only limited labeled classes of interest
data is available for training

Multispectral cameras collected data [70]. It recorded visible, NIR, UV, and green
data. The system recommended using U-Net for semantic segmentation. More band
usage improved picture segmentation. We used random forest for this image catego-
rization challenge. Deep learning uses convolutional neural networks (CNNs). ML
is used for data visualization and prediction. Figure 4 depicts the method. Raw data
is gathered and processed in data acquisition and processing nodes. Clean and orga-
nize the raw data in this step. Deep learning models are well-written software.
Pesticides sprayed manually expose humans to cancer, hypersensitivity, asthma,
and other illnesses [71]. Conventional methods carries various downsides, including
higher chemical use, a lack of agricultural labor, inconsistent spraying leading to
environmental damage, and insufficient coverage. The drone can spray fields using
pre-mapped paths and a pesticide tank that holds up to 40 l. Drones have significant
potential in areas where tractors and aeroplanes have trouble reaching the field.
Figure 5 depicts some examples of the sprayer that can be attached to a drone.
Kislaya Anand and Goutam built the AeroDrone to examine crops and apply pesti-
cides in 2019 and reduce wasted insecticide and spraying time. The mission could
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming 195

Fig. 4 A precision farming system based on deep learning

Fig. 5 Blocks with completely automated pesticide spraying

be assigned in the field utilizing a simulation platform to verify its sensitivity and
accuracy. Figure 6 shows integrated system of quadcopters performed well and their
flight times were identical. The concept worked well for a rectangular farm, but
196 M. Elumalai et al.

Fig. 6 Spraying method constructed around UAVs was used in (a) paddy field, (b) tea crop, and
(c) banana trees

other shapes may be better. Shaw et al. is designing lighter octocopters [72]. We
used the tank’s storage volume (6 l), fluid density, nozzles (fine spray), and pump to
compute its payload. We used eight brushless DC motors (BLDCs), an ESC, a pro-
peller, a 12-volt pump, an FPV camera, a video transmitter, and an LI-PO battery to
hoist the cargo. This octocopter prototype with an AI pilot excelled in crop
monitoring.

5 Challenges in the Crop Disease Detection Field

Several open questions and obstacles in the current literature must be addressed and
conquered before reliable and practical crop disease detection systems that perform
reliably under a wide range of environmental circumstances can be developed. The
most significant of these emphasized difficulties are as follows:

5.1 Insufficient Data

The neural network (DL) models’ use in plant identification of illnesses is hampered
by the lack of variation and the quantity of inaccessible datasets [73]. Most plant
disease identifications are done in sterile, controlled conditions, where only one
disease exists. Because environmental factors are ignored, accuracy is higher than
in practice [74]. Labeling images is a time-consuming process. Creating a reliable,
complete dataset is difficult. Data augmentation, data sharing, citizen science, trans-
fer learning, synthetic data, and few-shot learning can fill in the missing information.
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming 197

5.2 Imbalanced Data

Popular agricultural disease identification datasets are scrubbed up, or its uneven-
ness is ignored to avoid distracting training methods. In practice, discrimination or
unbalance [75] between classes exists. Since most machine learning classification
methods assume an equal number of samples for each class, predictive modeling
may require resampling strategies. Some models’ prediction performance declines,
especially for minorities, who are more prone to be misidentified.

5.3 Vanishing Gradient Problem

Hochreiter identified the “vanishing gradient problem” with neural networks. The
neural network adjusts its weights such that their ratios to error function partial
derivatives remain constant [76]. If the gradient is near 0, the weights may not be
changed. The neural network stops because gradient descent fails to converge.

5.4 Overfitting and Underfitting Problem

Because of the many interrelated components, overfitting and underfitting are key
concerns while training a learning model. The model’s test data efficiency dimin-
ishes. Underfitting means a learning system misses a data pattern. The results show
the model is biased and lacks enough variance to describe the data. Insufficient data
hampers reliable model formation, as does building a linear model from nonlinear
data. Overfitting happens when a model is trained with too much data, leading to
inferences based on noise and erroneous data. Too much information and noise in
the input make the model inaccurate. It indicates a lack of bias and increased vari-
ance. Nonlinear and nonparametric learning algorithms have greater room to create
an inaccurate model, making overfitting more likely. It would be great if models
didn’t have either, but it’s hard. This is a common difficulty with the initial few
iterations of training any model depending on efficient convolutional neural net-
works, which is their method.

5.5 Snapping Images

Requirements for capturing pictures (wind energy, illumination, and physical loca-
tion and camera) ought to be lit in a similar manner. This may only be possible in a
lab because it’s tough to supervise capture circumstances. Identifying diseases from
images is difficult since they may have surprising traits. Changing capture
198 M. Elumalai et al.

conditions hinder measuring citrus leaf canker [77] and identifying citrus diseases
[78]. Invariant illumination strategies have been developed. Their achievements are
limited [79].

5.6 Lighting Issue

Crops grow in naturally variable environments. Weather, lighting, and other ele-
ments affect photos. Illumination difficulties are inescapable and difficult to elimi-
nate. We employ narrow-band imaging and polarising filters to identify citrus
Huanglongbing disease in real-time. Specular lighting is the most difficult to solve
[76]. Change the camera perspective or leaf location to reduce specular illumination
in photos. Zhou noted that automatic captures make it more difficult to prevent
lighting problems, which lead to specular reflections and shadows [80].

5.7 Camera

One of the most important aspects that directly affect the quality of an image is its
resolution. Small lesions and spores can be spotted with improved resolution. They
are also affected by the camera or other capture device’s settings.

5.8 Image Preprocessing

More data is lost when the compression ratio increases during the preprocessing and
storage of leaf photos. While this might not have much of an impact on the diagno-
sis of major lesions, it could drastically skew the interpretation of minor symptoms.
Therefore, if the symptoms are mild, no or minimal compression should be applied.

5.9 Image Segmentation and Symptom Discrimination

In most cases, healthy and sick tissue are difficult to distinguish since healthy tissue
symptoms fade gradually. This affects the threshold and extracted characteristics.
Manual and visual representations fail to define edges, and machine-based repre-
sentations are subjective. [81] and [82] addressed the subjective delineation of
afflicted regions and the need for an external reference for validating illness identi-
fication systems and discovered that false negatives or positives are excessively high
when using no reference for leaf powdery mildew [83]. Inconsistencies are
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming 199

fundamental to the process; hence, few solutions have been presented. Segmenting
and locating ROIs present additional issues, including the following:
• A leaf could be tipped, covered in dew or dust, or overlapping another leaf or
portion of the plant.
• Segmenting symptomatic regions of interest (ROIs) from images with complex
backgrounds can be difficult and time-consuming.

5.10 Feature Selection and Extraction

Despite having similar appearances, several plant species have varied leaf forms.
Symptoms may be masked by thick foliage, fruit, or flower petals or deep within the
plant. The latter has less scholarly focus. Leaf disease detection from the above has
been studied extensively. There is an advocated R-CNN for identifying tomato ill-
nesses [29].

5.11 Disease Classification

When trying to identify plant diseases, a classifier may be rendered useless if mul-
tiple diseases share visually similar symptoms. These issues also have an impact on
how severe the ailment is.

5.12 Differences in Disease Symptoms

Disease indicators vary in size, color, and shape, making precise diagnosis challeng-
ing. Many diseases might develop simultaneously, making it difficult to distinguish
symptom combinations from individual symptoms [84]. We observed this issue
when treating black drip sickness on banana leafs and powdery mildew on squash
leaves [85].

5.13 Similarities in Manifestations Among Various

Chaos Varieties

Diseases, phytotoxicity, the presence of parasites, and nutritional inadequacies are

just a few examples of conditions that might cause symptoms that are visually simi-
lar to one another. Therefore, if only the visible spectrum is employed for identifica-
tion, it might be extremely challenging to pinpoint the source of a symptom with
certitude. This necessitates techniques that rely on subtle distinctions between
200 M. Elumalai et al.

symptoms. Several academics have pointed out that the clinical similarities between
certain illnesses cause severe discrimination problems. According to Ahmad, a clas-
sifier they developed was unable to differentiate between symptoms caused by
Fusarium, mosaic Potyvirus, Alternaria, and Phomopsis in soybean. Thus far,
researchers have avoided this problem by focusing on diseases with quite different
symptoms, but, even so, making the right call has been difficult [86].

6 Conclusions

Agriculture struggles with crop diseases. Crop diseases can be slowed if caught
early. This book contains cutting-edge research on sickness identification systems.
This study varies from others because it analyzes specific studies and approaches. It
gives researchers a roadmap and resources. This paper discusses the automatic crop
disease diagnosis technique and its primary elements, including fuzzy symptom
boundaries, shifting imaging conditions, variable disease symptoms, similar disease
symptoms, and simultaneous disease symptoms. All previous image processing and
analysis technologies had these limitations. According to a study, image preparation
influences segmentation accuracy. K-means clustering identified diseased leaf
regions best. CNN models recognize visual patterns. Computer vision and AI are
new to crop diagnostics; therefore, many of their alternatives and opportunities,
which may aid, have not been investigated. Increasing processing power simplifies
once-complex strategies. Based on this in-depth literature study, the researchers
hope to build a method to diagnose crop illnesses from foliar images swiftly and
affordably. This disease-detecting device will inform farmers through a smartphone
app and identify plant diseases quickly. Farms utilize a hexacopter to photograph
damaged foliage. Photos are further processed. Using image processing and deep
learning, this project hopes to detect and diagnose plant diseases sooner. This
method reduces operational costs because humans don’t need to inspect plants for
illnesses or diseases round-the-clock. This technology saves time and increases
agricultural yield. Convolutional Neural Network has improved disease diagnosis to
71.042% and improve drone detection.
This research examines drone-based precision agriculture. This paper explores
drone crop monitoring and pesticide spraying in precision agriculture. Design
updates, data-gathering sensors, pesticide-spraying drones, deep learning, and AI
are discussed. After 2017, precision farming drones will rise. UAVs are cheaper,
lighter, and payload-capable. Drones patrol fields and herds. Drone size and price
keep falling. Big payload unmanned planes spread insecticides and fertilizer. There
are more pesticide-spraying planes, stabler multi-copter spraying, and smaller,
lighter, higher-resolution drone cameras are available.
RGB cameras capture fewer details than multispectral cameras. Drones are con-
trolled by Arduino Uno or Raspberry Pi AI. Autonomous drones use embedded
electronics, data transmission, and processing. Farming drones employ
AI. Agricultural drone technology has many problems. High costs, short battery
life, vision damage, and little technological literacy are problems.
Machine Learning (ML) Algorithms on IoT and Drone Data for Smart Farming 201

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Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s
Revolution in Smart Farming

N. A. Natraj, Sundaravadivazhagan Balasubaramanian, K. B. Gurumoorthy,

A. Purushothaman, and P. Kannan

1 Introduction

Modern agriculture is at a crossroad, confronted with tremendous problems caused

by global population increase, resource restrictions, climate change, and the press-
ing need for sustainable practices. In this setting, smart farming has arisen to address
these multidimensional difficulties and ensure food security, environmental stew-
ardship, and economic viability for future generations. A novel paradigm at the
nexus of agriculture and technology known as “smart farming” has arisen as a revo-
lutionary force in the contemporary agricultural landscape. The demand for effec-
tive, sustainable, and data-driven farming practices has never been greater due to the
world population’s steady increase and the escalating environmental problems. In
order to transform conventional agricultural practices, smart farming makes use of
cutting-edge technology including Internet of Things (IoT) devices, data analytics,
artificial intelligence (AI), and automation. Smart farming’s main goals are to

N. A. Natraj (*)
Symbiosis Institute of Digital and Telecom and Management, Symbiosis International
(Deemed University), Maharashtra, India
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Balasubaramanian
Department of Information and Technology, University of Technology and Applied
Sciences-Al Mussana, Al Mussana, Oman
K. B. Gurumoorthy
Department of ECE, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India
A. Purushothaman
Hindusthan Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, India
P. Kannan
Department of ECE, Francis Xavier Engineering College, Tirunelveli, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 207
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_11
208 N. A. Natraj et al.

maximize resource use, boost productivity, and lessen environmental effect. Farmers
can make informed decisions regarding irrigation, fertilization, pest management,
and other crucial aspects of agriculture by combining real-time data from sensors,
satellites, and drones. This data-driven approach promotes sustainable practices,
safeguarding vital resources for future generations while also boosting output and
lowering waste. The need for smart agricultural practices is addressed in the follow-
ing sections:

1.1 Population Growth and Food Demand

The relationship between population expansion and food consumption is a critical

concern in the twenty-first century, highlighting the sustainability of global agricul-
tural systems. As the world’s population grows to an anticipated 9.7 billion by 2050,
as forecasted by the UN, the demand on food resources becomes more apparent.
This growing population necessitates a significant increase in dietary demand.
People require food to survive, and the demand for food goes beyond quantity to
include nutritional quality, diversity, and accessibility [1]. Adequate nutrition is
more than just a matter of satiation; it is the foundation of health, development, and
societal well-being. The complexities of supplying this need become more complex
as urbanization accelerates and nutritional tastes shift [2]. The modern customer
seeks not only food but also ethical considerations such as ethically sourced food
and lower environmental effect. This complex matrix of elements puts significant
strain on present farming practices. The task is not simply to produce more food but
to do so while protecting key resources. Arable land is limited, and water resources
are becoming increasingly scarce. Climate change exacerbates agricultural output
instability, resulting in yield swings and crop failures. The need to close the gap
between food demand and availability is more than a theoretical worry; it has world-
wide implications, affecting economies, social stability, and human dignity. As a
result of this obstacle, creativity emerges as a ray of hope. Precision agriculture,
smart farming, and vertical farming are examples of technology-driven solutions
that use data, automation, and sustainable practices to maximize yields and resource
utilization. Farmers may make more informed decisions, increase production, and
reduce waste by combining artificial intelligence, remote sensing, and data analyt-
ics. Furthermore, the importance of sustainable agricultural practices becomes
unmistakable. Crop rotation, agroecological approaches, and lower chemical inputs
become more popular, creating a harmonious relationship between farming and the
environment. Efforts to address food demand are gaining traction, from local initia-
tives to worldwide cooperation, with a focus on resilience, adaptation, and equitable
distribution. The dynamic interaction between population increase and food con-
sumption is a serious challenge that requires an overhaul of paradigms in global
agriculture.
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 209

1.2 Scarcity of Resources and Efficiency

The growing world population, which is expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050,
exacerbates concerns about the shortage of key resources and emphasizes the
importance of agricultural efficiency. With limited arable land and water, meeting
the world’s growing food demand becomes increasingly difficult. Statistical data
underscores the seriousness of resource scarcity. According to the World Resources
Institute, agriculture currently covers around 38% of the world’s land area and uses
approximately 70% of freshwater withdrawals. This utilization, however, is far from
equitable, with poor practices resulting in significant waste. According to the Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO), one-third of all food produced globally, worth
about $1 trillion, goes to waste each year. The world’s expanding population, which
is anticipated to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, exacerbates concerns about a lack of
critical resources and highlights the necessity of agricultural efficiency. Meeting the
world’s expanding food demand is becoming increasingly difficult due to the lim-
ited arable land and water. Statistical data emphasizes the gravity of resource short-
age. Agriculture currently spans around 38% of the world’s land surface and
consumes approximately 70% of freshwater withdrawals, according to the World
Resources Institute. However, this utilization is far from equitable, with poor prac-
tices resulting in enormous waste. According to the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), one-third of all food produced globally each year, worth
around $1 trillion, is wasted. Precision agriculture, a pillar of efficiency-driven
innovation, tackles these issues square on. Precision agriculture optimizes resource
allocation by utilizing real-time data from sensors, satellites, and drones. Precision
solutions, such as variable rate technology and site-specific management, can cut
input use by up to 20%, reducing waste and improving sustainability, according to
the American Society of Agronomy. Furthermore, emerging technologies such as
vertical farming and aquaponics hold enormous promise. According to
MarketsandMarkets, the vertical farming industry will expand from $2.5 billion in
2020 to $7.3 billion by 2025, indicating a growing appreciation for their ability to
maximize yield per unit of land and water. Aquaponics, a hybrid of fish farming and
hydroponics, provides an appealing solution by recycling nutrient-rich water while
reducing consumption. Climate change, which exacerbates resource scarcity,
emphasizes the importance of agricultural efficiency even more. Changes in pre-
cipitation patterns and the increased frequency of extreme weather events, accord-
ing to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), endanger agricultural
output, emphasizing the significance of optimizing resource utilization to counter-
act these impacts. Scarcity of resources, particularly arable land and water, poses a
significant threat to global food security. The potential for efficiency-driven solu-
tions propelled by technical innovation, on the other hand, is huge.
210 N. A. Natraj et al.

1.3 Necessity to Adapt According to Climate Change Issues

The urgent need to adapt agricultural practices to climate change challenges has
arisen as a critical concern in guaranteeing global food security and environmental
sustainability. Traditional farming systems face significant challenges as the Earth
suffers increasingly irregular weather patterns, rising temperatures, and altered pre-
cipitation regimes. Statistical data emphasizes the importance of this adaptability.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), climate
change is already hurting food production, with a projected 25% reduction in staple
crops like rice and maize by 2050. Furthermore, the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) believes that climate-related variables have already deterio-
rated around 20% of worldwide agricultural land. Climate change adaptation neces-
sitates a fundamental overhaul of agricultural practices. Among the methods gaining
traction are the adoption of drought-resistant agricultural types, the improvement of
water management systems, and the use of agroforestry techniques. A study pub-
lished in Nature Climate Change journal found that changing to drought-tolerant
crops might boost global crop production by up to 10% under climate change sce-
narios. Furthermore, precision agriculture is emerging as a critical component of
climate adaption initiatives. Precision agriculture improves resource allocation,
reduces waste, and optimizes yields by leveraging data from satellites, drones, and
sensors. According to the World Economic Forum, precision agriculture could
reduce water usage by up to 50% while increasing crop yields by up to 30%. Climate
adaptation requires collaboration among farmers, governments, and researchers.
Investment in research and development, extension services, and climate-resilient
infrastructure can help spread new practices. The combination of indigenous knowl-
edge and traditional farming techniques with modern technologies provides a com-
prehensive approach. Climate change imperatives need a paradigm shift in
agricultural practices. Not only is adaptation a guarantee for food security, but it is
also a critical step in lessening the effects of climate change on vulnerable ecosys-
tems and communities [3]. The agricultural industry can manage the difficulties of
climate change and create a resilient future for future generations by combining
technology innovation, sustainable practices, and collaborative efforts.

1.4 Shortages in Labor and Changing Demographics

The worldwide agricultural sector is facing a serious challenge: labor shortages and
shifting demographics that are transforming the farming workforce dynamics. As
rural populations decline and aging demographics predominate, the need for new
solutions to sustain agricultural output and assure food security becomes more
pressing. Statistical data underscores the intensity of the situation. According to the
United Nations, by 2050, the share of the global population living in rural areas
would fall to roughly 45%, down from 56% in 1950. Furthermore, the Food and
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 211

Agriculture Organization (FAO) notes that the average age of farmers is progres-
sively growing in many nations, as the youth population migrates away from rural
areas in quest of urban possibilities. For instance, the average age of farmers in
Japan is over 67, highlighting the imminent demographic shift. To preserve the
long-term viability of agricultural production, innovative solutions are required to
address the interaction of workforce shortages and shifting demographics.
Particularly promising for technological advancement are automation and robots. A
study in the journal Agricultural Economics found that the use of agricultural robots
might significantly alleviate labor shortages and increase production effectiveness.
Robots ranging from precise weeders to automated harvesters can fill manpower
shortages and boost output. Additionally, the generational divide between younger
and older farmers may be closed through digital tools and mobile applications. The
World Bank claims that farmers may get critical information through mobile
devices, such as market prices, weather forecasts, and sustainable practices. This
provides experienced farmers and newbies the information they need to make sound
decisions. Governments, educational institutions, and the corporate sector must
work together to overcome these difficulties. Investments in agricultural education,
vocational training, and capacity-building for young farmers have the potential to
revitalize the industry and attract a new generation of agricultural enthusiasts. Labor
shortages and changing demographics offer significant difficulties to global agricul-
ture. As a disruptive strategy, the integration of technology, automation, and tar-
geted instruction arises. The agricultural industry can negotiate the complexity of a
moving workforce, secure food production, and preserve the vitality of rural com-
munities in an ever-changing globe by harnessing these instruments and encourag-
ing collaboration.

1.5 Necessity in Adopting Eco-friendly Practices

in Agriculture

As the global world grapples with the rising issues of environmental degradation
and climate change, the obligation to embrace eco-friendly agricultural practices
has taken on enormous significance. Statistical data underscores the importance of
moving to sustainable agricultural methods, emphasizing the need to balance food
production with environmental preservation. Agriculture, according to the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emis-
sions, accounting for around 14% of world emissions. Furthermore, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report emphasizes that the cur-
rent trajectory of agricultural emissions is incompatible with the objective of keep-
ing global warming well below 2 °C. Eco-friendly practices provide an appealing
answer. Organic farming, conservation tillage, and integrated pest control are exam-
ples of agroecological practices that can dramatically reduce agriculture’s environ-
mental imprint. According to a study published in the journal Nature Communications,
212 N. A. Natraj et al.

organic agricultural practices can lower greenhouse gas emissions by up to 30%

when compared to traditional approaches. Water conservation is also an important
issue. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), agriculture accounts for 70%
of worldwide freshwater withdrawals [4]. Drip irrigation and rainwater collection
are two eco-friendly irrigation strategies that not only save water but also improve
water use efficiency. According to a study conducted by the International Water
Management Institute, adopting water-efficient practices might enhance agricul-
tural yields by up to 50%. Adopting environmentally responsible practices has eco-
nomic ramifications. According to the Organic Trade Association, the global market
for organic products has grown significantly, reaching $124.6 billion in 2019. This
trend highlights the growing consumer desire for food that is produced in a sustain-
able manner. Collaboration between governments, farmers, and the commercial
sector is critical in making the shift to environmentally friendly practices. Incentive
programs, subsidies for ecologically responsible agricultural methods, and capacity-­
building activities can all help to spread the use of environmentally responsible
approaches. The need of implementing eco-friendly agricultural practices is empha-
sized by the urgency of mitigating climate change, conserving natural resources,
and guaranteeing long-term food security. Incorporating sustainable practices not
only decreases environmental effect but also opens up economic prospects. As the
world’s issues rise, adopting environmentally friendly practices appears as a critical
step toward building a healthy relationship between agriculture and the environment.

1.6 Increasing Market Demand and Quality

Assurance Measures

The agricultural industry is transforming as rising market demand and the need for
quality assurance procedures collide to influence the future of food production.
Statistical data emphasizes the critical need of addressing consumer preferences and
guaranteeing product integrity in order to fulfill the growing needs of a discriminat-
ing global market. According to the World Bank, population growth, changing eat-
ing patterns, and urbanization are expected to propel the global food market to $10
trillion by 2025. Quality and safety have taken front stage as customers have become
increasingly attentive of their food choices. According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), over 600 million people become ill each year as a result of
foodborne infections, emphasizing the importance of strong quality assurance
methods. Quality assurance encompasses all aspects of authenticity, traceability,
and ethical and environmentally friendly production [5]. As a powerful tool for
enhancing quality assurance throughout the supply chain, blockchain technology
has recently come into its own. Blockchain can increase traceability and transpar-
ency by enabling customers to confirm their food’s place of origin and travel his-
tory, according to a Deloitte study. This technology promotes confidence and trust,
both of which are essential for satisfying consumer demand. Standards and
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 213

certifications play a significant role in quality assurance. Approximately 1.5 million

businesses are accredited to the Global Food Safety Initiative’s (GFSI’s) interna-
tionally established food safety standards. These standards ensure that food prod-
ucts meet established quality standards, boosting consumer confidence and market
accessibility. Furthermore, the organic and non-GMO sectors demonstrate strong
examples of rising market demand driven by quality concerns. According to the
Organic Trade Association, the worldwide organic food market topped $100 billion
in 2018, demonstrating consumer preferences for chemical-free, sustainably pro-
duced products. Similarly, the non-GMO project estimates that non-GMO-verified
product sales in the United States will exceed $30 billion by 2020. Technology
integration is critical to negotiate the complexity of quality assurance and market
demand. Advanced analytics, sensor technology, and AI-driven solutions make real-­
time monitoring and data-driven decision-making possible. These instruments
improve manufacturing efficiency, reduce waste, and meet quality standards. The
convergence of rising market demand and quality assurance requirements reshapes
the agricultural environment. A comprehensive solution based on technology, certi-
fications, and transparent supply chains is required to meet customer preferences for
safe, authentic, and sustainably produced food. As the global market expands,
employing quality assurance procedures is critical to ensuring the agricultural
industry’s lucrative and sustainable future.

1.7 Economic Stability and Profitability Aspects

The pursuit of economic stability and profitability is a major priority in agriculture,

where the intersection of market dynamics, resource management, and technologi-
cal innovation shapes the financial environment. Statistical data emphasizes the
importance of these factors, emphasizing their deep impact on the agricultural sec-
tor’s sustainability and viability. Agriculture is critical to the global economy.
According to the World Bank, agriculture accounts for around 4% of global GDP
and provides a primary source of income for more than 40% of the world’s popula-
tion. Furthermore, the sector’s economic importance extends beyond production to
include commerce, employment, and rural development. The global economy
greatly depends on the agricultural sector. More than 40% of the world’s population
relies primarily on agriculture, which, according to the World Bank, contributes
about 4% of the global GDP. Additionally, the industry’s economic significance
extends beyond production to encompass commerce, employment, and rural devel-
opment. Resource management initiatives are intrinsically related to efforts to sus-
tain economic stability and profitability. For instance, a major problem is the lack of
water. The United Nations estimates that 70% of the world’s freshwater withdrawals
come from agriculture. For instance, drip irrigation and precise application tech-
nologies can optimize water use while bringing down costs and protecting a price-
less resource. Technological innovation has emerged as a critical component in
achieving economic stability and profitability. Precision agriculture, made possible
214 N. A. Natraj et al.

by data analytics, remote sensing, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices, improves
resource allocation, reduces waste, and increases yields. According to a study pub-
lished in the journal Science of the Total Environment, precision farming can lower
input costs by up to 15% while increasing yields by up to 13%. A strong agricultural
sector is built on the foundations of economic stability and profitability. The sector’s
importance is underscored by its contribution to global GDP, jobs, and livelihoods.
The agricultural community can negotiate market dynamics, optimize resource uti-
lization, and secure a successful future by adopting technology, sustainable prac-
tices, and collaborative relationships. As the agricultural sector navigates a
complicated environment characterized by population increase, resource depletion,
climate unpredictability, and shifting customer expectations, the abovementioned
problems highlight the importance of smart farming. By embracing technology-­
driven advances, smart farming offers a transformative path to a more resilient,
sustainable, and wealthy agricultural future.
Blockchain is a pivotal asset in smart farming, where technology is critical. Its
inherent openness, security, and decentralized data management capabilities can
considerably improve smart agricultural practices. By smoothly incorporating
blockchain, the agricultural environment gains increased traceability, greater data
exchange, and more confidence throughout the supply chain. This technology
enables farmers to adopt sustainable practices, provides customers with accurate
product information, and fosters collaborative ecosystems. As a cornerstone of
innovation, blockchain holds the key to ushering in a new era of efficient, resilient,
and transparent smart farming practices. This book chapter on “blockchain technol-
ogy in smart farming” is organized as follows: The second successive chapter deals
with blockchain applications in smart farming. The third chapter explores the ben-
efits and advantages of blockchain technology in smart farming practices. Further,
the challenges and opportunities of blockchain technology in smart farming are
analyzed, and the final chapter concludes with a future look at the implementation
of blockchain technology in smart farming practices.

2 Blockchain Technology: An Introduction

The emergence of blockchain, a groundbreaking technology in conjunction with the

advent of the digital era, has fundamentally transformed our perception and engage-
ment with concepts such as trust, transparency, and the secure management of data.
Fundamentally, blockchain is an inherently decentralized and distributed digital
ledger that maintains a transparent and resistant-to-tampering record of transac-
tions. The significance of blockchain technology extends beyond its affiliation with
cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, embracing a diverse range of applications across
several industries.
The core principle behind blockchain technology is the establishment of a
sequential chain of blocks, wherein each block encompasses a set of transactions.
The aforementioned transactions undergo a process of secure encryption, and upon
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 215

inclusion in a block, they get interconnected with the preceding transaction by cryp-
tographic hashes, so establishing a continuous and uninterrupted sequence of data.
The design of this system guarantees that any modification to the information within
a block necessitates updating the entire subsequent chain, hence enhancing the sys-
tem’s resistance against unauthorized adjustments.
The decentralized nature of blockchain is widely recognized as one of its most
significant characteristics. Traditional centralized systems rely on intermediaries
like banks or governments to validate transactions. In contrast, the blockchain tech-
nology functions within a decentralized network, commonly known as a peer-to-­
peer network, wherein members, typically referred to as nodes, collaboratively
authenticate transactions by means of consensus procedures. The elimination of
intermediaries not only serves to address the need for their involvement but also
contributes to the reinforcement of security measures and the mitigation of potential
vulnerabilities associated with single points of failure.
The influence of blockchain technology extends across multiple industries. In the
field of finance, advancements have facilitated the development of streamlined and
secure cross-border payment systems, along with the implementation of program-
mable smart contracts that autonomously carry out predetermined activities upon
the fulfillment of specified circumstances. The field of supply chain management
derives advantages from the use of blockchain technology, which possesses the
capability to track and authenticate the source and trajectory of commodities. This
feature serves to augment transparency within the supply chain and effectively
address the issue of counterfeit goods. Healthcare systems utilize blockchain tech-
nology to ensure the secure administration of patient data and facilitate interopera-
bility between various healthcare providers.
The advent of blockchain technology has revolutionized the methods through
which digital information is managed, secured, and exchanged. The concept gained
early prominence through its affiliation with cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin; nev-
ertheless, its scope extends well beyond virtual currencies, spanning diverse
domains such as supply chain management, healthcare, banking, voting systems,
and others. Fundamentally, blockchain is an inherently decentralized and distrib-
uted digital ledger that provides unparalleled levels of transparency, security, and
immutability. Figure 1 shows the overview of blockchain functionality.
The following is a full exposition elucidating the operational mechanics of
blockchain technology:
1. Decentralization and Peer-to-Peer Network: The blockchain technology func-
tions through a decentralized network comprising multiple members, com-
monly referred to as nodes. Every node possesses a complete replica of the
entire blockchain, so guaranteeing redundancy and eliminating the necessity
for a centralized governing entity. The utilization of a peer-to-peer network
architecture serves to augment both security and robustness, since it eliminates
the presence of a singular point of control or vulnerability.
2. Transactions and Verification: The blockchain process commences when a par-
ticipant initiates a transaction. The transaction may encompass the transfer of
216 N. A. Natraj et al.

Fig. 1 Overview of blockchain functionality

Bitcoin, the establishment of asset ownership records, or the execution of smart

contracts. The act of transmitting transactions is disseminated to the entirety of
the network.
3. Blocks and Data Structures: The process of organizing verified transactions
involves grouping them into blocks. Each block consists of two primary com-
ponents: a header and a body. A block’s header in a blockchain system has
essential metadata, including a timestamp, a reference to the hash of the preced-
ing block, and other pertinent details. The physical structure of the body con-
tains the factual information about the transaction.
4. The process of transforming the data within each block into a fixed-length
string of characters is achieved by the utilization of cryptographic hash algo-
rithms. The hash generated for each block’s data is distinct and functions as a
digital fingerprint. The inclusion of the hash of the preceding block in the
header of the current block establishes a sequential chain of blocks.
5. Immutability and Security: The incorporation of hash functions in the process
of linking blocks in a blockchain guarantees that once a block is appended to
the chain, modifying its contents or the data of any preceding block necessitates
updating all subsequent blocks. The inherent characteristics of the blockchain
render it exceptionally safe and resistant to tampering. The computational com-
plexity and detectability associated with altering even a solitary piece of data
make it practically impossible to do so.
6. Consensus Mechanisms: Consensus procedures are utilized to protect the integ-
rity of the blockchain in a decentralized fashion. One widely recognized
approach is known as proof of work (PoW), in which miners engage in solving
intricate mathematical puzzles to authenticate transactions and incorporate
blocks. The initial miner that successfully resolves the problem disseminates
the solution, while other nodes subsequently authenticate its accuracy. After
undergoing the verification process, the newly generated block is appended to
the existing blockchain. Additional consensus mechanisms that are commonly
employed in blockchain systems are proof of stake (PoS), delegated proof of
stake (DPoS), and practical Byzantine fault tolerance (PBFT).
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 217

7. Merkle Trees for Data Integrity: The organization of transaction data within a
block commonly involves the utilization of a Merkle tree structure to ensure
data integrity. Within this hierarchical structure, transactions are organized into
groups, and their respective hashes are merged together to generate a singular
hash that encapsulates the entirety of the transaction set. The utilization of the
Merkle root hash facilitates the expeditious verification of the integrity of trans-
actional data.
8. Smart Contracts and Decentralized Applications (DApps): Smart contracts
refer to contractual agreements that are encoded with specific terms and condi-
tions within computer code, enabling them to execute automatically. Contractual
agreements can be automated and enforced without the involvement of inter-
mediaries. The introduction of smart contracts by Ethereum has facilitated the
creation of decentralized applications (DApps) that make use of the block-
chain’s inherent attributes of transparency and security.
9. Chain Extension and Longest Chain Rule: The process of adding new blocks to
the blockchain results in the extension of the chain. In instances where many
miners concurrently discover valid solutions, it is possible for competing chains
to emerge. According to the longest chain rule, the chain that possesses the
highest number of accumulated computational work, as shown by the most
proof-of-work (PoW) solutions, is deemed to be the legitimate chain. This
mechanism facilitates the achievement of consensus and convergence
among nodes.
10. Privacy and Permissioned Blockchains: The utilization of private or permis-
sioned blockchains imposes limitations on access to only authorized partici-
pants, in contrast to public blockchains which are accessible to anybody.
Privacy-enhancing mechanisms such as zero-knowledge proofs and private
transactions are employed inside the blockchain ecosystem to safeguard confi-
dential data.
To summarize, the transformative impact of blockchain technology is founded on its
capacity to provide trust, transparency, and security in a decentralized digital world.
Blockchain technology ensures tamper-resistant data storage, safe transactions, and
the possibility for a wide variety of transformational applications by utilizing cryp-
tographic hashes, consensus procedures, and decentralized networks. Its continued
development can transform entire industries, rethink traditional paradigms of trust,
and spark innovation worldwide.

2.1 Benefits of Blockchain Technology

The blockchain technology offers a wide variety of benefits that have the potential
to revolutionize businesses and alter the way we carry out transactions, manage
data, and build trust in the digital world. These benefits have the ability to revolu-
tionize industries and transform how we conduct transactions, manage data, and
218 N. A. Natraj et al.

establish trust. The following is a list of some of the primary benefits offered by
blockchain technology:
Decentralization and security blockchain technology rely on a distributed network
of nodes to perform its operations, doing away with the requirement for a single,
centralized authority. This decentralization increases safety by lowering the like-
lihood that a single point of failure will occur or that an attack will be launched
against a central institution. Because consensus techniques are used to verify
transactions, it is exceedingly difficult for hostile actors to modify data.
Accountability and Transparency: Because of the decentralized nature of block-
chain technology, all participants are able to examine the same data at the same
time, so providing a single source of truth. This openness increases accountabil-
ity because any modifications or transactions are recorded and available to all
participants of the network. As a result, the likelihood of fraud or disputes is
diminished as a result of this.
Immutability and Data Integrity: Once data has been added to the blockchain, it
becomes virtually hard to alter the data without the consensus of the majority of
network participants. This ensures that the data retains its original integrity.
Because of the cryptographic ties that exist between blocks, the system is
extremely difficult to being tampered with because any modifications to a single
block would need the modification of all following blocks.
Traditional financial systems and intermediaries frequently include processes that
take a lot of time and result in hefty costs. Modern alternatives provide signifi-
cant time and money savings. As a result of removing the need for middlemen
through the facilitation of direct peer-to-peer transactions, blockchain technol-
ogy makes it possible to do business more quickly and at a cheaper cost, particu-
larly when it comes to international payments and remittances.
Transactions Can Happen Rapidly: Blockchain-based transactions can happen rap-
idly, especially when compared to traditional banking systems, which might
involve delays owing to processing times, working hours, and different time
zones. Transactions Might also Take Place Across Borders: Blockchain-based
transactions can also take place across borders. This speed is especially useful
for business dealings that take place across international borders.
Reduced Intermediates: The use of intermediates, which can include financial insti-
tutions, payment processors, and escrow services, is essential for the completion
of transactions in a variety of business sectors. The decentralized and peer-to-­
peer nature of blockchain technology eliminates the need for third parties, which
streamlines operations and may result in cost savings.
Traceability and Supply Chain Management: Blockchain technology makes it pos-
sible to track products and things from beginning to end and enables parties in a
supply chain to monitor each stage of its progression. This transparency aids in
the prevention of fraud and counterfeiting and assures that the products being
sold are real.
Contracts that Execute Themselves and Automation: Smart contracts are contracts
that have their predetermined rules explicitly encoded into code. These contracts
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 219

are also known as “self-executing contracts.” When certain criteria are satisfied,
they will carry out predetermined behaviors on their own. Because of this auto-
mation, there is less of a need for human intervention, which both boosts produc-
tivity and cuts down on errors.
Privacy and Ownership of Data: Blockchain technology has the potential to provide
a safe environment for the administration and exchange of sensitive data. The
level of control that individuals have over their own personal information can be
increased, allowing them to give access to certain parties while still retaining
ownership.
Applications in Multiple Industries: Because of its adaptability, blockchain technol-
ogy is useful to a wide variety of industries in addition to banking. The transpar-
ency and security properties of blockchain could be beneficial to a variety of
industries, including healthcare, real estate, supply chain, voting systems, and
intellectual property rights, to name just a few.
Accessibility on a Global Scale: Blockchain software runs on the Internet, making
it possible to connect with users located all over the world. This accessibility is
especially significant in areas that have restricted access to the traditional finan-
cial infrastructure.
Innovation and Collaboration: Blockchain has helped foster innovation by giving a
platform for developers to construct decentralized applications (DApps) and new
business models. This has led to more collaboration between companies. It does
this by enabling players to develop on top of preexisting blockchain systems,
which in turn stimulates collaboration among members.
In spite of the numerous advantages it offers, it is essential to keep in mind that
blockchain technology also has a number of disadvantages. These disadvantages
include problems with scalability, worries about energy consumption (particularly
in PoW-based blockchains), regulatory uncertainties, and the requirement for user
education. Despite this, the technology is continuing to advance, which means it
still has a significant capacity to transform entire industries and give people
more agency.

3 Blockchain in Smart Farming

The agricultural sector is currently confronted with many issues and complexities,
many of which are amenable to being efficiently solved through blockchain technol-
ogy. Blockchain’s one-of-a-kind characteristics can be of great use to smart farm-
ing, an approach that uses cutting-edge technology to improve the efficiency of
agricultural processes [6].
Traceability is the ability to follow the transit of food products from the farm to
the consumer’s plate using blockchain technology. This can help to assure the safety
of food as well as its ability to be traced. A farmer, for instance, might use block-
chain technology to monitor the transit of their crops from the field to the
220 N. A. Natraj et al.

supermarket using the system. Consumers would be able to trace the origins of their
food and understand the production process as a result of this.
Blockchain technology has the potential to increase transparency throughout the
agricultural supply chain. This can assist farmers, retailers, and customers develop
a stronger sense of trust in one another. For instance, a food distributor may utilize
blockchain technology to monitor the flow of food products all the way from the
farm to the supermarket using RFID tags. Because of this, the distributor would be
able to spot any possible difficulties in the supply chain and take the necessary cor-
rective actions. Blockchain technology may be able to assist in making the supply
chain for agricultural products more efficient. The cost of food and its availability
could be reduced due to this. A farmer, for instance, may use blockchain technology
to monitor the amount of water and fertilizer that is applied to their crops. Using
these data could lead to improvements in irrigation and fertilization procedures [7].
Figure 2 shows the various applications of blockchain in smart farming.
Blockchain is a secure technology that can help to protect data from being fraud-
ulently altered or altered in any other way. In the agricultural industry, where there
is a great deal of sensitive data, such as crop yields and production costs, this is a
crucial consideration to take. Compliance blockchain technology can assist farmers
in complying with rules, such as those pertaining to the safety of food and the pro-
tection of the environment. A farmer, for instance, might use blockchain technology
to monitor the use of fertilizers and pesticides to his or her crops. After then, the data
could be utilized to provide evidence of conformity with the regulations. The agri-
cultural industry may become more environmentally friendly with the use of block-
chain technology. For instance, the carbon footprint of various food products might
be tracked using blockchain technology. After gathering this information, decisions
about the production and consumption of food can be made that are more environ-
mentally friendly [8].
Blockchain technology can be implemented in smart farming for multiple appli-
cations. It will ease out multiple processes involved in smart farming. In upcoming
sections, they are explained in detail.

Fig. 2 Application of blockchain in smart farming

Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 221

3.1 Food Traceability

Food traceability refers to the act of following the path of food products from their
point of origin all the way through the various stages of production, processing, and
distribution, whether they are being sold or consumed at the end of the chain. It is
an essential component in the whole process of maintaining the safety, quality, and
openness of the food supply chain. Traceability is of paramount importance in
today’s increasingly interconnected and globalized food market since it allows busi-
nesses to allay consumer fears over the authenticity and safety of the food they
purchase. Traceability systems make it possible to quickly identify and mitigate
potential hazards, such as outbreaks of foodborne illnesses or contamination, by
giving complete information on the source, handling, and movement of food prod-
ucts. These risks include foodborne illnesses and contamination. For the purpose of
establishing and preserving food traceability, cutting-edge technology such as
blockchain, barcodes, radio frequency identification, and quick response (QR)
codes is utilized. These technologies make it possible to collect and store data
regarding the origin of materials, production procedures, transit routes, storage con-
ditions, and a variety of other factors [9]. In particular, blockchain provides an
immutable and transparent ledger that records each transaction in the supply chain.
This ensures that data cannot be altered or tampered with in any way. Consumers
are provided with unparalleled transparency into the origins, handling, and quality
of the food that they consume as a result of the utilization of blockchain technology,
which enables each step of the route that a food product takes to be securely recorded
and confirmed:
(a) Farm-to-Fork Tracking: The ability to trace the movement of food products
from the time they are grown or produced on the farm to the time they are
served on a consumer’s plate is at the core of this system. Every step of the
process, from harvesting to processing to transportation to distribution, is docu-
mented as a transaction on the blockchain. These steps include harvesting, pro-
cessing, transportation, and distribution.
(b) Immutable Records: The decentralized nature of blockchain technology means
that once data is uploaded to the distributed ledger, it cannot be changed or
tampered with in any way. This immutability provides a robust solution for
maintaining the integrity of information relating to the origin and safety of food
because it cannot be changed.
(c) Data Collection and Integration: The blockchain has the potential to combine a
number of different technologies, such as sensors, RFID tags, and Internet of
Things (IoT) devices, in order to collect real-time data regarding conditions
such as temperature, humidity, and how it is handled. Following this step, the
corresponding digital records of the food goods are added to the blockchain and
correlated with the data.
(d) Intelligent Contracts and Automated Decision-Making: Intelligent contracts
can be used to automate actions and decisions based on predetermined param-
eters. For instance, if the temperature inside a refrigerated vehicle that is
222 N. A. Natraj et al.

t­ransporting perishable items increases above a safe threshold, the blockchain

may trigger an alert to be sent to the relevant parties and initiate corrective
procedures.
(e) Transparency for Customers: Customers can access the blockchain-based sys-
tem by scanning product labels with their mobile devices using QR codes or
other mobile applications. This allows users to read specific information about
the journey the food has taken, such as the farm where it was grown, the day it
was harvested, the transit route, and any certifications pertinent to the voyage [5].
(f) Food Safety and Product Recalls: In the unfortunate event of a foodborne ill-
ness outbreak or product recall, blockchain enables quick identification of
batches that are implicated. Companies are able to establish the primary cause
of the problem and reduce the scope of the recall if they can track the impacted
product all the way back to its original source.
(g) Verification of Claims: Blockchain technology enables the verification of claims
relating to organic, non-GMO, fair trade, and sustainable business practices.
Customers can have faith that the information that is presented on the block-
chain is true and is supported by a record that is difficult to manipulate.
(h) Efficiency of the Supply Chain: **Blockchain’s ability to provide real-time vis-
ibility into the movement of items enables it to discover inefficiencies and bot-
tlenecks in the supply chain. By having access to this information, stakeholders
are given the ability to make decisions that are driven by data in order to improve
efficiency and cut waste.
(i) Ethical Sourcing: Blockchain technology has the potential to support ethical
sourcing by giving evidence of ecologically responsible production methods
and fair labor practices [10]. Displaying their products’ whole path is one way
businesses demonstrate their dedication to sustainable practices.
(j) Regulatory Compliance: Blockchain technology makes it easier to adhere to
standards governing the safety of food and the criteria for labeling it. Records
that are easily accessible and can be audited make it easier to report on regula-
tory requirements and assist avoid penalties.
Consumers can gain trust in the safety, authenticity, and ethical production practices
of the food they choose by using blockchain-based food traceability mechanisms,
while producers and supply chain partners can operate more efficiently, transpar-
ently, and responsibly.

3.2 Smart Contracts in Smart Farming

The innovative innovation that represents blockchain technology is called a smart

contract. Smart contracts enable the automation of complicated agreements and
transactions in a way that is safe and resistant to tampering. Smart contracts have
the potential to revolutionize relationships between farmers, suppliers, and retailers
in the context of the agricultural supply chain. This would result in the
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 223

simplification of processes, a reduction in costs, and an increase in the efficiency of

operations. Here, we have explained about the usage of smart contracts for smart
agriculture process:
1. Defining Smart Contracts: Smart contracts are agreements that can carry out
their own terms and conditions and have those terms and conditions directly
encoded in the code. The contract will automatically carry out the delegated
tasks after the predetermined conditions have been satisfied. There will be no
need for any intermediaries or human participation throughout this process.
2. Automating Agricultural Transactions: The agricultural supply chain is com-
prised of several stakeholders, including farmers, suppliers, distributors, and
retailers. These stakeholders engage in a variety of transactions with one
another. The purchase of crops, the transfer of ownership of products, the
arranging of delivery times, and the processing of payments are all processes
that are involved in these transactions.
3. Increased Productivity and Decreased Expenses: In the past, completing these
types of transactions required a significant amount of paperwork, verification
by hand, and the use of middlemen to make payments. These inefficiencies can
be eliminated through the use of smart contracts, which automate the entire
process. Because of this, the execution takes place more quickly, there is less of
a stress placed on administrative staff, and there are cost savings for all parties
concerned.
4. Automating the Payment Process: An excellent illustration of the implementa-
tion of smart contracts is the process of automating payments to farmers. The
smart contract will direct an automated payment to the farmer’s bank account
after the conditions of the agreement have been satisfied, such as the delivery of
the agreed-upon quantity of crops. This decreases the likelihood of payment
disputes and eliminates the delays that are typically associated with conven-
tional means of payment.
5. Trust and Transparency: The blockchain, which is a distributed and immutable
record, is the platform on which smart contracts are executed. Because of this
transparency, it is guaranteed that all parties are aware of the terms of the con-
tract and how it is being carried out. As a consequence of this, there is a high
level of trust among the participants, as they are able to independently verify
the actions and the outcomes.
6. Getting Rid of the Need for Intermediaries: Smart contracts do away with the
requirement that transactions be supervised and verified by intermediaries such
as banks and escrow services. This not only lowers the costs of the transactions
but also speeds up the process because there are no delays caused by the pro-
cessing times of the intermediaries.
7. A Decrease in the Occurrence of Errors and Disputes: The use of smart con-
tracts to automate financial transactions results in a significant reduction in the
chance of human errors occurring during the manual data entry or processing of
financial transactions. In addition, the fact that the execution of the contract is
based on predefined rules helps to reduce the number of disagreements that can
arise from misconceptions.
224 N. A. Natraj et al.

8. Adaptability and Versatility: The unique requirements of a transaction can be

programmed into a smart contract so that it can be modified to satisfy those
needs. Because of this flexibility, stakeholders are able to tailor the contract
terms, payment conditions, and triggers to meet their specific requirements.
9. Capacity to Scale and Maintain Consistency: Because blockchain technology is
naturally distributed, smart contracts have the capacity to expand to handle a
high volume of transactions without sacrificing their performance. In addition,
the execution of smart contracts is standardized across all parties, which ensures
uniformity and eliminates conflicts between transactions.
10. Optimization of the Supply Chain: Smart contracts can be implemented in a
variety of supply chain processes in addition to payment processing. They are
able to automate the placing of orders, the management of stock, and the qual-
ity inspections and even trigger automatic restocking when stock levels fall
below a given threshold.

3.3 Supply Chain Management in Smart Farming

Using Blockchain

When it comes to supply chain management, blockchain technology is emerging as

a disruptive force that has the ability to revolutionize the ways in which goods and
materials are monitored, traced, and controlled over the entirety of the supply chain
lifecycle. Firms are able to assure the safe and transparent flow of products by inte-
grating blockchain technology into the operations that make up their supply chains.
In addition, this allows the firms to improve safety, cut waste, and increase overall
efficiency:
1. The Complexity of Modern Supply Chains: Modern supply chains are compli-
cated, encompassing various stakeholders, phases, and geographical locations.
This presents a challenge for supply chain management. It might be difficult to
maintain quality control over the items as they progress through each of these
stages. Food safety risks and excessive waste are frequently the results of prob-
lems such as fraud, counterfeiting, inefficient operations, and a lack of open-
ness in the food industry.
2. Using Blockchain to Track Items: The decentralized and tamper-proof nature of
blockchain technology makes it an ideal solution for tracing items and materi-
als across the supply chain. Transactions can be safely recorded on the block-
chain at each stage with data pertaining to the movement, handling, and
conditions of the products.
3. Increased Food Safety: The use of blockchain technology in supply chain man-
agement has the ability to increase food safety, which is one of the most impor-
tant benefits of this technology. For example, blockchain technology can enable
real-time visibility into the temperature conditions that exist during the transit
and storage of perishable food products, such as fruits and vegetables. In the
case that the appropriate temperature range is exceeded, the parties responsible
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 225

can be immediately notified, which will prevent the food from going bad and
reduce the likelihood of any associated health hazards.
4. Less Food Waste Blockchain: It has the potential to drastically cut down the
amount of food that is wasted by making real-time monitoring and transparency
possible. Products that are at an increased risk of expiration or spoilage can be
discovered early, which provides stakeholders with the opportunity to take cor-
rective action, such as rerouting or prioritizing the distribution of the affected
products.
5. Transparency in the Supply Chain: Blockchain’s inherent transparency makes
it possible for all parties involved in the supply chain to share access to infor-
mation that is both accurate and current at all times. This transparency helps
stakeholders discover inefficiencies, bottlenecks, and potential sources of risk,
which in turn develops trust among the stakeholders.
6. Quick Problem Detection and Resolution: Using a food distributor as an exam-
ple, blockchain technology may provide real-time insights into the transit of
food products from farm to store. It is possible to identify any delays, devia-
tions, or anomalies as soon as they occur, allowing for appropriate action to be
done to prevent or lessen the impact of any potential interruptions.
7. Putting a Stop to Fraud and Counterfeiting: Fake goods can present substantial
dangers to customers, as well as to the reputation of a business and its potential
earnings. A secure record of each product’s trip may be kept using blockchain
technology. This verifies that the products are authentic and have not been
altered or replaced at any point along their path.
8. Improving the Productivity of the Supply Chain: The automation capabilities of
blockchain can help streamline the operations involved in the supply chain. The
use of smart contracts can eliminate the need for manual intervention and speed
up business operations by automating payments, orders, and shipments depend-
ing on predetermined circumstances.
9. Collaborative Work and Data Sharing: Blockchain technology encourages sup-
ply chain partners to work together by making it possible for them to share data
in a way that is both safe and subject to permissions. As a result of this collab-
orative environment, quicker decision-making is possible since all parties have
access to information that is reliable and up to date.
10. Compliance with Regulatory Standards: In businesses with severe regulatory
standards, such as the food and pharmaceutical sectors, blockchain technology
can facilitate compliance by providing a transparent record of product move-
ment, handling, and conditions. This is especially useful for industries like the
food and pharmaceutical sectors.
The use of blockchain technology into management of supply chains presents a
chance to improve the safety, transparency, and effectiveness of the movement of
goods and commodities via complicated supply chains. Blockchain technology con-
tributes to a more resilient and responsible supply chain ecosystem by ensuring safe
handling, decreasing waste, eliminating fraud, and improving food safety. This eco-
system benefits businesses, consumers, and the environment, all of whom stand to
gain from its implementation.
226 N. A. Natraj et al.

3.4 Effective Data Sharing Using Blockchain

in Smart Farming

The agricultural sector is on the verge of undergoing a digital transformation, and

blockchain technology is emerging as a potent instrument that can stimulate col-
laboration, transparency, and sharing of data among the various parties that make up
the sector. Blockchain’s decentralized and secure nature presents a viable alterna-
tive to improve information sharing between farmers, academics, government agen-
cies, and other critical actors as the demand for environmentally friendly and
productive agricultural practices grows. The following section explains the benefits
of using blockchain for data sharing in smart agriculture:
1. The Current Landscape of Data Sharing in Agriculture: Agriculture is a com-
plex ecosystem that comprises a large number of stakeholders, each of whom
generates valuable data. Farmers gather data on a variety of topics, including
the qualities of the soil, the yields of their crops, and the weather patterns.
Researchers come up with novel solutions based on the findings of scientific
research, while government bodies work to design regulations that encourage
the expansion of the sector. It is necessary for these parties to effectively share
data with one another in order to maximize the utilization of resources, propel
innovation, and guarantee sustainable practices.
2. Using Blockchain to Improve Decision-Making: Using blockchain’s decentral-
ized ledger provides a safe and tamper-resistant platform for sharing data,
which can help improve decision-making. Stakeholders are able to submit
information and access it in a transparent manner, which helps to ensure the
information’s correctness and integrity. This pooled information can provide
agricultural decision-makers across the board with the opportunity to make
educated decisions that have the potential to affect production, sustainability,
and profitability favorably.
3. Collaboration Between Farmers and Researchers: Farmers and researchers both
play an important part in the progression of agricultural practices. Farmers are
able to share data with academics about their experiences, issues, and observa-
tions in a safe and secure manner because of blockchain technology. After that,
researchers can use this data to improve processes, create new crop types, and
offer individualized recommendations that improve production while reducing
resource waste.
4. Formulation of Government Policy: In order to formulate policies that promote
sustainable agriculture and solve issues pertaining to food security, government
agencies rely on data that is both reliable and up to date. Farmers are able to
make their data immediately available to the government through the use of
blockchain technology, which results in the creation of a complete database that
is beneficial to the formulation of efficient regulations.
5. Real-Time Information for Agriculturalists: Sharing of data between farmers,
made possible by blockchain technology, gives farmers access to real-time
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 227

insights that might help them make decisions. For instance, sharing weather
data on a blockchain might assist farmers in making more educated decisions
regarding planting, irrigation, and pest control, ultimately leading to increased
crop yields.
6. Supply Chain Transparency: Blockchain’s data-sharing capabilities extend to
supply chain transparency, making it a useful tool for that purpose. Stakeholders
are able to verify the genuineness and safety of agricultural products by
exchanging information regarding the products’ point of origin, how they are
handled, and the quality of the items. Consumers are able to trace the origins of
their food items, all the way from the farm to their tables, which promotes trust
and encourages responsible consumption.
7. Validation and Reproducibility of Research: Researchers can take advantage of
the immutability of blockchain technology to confirm the authenticity of their
results and benefit from its reproducibility. Sharing research data on a block-
chain makes it possible for peers to more easily validate the data, ensuring the
reproducibility of tests and outcomes.
8. Data Ownership and Ownership Blockchain: It enables data owners, such as
farmers, to maintain ownership over their information while at the same time
giving them the ability to keep it private. They have the ability to determine
who has access to their data and under what circumstances that access is
granted. This answers concerns over data ownership and the protection of per-
sonal information.
9. The Potential for the Monetization of Data and the Provision of Incentives:
Blockchain technology opens the door to the possibility of monetizing data
through the use of tokens. Tokens might be given as a form of payment to farm-
ers and other data providers as an incentive for them to share useful informa-
tion, which would result in the creation of new economic models within the
agricultural ecosystem.
10. International Cooperation and Innovation: Blockchain technology’s decentral-
ized and transnational nature makes it easier for countries to work together.
Farmers and academics from many regions of the world are able to work
together on projects, share their thoughts, and contribute collectively to address-
ing global agricultural concerns.
To summarize, the data-sharing capabilities of blockchain technology have the
potential to revolutionize the agricultural industry into an ecosystem that is more
productive, innovative, and environmentally responsible. Blockchain enables
decision-­makers to create positive change, optimize resource allocation, and pro-
mote responsible agricultural practices that benefit both current and future genera-
tions by fostering collaboration among farmers, academics, government agencies,
and other stakeholders. This is accomplished through the use of distributed ledger
technology (blockchain).
228 N. A. Natraj et al.

3.5 Financial Resolutions Using Blockchain Technology

in Smart Farming

The financial options available to farmers, particularly those working on a smaller

scale, could undergo a dramatic shift as a result of the introduction of blockchain
technology. Farmers that have difficulty gaining access to traditional sources of
credit may benefit from using blockchain technology, which enables financial insti-
tutions, microfinance organizations, and even peer-to-peer lending platforms to pro-
vide farmers with funding solutions that are both efficient and secure. This new
technology has the potential to increase agricultural productivity, bolster the nation’s
defenses against hunger, and revitalize rural economies:
1. The Difficulty in Obtaining Financial Support for Agriculture: The acquisition
of the necessary capital to engage in their agricultural endeavors is frequently a
challenge for farmers operating on a smaller scale. The borrower typically has
a short credit history, no collateral, and a banking infrastructure that is difficult
to access, all of which act as common hurdles that prevent them from obtaining
loans from conventional financial institutions. Because of the unequal avail-
ability of finance, farmers are unable to make investments in vital resources like
crops, equipment, and technology that might otherwise help them increase
their output.
2. Empowering Small-Scale Farmers with Blockchain Technology: Blockchain
technology offers a platform that is both decentralized and transparent. This
platform has the potential to revolutionize the method in which financial assis-
tance is provided to farmers. Financial institutions are able to develop a trust-
worthy ecosystem that overcomes the issues associated with traditional lending
because of the unchangeable and auditable nature of blockchain. This is made
possible by exploiting the technology.
3. A Clear Representation of Your Credit History: Blockchain technology logs
every transaction on a distributed ledger that is both safe and open. A transpar-
ent credit history for farmers can be created by keeping a record of their finan-
cial behavior and making loan repayments on time. Even for people who don’t
have a traditional credit history, this can be a credible reference for determining
whether or not someone is creditworthy.
4. Digital Identity and Reputation: Blockchain technology has the potential to
provide farmers with a protected digital identity, which will allow them to con-
struct and cultivate their reputation within the ecosystem of financing. This
identity is comprised of both personal and transactional data, which helps to
cultivate a sense of trust between lenders and borrowers.
5. Smart Contracts for Automated Payments: Smart contracts on the blockchain
have the ability to automate loan disbursements and repayments based on pre-
defined criteria. This feature was introduced in version 1.0 of the Ethereum
platform. This removes the need for intermediaries, lowers the cost of adminis-
trative overhead, and guarantees that repayments will be made on time.
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 229

6. Peer-to-Peer Lending: Blockchain technology has the potential to enable peer-­

to-­peer lending platforms, which will make it possible for anyone to lend money
directly to farmers without the need for intermediaries. This opens up access to
funding for more people while simultaneously lowering the fees that are often
connected with the more traditional lending methods.
7. Remittances and Cross-Border Transactions: Blockchain technology facilitates
cross-border transactions and remittances, bridging geographical and financial
divides. This is especially useful for farmers working in places with restricted
access to banking services.
8. Tokenization and Agricultural Assets: The tokenization features of blockchain
can be used to represent agricultural assets like cattle, crops, or land. Due to the
fact that these tokens may be put up as security for loans, it is now possible for
farmers to obtain finance that was previously inaccessible to them.
9. Reducing the Risk for Lenders: Because of blockchain’s transparency, lenders
are able to keep an eye on how their money is being spent and the development
of their investments. Because of this visibility, the danger of default is decreased,
which in turn boosts the trust of lenders to give credit to farmers.
10. Microfinance Transformation: Microfinance institutions may embrace block-
chain to streamline operations, decrease costs, and expand their reach into
underserved rural areas. Microfinance institutions may embrace blockchain to
streamline operations, decrease costs, and expand their reach into underserved
rural areas. This transition improves financial inclusion and contributes to the
expansion of the economy in rural areas.
In summary, there is a significant possibility that blockchain may revolutionize the
financing of agricultural activities. Blockchain gives small-scale farmers the ability
to invest in their enterprises, so increasing their production and contributing to
greater food security. This is accomplished through democratizing access to credit,
lowering administrative costs, and producing credit records that are public. This
technology is expected to continue maturing and gaining greater usage, and when it
does so, it has the promise of radically altering the financial landscape for farmers,
boosting economic empowerment, and pushing the development of sustainable
agriculture.

3.6 Revolutionizing Agricultural Insurance Through

Blockchain in Smart Farming

In the field of agriculture, where unexpected factors such as weather, pests, and
market swings pose substantial risks, blockchain technology has the potential to
revolutionize the landscape of agricultural insurance. This might be a game-changer
for the industry. Farmers can be protected from the financial losses that can arise
from crop failures, natural disasters, and other unanticipated events by utilizing
blockchain technology, which provides solutions for insurance that are transparent,
230 N. A. Natraj et al.

efficient, and safe. This not only protects their means of subsistence but also pro-
vides an incentive for the adoption of cutting-edge technologies and business
practices:
1. Providing Crop Insurance to Farmers: Failure of crops to be harvested as a
result of poor weather conditions or pests can have a devastating effect on a
farmer’s income. Farmers now have a safety net in the form of blockchain-­
based insurance, which enables them to protect their crops against the hazards
that could affect them. When certain predetermined conditions, such as mini-
mum crop output requirements, are satisfied, smart contracts have the capacity
to be programmed to immediately initiate insurance payouts.
2. Transparent Risk Assessment: Insurers are able to more precisely estimate risks
connected with different areas and crops because of the inherent transparency
that blockchain technology provides. A blockchain can be used by an insurance
firm, for instance, to record meteorological data, previous crop performance,
and other important information. Insurers are able to calculate the chance of
crop failure using this data, and they may then adjust the premiums for their
policies appropriately.
3. Encouraging the Adoption of Risk-Reducing Best Practices: Blockchain-based
insurance not only rewards farmers for losses but also encourages them to adopt
risk-reducing best practices, which can help minimize the likelihood of future
losses. When farmers know they have insurance coverage to rely on in the event
that unforeseen difficulties arise, they are more inclined to make financial
investments in agricultural technologies such as drought-resistant seeds, preci-
sion agriculture, and management of soil health.
4. Efficient Handling of Claims: Historically, the handling of claims in agricul-
tural insurance has been known to be a time-consuming process that is also
prone to disagreements. This procedure can be streamlined with the use of
blockchain technology because it offers a safe and tamper-proof record of all
pertinent information. This includes everything from the data on crop health
and damage to the initial policy issuing. Because of this transparency, the
examination of claims is completed more quickly, and fair reimbursement is
guaranteed.
5. Peer-to-Peer Insurance Networks: Due to the decentralized nature of block-
chain technology, it is possible to create peer-to-peer insurance networks.
Farmers have the ability to combine their resources and act as a group to insure
each other against potential losses. The fund pool is managed using smart con-
tracts, which also automate the claim procedure and cut down the administra-
tive burden.
6. Intelligent Data Collection: Internet of Things (IoT) devices, such as weather
sensors and drones, are able to collect data in real time regarding the health of
crops and the conditions in which they are grown. This information may be
safely maintained on the blockchain, which enables insurers to obtain precise
insights for risk assessment.
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 231

7. The Simplification of Regulatory Compliance: Blockchain technology has far-­

reaching implications for agricultural regulatory compliance, even outside the
realm of insurance. Record-keeping needs to be as accurate and open as possi-
ble because of the increasingly stringent standards governing food safety, envi-
ronmental protection, and the use of chemicals.
8. Creating an Immutable Ledger of Chemical Applications: Blockchain technol-
ogy gives farmers the ability to record the amount of pesticides and fertilizers
they use, thereby producing an immutable ledger of chemical applications. This
data can be used to establish compliance with rules and offer authorities and
customers concerned about product safety with clear information.
9. Tamper-Proof and Readily Auditable Records: Blockchain technology makes it
possible to readily audit and verify records that are related to regulatory com-
pliance. This removes any concerns regarding the manipulation of data or the
fabrication of records, which in turn strengthens the credibility of compliance
efforts.
10. Increasing Trust and Holding Stakeholders Accountable: The transparency
blockchain technology provides increases trust among consumers, regulatory
authorities, and other stakeholders. Accountability is improved, and the credi-
bility of the entire agricultural supply chain is bolstered when farmers can sub-
mit data that can be independently verified in support of their claims that
they comply.
To summarize, there is a tremendous amount of potential for blockchain technology
to revolutionize agricultural insurance and regulatory compliance. Blockchain tech-
nology shields farmers from financial losses, promotes environmentally responsible
practices, and fuels innovation all at once by providing insurance solutions that are
both effective and transparent. The development of a more responsible, efficient,
and secure agricultural ecosystem that is to the mutual benefit of farmers, consum-
ers, and the environment is brought about by blockchain’s ability to simultaneously
ensure compliance with rules through the use of secure and immutable data.

3.7 Enhancing Marketplace Experience Through

Blockchain Technology

Introducing a decentralized platform that directly connects farmers and customers

through blockchain technology has the potential to restructure the market for agri-
cultural products completely. This forward-thinking method eliminates the need for
the conventional intermediaries that are normally involved, so facilitating a trade
that is both open and effective in nature. Farmers can sell their products at higher
prices thanks to this decentralized marketplace. At the same time, consumers benefit
from having access to higher-quality produce at more affordable costs.
The decentralized marketplace does away with the need for intermediaries. It
makes it possible for buyers and sellers to communicate directly with one another
232 N. A. Natraj et al.

using blockchain technology’s characteristics, such as its transparency, immutabil-

ity, and security. Farmers can present their products, including information on farm-
ing practices, certifications, and origins, while consumers can make informed
purchasing decisions based on transparent and validated information.
In this setting, the use of smart contracts is of critical importance. They will
automate the transaction process, including payment and delivery, based on the cir-
cumstances that have been set. The use of a smart contract ensures that a transaction
is carried out without any manual interventions or documentation being required
once a buyer has placed an order and the requirements that have been outlined have
been satisfied.
Farmers are given more agency through decentralization since it enables them to
determine their own prices and interact with a larger pool of customers. This democ-
ratization of pricing enables them to make more money and decreases their reliance
on middlemen, who can eat up a major percentage of a company’s profit margin.
Farmers also can form direct relationships with customers, which can develop trust
and loyalty in the customer base.
The benefits are just as great for the end users, the consumers. They have access
to fresh produce and higher-quality produce due to the items moving directly from
the farm to the consumer’s table, reducing the time spent in storage and shipping. In
addition, consumers can make purchasing decisions that align with their prefer-
ences for organic, sustainable, or locally sourced items thanks to the fact that block-
chain technology gives information that can be verified regarding the origins of
products and the manufacturing methods used.
In addition, because of blockchain’s inherent openness, worries about counter-
feiting and incorrect labeling are rendered moot. As a result of consumers being
able to verify the legitimacy of products and the promises made by farmers, the
marketplace has become more open and honest.
To summarize, a decentralized marketplace that is supported by blockchain tech-
nology has the potential to transform the agricultural trading scene completely. This
platform empowers farmers and consumers by facilitating direct contact between
the two groups. This leads to fairer pricing, increased access to products of higher
quality, and a heightened sense of trust and accountability among all parties
involved. Decentralized marketplaces promise to change the agriculture business
into an ecosystem that is more transparent and efficient and centered on the con-
sumer as blockchain technology advances.

4 Challenges and Limitations of Using Blockchain

in Smart Farming

The application of blockchain technology to smart farming presents several difficul-

ties and constraints, all of which need to be thoughtfully examined to guarantee a
successful implementation and adoption of the technology. Although blockchain
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 233

technology has the potential to revolutionize the agricultural industry completely,

its implementation will require careful planning and careful consideration of vari-
ous factors before it can be successfully implemented.

4.1 Technical Challenges Involved in Blockchain

for Smart Farming

Blockchain, even though it holds a great deal of potential, is fraught with a number
of technical difficulties that may prove to be obstacles during implementation and
use. Because it is a complex and ever-evolving technology, the adoption of this
technology necessitates careful analysis of these issues and the development of
strategies to mitigate them in order to assure successful integration into diverse
industries, including agriculture:
1. Scalability: Blockchain networks may experience problems with scalability,
particularly in public blockchains, which may have slower transaction speeds
than private blockchains. It is possible that the performance of the network
would deteriorate as the number of participants and transactions increases. This
could result in slower confirmation times and increased costs. When dealing
with large-scale agricultural supply chains that involve a big number of partners
and a high volume of transactions, the importance of this difficulty cannot be
overstated.
2. Energy Consumption: The consensus processes used by many blockchain net-
works, particularly those based on proof-of-work, result in considerable quanti-
ties of energy being used by the networks. Because of this, there is the potential
for adverse effects on the environment as well as increased operational expenses,
which might reduce the profitability of blockchain solutions in resource-­
conscious industries such as agriculture.
3. Interoperability: The environment of blockchain technology includes a variety
of platforms and protocols, some of which may not be intrinsically interopera-
ble with one another. It might be difficult to integrate already existing systems
and databases with blockchain technology, which calls for standardized proto-
cols and exhaustive testing to ensure that data can be transferred without any
interruptions.
4. Data Privacy and Security: Although blockchain technology provides increased
security via encryption and immutability, it can be difficult to maintain data
privacy on a public ledger. Especially when dealing with sensitive information
like farmer data or patented crop technologies, it is a key concern to find a bal-
ance between transparency and secrecy. Finding this balance can be a substan-
tial challenge.
5. Compliance with Regulatory Frameworks: Utilizing blockchain technology in
agriculture necessitates an awareness of the various legal and regulatory frame-
works. It is necessary to handle issues such as data ownership and liability, as
234 N. A. Natraj et al.

well as the flow of data across international borders, in order to guarantee com-
pliance with a variety of regional rules.
6. The User Experience: Blockchain user interfaces and applications aren’t always
intuitive to end users because of the technology’s novelty. It is essential to cre-
ate an experience that is user-friendly in order to stimulate acceptance and
usage, particularly among farmers and other stakeholders who may not be
familiar with technology.
7. Education and Skill Gap: A successful adoption of blockchain technology
demands the expertise of trained individuals who are familiar with the com-
plexities of the technology. The closing of the knowledge and skill gaps that
exist among potential users, developers, and administrators can be a difficult
and time-consuming task.
8. Network Security: Even though blockchain technology in and of itself is
thought to be safe, the broader ecosystem surrounding it, which includes wal-
lets, smart contracts, and decentralized applications, might be susceptible to
malicious assaults. In order to prevent breaches and access by unauthorized
parties, it is vital to ensure the security of these components.
9. Governance and Consensus: It might be difficult to set up consensus procedures
and governance models that are tailored to meet the requirements of all of the
stakeholders. In decentralized systems, reaching a consensus on protocol
upgrades, transaction validation, and decision-making procedures can be a dif-
ficult and time-consuming task.
10. Long-Term Sustainability: Continual development, regular updates, and active
participation from the community are required in order to ensure the long-term
viability and continued relevance of blockchain networks. In order to prevent
blockchain initiatives from becoming irrelevant, it is vital to find a solution to
the problem of maintaining a vibrant ecosystem.
In conclusion, although the blockchain technology has enormous potential for revo-
lutionizing industries such as agriculture, it is vital to recognize and overcome the
technical problems that can emerge during the process of putting it into practice.
These issues can be reduced by investing in research, innovation, and collaboration,
which will pave the way for an agricultural ecosystem that is more efficient, trans-
parent, and resilient.

4.2 Regulatory Challenges Involved in Implementing

Blockchain in Smart Farming

The regulatory environment for blockchain technology in the agricultural industry

provides a dynamic and constantly changing challenge. As blockchain becomes
increasingly recognized as a potentially game-changing technology in the agricul-
tural sector, regulatory agencies all over the world are struggling with the necessity
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 235

of establishing clear frameworks that address the applications of blockchain tech-

nology and the repercussions it may have.
The distributed and global nature of blockchain technology presents regulatory
problems that span a wide range of areas. These areas include consumer protection,
intellectual property rights, data privacy, and liability concerns. The fact that the
technology has the ability to disrupt conventional business models, supply chains,
and the relationships between various stakeholders is the source of the complexity.
Data ownership and privacy are one of the most important considerations.
Because of the immutability and transparency of blockchain technology, certain
data protection standards are incompatible with it. This raises problems regarding
who has control over the data that is stored on the blockchain and how it ought to be
maintained in order to comply with privacy laws.
In addition, there are concerns regarding liability and the use of smart contracts
that come into play. Within the context of the currently applicable legal frameworks,
determining culpability can be difficult in the event that an automated smart con-
tract carries out an action that results in unintended effects.
As the number of applications that make use of blockchain technology grows in
the agricultural industry, regulatory agencies have been tasked with the responsibil-
ity of either revising current regulations or drafting whole new ones in order to
strike a balance between encouraging innovation and protecting the rights, safety,
and privacy of all parties involved. To navigate these regulatory hurdles and develop
a framework that maximizes the benefits of blockchain technology while addressing
potential dangers and uncertainties, technological innovators, legislators, legal
experts, and industry stakeholders need to collaborate on their efforts.

4.3 Adoption Challenges of Blockchain Technology

The application of blockchain technology in the agricultural industry faces a num-

ber of hurdles as a result of the innovation’s status as a relatively recent develop-
ment that is still in the process of maturing. While it is clear that blockchain
technology could have beneficial applications, the widespread adoption of this tech-
nology in agricultural practices presents challenges that must be overcome for the
shift to be successful:
1. A Lack of Awareness and Understanding: Many stakeholders within the agri-
cultural sector, such as farmers, cooperatives, and participants in the supply
chain, may have a limited awareness of the possibilities of blockchain and how
it might address industry difficulties. This is a problem because blockchain has
the potential to address many of these challenges. Education and awareness
initiatives are absolutely necessary in order to close this knowledge gap and
encourage the informed adoption of new technologies.
2. Complexity and Requirement for Technical Competence: In order to effectively
develop, implement, and administer blockchain technology, one must have a
236 N. A. Natraj et al.

particular level of technical competence due to the system’s deep principles and
intricacies. Farmers and other participants might not have the necessary techni-
cal abilities to navigate blockchain interfaces and comprehend the possibilities
offered by the technology.
3. Obstacles Presented by Integration: Blockchain technology can be difficult to
incorporate into preexisting agricultural systems, procedures, and databases. It
is necessary to engage in careful planning and extensive customization in order
to achieve seamless compatibility and data exchange between blockchain and
legacy systems. This can be a time-consuming process that demands a signifi-
cant investment of resources.
4. Expenses and the Distribution of Resources: The implementation of blockchain
solutions requires a financial investment, both in terms of the development of
technology and the allocation of training resources. These expenses can be a
barrier to entry for small-scale farmers and resource-constrained organizations,
restricting their ability to embrace blockchain-based practices and making it
more difficult for them to use the technology.
5. Interoperability: The landscape of blockchain technology sometimes lacks
standardized protocols and platforms, which can make it more difficult for dif-
ferent types of systems to communicate with one another. The obstacle that
needs to be surmounted is making it so that blockchain networks can effort-
lessly communicate with one another as well as with technologies that are
already in use.
6. Resistance to Change: The adoption of blockchain technology frequently
necessitates the modification of preexisting procedures and workflows. Despite
the potential advantages of blockchain solutions, their adoption could be ham-
pered by resistance to change on the part of stakeholders who are accustomed
to more conventional approaches.
7. Anxiety Regarding Regulation: The ever-changing regulatory landscape for the
use of blockchain technology in agriculture has the potential to inspire anxiety
among stakeholders. Dealing with complex regulations that are always being
updated can be difficult and could potentially slow down adoption attempts.
8. Provide a Proof of Value: It is essential to provide evidence of the real benefits
that may be gained by using blockchain technology. There is a possibility that
stakeholders will be hesitant to commit to adopting the technology if there are
not clear examples of successful deployments and demonstrable returns on
investment.
9. Effects of the Network: Blockchain’s value typically rises in tandem with the
expansion of the number of participants using the network. Beginning the pro-
cess of adoption can be difficult if there is not currently a critical mass of stake-
holders utilizing the technology.
10. Industry Partnership: In order to achieve widespread use of blockchain technol-
ogy, a partnership between a variety of stakeholders is required. These stake-
holders include farmers, industry associations, technology suppliers, and
legislators. The process of coordinating efforts and aligning interests might be
difficult, but it is vital in order to create an atmosphere that is favorable to
adoption.
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 237

In conclusion, despite the fact that blockchain technology has the potential to radi-
cally alter the agricultural industry, there are still a number of obstacles that must be
cleared before it can be successfully implemented. Stakeholders can pave the way
for the adoption of blockchain technology that promotes efficiency, transparency,
and sustainability across the agricultural value chain by addressing these problems
through education, simplified interfaces, collaboration, and unambiguous demon-
strations of value. These challenges can be addressed by education, simplification of
interfaces, and collaboration.
In spite of these obstacles, the use of blockchain technology in smart farming
could potentially result in major benefits. There is a significant potential for block-
chain technology to bring about a revolution in the agricultural industry by making
it more equal, sustainable, and efficient.

5 Future Scope of Blockchain in Smart Farming

The application of blockchain technology in the future of smart farming offers enor-
mous promise and presents a journey that can completely reshape the agricultural
environment. This will bring about a revolution. Blockchain is poised to play a
major role in transforming the way agriculture is practiced, managed, and experi-
enced as a result of the difficulties that are being addressed and innovations that are
being accepted:
1. More Efficient and Open Supply Chains: The capacity of blockchain technology
to trace and verify each step of the supply chain for agricultural products will
result in operations that are both more efficient and open to public scrutiny.
Consumers will have access to information that can be relied upon on the origin,
quality, and journey of the food products they purchase, which will develop both
trust and responsible consumption.
2. The Revolution of Precision Agriculture: Data sharing enabled by blockchain
technology will provide farmers with real-time information that will empower
them to engage in precision agriculture. The monitoring of the soil’s health and
the optimization of irrigation are two of the intelligent farming practices that will
be improved, which will lead to better yields, increased resource efficiency, and
a reduced impact on the environment.
3. Decentralized Markets and Fair Compensation: Decentralized markets that are
enabled by blockchain technology will do away with the need for intermediaries,
making it possible for farmers to interact directly with consumers. As a result of
this democratization of trade, farmers will receive more just recompense, and
consumers will have better access to affordable goods.
4. Environmentally Good Practices and Traceability: Blockchain technology will
verify and incentivize environmentally good practices as sustainability becomes
an essential component of the agricultural industry. It will be clear to customers
that the production of their food adheres to moral standards, which will
238 N. A. Natraj et al.

e­ ncourage a food supply chain that is more accountable and environmentally

conscientious.
5. Financial Inclusion and Empowerment: Blockchain’s financial services will
bring previously underserved farmers into the financial fold, enabling access to
loans, insurance, and other necessary resources. Because of this empowerment,
there will be a rise in productivity as well as an improvement in people’s stan-
dard of living.
6. Collaborative Efforts and Innovation: The open and safe dissemination of data
made possible by blockchain technology will encourage cooperative efforts
among farmers, academics, policymakers, and consumers. This approach to col-
laboration will speed up the process of developing and implementing creative
solutions to solve the difficulties faced by the agricultural sector.
7. Regulatory Evolution: The regulatory environment will adapt to accept block-
chain in agriculture. The regulatory environment will adapt to accept the one-of-­
a-kind qualities of blockchain in agriculture. The potential of blockchain
technology will eventually be fully realized without jeopardizing its ability to
comply with applicable laws as rules continue to evolve to protect data privacy,
consumers, and fair trade.
8. Continuous Evolution and Adaptation: The path of blockchain technology in
smart farming will be marked by continuous evolution and adaptation. This is the
eighth and final point on the path of blockchain technology in smart farming.
The development of the technology will lead to the discovery of new applica-
tions and solutions, which will further improve the efficacy, sustainability, and
inclusiveness of agricultural practices.

6 Conclusion

In conclusion, the implementation of blockchain technology into smart farming has

the potential to usher in a new era within the agricultural industry that is character-
ized by increased efficiency, transparency, and sustainability. Blockchain technol-
ogy presents a number of advantages, one of which is the provision of a decentralized
and secure platform for the management of data, transactions, and collaboration.
These advantages have the potential to radically alter the way farming is practiced,
managed, and experienced. There is a lot of potential upside to utilizing blockchain
technology in agricultural settings. Transparency in the supply chain can be
improved as a result, giving customers more information with which to make deci-
sions about the items they buy. The ability of blockchain to trace and verify each
stage of the supply chain helps to assure the genuineness and quality of agricultural
products, which in turn contributes to an increase in the overall level of food safety.
In addition, because blockchain technology makes it possible for farmers and con-
sumers to communicate directly with one another, it possesses the potential to give
rise to more equitable remuneration arrangements and do away with the need for
middlemen, so promoting greater justice within the sector. This technology also has
Empowering Agriculture: Blockchain’s Revolution in Smart Farming 239

the potential to empower small-scale farmers by increasing their access to funding,

streamlining their transactions, and allowing them to participate in global markets.
The implementation of blockchain technology in smart farming, however, is not
without its share of obstacles and restrictions. Complexities on the technical front,
problems with scalability, unpredictability in regulatory matters, and the require-
ment for education and awareness all provide obstacles that must be surmounted for
successful implementation. In order to successfully integrate blockchain technology
into already existing agricultural systems, careful planning and adaptation are
required, and it is vital to address issues over data protection and ensure compliance
with ever-evolving legislation. When looking into the future, the use of blockchain
technology to smart farming looks to have a bright future. The agricultural industry
is positioned to become more efficient, transparent, and robust as the technology
continues to develop and more people begin to adopt it. The practices of precision
agriculture will undergo a revolution, which will ensure the most efficient use of
resources and the preservation of the environment. Both farmers and consumers will
have more power thanks to decentralized marketplaces, and the exchange of data
based on blockchain technology will encourage innovation and collaboration among
stakeholders. To summarize, there is significant potential for blockchain technology
to bring about a revolution in smart farming. Even though obstacles now exist, over-
coming them and embracing the revolutionary potential of blockchain technology
could result in a future agricultural system that is more effective, egalitarian, and
environmentally friendly. The goal of a blockchain-powered smart agricultural eco-
system that is to the advantage of farmers, consumers, and the planet is getting
closer to becoming a reality as stakeholders from across the industry work together
to find solutions to the difficulties that they face.

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5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its
Applications

S. R. Raja, B. Subashini, and R. Selwin Prabu

1 Introduction

Agriculture, the cornerstone of human sustenance, has witnessed transformative

revolutions throughout history, each driven by technological advancements. From
the British Agricultural Revolution to the Green Revolution, these shifts have
enabled farmers to feed burgeoning populations and increase crop yields. However,
in the face of growing global food demand, resource constraints, climate change,
and labor shortages, a new era of agriculture has emerged—smart farming or preci-
sion agriculture. This paradigm shift leverages modern technologies, including the
Internet of Things (IoT), sensors, and automation, to optimize agricultural practices.
The proliferation of smart farming practices has given rise to a new agricultural
landscape where data is the currency of productivity. In this digital era, data-driven
decision-making has become paramount, and agriculture’s reliance on technology has
never been more pronounced. At the heart of this agricultural renaissance lies the fifth-
generation (5G) wireless network, a catalyst for revolutionizing the industry. 5G tech-
nology, celebrated for its high-speed connectivity, low latency, and extensive coverage,
has seamlessly integrated with the IoT, creating an ecosystem where every aspect of
farming can be monitored, analyzed, and optimized in real time. This research paper
embarks on a journey through the intersection of 5G technology and smart farming,
exploring the multifaceted impacts and implications of this convergence.

S. R. Raja (*)
Saveetha College of Liberal Arts and Science, Chennai, India
e-mail: [email protected]
B. Subashini
Thiagarajar College, Madurai, India
R. S. Prabu
CSE, K.P.R. Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 241
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_12
242 S. R. Raja et al.

The symbiotic relationship between 5G and smart farming is poised to redefine

agriculture as we know it. 5G technology, characterized by its blazing speed and
near-instantaneous data transfer capabilities, ushers in an era of precision and effi-
ciency previously unattainable in agriculture. This paper dives deep into the specific
contributions of 5G technology, emphasizing its role in bridging the digital divide
in rural farming communities. Real-world case studies and examples illustrate the
practical applications of 5G in agriculture, from real-time monitoring of crops and
livestock to autonomous farm machinery. As the agriculture sector grapples with
multifaceted challenges, ranging from resource scarcity to the need for sustainable
practices, 5G emerges as a beacon of hope—a technological enabler that promises
to enhance productivity, reduce waste, and promote sustainable farming practices.
In the following sections, we explore the pivotal role of IoT in smart farming, dis-
secting its sensor-based data collection mechanisms and data-driven decision-­making
capabilities. Various applications of IoT in agriculture are highlighted to underscore
its transformative potential. Moreover, we delve into the impact of 5G on rural areas,
where improved connectivity is not merely a technological upgrade but a socioeco-
nomic lifeline. Through case studies of 5G deployment in rural farming communities,
we unveil the economic and social implications of enhanced connectivity. As we navi-
gate the dynamic intersection of 5G technology and smart farming, this research paper
aims to shed light on the transformative potential of this alliance, offering insights and
recommendations for policymakers, stakeholders, and farmers alike.

2 Literature Survey

Modern farming practices have evolved to a critical point, which is the integration
of fifth-generation (5G) wireless technology into the agricultural industry. Its rami-
fications have been thoroughly studied and discussed in academic circles, illuminat-
ing the complex effects and possible advantages of this convergence.
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 243

2.1 5G Technology and Smart Farming

Numerous studies have emphasized the transformative potential of 5G technology

in the context of smart farming or precision agriculture. The research by Li et al.
(2021) elucidates how 5G’s high-speed connectivity and low latency facilitate real-­
time data collection and decision-making in farming operations. Similarly, Zhang
et al. (2020) delve into the role of 5G in enabling autonomous agricultural machin-
ery and its impact on labor efficiency.

2.2 IoT and Agricultural Data

There has been much research done on the critical role that the Internet of Things
(IoT) plays in smart farming. IoT sensors provide data-driven decision-making in
agriculture, optimizing crop management and resource utilization, as demonstrated
by research by Khan et al. (2020). Furthermore, the Magomadov (2019) study
emphasizes the importance of IoT in detecting plant diseases early and minimizing
agricultural losses.

2.3 Digital Divide and Rural Connectivity

Bridging the digital divide in rural farming communities through 5G has garnered
scholarly attention. A study by Tong et al. (2019) analyzes the economic and social
implications of 5G deployment in rural areas, highlighting its role in enhancing the
quality of life for farmers. Furthermore, Zhao et al. (2016) explore the challenges of
rural connectivity in the context of 4G and the promises offered by 5G technology.

2.4 Sustainability and Resource Management

Sustainable farming practices are central to addressing global challenges, including

resource scarcity and climate change. Research by Bekele and Drake (2003) dis-
cusses the adoption of precision agriculture techniques, enabled by IoT and 5G, to
optimize resource utilization and reduce environmental impact. Additionally,
Steenwerth et al. (2014) examine how automation and robotics in agriculture, driven
by 5G technology, enhance resource efficiency.
244 S. R. Raja et al.

2.5 Economic Implications and Future Prospects

The economic ramifications of 5G in agriculture have been a focal point of inquiry.

The report by Smart Agriculture Market (2020) estimates substantial market growth,
emphasizing the increasing adoption of smart farming practices. Furthermore, tele-
communications experts (GSMA, 2018) project diverse use cases for 5G technol-
ogy, with agriculture emerging as a sector poised for significant benefits.

3 The Role of 5G in Smart Farming

Smart farming, also known as precision agriculture, has emerged as a beacon of

hope for the agricultural sector, promising increased productivity, sustainability,
and resource efficiency. At the heart of this agricultural revolution lies the fifth-­
generation (5G) wireless technology, a technological marvel celebrated for its high-­
speed connectivity, low latency, and extensive coverage. The convergence of 5G and
smart farming is reshaping the landscape of agriculture in unprecedented ways,
ushering in a new era of precision and efficiency.

3.1 Unleashing Real-Time Monitoring

Enabling real-time asset monitoring in agriculture is one of the primary contribu-

tions of 5G to smart farming. Farmers may get instantaneous data on critical ele-
ments like soil moisture, temperature, and crop health by deploying 5G-connected
sensors and devices around the farm. With the use of this real-time data, farmers are
able to optimize pest management, fertilization, and irrigation while acting quickly
and decisively. Drones with high-resolution cameras can survey large areas and
transmit data instantly, making crop analysis and early pest identification easier.
With older wireless technology, this kind of real-time monitoring was unthinkable.
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 245

3.2 Autonomous Farm Machinery

5G technology is the linchpin in the deployment of autonomous farm machinery.

Connected by 5G networks, tractors, combines, and other agricultural equipment
can operate with unprecedented precision and efficiency. Autosteering features, for
instance, enable these machines to navigate fields autonomously, reducing overlap
and minimizing resource wastage. As Kevin Butt, an agriculture professor, notes,
autosteering not only enhances efficiency but also contributes to farmers’ mental
well-being by reducing the cognitive load associated with manual operation.
Additionally, these autonomous machines can be remotely controlled through 5G
networks, allowing farmers to manage operations from their tablets or smartphones.

3.3 Optimizing Resource Utilization

Sustainable farming practices have become imperative in the face of environmental

challenges. 5G technology plays a pivotal role in optimizing resource utilization in
agriculture. Through real-time data analytics and IoT sensors, farmers can precisely
tailor their resource allocation. For instance, instead of uniformly applying fertiliz-
ers across vast fields, farmers can use soil data to identify specific areas requiring
nutrients, minimizing waste and environmental impact. Water resources are also
managed judiciously, with 5G-enabled sensors gauging soil moisture levels to
determine optimal irrigation schedules. This resource optimization is a cornerstone
of sustainable and eco-friendly farming practices.

3.4 Fostering Connectivity in Rural Areas

The impact of 5G in agriculture extends beyond the farm gate. It addresses a critical
challenge in rural areas—connectivity. Rural communities often face limited access
to high-speed Internet, hampering not only farming operations but also quality of
life. 5G technology promises to bridge the digital divide, offering robust connectiv-
ity even in remote farming regions. This connectivity doesn’t just facilitate data
transmission; it opens the doors to telemedicine, online education, and e-commerce,
enhancing the overall well-being of rural communities.

4 Challenges in Agriculture

While the integration of fifth-generation (5G) technology in agriculture promises

substantial benefits, it also presents several challenges that must be addressed to
harness its full potential. These challenges encompass technical, economic, and
social aspects, shaping the landscape of smart farming in profound ways.
246 S. R. Raja et al.

4.1 High Infrastructure Costs

One of the foremost challenges in adopting 5G technology in agriculture is the high

infrastructure costs. Establishing a robust 5G network infrastructure in rural areas,
where many farms are located, demands significant investment. The deployment of
5G cell towers and network equipment is capital-intensive, and in many cases, it
may not be economically viable for smaller farms. This issue raises concerns about
equitable access to 5G benefits, as large commercial farms may have a competitive
advantage in implementing this technology.

4.2 Data Security and Privacy

As smart farming relies heavily on data collection and sharing, data security and
privacy become paramount concerns. The vast amounts of sensitive data generated
by IoT sensors, drones, and autonomous machinery are susceptible to cyberattacks
and breaches. Farmers need assurance that their data, including crop yields, soil
conditions, and equipment performance, remains secure and private. Robust cyber-
security measures and data encryption are essential to protect against potential
threats.

4.3 Network Dependability in Remote Areas

Agriculture often takes place in remote and rural regions with limited connectivity
infrastructure. Ensuring reliable 5G network coverage in these areas is a significant
challenge. Dead zones or areas with weak signals can disrupt critical operations that
rely on real-time data transmission, such as autonomous machinery control and
remote monitoring. Extending dependable 5G coverage to these remote agricultural
landscapes is essential to maximize the benefits of smart farming.

4.4 Compatibility and Integration

Another challenge lies in ensuring the compatibility and seamless integration of 5G

technology with existing agricultural systems. Many farms already employ various
technologies, such as GPS-guided tractors and IoT sensors. Ensuring that these sys-
tems can operate harmoniously with 5G-connected devices and machinery requires
careful planning and technical expertise. Compatibility issues could lead to ineffi-
ciencies and hinder the adoption of 5G in agriculture.
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 247

4.5 Skills and Training

The successful implementation of 5G technology in agriculture necessitates a

skilled workforce capable of managing and troubleshooting advanced equipment
and systems. Farmers and agricultural workers may require training to effectively
utilize 5G-connected devices, interpret real-time data, and troubleshoot technical
issues. Bridging the digital skills gap in rural areas is essential to ensure that all
stakeholders can reap the benefits of smart farming.

4.6 Regulatory and Policy Frameworks

The regulatory and policy frameworks governing 5G in agriculture must evolve to

address new challenges. Issues related to spectrum allocation, data ownership, and
liability in the event of system failures or accidents require careful consideration.
Governments and regulatory bodies must collaborate with the agricultural industry
to create a conducive environment for 5G adoption while safeguarding the interests
of all stakeholders.

5 Benefits of Smart Farming with 5G

The convergence of fifth-generation (5G) technology and smart farming presents a

plethora of benefits that are poised to revolutionize agriculture. These advantages
extend across various facets of farming, from resource management to environmen-
tal sustainability, ushering in an era of unprecedented efficiency and productivity.

5.1 High Data Transfer Capacity and Low Latency

Perhaps the most prominent benefit of 5G in smart farming is its high data transfer
capacity and low latency. The ultra-fast data transmission allows for real-time com-
munication and data exchange between agricultural devices, sensors, and machin-
ery. This real-time connectivity enables farmers to make prompt and informed
decisions, optimizing resource allocation and minimizing waste. Whether it’s moni-
toring soil conditions or controlling autonomous tractors, the low latency of 5G
ensures that actions are executed swiftly and accurately.
248 S. R. Raja et al.

5.2 Extensive Connectivity

5G networks boast an exceptional connection density, allowing a vast number of

devices to be interconnected simultaneously. This extensive connectivity enables
the deployment of an intricate network of sensors, drones, and autonomous machin-
ery throughout the farm. As a result, farmers can collect comprehensive data on
every aspect of their operations, leading to a holistic understanding of crop health,
soil conditions, and equipment performance.

5.3 Spectral Efficiency Improvement

5G technology is characterized by spectral efficiency, which means that it can trans-

mit more data over the same frequency spectrum compared to its predecessors. This
efficiency is particularly advantageous in agriculture, where data-intensive applica-
tions like high-resolution imaging and remote monitoring are essential. Spectral
efficiency ensures that data transmission remains reliable even in congested agricul-
tural environments.

5.4 Smooth Communication Performance

In smart farming, seamless communication is critical for the effective coordination

of various operations. 5G’s consistent and reliable communication performance
ensures that data flows smoothly across the agricultural ecosystem. This reliability
is essential for tasks such as coordinating autonomous machinery, tracking live-
stock, and managing irrigation systems.

5.5 Resource Optimization

Smart farming with 5G facilitates resource optimization on multiple fronts. With

real-time data from IoT sensors, farmers can tailor their irrigation schedules, ensur-
ing that water is applied precisely where and when it is needed. Similarly, data
analytics help in determining the optimal distribution of fertilizers and pesticides,
reducing overuse and environmental impact. The result is increased crop yields,
reduced input costs, and enhanced sustainability.
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 249

5.6 Environmental Impact Reduction

Globally, sustainable agriculture is essential, and smart farming enabled by 5G

technology makes a major contribution to lessening the environmental effect of
farming operations. 5G-enabled farms function more environmentally friendly by
applying precise procedures, minimizing waste, and optimizing resource utiliza-
tion. Some advantages of smart farming for the environment are less water and
chemical use, as well as less energy usage.

5.7 Promoting Sustainable Practices

The integration of 5G technology fosters the adoption of sustainable farming prac-

tices. These practices include precision agriculture, which leverages data-driven
insights to make informed decisions, and conservation tillage, which minimizes soil
disturbance. Additionally, 5G facilitates the implementation of organic farming
methods and the use of environmentally friendly pest control measures.

6 IoT in Smart Farming

The Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a transformative force in the realm of
smart farming, offering unprecedented opportunities for data-driven decision-­
making, automation, and precision agriculture. IoT technology, integrated with
250 S. R. Raja et al.

fifth-generation (5G) networks, has the potential to revolutionize farming practices

and optimize resource management in ways previously unimaginable.

6.1 Sensor-Based Data Collection

At the heart of IoT in smart farming are a multitude of sensors deployed across the
agricultural landscape. These sensors are designed to monitor various parameters
critical to farming, including soil moisture, temperature, humidity, light intensity,
and even the health of crops and livestock. With 5G connectivity, these sensors con-
tinuously transmit real-time data to centralized systems, providing farmers with
comprehensive insights into the conditions of their farms.

6.2 Precision Agriculture

IoT sensors enable precision agriculture, a key component of smart farming. By

collecting data on soil quality, nutrient levels, and weather conditions, farmers can
precisely tailor their farming practices. For example, irrigation systems can be
automated based on soil moisture data, ensuring that crops receive the exact
amount of water required. This not only conserves water but also enhances
crop yields.

6.3 Crop Monitoring and Management

IoT-enabled devices extend beyond sensors to include drones and smart cameras.
Drones equipped with imaging technology can fly over fields, capturing high-­
resolution images. These images can be analyzed using artificial intelligence (AI)
algorithms to detect early signs of diseases, pests, or nutrient deficiencies in crops.
With 5G connectivity, these images can be transmitted and analyzed in real time,
enabling prompt intervention and minimizing crop losses.
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 251

6.4 Livestock Monitoring

IoT is essential to livestock management since it allows for real-time behavior and
health monitoring of animals. Livestock can have wearable sensors and GPS track-
ers connected to them to monitor their whereabouts, identify sickness, and establish
the best feeding regimens. Farmers may receive instant notifications in the case of
abnormalities, such a cow wandering from the herd, enabling prompt action.

6.5 Supply Chain Optimization

IoT technology extends beyond the farm gate, influencing the entire agricultural
supply chain. Sensors can be placed in storage facilities to monitor temperature and
humidity, ensuring the quality and safety of stored crops. Additionally, IoT-enabled
tracking systems can provide end-to-end visibility into the transportation of agricul-
tural products, reducing spoilage and food waste.

6.6 Data Analytics and Decision Support

The sheer volume of data generated by IoT devices in smart farming necessitates
robust data analytics. Advanced analytics and machine learning algorithms process
this data to generate actionable insights. Farmers can receive recommendations on
252 S. R. Raja et al.

planting times, optimal harvesting periods, and the precise application of fertilizers
and pesticides. This data-driven decision support empowers farmers to maximize
productivity while minimizing inputs.

6.7 Energy Efficiency

On farms, IoT technology also helps with energy efficiency. Farmers can monitor
and regulate their energy use with the aid of smart grids and IoT-enabled energy
management systems. For instance, automated lighting systems in greenhouses can
lower power costs by adjusting intensity based on real-time light data.

7 5G’s Impact on Rural Areas

The rollout of fifth-generation (5G) wireless technology is often associated with

urban areas, promising high-speed connectivity and transformative experiences in
cities. However, the impact of 5G extends far beyond urban centers and holds sig-
nificant potential for rural areas. In rural communities, 5G technology can bridge
the digital divide, enhance economic opportunities, and transform essential services
such as healthcare and education.

7.1 Improved Connectivity

One of the primary challenges in rural areas has been limited access to high-speed
Internet connectivity. 5G technology offers a solution by providing fast and reliable
Internet access to rural communities. This connectivity is essential for enabling
businesses to thrive, supporting distance learning, and ensuring that rural residents
have access to essential online services.

7.2 Rural Economic Development

5G has the potential to spur economic growth in rural areas. When rural businesses
have access to high-speed Internet, they can compete globally. Rural craftsmen may
reach a wider audience with their products, and small agricultural businesses can
access Internet marketplaces. Furthermore, precision agriculture provided by 5G
can increase agricultural production, supporting the expansion of the rural sector.
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 253

7.3 Agricultural Advancements

The influence of 5G on agriculture is particularly noticeable in rural areas. Thanks

to 5G technology, farmers can monitor and manage their crops with never-before-­
seen accuracy thanks to smart farming. Drones, autonomous vehicles, and Internet
of Things sensors all provide real-time data that farmers may use to make informed
decisions regarding crop health, fertilization, and irrigation. Increased yields, less
resource waste, and sustainable farming practices result from this.

7.4 Telemedicine and Healthcare

Rural healthcare faces challenges related to access and resources. 5G facilitates

telemedicine by providing high-quality video conferencing and remote monitoring
capabilities. Patients in remote areas can access consultations with specialists with-
out traveling long distances, improving healthcare outcomes and reducing costs.
Additionally, IoT-enabled medical devices can transmit patient data in real time,
enabling faster responses in emergencies.

7.5 Distance Learning

Rural schools stand to gain a great deal from 5G connection. Students in rural areas
may interact with classmates globally, engage in virtual classes, and access online
educational materials thanks to high-speed Internet. This improves learning chances
and closes the achievement gap between kids in rural and urban areas.

7.6 Smart Infrastructure

5G enables the development of smart infrastructure in rural areas. Smart grids can
enhance energy management and reduce costs, while IoT sensors can monitor water
quality and environmental conditions. This leads to more efficient resource utiliza-
tion and greater sustainability.
254 S. R. Raja et al.

7.7 Emergency Services

Rural areas often face challenges in emergency response due to limited communica-
tion infrastructure. 5G networks provide first responders with high-speed, reliable
communication, enabling quicker response times and better coordination during
emergencies.

7.8 Tourism and Cultural Preservation

Rural areas often possess unique cultural and natural attractions. 5G connectivity
can boost tourism by providing visitors with immersive experiences through aug-
mented and virtual reality (AR/VR). Additionally, high-quality live streaming and
virtual tours can promote cultural preservation efforts and generate tourism revenue.

7.9 Entrepreneurship and Innovation

5G connectivity empowers rural entrepreneurs and innovators. It opens doors to

remote work opportunities, encourages tech startups, and supports e-commerce
ventures. Rural communities can foster innovation and entrepreneurship, contribut-
ing to economic diversification.
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 255

8 Future Prospects and Challenges of 5G in Agriculture

As fifth-generation (5G) technology continues to unfold its transformative capabili-

ties in agriculture, several exciting prospects and associated challenges shape the
future landscape of smart farming.

8.1 Prospects

AI-Driven Agriculture The integration of 5G with artificial intelligence (AI) will

drive autonomous decision-making on the farm. AI algorithms will analyze vast
datasets generated by IoT sensors and drones, providing real-time insights into crop
health, weather patterns, and optimal planting times.

Edge Computing Edge computing, coupled with 5G, will enable data processing
closer to the source, reducing latency and enhancing the responsiveness of autono-
mous agricultural machinery. This will pave the way for real-time, localized
decision-making.
256 S. R. Raja et al.

Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) AR and VR applications in

agriculture will become more prevalent with 5G. Farmers can receive training,
access repair manuals, and visualize crop data in three dimensions, improving effi-
ciency and reducing errors.

Remote Monitoring 5G networks will allow farmers to remotely monitor and

manage their farms from anywhere. This capability will not only save time but also
reduce the need for physical labor, making farming more accessible to an aging
population.

Global Connectivity Farmers in remote areas can access global markets and agri-
cultural expertise, breaking down geographical barriers and expanding opportuni-
ties for collaboration and trade.

8.2 Challenges

Infrastructure Expansion Deploying 5G infrastructure in rural and remote farm-

ing regions remains a challenge. The cost of infrastructure development, including
the installation of small cells and base stations, may be prohibitive in some areas.

Data Security The vast amount of data generated by IoT sensors and drones raises
concerns about data security and privacy. Farmers must adopt robust cybersecurity
measures to protect sensitive agricultural data from breaches and cyberattacks.

Digital Divide While 5G holds immense promise for rural areas, the digital divide
persists. Ensuring equitable access to 5G technology and the necessary devices is
critical to prevent leaving certain farming communities behind.

Interoperability As the agricultural technology ecosystem expands, ensuring

interoperability among various devices, sensors, and software platforms becomes
crucial. Standards and protocols must be established to facilitate seamless data
exchange.

Environmental Impact The energy consumption associated with 5G infrastruc-

ture and data centers raises environmental concerns. Balancing the benefits of 5G
with sustainability considerations will be an ongoing challenge.

Regulatory Hurdles Regulations governing the deployment of 5G networks can

vary by region. Navigating regulatory frameworks and securing necessary permits
for infrastructure development can be time-consuming and complex.

Skill Gap Farmers and agricultural professionals must acquire the skills to harness
the full potential of 5G and associated technologies. Education and training pro-
grams are essential to ensure that users can effectively leverage these tools.
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 257

9 Application of 5G in Precision Farming

The application of fifth-generation (5G) technology in precision farming is revolu-

tionizing the agricultural sector, offering a wide range of capabilities that enhance
productivity, sustainability, and resource management. Here, we delve into the
diverse applications of 5G in precision farming, showcasing how this technology is
reshaping modern agriculture.

9.1 Real-Time Monitoring

Real-time monitoring of several agricultural indicators, such as crop health, tem-

perature, humidity, and soil moisture, is made possible by 5G. IoT sensors posi-
tioned all throughout the farm send data instantaneously, enabling farmers to act
quickly and decisively. For example, they can optimize water consumption by
adjusting irrigation levels depending on measurements of soil moisture.

9.2 Autonomous Machinery

Autonomous farming equipment becomes a reality with 5G connection. Drones,

harvesters, and tractors with sophisticated cameras and sensors can work extremely
precisely. Without human assistance, they can traverse fields, sow seeds, apply fer-
tilizer, and even handle pests, increasing productivity and cutting labor expenses.
258 S. R. Raja et al.

9.3 Predictive Analytics

The combination of 5G and artificial intelligence enables predictive analytics in

agriculture. Machine learning algorithms process vast datasets, including historical
weather patterns and crop performance, to predict future conditions and crop yields.
Farmers can proactively plan for adverse weather events or optimize planting
schedules.

9.4 Virtual Consultation

Farmers can now access virtual consultation services through 5G networks. When
faced with crop issues or uncertainties, they can connect with agronomists or experts
in real time via video conferencing. This instant access to expertise enhances
problem-­solving and reduces crop losses.

9.5 Data Analytics and Cloud Repositories

The high data transfer speeds of 5G facilitate the seamless transfer of agricultural
data to cloud repositories. These cloud-based platforms store and analyze massive
datasets, allowing farmers to gain insights into their farming operations over
extended periods. Advanced analytics tools provide actionable recommendations
for improving crop management.

9.6 Precision Irrigation

Enhanced irrigation techniques are made possible by 5G-powered precision farm-

ing. Precision control of irrigation systems is made possible by IoT sensors, which
continually measure the moisture content of the soil. Water waste is decreased, and
crop health is improved since water is given precisely where and when it is required.

9.7 Crop Scouting with Drones

Drones equipped with high-resolution cameras and multispectral sensors fly over
fields to scout for pests, diseases, or nutrient deficiencies. The data collected is
transmitted in real time via 5G networks, allowing farmers to identify problems
early and take targeted corrective measures.
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 259

9.8 Smart Greenhouses

5G connectivity transforms traditional greenhouses into smart ones. Sensors moni-

tor temperature, humidity, light levels, and CO2 concentration, ensuring optimal
growing conditions for crops. Automated systems can adjust environmental param-
eters based on real-time data, maximizing crop yields.

9.9 Livestock Management

Precision farming extends to livestock management with 5G. IoT devices can track
the health and location of individual animals, ensuring their well-being. This tech-
nology enables efficient herd management and early detection of diseases.

9.10 Market Access

5G networks provide rural farmers with direct access to online markets. They can
sell their produce, receive orders, and manage transactions digitally, eliminating
intermediaries and increasing profitability.
260 S. R. Raja et al.

10 5G’s Impact on Rural Areas

Beyond traditional connection limitations, the implementation of fifth-generation

(5G) technology in rural areas has far-reaching ramifications across several indus-
tries, including agriculture. The improvement of connection is one of 5G’s most
important effects in rural areas. Historically, obtaining dependable high-speed
Internet has been difficult in rural locations. Nevertheless, these communities now
have smooth, fast Internet connection thanks to the development of 5G networks.
Rural farmers now have fast access to online information, agricultural apps, and
real-time data thanks to this increased connection. It essentially creates parity
between them and their urban colleagues, empowering them to make well-informed
choices and maximize their farming techniques.
Furthermore, 5G’s impact extends beyond agriculture into other crucial areas.
Rural education benefits greatly from 5G connectivity. Students in remote farming
communities gain access to online resources and virtual classrooms, bridging the
educational divide between rural and urban areas. Simultaneously, 5G enables tele-
medicine services, improving healthcare access in rural regions. Residents can con-
sult with healthcare professionals remotely, reducing barriers to medical expertise
and treatment options, thus promoting the overall well-being of rural communities.
Additionally, 5G encourages economic diversification in rural areas. It fosters
entrepreneurship, supports e-commerce ventures, and promotes small business
growth. This economic expansion contributes to rural sustainability and reduces
dependency on traditional agriculture. In addition to economic diversification, 5G
facilitates the development of smart infrastructure in rural areas. This includes smart
grids, water management systems, and environmental monitoring solutions, leading
to more efficient resource utilization and sustainable practices.
The deployment of 5G in rural areas signifies a transformative shift, empowering
rural communities to embrace modern agricultural practices, diversify their econo-
mies, enhance education and healthcare access, and improve overall quality of life.
As 5G continues to expand its footprint in rural regions, the synergy between tech-
nology and agriculture holds promise for a sustainable and prosperous future.

11 Future Prospects

As we gaze into the future of smart farming, the potential benefits offered by 5G
technology become increasingly evident. One of the most promising prospects lies
in the realm of enhanced precision farming. With 5G’s high-speed, low-latency con-
nectivity, farmers will gain access to real-time data that can revolutionize their prac-
tices. This means precise control excessive use of pesticides, fertilizers, and
irrigation, which boosts crop production while making effective use of scarce
resources.
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 261

Furthermore, automation and robotics are set to transform agriculture. 5G’s reli-
ability and connectivity will make it possible for autonomous farming equipment to
become ubiquitous on the modern farm. Smart tractors, drones, and robotic harvest-
ers will work tirelessly, reducing labor demands and operational costs. These
machines will perform tasks with unmatched precision, ensuring that every aspect
of farming is optimized for efficiency.
The Internet of Things (IoT) will be integrated and will be crucial in addition to
automation. 5G networks will provide seamless connectivity between sensors and
devices, enabling continuous monitoring and data collection on crop health, weather
patterns, and soil conditions. This wealth of data will be channeled into advanced
analytics systems, providing farmers with invaluable insights. These insights will
enable them to fine-tune their farming practices, making them more sustainable and
environmentally friendly.
The future of smart farming with 5G also entails a shift toward data-driven
decision-­making. With an abundance of data generated by 5G-connected devices,
farmers will increasingly rely on sophisticated analytics and AI algorithms. These
tools will help them make informed decisions, from anticipating crop diseases and
predicting weather patterns to adjusting production to meet market demands
effectively.
Moreover, the ability for remote monitoring and management will become a
defining feature of future farming. Farmers will have the power to oversee and con-
trol their operations from virtually anywhere. Whether it’s adjusting machinery set-
tings, fine-tuning environmental conditions in greenhouses, or conducting virtual
farm tours for educational or marketing purposes, the possibilities are boundless.

12 Challenges

However, as we embrace these promising prospects, we must not underestimate the

challenges that come with the integration of 5G technology in agriculture. One of
the foremost hurdles is the necessity for substantial infrastructure investment,
262 S. R. Raja et al.

particularly in rural and remote farming areas. Comprehensive 5G coverage is

essential to ensure that all farmers can access and benefit from the technology.
Another critical challenge pertains to data security. With the increasing reliance
on data-driven farming practices, safeguarding sensitive agricultural data from
cyber threats becomes paramount. Ensuring data privacy and implementing robust
security measures will be an ongoing battle.
Moreover, there may be a significant skill gap within the agricultural workforce.
To fully harness the potential of 5G and its associated technologies, farmers and
agricultural workers may require training and upskilling. Bridging the digital divide
and ensuring that all stakeholders possess the knowledge and expertise to effec-
tively utilize these advanced tools is of utmost importance.
Cost considerations also come into play. While 5G technology offers tremendous
potential, the initial costs associated with adopting new technologies can be prohibi-
tive, particularly for small-scale farmers. Finding ways to make these innovations
financially accessible and ensuring that the benefits are distributed equitably will be
a crucial aspect of future adoption.
Lastly, navigating the regulatory landscape is vital. The regulatory framework
surrounding 5G in agriculture must be well-defined, addressing issues such as spec-
trum allocation, data ownership, and compliance with environmental and safety
standards. Clarity in regulations will provide a stable foundation for the growth of
smart farming with 5G technology.

13 Conclusion

To sum up, the incorporation of fifth-generation (5G) technology into the domain of
smart farming signifies a noteworthy advancement in farming methodologies. This
revolutionary combination of agriculture and connectivity has the power to com-
pletely change how we manage resources, grow food, and maintain rural communi-
ties. Through a thorough exploration of the role of 5G in smart farming, we have
uncovered a multitude of benefits and opportunities. The improved connectivity,
low latency, and high data transfer capacity of 5G empower farmers to embrace
precision agriculture with real-time data analytics. This results in higher crop yields,
reduced resource waste, and enhanced sustainability.
IoT in smart farming has emerged as a critical component, enabling the seamless
integration of sensors, drones, and robotics. These technologies work in harmony,
providing precise insights into soil conditions, crop health, and weather patterns.
AI-driven decision-making further augments farming practices, allowing for proac-
tive disease management and efficient resource allocation. The advantages of 5G
extend beyond the agricultural sector, reaching into rural education, healthcare, and
economic diversification. Students gain access to online resources, healthcare ser-
vices become more accessible, and entrepreneurial opportunities thrive.
However, we must not overlook the challenges that accompany this technologi-
cal revolution. Infrastructure investment, data security, skill gaps, costs, and
5G Technology in Smart Farming and Its Applications 263

regulatory considerations demand our attention. Bridging the digital divide, safe-
guarding data, and making 5G technology financially accessible to all farmers are
paramount. As we gaze into the future, we envision a landscape where smart farm-
ing with 5G becomes the norm. It offers a path toward sustainable agriculture,
increased food production, and improved livelihoods for rural communities. The
synergy between technology and agriculture is poised to shape a brighter and more
resilient future, where data-driven decisions empower us to feed a growing global
population while preserving our precious resources. To achieve this vision, collabo-
ration and innovation will be our guiding principles, ensuring that the promise of 5G
in smart farming is fulfilled.
For citations of references, we prefer the use of square brackets and consecutive
numbers. Citations using labels or the author/year convention are also acceptable.
The following bibliography provides a sample reference list with entries for journal
articles [1], an LNCS chapter [2], a book [3], proceedings without editors [4], as
well as a URL [5].

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Smart Organic Agriculture in Traditional
South Indian-Based Farming System

Rakesh Gnanasekaran, Sandhya Soman, Gnanasankaran Natarajan,

and Sabah Ali AL’Abd AL-Busaidi

1 Introduction

Agricultural farming contributes food and fabrics in a worldwide scenario. Farming

is an essential need to human race existence. India is a land of rich heritage and a
global agricultural power house of farming process compared to the rest of the
world. India is the second largest producer of rice cultivation in worldwide scenario
in recent days. Moreover 58% of the population of India is doing agriculture pro-
cess. Indian farming began in 9000 BCE as per the archaeological reports. In India,
farming is done through traditional seven-step process such as ploughing, sowing,
nutrient supply, irrigation, crop protection, harvesting and storage. Most of this pro-
cess is done through man-made process with the help of livestock assistance. As
years passed by modern time is evolved the need of agricultural modernization is
inevitable. It helps the farming practice to increase agricultural efficiency, and also
it minimizes the loss of natural resources. The modern farming increases efficiency
and productivity while decreasing environmental impact. The proposed research
work implements modernization of agricultural activity in an eco-friendly manner.

R. Gnanasekaran (*) · G. Natarajan

Department of Computer Science, Thiagarajar College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
S. Soman
Department of Computer Science, GITAM (Deemed to be) University, Bangalore, Karnataka,
India
S. Ali AL’Abd AL-Busaidi
Department of Information Technology, University of Technology and Applied Science,
AI Mussanah, Oman
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 265
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_13
266 R. Gnanasekaran et al.

1.1 Agricultural Farming

Food, clothing and shelter are the basic needs of a human being, and food is essen-
tial for human survival. If there is no food, there is no human being, and agriculture
plays a primary role in bringing that food to humans. Although humans consume
seafood and meat, the primary food source is food obtained through agricultural
farming.

1.1.1 Farming Need

Since the need for agriculture has been felt more, agriculture has been highlighted
by humans since then. Plant-based foods such as fruits, vegetables, grains and
legumes play an important role in providing a human with the nutrients needed to
function. Although seafood and meat can be used as food, they are high in fat, so
consuming them in excess can be harmful to the body. Since the need for agriculture
has been felt more, agriculture has been highlighted by humans since then. Plant-­
based foods such as fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes play an important role in
providing a human with the nutrients and nutrients needed to function. Therefore,
the most important task of agriculture is to produce healthy plant food products. In
addition, paddy rice plays a major role in the food habit of Tamils. If there is no
farming industry to produce that rice, there will be a situation of going without food.

1.1.2 Old Agricultural Farming System

All the civilizations considered to have lived in historical man were located along
the banks of rivers, indicating that early humans lived by agriculture. They practiced
agriculture using river water and produced what they needed and lived a self-­
sufficient economy. People who lived in other highlands other than the banks of the
river observed the changes in the climate, calculated the periods of rain and carried
out agriculture accordingly. At times, unexpected changes in climates made it
impossible for them to continue farming. So, they constructed massive ponds and
dams to collect rainwater and use it for farming. Ancient agricultural practices often
involved the use of animals and collective production of what they needed [1].

1.1.3 Evolution of Farming System

Although the ancient farming methods were sufficient to meet the food demand of
that time, the farming methods have gradually changed to suit the increasing popu-
lation and the needs of the people, and today the world has progressed to the point
where agriculture is carried out using modern technologies. Initially, agriculture
was carried out using only cattle and a large amount of human labour. Now human
Smart Organic Agriculture in Traditional South Indian-Based Farming System 267

labour is less, and machine labour is more used. For example, during paddy cultiva-
tion in the early days, oxen ploughed the field using ploughs, and humans were used
for weeding and harvesting.

1.1.4 Technology in Farming

At present, technological machines are being used like ploughs, ploughing the field
and harvesting using machines. This makes farming easier and faster. It can be cul-
tivated on a large scale and can be exported to other countries. Thus, agriculture
gradually developed and today has become technological. Many technological
methods are being used in agriculture today. Not only technologically developed
equipment but also methods of farming without the use of basic requirements of
agriculture such as soil, fertilizer, etc. have been introduced as the highest innova-
tion. For example, in countries such as Arabia, Japan and the United States, the
method of floating seeds on water and using the nutrients found in water to grow
crops has been successfully implemented.

1.2 Organic Farming

Today most people are turning towards nature like organic farming and organic
food. The changing nature and climate may have warned people globally. As a
result, organic farming need is essential in today’s perspective. It is very important
for everyone to know about organic farming, not just farmers. It is also necessary to
change the chemical soil to lead healthy life style. In organic farming, all organisms
benefit us in one way or another. The important point thing to remember that farm-
ing taken place in a natural way without affecting the five basic elements like earth,
water, sky, air and fire (i.e. pancha bootham in Tamil). The thing to remember when
farming has taken place in a natural way without affecting the five basic elements is
the gift that today’s generation of farmers giving out next generation with a safe
farming system and healthy food.

1.3 Fundamentals of Organic Farming

1.3.1 Preparation of Arable Land

Preparing the land for growing all kinds of crops is the first step in agriculture. So,
the land should be ploughed well to make the soil easy to plough and soft like cot-
ton. Organic farming can be started anytime. Even 50 years of artificial fertilizers
can restore the fertility of the land in 6 months through organic farming.
268 R. Gnanasekaran et al.

1.3.2 Crop Rotation System

Farmers avoid cultivating the same types of crops throughout the year in their farm-
lands and choose crops in rotation to get additional yield. Apart from that, the land
loses its fertility due to continuous cultivation of the same crop. So, by crop rotation,
the lost fertility of the land can be restored. Crop rotation can be done according to
the nature of the cropping land and the amount of water.

1.3.3 Mixed Cropping and Intercropping Cultivation

In organic farming, crop yield is increased by intercropping cultivation. By doing

this, the number of weeds can be controlled to a large extent, and the attack of
insects can be greatly reduced. With natural insect repellents, we are giving our next
generation a safe farming system and healthy food.

1.3.4 Cover-Up

The cover-up is used for mulching to increase yield. For this purpose, leaves, straw
and sugar cane are mulched between the crops. This will secured the moisture of the
root parts, which will allow silkworms to grow, and control weed growth and main-
tenance of soil quality.

1.3.5 Use of Natural Fertilizers and Crop Growth Promoters

Natural compost used like vermicomposting, cow dung compost, cow manure and
green leaf compost. For the crops to grow well, more natural crop growth promoters
in South India do farm for some traditional crops such as Gunapachalam, Coconut
Balmor, Amritkaraisal and Panchagavya that should be used widely.

1.3.6 Pacing Between Crops

Our forefathers divided the spacing of each crop according to the saying “Nandota”
for rice, “Eroda” for sugarcane, “Cartioda” for banana and “Oroda” for coconut, to
yield quality and organic farming to the society.
Smart Organic Agriculture in Traditional South Indian-Based Farming System 269

1.4 Farming in South India

Agricultural farming was the primary part of the people living in southern region of
India. It was considered essential to life and therefore took precedence over all
occupations. Peasants were at the top of the social ladder. As they were producers of
food grains, they lived with self-respect. Agriculture was primitive in the early
stages of the Sangam period, but advanced and efficient in irrigation, ploughing,
manuring, storage and distribution. Ancient South Indian people ​​knew different
types of soil and different types of irrigation suitable for their respective regions. In
the era of king rule, they had lots of land, but he did not own the entire land because
he gifted land to poets, brahmins, schools, hospitals and temples. Majority of the
peasants cultivated their own lands. They were known by different names according
to the soil.
Apart from the traditional landowners and cultivators, there were also the Sella
landlords. There are various instances of kings donating land to poets, brahmins,
educational institutions, hospitals, etc. The land given to brahmins was known as
Brahmadeya. In lands that were granted to brahmins and peasants, agricultural work
was often left to tenants or farm labourers. The regulations regarding such cultiva-
tion are not known. Sometimes labourers called adiyars were employed on other
people’s lands for wages. Large landowners who owned large tracts of land were
food producers and had a greater sense of pride than an ordinary farmer who owned
a small piece of land [2].

1.4.1 Farming Products in South India

In ancient southern part of India, rice, sugarcane, small grains, pepper, pulses, coco-
nut, cotton, banana, tamarind, sandalwood, etc. were widely cultivated. Paddy was
the main crop. Varieties of paddy crops such as Vennel, Sennel, Pudunel, Ivananel,
Thorai, etc. were cultivated in. Every house had trees like jackfruit, coconut, palm
and betel nut. Yellow plants were grown in front of the houses and flower gardens
behind the houses.

1.4.2 Farming System in Early Era

Cultivation was done in a very systematic way during the early period. It was known
that if ploughing, sowing, fertilizing, weeding, irrigation and crop protection are
done properly, they need to do all these activities carefully to get a good yield.
Paddy fields were ploughed with the help of bullocks. Farmers stomped the leaves
under their feet and drowned them. After the seedlings grow, they are transplanted.
They were harvested when the crop matured. Weeding was done periodically in the
Middle Ages. The harvested paddy was brought to the field and threshed into the
ground to separate the kernels. Paddy beads were collected, weighed and stored in
270 R. Gnanasekaran et al.

proper containers. Small grains were grown in dry lands. Crop rotation was fol-
lowed, for example, cotton and small grains were grown in the same season, fol-
lowed by paddy.
Various implements were made which were required for ploughing, harvesting,
etc. in agriculture. The basic tool, air melee, was also called plow in Nanji. The har-
row was made of wood, iron or steel frame and used for ploughing the soil with a
sharp unit locked into it. Locked to a cow or buffalo, it was used to loosen the soil
and stir it up and down. A wooden pole or tree was used to level the cultivated land.
Cultivation (harrowing) was used to remove weeds and reduce crop stress. It con-
sisted of metal or wooden tines mounted on a wooden frame, and this frame was
used to clear the field of weeds with the help of cattle. In the early period, people
depended heavily on rain for their water needs for agriculture. But the growing
population and the correspondingly increased demand for food created the condi-
tions for improving irrigation systems. Major water storage systems like ponds,
lakes and dams are created for this purpose. They constructed sluices and dams to
regulate water for irrigation. Sometimes earthen embankments were built to control
floods in the river and to divert water for irrigation.

1.5 Smart Farming System

Digital technology encapsulates each and every living to non-living thing globally.
Therefore, the technology is already invaded in farming system. In that some of the
technology aspects such as IoT, smart applications and smart, intelligent drug deliv-
ery to farming is unavoidable in recent days. Here in this article, a small note on
smart farming technology [3] along with Fig. 1 represents smart organic farming
system as follows.

1.5.1 IoT in Farming

The Internet of Things (IoT) is formed as a heartbeat of technology in smart farming

system. Internet of Things is a process of object that communicates with another
object over the Internet and exchanges necessary information needed for framing
activity. With water scarcity in today’s era, the use of water needed for agriculture
can be reduced by a margin of 50–75% through IoT, and this IoT has found a way
to make smart farming easier without wasting water. Also, this technology is very
useful for us to forecast whether the crop needs nutrients and give the required fer-
tilizers at the required time and in the required amount. Figure 2 shows IoT drone
used for smart agricultural farming [4].
Smart Organic Agriculture in Traditional South Indian-Based Farming System 271

Fig. 1 Smart organic farming

Fig. 2 Drones used for agriculture

1.5.2 Smart Application in Farming

Smart applications provide a precise solution for ultra-model farming systems in

terms of metric measurement for crop yielding processing. Some of the smart appli-
cation uses for smart farming system are as follows: crop metrics is an important
application in precision agriculture. It provides precisely the solutions required for
ultra-modern farming systems. A crop measurement system uses sensors in IoT
technology to analyse soil moisture and determine what types of crops can be
grown; precision agriculture is used to make many important decisions such as
improving yield. Ground-based drones and aerial drones are used in agriculture for
applications such as crop yield assessment, irrigation, crop monitoring, crop spray-
ing, planting and soil and field analysis. Using technology aspect drones, the fertil-
ity of the crops can be monitored from the location [5]. Also, these drones play an
important role in agriculture for easy analysis of crop characteristics and better
planning. Therefore, the role of smart applications in the current emerging technol-
ogy is immense help for smart farming system. Figure 3 shows smart application
used for farming system.
272 R. Gnanasekaran et al.

1.6 Smart Organic Farming Model

1.6.1 Existing Model

Organic smart farming solution uses IoT solution that is built for monitoring the
crop and field with aid of sensors for monitoring light, humidity, temperature, soil
moisture and crop health. With the help of smart application, farmers can monitor
the farming field conditions from anywhere and store all relevant information in
cloud platform [6]. In Fig. 4, existing smart organic farming model is shown as
follows.

1.6.2 Proposed Model

This research work facilitates organic smart farming by implementing machine

learning logic to IoT solution and its relevant application to do organic smart farm-
ing in an optimized manner to promote agricultural farming system in an effective
manner. Figure 5 shows proposed smart organic farming model as follows.
The organic smart farming system encompasses with optimistic approach con-
tribute to get maximize yield and also it promotes smart way of organic farming
process are as follows:
• IoT solutions
• IoT devices and sensors monitoring process
• Smart applications

Fig. 3 Smart applications

Smart Organic Agriculture in Traditional South Indian-Based Farming System 273

Fig. 4 Smart organic farming model

Fig. 5 Proposed smart organic farming model

1.7 IoT Solutions for Proposed Smart Organic Farming Model

The proposed system encompasses with IoT devices like drones and sensors for
smart organic farming process. Drone is an unmanned aerial vehicle normally used
to monitor the field and crop yield measurements. It acts as an observer in smart
farming system [7]. Drones are typically used to survey the farm field status and
irrigation process needed for farming. Therefore, farmers get a higher productivity
and efficient use of irrigation land, water and organic fertilizer. The following are
the benefits of using drones in smart farming:
• Increased yields
• Time saving
• Crop monitoring
• Optimization water usage needed for farming
• Sensors for climate condition monitoring
274 R. Gnanasekaran et al.

1.8 Proposed IoT Devices and Sensor for Organic

Smart Farming

Organic-based smart farming works on crop rotation, companion planting and farm-
ing with natural fertilizer. These IoT devices with machine learning computation
process help the farming system with the following functions:
• Climate condition predictions – IoT sensors in the field
• Water sensors – IoT sensor in the field
• Optical sensors - IoT sensor in the field

1.8.1 Optimized Monitoring Approach Using IoT Device and Sensors

for Climate Predictions

In traditional-based organic farming methods, crops and vegetables have their own
cultivating period such as some may grow in humid condition and some may grow
in warm conditions; some grow in a high attitude for growth and development.
Based on this organic farming cultivation done in South India by the following
process:
• Intercrops and crop rotation
• Growing season
• Soil
• Crop duration
• Crop varieties
Here in this research work, the IoT device and sensor devices used for smart
farming constitute with above process in an efficient manner. Figure 6 is one of the
IoT sensor devices used for organic smart farming with computational process
inclusion.
In Fig. 6, the IoT sensor device used for climate prediction installed on the field
and frequently observes the field condition and updates it to centralized cloud stor-
age about the climate conditions for cropping.
Figure 7 is the proposed monitoring method for climate condition prediction
process for organic crop cultivation. The IoT sensor device captures the soil, wind,
rainfall and temperature state and sends the relevant data using the help of sim mod-
ule to cloud environment for permanent storage process.
Smart Organic Agriculture in Traditional South Indian-Based Farming System 275

Fig. 6 IoT sensor device for climate predictions

Fig. 7 IoT monitoring sensor device process for climate predictions

1.8.2 Optimized Monitoring Approach Using IoT Device and Sensors

for Water Resources

The optimized water level monitoring sensor measures water level in the field in
Fig. 9 in various forms such as water source from well and rainfall and from river
irrigation sources. The smart IoT devices fixed in the field keenly monitor the essen-
tial water resource level needed for organic farming process and send report to the
client smart application on an hour-based activity [8].
In Fig. 8, the IoT sensor device helps in monitoring the water resource level and
sends the data to cloud platform and intern it report to smart client board for organic
farming essentials Fig. 9.
276 R. Gnanasekaran et al.

1.8.3 Optimized Monitoring Approach Optical Sensor

for Organic Farming

In smart organic farming, optical sensors play an important role by observing, mea-
suring and recording the information about organic crops and the soil field by using
optical sensor processes. Optical sensor is the process apply to smart farming sys-
tem by emitting of light of shining to a specified wavelength at crops to get the
condition of crops through the reflected light to the sensors. It helps in monitoring
the crop condition from the beginning stage to harvesting stage of organic crop
cultivation process.
The above is the optical monitoring device (Fig. 10) that help fully in observing
and predicating the crop condition at every stage of the development process.
In Fig. 11, optical sensor used to capture and monitor the safety level of crop
cultivation in an optimized manner with maximized efficiency.

1.9 Proposed Smart Application for Organic Smart Farming

Smart applications are those which help in sensing the process with actuation and
also able to monitor and control for any condition to make a decision that can take
place with the data obtained and derived for prediction process. In this research
work, the smart application proposed for organic smart farming to the end user
encompasses with the following process:
1. Supervised data for organic farming
2. Smart data from IoT devices and sensors
3. Machine learning predictions for organic smart farming

Fig. 8 IoT water level monitors

Smart Organic Agriculture in Traditional South Indian-Based Farming System 277

Fig. 9 IoT monitoring sensor device process for water level monitoring

Fig. 10 IoT optical

sensors

1.9.1 Supervised Data for Organic Farming

The supervised data composition contains the basic essential process needed for
organic farming. Let us take an example for organic farming method for rice cultiva-
tion; the essential data noted for cultivation are as follows: the average crop height
of rice is in the range about 100–120 cm, and its mature period is ranging about
105–115 days for 1 acre rice yielding organic smart farming.
These data are learned and inputted to the application environment that needed
for end users. Apart from the essential data quantity of organic fertilizer, water and
natural pesticide data prerequisites present in the smart application computational
process. Hence all the above essential data is labelled to use for computing process.

1.9.2 Supervised Organic Data Farming in South Indian-Based

Farming System

The traditional South Indian farming system follows drilling method. It is a process
of ploughing the land and sowing seed to cultivate crops in an organic manner. In
that the smart application supervised learning process follows logistic regression
algorithm for supervised learning method of organic farming. The supervised
278 R. Gnanasekaran et al.

Fig. 11 IoT optical monitoring sensors for organic farming

Fig. 12 Supervised learning data for smart farming

organic drilling method using smart application comprises three different stages;
they are as follows and shown in Fig. 12:
1. Pre-harvesting method
2. Post-harvesting method
3. Harvesting method

2 Smart Data from IoT Devices and Sensors

IoT devices and sensor data are called as smart data collected from the sensors of
IoT devices to monitor and control the environmental condition such as irrigation
field-related real-time conditions, and all are connected over Internet of Things
(IoT). The smart data collected are usually sent to cloud storage for analysis process
Smart Organic Agriculture in Traditional South Indian-Based Farming System 279

to make decision-making. The smart data is classified into three different types
such as:
• Device data
• Utility data
• Environment data
1. Device Data
It mainly dealt with status of IoT devices that works for real time. Moreover, the
device data obtained are centralized to get maximum predictions.
2. Utility Data
It collects the data referred to utility basis on the ground of device data process;
it helps in forecasting the earlier predictions for data processing.
3. Environment Data
It monitors and measures the environmental condition used for agricultural
process.

2.1 Machine Learning Predictions for Organic Smart Farming

The emergence of artificial intelligence in worldwide scenario also conquers the

agricultural sector to promote the agricultural production in an effective way by
implementing machine learning techniques to optimize result to the end user [9].
This article facilitates machine learning algorithm to support smart application used
for organic farming methods.
This research article describes an optimized decision tree algorithm for machine
learning process that is applied on the data from the sensor devices to predict the
result for smart application efficiently to farming process.

2.1.1 Optimized Decision Tree Algorithm for Machine

Learning Predictions

It is a supervised learning technique based on a data set that tend to find the result
on the basis of finding all possible solutions using a decision tree. Figure 13 illus-
trates the flow of data for optimized smart applications.
280 R. Gnanasekaran et al.

Fig. 13 Smart application environment

2.2 Optimized Smart Organic Agriculture in South

Indian-­Based Farming System

Figure 14 shows optimal farming system proposed for organic agricultural process
in South India. The optimized approach works with four major modules as follows:
Smart Organic Agriculture in Traditional South Indian-Based Farming System 281

Fig. 14 Optimized
farming system

• Smart data for agriculture

• IoT data
• Machine learned data
• Smart application
The process of smart farming system starts with smart information of organic farm-
ing flows to get and map IoT devices data by comparing pre- and post harvesting
data in cloud platform, and it makes a flow towards smart application with machine
learning algorithm for the end user [10].
282 R. Gnanasekaran et al.

2.3 Conclusion

This research focus towards smart farming that helps for agricultural sector to get
technology facilities for harvesting process. It brings an agricultural revolution to
automatize the entire process of organic agricultural activity in South Indian-based
farming system. The procedural activity described in this research work really helps
the farmer especially South Indian-based farmers to do their agricultural work in an
optimized manner. Hence, this adaption of new advanced technologies to farming
really helps South Indian-based farmer to promote their organic-based agricultural
product globally.

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Smart Farming with Cloud Supported
Data Management Enabling Real-Time
Monitoring and Prediction for Better Yield

Robin Cyriac and Jayarani Thomas

1 Introduction to Cloud Computing and Smart Farming

A new era of agricultural progress is arrived, and it’s all because of the integration
of cloud computing and “smart farming.” The foundation of contemporary precision
agriculture can be built on cloud computing, which can remotely store, process, and
analyze massive volumes of data. Farmers can now take data driven decisons due to
the real-time data collection and processing facilitated by sensors, drones, smart
agricultural machinery, and Cloud servers. Because of this interplay, conventional
farming is transformed into an activity that is more productive, environmentally
friendly, and linked. As we explore the details of this intersection of technologies,
we find a world in which farmers are given the tools to increase their yields while
decreasing their use of resources and their adverse effects on the environment.

1.1 Background and Motivation

The necessity of resolving issues troubling the agriculture sector and the desire to
make use of promising new technology to increase crop yields while reducing envi-
ronmental impact are the driving forces behind the adoption of cloud computing in
smart farming. The circumstances that have led to this convergence all point to the
ways in which cloud computing can revolutionize conventional farming.

R. Cyriac (*)
Department of IT, Federation University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
J. Thomas
Brisbane, QLD, Australia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 283
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_14
284 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

Manual labor, intuition, and broad strategies are common in traditional farming’s
approach to crop, soil, and resource management [1]. This method often results in
wasted effort and materials and a slower adaptation to changing environmental cir-
cumstances. There are a number of problems that have prompted researchers to look
at using cloud computing in agriculture.
1. Resource Scarcity: With a growing population comes a greater need for food,
which puts more stress on the world’s limited supplies of farmland, water, and
electricity.
2. Environmental Concerns: Soil erosion, water contamination, and an overabun-
dance of chemical use are just a few of the environmental problems that can
result from conventional agricultural methods. To lessen negative effects on the
environment, sustainable behaviors are crucial.
3. Climate Change: This change has brought extremely variable weather patterns,
making it impossible to accurately forecast and manage agricultural production.
4. Food Security: Ensuring a stable and secure food supply is a significant concern,
particularly in regions prone to food shortages.
5. Labor Shortages: Labor-intensive farming methods are becoming increasingly
difficult to implement due to a lack of available workers and rising wages.
The reason to implement cloud computing in smart farming comes from the fact
that smart farming has the ability to provide game-changing solutions to the prob-
lems hampering conventional farming. Cloud computing’s ability to alter the way
farming is done by fostering more efficient, sustainable, and productive methods is
a major reason for its growing significance in this sector. Integrating cloud comput-
ing has significant implications for farmers and the global food supply chain because
of the many advantages it delivers and the difficulties it solves in the agriculture
business.
In cloud computing environment, massive volumes of data from the agriculture
sector can be collected, stored, and analyzed. This data may tell you a lot about the
soil, the weather, and the overall health of your crops. When this information is
analyzed in real time, farmers can make better judgments about watering, fertiliz-
ing, and controlling pests. Precision agriculture, enabled by the cloud, allows farm-
ers to adapt their methods to the unique requirements of individual plants or
localized regions of a field. By administering water, fertilizer, and insecticides just
when and where they are required can reduce wastage of resources. This results in
less wasted resources and more productivity. Fields may be remotely monitored
using cloud computing and technology like sensors, drones, and the Internet of
Things. Anywhere there is an Internet connection, farmers can get up-to-the-minute
information about things like soil conditions, temperature, humidity, and more. As
a result, field workers aren’t required to be on-site all the time, and emergencies
may be addressed promptly.
Based on past and present data, cloud-based systems may create prediction mod-
els. Crop yields, disease outbreaks, and market movements are all within the scope
of these models’ predictions. These findings can help farmers anticipate problems
and prepare for them in advance. Smart farming, enabled by the cloud, makes the
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 285

most efficient use of water and fertilizer. Farmers may reduce their negative effects
on the environment by applying the results of scientific analyses of soil and meteo-
rological data. Farmers now have a single location from which to oversee and man-
age all facets of their farms, thanks to cloud-based farm management software.
These systems allow for effective communication and cooperation between agricul-
tural workers by integrating data from many sources. Farmers, agriculturists, and
academics may now work together on a worldwide scale by collecting and main-
taining data in cloud computing. Better results for the whole industry may be
achieved via the sharing of knowledge, best practices, and new solutions.
Cloud services are extremely scalable, so farms of any size may take use of
cutting-­edge tools without having to make substantial initial monetary investments.
This opens up state-of-the-art equipment and techniques to both large and small
farms. Through the provision of safe data storage and backup, cloud computing
increases farm resilience. Data that is vital to business operations can be restored
quickly after a disaster or system failure. Cloud-based smart farming helps agricul-
ture become more sustainable by maximizing efficiency and lessening the impact
on the environment. This is essential in order to minimize the negative effects on the
environment that the industry has. The quality and safety of food is protected by
cloud-based technologies because of their enhanced capacity to track products from
farm to fork. Customers now have a better idea of where their food comes from.
Cloud computing’s value in agriculture arises from its potential to upgrade obso-
lete methods of farming to ones that are more modern, data-driven, and environ-
mentally friendly. Farms may benefit from cloud computing because it allows for
more accurate resource management, real-time monitoring, predictive analytics,
and global cooperation, all of which help farmers overcome obstacles, increase out-
put, and strengthen the global food supply chain. The agricultural sector may
improve its capabilities and respond to the needs of a shifting global market by tap-
ping into the potential of the cloud.

1.2 Overview of Cloud Computing

The term “cloud computing” is used to describe the practice of providing data stor-
age, processing power, and software applications through the Internet. Users no
longer need to rely entirely on locally available resources; instead, they may access
and use these services remotely, without setting up a complex physical infrastruc-
ture. Cloud services are very flexible, so users may easily add or remove capacity to
meet their specific requirements. This is especially helpful in agriculture, where
planting, harvesting, and weather conditions all have a significant impact on demand.
With cloud computing, expensive infrastructure like servers and programs are no
longer required. By charging users per unit of resource used, financial risks are miti-
gated, and smaller farms are given the opportunity to use cutting-edge equipment.
As long as they have an Internet connection, farmers and agricultural professionals
may use any number of online tools and databases. This allows for cross-locational
286 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

collaboration, instantaneous decision-making, and remote monitoring. The ability

to quickly handle and analyze data is essential for making good judgments in preci-
sion agriculture, and this is where cloud computing comes in. Insights on crop
health, soil conditions, weather patterns, and more may be gleaned from massive
databases using sophisticated algorithms. Many cloud providers claim of having
many backups and servers. In the case of a hardware breakdown or natural disaster,
this guarantees that vital agricultural data will still be preserved and accessible.

1.3 Concept of Smart Farming

Smart farming, often known as precision agriculture, is the practice of utilizing a

wide range of technological advancements to enhance productivity in agricultural
operations. The deployment of smart agricultural methods is greatly aided by cloud
computing.
1. IoT and Sensor Integration: In order to monitor soil moisture, temperature,
humidity, and other environmental factors, IoT devices and sensors are installed
in fields [2]. In turn, this helps farmers make better decisions regarding issues
like watering, fertilizing, and insect management in real time.
2. Predictive Analytics: Cloud-based solutions may use both historical and real-­
time data to build predictive models (predictive analytics). These models allow
farmers to properly prepare for future crop yields, disease outbreaks, and mar-
ket trends.
3. Resource Management: Cloud-based smart farming allows for more efficient
use of available resources. Farmers may reduce the amount of fertilizers and
pesticides used and their negative effects on the environment by analyzing data
on soil conditions, weather forecasts, and crop health.
4. Crop Monitoring: High-resolution aerial photographs of fields are taken by
drones fitted with cameras and sensors for crop monitoring. Then, regions with
vulnerable crops, illnesses, or pests are pinpointed with the use of cloud-based
picture processing.
5. Supply Chain Efficiency: Increased openness and traceability in the agricultural
supply chain is one of the many ways in which cloud computing improves sup-
ply chain efficiency. Food safety and quality may be monitored across the whole
supply chain, from farm to fork.
Smart farming can profit greatly from cloud computing, but there are drawbacks
as well. Sensitive data, including personal information and proprietary algorithms,
are involved in farming. It is crucial to guarantee data security and adherence to
privacy laws. For access to cloud services and real-time data transfer, consistent
Internet access is necessary, but this might be difficult in rural regions. Initial infra-
structure, training, and system integration investments may be necessary for the
successful implementation of cloud-based solutions. Particularly when there are
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 287

several parties involved, it is important to establish explicit agreements on data own-

ership and usage rights.
In the world of agriculture, cloud computing has changed the game and brought
in the era of smart farming. Productivity, sustainability, and profitability are
increased in cloud-powered smart farming through real-time data analysis, predic-
tive modeling, and resource optimization. The use of cloud computing to agriculture
has the potential to completely transform the world’s food supply chain and make it
more adaptable to the problems of the twenty-first century, as long as technology
keeps developing and connectivity keeps getting better.

2 Fundamentals of Cloud Computing

A technological paradigm known as cloud computing refers to the distribution of

computer resources, services, and applications through the Internet. Users can
access and utilize software, storage, and processing power without having to main-
tain or own physical infrastructure. With cloud computing, businesses can instantly
scale up or down, pay for just the resources they use, and concentrate on their main
goals instead of worrying about maintaining hardware and software. Cloud comput-
ing offers on-demand access to a wide range of resources and services. To accom-
modate diverse user requirements, it includes a range of deployment options (public,
private, hybrid, multi-cloud) and service models (IaaS, PaaS, SaaS). Flexibility,
scalability, affordability, and the capacity to develop and implement apps quickly
are all available through cloud computing.

2.1 Cloud Deployment Models

Several cloud deployment models are intended to explain the deployment and man-
agement of cloud resources and services inside an enterprise [3]. The four primary
cloud deployment models are as follows:
1. Public Cloud: A third-party cloud service provider provides resources and ser-
vices in a public cloud deployment, which are then made accessible to the gen-
eral public over the Internet. Pay-as-you-go access and usage of these resources
is available to organizations, who share them with other consumers. Google
Cloud Platform (GCP), Microsoft Azure, and Amazon Web Services (AWS) are
a few examples of public cloud providers.
2. Private Cloud: Building a cloud infrastructure inside a company’s on-premises
or data center is known as a private cloud deployment. This infrastructure is
exclusive to one firm and isn’t used by any other businesses. More control over
resource allocation, security, and customization is possible with private clouds.
Organizations with certain regulatory or compliance needs frequently use them.
288 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

3. Hybrid Cloud: A hybrid cloud deployment integrates aspects of public and pri-
vate cloud infrastructure. It enables businesses to combine public cloud resources
with their on-premises infrastructure. This method offers flexibility and scalabil-
ity by allowing data and workloads to be transferred between the two environ-
ments as needed. Organizations looking to keep sensitive data on-site while
utilizing the public cloud’s scalability and agility for other purposes might ben-
efit from hybrid clouds.
4. Community Cloud: A cloud shared by two or more businesses with similar cloud
needs is called a community cloud. A community cloud will be managed and
utilized by a group of businesses with similar goals or particular security needs.
Every deployment model has benefits and drawbacks of its own, and an organi-
zation’s needs, objectives, and factors like security, compliance, performance, and
cost all influence in the model selection process.

2.2 Cloud Service Models

When it comes to administering and maintaining various levels of a cloud-based

application or infrastructure, cloud service models specify the degree of control and
accountability that a cloud service provider and a client share [4]. There are three
primary models of cloud services:
1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): The cloud provider provides virtualized com-
puter resources through the Internet under an IaaS paradigm. This covers net-
working, storage, virtual machines, and other essential infrastructure parts.
Clients can create, install, and maintain their own software, operating systems,
and apps with the help of these resources. Customers are in charge of administer-
ing and maintaining the virtual machines, OS upgrades, security patches, and
other infrastructure-related activities, despite the fact that they have control over
their apps and customizations.
2. Platform as a Service (PaaS): In an IaaS model, the cloud provider makes virtu-
alized computer resources available online. This includes virtual machines, net-
working, storage, and other crucial infrastructure components. With the use of
these tools, clients may develop, install, and manage their own operating sys-
tems, applications, and software. Although they retain control over their pro-
grams and customizations, customers are responsible for managing and
maintaining the virtual machines, OS updates, security patches, and other
infrastructure-­related tasks.
3. Software as a Service (SaaS): The most customer-focused cloud service para-
digm is SaaS. Under this strategy, software programs that are fully functional are
delivered via the Internet by the cloud provider. Clients do not need to install or
manage the program locally in order to access and utilize it through a web
browser. The supplier takes care of infrastructure, security, upgrades, and main-
tenance in its entirety. From email and collaboration tools to customer r­ elationship
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 289

management (CRM) and enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, SaaS

solutions address a broad spectrum of corporate demands.
Organizations may select the cloud service model that most closely matches their
requirements, capabilities, and experience by selecting from a variety of levels of
abstraction and administrative responsibilities offered by each model. A number of
variables, including cost, scalability, control, and development speed, can be
impacted by the service model selection.

2.3 Virtualization and Resource Allocation in Cloud

Two fundamental ideas in cloud computing are virtualization and resource alloca-
tion, which allow for the flexible creation and management of virtual environments
for services and applications as well as the effective use of physical resources.
The act of turning real resources like computer hardware, storage, and network-
ing components into a virtual form is known as virtualization. It essentially abstracts
the underlying hardware and provides isolation between these virtual instances by
enabling the operation of numerous virtual instances or environments on a single
physical system. Virtualization is essential for the creation and administration of
virtual machines (VMs), also known as containers, which are separated environ-
ments that resemble actual computers in the context of cloud computing. These
virtual instances offer a degree of flexibility, scalability, and resource efficiency as
they may run many operating systems and applications. Virtualization makes it pos-
sible for several users or tenants to share hardware resources effectively, which
eliminates the need for separate physical hardware for each task.
In cloud computing, resource allocation is the process of allocating computer
resources—like CPU, memory, storage, and network bandwidth—to different vir-
tual instances in accordance with their needs and priorities. Cloud service providers
allocate resources to their clients’ workloads in a way that maximizes efficiency,
scalability, and economy.

2.4 Scalability, Elasticity, and On-Demand Services

The capacity of a system, application, or infrastructure to accommodate growing

volumes of work, data, or users without sacrificing responsiveness or performance
is referred to as scalability. It involves constructing a system with the flexibility to
grow or decrease to meet shifting demand. To guarantee that the system maintains
ideal performance levels, scalability can be accomplished by adding or eliminating
resources, such as processing power, storage, or network capacity.
There are two forms of scalability: horizontal scalability (also known as scale
out) and vertical scalability (also known as scale up). The former refers to adding
290 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

extra instances or servers to spread the burden over numerous computers, whereas
the former is restricted by the capacity of a single system. This method has a better
chance of managing heavier workloads and rising demand. The latter speaks about
boosting a single instance’s or server’s capacity in terms of CPU, memory, or
storage.
An extension of scalability, elasticity, concentrates on a system’s capacity to
dynamically and automatically modify its resources in response to demand.
Elasticity allows resources to be automatically scaled up or down to accommodate
variations in workload. This keeps the system operating at peak efficiency and
reduces expenses when demand is low.
In the context of cloud computing, “on-demand services” refers to the flexibility
to access and utilize resources, apps, and services whenever required, without the
need for lengthy lead times or manual involvement. On-demand resources and ser-
vices are provided by cloud service providers, enabling customers to rapidly provi-
sion and use them in accordance with their needs. On-demand services include
several important features, such as flexibility, pay-as-you-go, instant provisioning,
and self-service. demand.
On-demand services in the context of cloud computing refer to the ability to
access and use resources, applications, and services whenever they are needed,
without requiring manual intervention. Cloud service providers offer various
resources and services on-demand, allowing users to quickly provision and utilize
them according to their requirements. Key characteristics of on-demand services
include self-service, pay-as-you-go, instant provisioning, and self-service.

2.5 Land Suitability Assessment Based on Soil Vegetation

Indices from Satellite Data

Organizations must take security and privacy concerns seriously while utilizing
cloud computing in order to safeguard their resources, data, and apps. Although
cloud computing has many advantages, like flexibility and scalability, there are
some disadvantages as well [3]. Data security, network security, vulnerability man-
agement, identity and access management, compliance, shared responsibility mod-
els, and incident response are among the security factors to be taken into account.
Data privacy, location and residency of data, ownership and control of data, por-
tability of data, vendor lock-in, transparency, and consent management are among
the privacy considerations. Organizations should do a thorough risk assessment,
embrace best practices for cloud security, and collaborate closely with the cloud
service providers of their choice to build efficient security controls and privacy safe-
guards in order to handle these factors. Regular evaluations and audits are necessary
to guarantee continued compliance and the security of private data.
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 291

3 Applications of Cloud Computing in Agriculture

Because cloud computing provides scalable, economical, and effective solutions to

a range of problems encountered by farmers and agribusinesses, it has had a major
impact on the agriculture industry. Precision farming and data-driven farming, crop
monitoring and yield prediction, livestock management and health monitoring, irri-
gation control and water management, supply chain optimization, and traceability
are a few of the most prevalent applications of cloud computing in agriculture.

3.1 Precision Agriculture and Data-Driven Farming

Precision agriculture is a kind of agricultural management that adapts and optimizes

farming techniques on a field-by-field or even plant-by-plant level via the use of
technology and data. In order to evaluate variables including soil health, moisture
levels, temperature, and crop health, data is first collected from a variety of sources,
including weather stations, GPS, drones, satellites, and remote sensing. After the
data has been gathered, analysis is done to produce suggestions and insights for
certain agricultural practices. Data analytics and machine learning methods are fre-
quently used in this. Based on the data-driven insights, inputs such as herbicides,
fertilizers, and irrigation water are subsequently administered at different rates. This
minimizes waste and its negative effects on the environment by ensuring that
resources are used exactly where and when they are required [5]. To increase pro-
ductivity and save labor costs, precision agriculture uses automation and robots for
planting, harvesting, and other farming operations. With the assistance of GIS
(Geographic Information Systems) software, farmers can precisely plan their plant-
ing, irrigation, and crop management strategies by creating comprehensive maps of
their fields. Farmers may monitor and manage their activities from a single dash-
board created by integrating data from many sources using farm management soft-
ware. Through mobile applications and online platforms, farmers may remotely
monitor crop conditions, equipment status, and environmental factors in real time,
enabling them to make timely modifications as needed.
Precision agriculture is included in the larger term of “data-driven farming,”
which also refers to the general agricultural philosophy of using data to guide deci-
sions rather than tradition or gut feeling. Farmers are able to make well-informed
decisions on pest management, fertilizer, irrigation, planting schedules, and har-
vesting by using data analysis. These choices are customized for individual plants
or even for each unique field. Throughout the growth season, ongoing observation
and feedback are helpful in optimizing results and adapting to shifting circum-
stances. Although adopting a data-driven strategy in agriculture might help achieve
sustainable agriculture, there are several obstacles in its way, including social, legal,
and technological issues as well as practical limitations. The aforementioned obsta-
cles hinder the exchange of data in order to obtain substantial advantages from it [5].
292 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

3.2 Crop Monitoring and Yield Prediction

Modern agriculture is dependent on yield prediction and crop monitoring, which are
made possible by data analytics and technological breakthroughs. All during the
growing season, farmers can closely monitor the health and growth of their crops,
thanks to the combination of sensors, drones, satellite photography, and data-driven
software powered through cloud. With the help of this real-time monitoring, irriga-
tion, fertilizer, and pest control can be precisely adjusted to maximize resource effi-
ciency and minimize waste. Furthermore, farmers can anticipate crop yields with
exceptional precision using historical data and predictive modeling, which helps
them make better decisions about harvesting schedules and market planning. Crop
monitoring and yield prediction help to ensure food security in a world, minimize
environmental impact, and boost agricultural productivity—all while contributing
to sustainable farming practices.

3.3 Livestock Management and Health Monitoring

Since technology and data-driven solutions have been integrated, livestock manage-
ment and health monitoring have seen a revolutionary transformation. Thanks to
automated data gathering systems, wearable technology, and sensors, farmers can
now keep a close eye on the health of their livestock. These technologies allow for
the early diagnosis of disease and stress by providing real-time data on important
factors including dietary habits, temperature, and heart rate. Furthermore, this data
is processed by sophisticated analytics and machine learning algorithms to produce
actionable insights that enable prompt intervention and individualized treatment for
every animal. An Internet of Things (IoT) tool called animal health monitoring
(AHM) packaging prevents medication abuse by guaranteeing pharmaceutical com-
pliance [6]. This promotes overall farm efficiency and increases animal welfare
while guaranteeing the production of high-quality, safe livestock products. In con-
temporary agriculture, livestock management and health monitoring are essential
for fostering animal health, sustainability, and the prudent management of livestock
resources.

3.4 Irrigation Control and Water Management

Modern agriculture now cannot function without irrigation control and water man-
agement, especially in areas where water is scarce and weather patterns are irregu-
lar. Precision sprinklers, drip irrigation, soil moisture monitors, and other advanced
irrigation technology enable farmers to apply water precisely where and when it is
required. These devices’ data are processed by cloud-based data analytics
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 293

platforms, which provide real-time weather forecasts and insights into soil moisture
levels. Farmers may reduce water waste, maximize crop growth, and optimize irri-
gation schedules by utilizing this data. Additionally, by preserving water supplies
and lessening the negative effects of agriculture on the environment, these methods
support sustainability. Irrigation control and water management are essential to
ensure food security and the prudent use of our planet’s most valuable resource,
water, as climate change exacerbates water difficulties.

3.5 Supply Chain Optimization and Traceability

Utilizing cutting-edge technology such as drones, data analytics, and Internet of

Things sensors, smart farming optimizes the whole agricultural supply chain.
Optimizing the supply chain guarantees effective management and delivery of
resources, such as machinery, fertilizers, and seeds, to the farm. Furthermore, it
makes it easier to monitor crop health and environmental conditions in real time,
allowing farmers to make accurate, data-driven decisions at every stage of the farm-
ing process. At the same time, tracking technologies offer a digital history of every
agricultural product, starting from the farm and ending at the market. This trace-
ability minimizes customer worries about the origin of their food by guaranteeing
food safety, transparency, and quality control. When combined, supply chain opti-
mization and traceability improve smart farming methods’ dependability, sustain-
ability, and efficiency, which eventually advances the agriculture sector.

4 Building Blocks of Cloud-Based Smart Farming Systems

The essential elements that provide data-driven intelligence and efficiency to con-
temporary agriculture are the building blocks of cloud-based smart farming sys-
tems. These systems are primarily dependent on reliable sensors and Internet of
Things (IoT) devices that are positioned strategically around the farm. These devices
are able to gather an abundance of real-time data on crop health, weather patterns,
soil conditions, and livestock status. After that, these data streams are sent to the
cloud, where sophisticated machine learning and data analytics algorithms are
applied. By acting as a single repository for data processing, analysis, and storage,
the cloud helps farmers understand their operations better. Efficient resource alloca-
tion and decision-making are possible for farmers thanks to easily navigable dash-
boards and mobile applications that offer remote monitoring and control capabilities.
In addition, cloud-based solutions frequently encourage cooperation and knowledge
exchange among farmers, transforming our understanding of profitable and sustain-
able farming methods in the digital era.
294 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

4.1 Sensor Networks and Internet of Things (IoT) Devices

Agriculture is being revolutionized by sensor networks and Internet of Things (IoT)

devices that offer real-time data and remote control capabilities. With the use of
these tools, farmers may increase production, encourage sustainability in smart
farming practices, and make data-driven choices.
With its ability to provide real-time data on a variety of agricultural factors, sen-
sors form the core of smart farming. They gather information on animals, weather,
crops, soil, and other topics. A variety of sensors, such as GPS trackers, cameras,
motion sensors, temperature and humidity sensors, and soil moisture sensors, are
utilized in agriculture. In order to make wise judgments in farming operations, sen-
sors continually collect data. For analysis, this data is sent to central systems. A lot
of sensors send data to central hubs or the cloud using wireless technologies like
LoRaWAN, Zigbee, or cellular networks. This makes remote control and observa-
tion possible.
Connecting physical things and gadgets to the Internet is known as the Internet
of Things (IoT), and it is a major influence on agriculture. IoT gadgets used in smart
farming include drones, smart machinery, actuators, and sensors. These gadgets
contain sensors to gather data, and they frequently have the capacity to act on the
data. IoT devices assist in integrating data from several sources to present a compre-
hensive picture of the farm. To make judgments about irrigation, for instance, mete-
orological data from a weather station can be linked with information about soil
moisture. IoT devices give farmers the ability to oversee and manage farm activities
from a distance. For example, people may use their cellphones to control irrigation
systems or keep an eye on the well-being of cattle. Precision agriculture is made
possible by IoT devices because they provide data that facilitates efficient resource
allocation. This may lead to lower waste, higher yields, and lower costs. IoT devices
have many advantages, but there are drawbacks as well, such as the need for regular
maintenance, connectivity problems, and data security.

4.2 Data Collection, Transmission, and Storage

The gathering, sharing, and storing of data are essential elements of smart farming.
In the end, they increase agricultural sustainability and efficiency by empowering
farmers to make data-driven decisions, automate procedures, and obtain real-time
information [7].
Data Collection in Smart Farming
Data from a variety of sources, including as sensors, drones, GPS units, and even
satellite pictures, is used in smart farming. Throughout the farm, sensors gather
information on crop health (NDVI from drones), livestock factors (health, location),
meteorological conditions (temperature, humidity, and pH), and soil conditions
(moisture, pH, and temperature). Continuous data collecting yields real-time
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 295

information essential for prompt decision-making. Soil moisture sensors, for

instance, can tell you when to water.
Data Transmission in Smart Farming
Sensor and device data is wirelessly sent to cloud servers or central hubs. Wireless
technologies that are often utilized include cellular networks, Wi-Fi, LoRaWAN,
and Zigbee. Data processing may occasionally take place at the edge, or close to the
data source, facilitating rapid decision-making. Only pertinent data may be filtered
and sent to the cloud by edge devices. Real-time data may be accessed remotely
using wireless data transmission. Even when they are not physically there, farmers
may use computers or cellphones to keep an eye on their crops. One of the chal-
lenges is in guaranteeing dependable access, particularly in remote regions, and
managing the security risks associated with wireless data transfer.
Data Storage in Smart Farming
Usually, sensor data transmissions are kept on the cloud. Redundancy, scalability,
and accessibility are provided via cloud storage. Sensitive agricultural data must be
protected. To protect data saved in the cloud, encryption, access restrictions, and
frequent security upgrades are required. Utilizing strong algorithms and machine
learning models, data analysis is made easier with cloud-based storage. Crop man-
agement, resource optimization, and predictive maintenance can all benefit from
this approach. Farmers may use trend analysis on historical data saved in the cloud
to make well-informed decisions based on previous seasons and patterns.
Agribusiness data storage may need to abide by local laws, rules, and regulations,
including those pertaining to data privacy.

4.3 Data Analytics and Machine Learning for Insights

Smart farming relies heavily on data analytics and machine learning, which use
data’s potential to provide insightful information. These technologies are able to
detect patterns, abnormalities, and correlations that would be missed by human
observation alone by analyzing enormous datasets gathered from sensors, satellites,
drones, and different IoT devices [8]. In addition to predicting agricultural produc-
tion, machine learning algorithms can identify plant diseases, improve irrigation
schedules, and even recommend methods for managing animals. These insights
enable farmers to decrease resource waste, boost production, make data-driven
decisions, and advance agricultural sustainability [7]. Additionally, as these systems
learn and adapt over time, they get better at optimizing agricultural techniques,
which helps to produce food in a way that is both ecologically friendly and efficient.
296 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

4.4 Decision Support Systems and Real-Time Monitoring

Real-time monitoring and decision support systems are essential elements of smart
farming, providing farmers with the resources they need to maximize their farming
techniques. The continuous gathering of data from several sensors and Internet of
Things (IoT) devices positioned around the farm is known as real-time monitoring
[9]. These gadgets offer current data on crop health, animal status, weather trends,
and soil characteristics. After that, decision support systems examine this data and
provide useful insights based on past trends and advanced algorithms. Farmers may
utilize the intuitive computer or smartphone interfaces to acquire this information.
This helps them to make well-informed judgments about pest management, fertil-
ization, irrigation, and other crucial farming decisions. In the end, this boosts pro-
ductivity, lowers expenses, and increases crop yields while guaranteeing sustainable
farming practices. Traditional agriculture is evolving into a precision- and data-­
driven sector and thanks to smart farming’s capacity to deliver real-time data and
decision assistance.

4.5 Integration of Cloud and Edge Computing

The management and optimization of agricultural operations have undergone a radi-

cal change because of the combination of edge and cloud computing in smart farm-
ing [10]. Farmers are able to access and analyze massive volumes of data from
sensors and Internet of Things devices in real time thanks to cloud computing,
which acts as the centralized hub for data processing, storage, and analysis. It facili-
tates the use of cutting-edge machine learning algorithms for predictive analytics,
supporting choices about crop management and resource allocation. Conversely,
edge computing lowers latency and speeds up decision-making by bringing com-
puter resources closer to the data source [7]. Critical data may be processed locally
by edge devices, enabling quick decisions like modifying irrigation schedules or
sending out drones for in-the-field surveillance. The integration of edge and cloud
computing in smart farming facilitates a smooth data flow, integrating the advan-
tages of real-time responsiveness and data analytics capabilities. This eventually
results in enhanced agricultural sustainability, less resource waste, and higher
efficiency.

5 Cloud-Based Data Management and Storage

Managing and storing data on the cloud is the foundation of contemporary smart
farming techniques. A centralized, scalable platform for gathering, storing, and ana-
lyzing massive volumes of agricultural data is offered by the cloud. Cloud storage
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 297

guarantees that data on soil conditions, weather patterns, crop health, and animal
metrics is effectively and securely saved, since sensors, drones, and Internet of
Things devices are constantly producing data on these topics. Cloud-based data
management makes it simple for stakeholders to access and share information,
which helps farmers make educated decisions, agricultural researchers do analysis,
and even promotes cooperation within the farming community [11]. In addition,
cloud platforms provide strong security features, data redundancy, and the process-
ing capacity required to implement sophisticated data analytics and machine learn-
ing algorithms. These capabilities enable farmers to streamline their processes, cut
down on resource waste, and strive toward more productive and sustainable farming
methods.

5.1 Cloud-Based Databases for Agricultural Data

A central location to store numerous kinds of agricultural data, such as details on

crop health, weather patterns, soil conditions, and animal metrics, is provided via
cloud-based databases. On farms of various sizes, cloud databases are easily scal-
able to handle massive amounts of data provided by sensors, drones, and IoT
devices. Remote monitoring and analysis are made possible by the data’s accessibil-
ity to farmers, academics, and stakeholders from any location with an Internet con-
nection. Cloud providers use strong security protocols, such as encryption, access
restrictions, and adherence to industry rules, to safeguard agricultural data. Real-­
time data updates are supported by cloud databases, guaranteeing that users may
make decisions based on the most recent information available. Because they enable
several users to access and interact with the same data at once, hence cloud-based
databases encourage cooperation. This is beneficial for the agricultural communi-
ty’s knowledge and best practice exchange. Cloud systems provide the computing
capacity to execute machine learning and data analytics algorithms on agricultural
data, enabling farmers to make decisions based on facts. Cloud service providers
usually include disaster recovery and data backup options, guaranteeing data integ-
rity even in the case of unanticipated occurrences or hardware malfunctions. For
farmers and other companies, cloud-based databases are an economical option since
they do not require on-premises hardware or ongoing maintenance. A comprehen-
sive farming ecosystem may be created by integrating these datasets with additional
cloud-based agricultural technologies like precision agriculture software and deci-
sion support systems. Cloud service providers frequently follow compliance guide-
lines unique to their sector, which might be crucial for farms having to comply with
legal regulations.
298 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

5.2 Data Warehousing and Data Lakes

Data warehousing is the process of arranging and structuring data such that it is
readily available for reporting and querying. On the other hand, data lakes provide
greater freedom for data exploration and analysis since they keep data in its unstruc-
tured and raw form. By handling structured data such as crop yields, weather
records, and inventory levels, data warehousing may be used in smart farming to
help farmers make well-informed decisions based on both historical and current
data. However, unstructured data sources like sensor readings, satellite images, and
drone video may be accommodated by data lakes, which makes it possible to extract
insightful information for precision agriculture using sophisticated analytics,
machine learning, and data mining. By combining data lakes with data warehous-
ing, farmers may better allocate resources, increase crop yields, and advance sus-
tainable agricultural methods thanks to a comprehensive data management
ecosystem.

5.3 Data Security, Backup, and Recovery Strategies

Data security, backup, and recovery plans are essential in farming since decision-­
making and operational effectiveness depend on the availability and integrity of
agricultural data. Farmers and agricultural groups should put strong security mea-
sures in place, such as encryption, access limits, and frequent security audits, to
protect this important data. Moreover, it is imperative to build secure backup proto-
cols. This entails routinely making duplicate copies of your data and keeping it in
many geographically separated places to ensure data recovery in the case of cyberat-
tacks, natural catastrophes, or hardware malfunctions. An extra degree of security is
typically provided by the backup and recovery capabilities that are integrated into
cloud-based solutions. In order to guarantee quick data restoration in the case of an
unexpected incident, farmers must have well-defined data recovery procedures and
test them on a regular basis. The agriculture sector may reduce risks and ensure the
continuation of farming activities even in the face of unforeseen problems by plac-
ing a high priority on data protection, backup, and recovery.

5.4 Data Governance and Compliance in Agriculture

As farms and agricultural organizations handle and manage enormous volumes of

data, data governance and compliance are becoming more and more crucial in the
agriculture industry. Setting up guidelines, practices, and standards for data gather-
ing, storing, access, and use is essential to effective data governance. It encourages
appropriate data handling procedures while guaranteeing data security, correctness,
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 299

and integrity. In agriculture, compliance frequently refers to following industry-­

specific rules and guidelines on data privacy, environmental protection, and food
safety. Data governance, for example, is essential to complying with standards such
as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) for personal data or the trace-
ability laws for food goods. The agriculture industry can use the power of data to
improve farming operations’ productivity and sustainability while navigating the
complicated regulatory landscape and fostering trust via the implementation of
strong data governance and compliance mechanisms.

6 Cloud-Enabled Agricultural Services

The agriculture sector is undergoing a radical change because of cloud-enabled

technologies. These services provide farmers access to a variety of tools and capaci-
ties by utilizing cloud computing technologies. Through the cloud, farmers may get
weather predictions, data-driven insights, remote monitoring, and precision agricul-
tural solutions. Real-time decision-making, cost-effectiveness, and resource optimi-
zation are all made possible by it. Moreover, cloud-enabled agricultural services
promote knowledge sharing and best practices by facilitating data sharing and coop-
eration between farmers and agricultural specialists. With the use of this technol-
ogy, conventional agricultural practices are being completely transformed.
Agriculture is becoming more productive, sustainable, and climate-adaptive, which
will ultimately lead to higher yields and better food security.

6.1 Weather Forecasting and Climate Modeling

Climate modeling and weather forecasting are essential elements of smart farming,
serving as critical decision-making and resource-optimization tools. Farmers may
take timely measures like planting, watering, and pest management by using weather
forecasting, which gives them real-time insights into the short-term weather. It pro-
tects agricultural productivity by lessening the effects of abrupt weather occur-
rences. On the other hand, climate modeling provides a long-term view, enabling
farmers to predict and adjust to small changes in climatic patterns. Farmers are
better equipped to choose crops, arrange planting dates, and implement sustainable
agricultural techniques when they have a clear picture of future climatic patterns.
By combining these modeling and forecasting technologies, agricultural operations
become more resilient, resource-efficient, and environmentally sustainable.
300 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

6.2 Pest and Disease Prediction and Management

Predicting and managing pests and diseases is a proactive, data-driven strategy used
in smart farming to protect agricultural harvests. Smart farming monitors fields and
crops for early indicators of pest infestations or illnesses using a variety of technol-
ogy, such as sensors, drones, and AI-powered algorithms. Through the analysis of
various plant health, temperature, and humidity data, these systems are able to pre-
dict possible dangers with impressive precision. Afterward, farmers may reduce the
need for broad-spectrum insecticides and lessen their negative effects on the envi-
ronment by using focused treatments, such as precision pesticide applications or
crop rotations. In addition to improving crop protection, this strategy encourages
resource conservation and sustainable farming methods, which raise agricultural
production.

6.3 Farm Management and Planning Software

The effectiveness of smart farming methods is largely dependent on the use of farm
management and planning software. Farmers can now improve resource allocation,
streamline operations, and make data-driven choices. This gives farmers the ability
to keep an eye on and oversee a variety of agricultural operations, such as schedul-
ing irrigation and planting crops, tracking animals, and maintaining farm equip-
ment. These software programs combine sensor data, weather forecasts, and
historical records to deliver insightful information about crop health, yield fore-
casts, and resource efficiency. They also make long-term planning easier, assisting
farmers in adjusting to shifting environmental and market situations. In the upcom-
ing years, it is projected that the worldwide market for farm management and plan-
ning software would increase at an exponential rate. The world’s increasing need for
food and agricultural by-products is the cause of this considerable growth [12]. In
the end, farm management and planning software is crucial to contemporary agri-
culture as it fosters profitability, productivity, and sustainability.

6.4 Agricultural Marketplaces and Trading Platforms

In the age of smart farming, agricultural markets and trade platforms are transform-
ing the way farmers purchase, sell, and advertise their goods. These digital plat-
forms provide an effective and transparent marketplace for agricultural commodities
by bringing farmers and buyers, suppliers, and consumers together on a worldwide
scale. Farmers are able to increase their client base, make educated price decisions,
and obtain up-to-date market data. These platforms also frequently use smart con-
tract technology, which makes transactions safe and automated. Through use of
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 301

these technologies, farmers are enabled through agricultural markets and trading
platforms to enhance their income, minimize wastage, and establish a more robust
and competitive agricultural ecosystem, therefore playing a role in the industry’s
sustainability and expansion.

6.5 Remote Equipment Monitoring and Maintenance

A key component of smart farming is remote equipment monitoring and mainte-

nance, which helps farmers effectively manage and take care of their assets and
machines. Farmers can monitor the operation and state of their equipment remotely
in real time by utilizing IoT sensors and linked devices. With the use of these tech-
nologies, predictive maintenance is made possible by learning about the condition
of the equipment, consumption trends, and possible problems. Alerts are delivered
to farmers or service providers when abnormalities or maintenance needs are found,
guaranteeing prompt repairs or upkeep. In addition to minimizing downtime, this
lowers operating costs, increases the longevity of farming equipment, and encour-
ages sustainable farming methods. Modern agriculture depends heavily on remote
equipment repair and monitoring, which boost production and efficiency while
guaranteeing trouble-free agricultural operations.

7 Challenges and Future Directions

There are potential for future growth and challenges specific to smart farming. The
digital gap, which occurs when certain farmers lack access to the tools and technol-
ogy needed for precision agriculture and result in differences in revenue and pro-
ductivity, is one of the biggest obstacles to smart farming. Furthermore, there are
issues with data management, analysis, and privacy arising from the massive vol-
ume of data created by smart agricultural systems. The variability of smart agricul-
tural methods is further challenged by climate change and its unexpected effects on
weather patterns. In the future, agriculture’s sustainability and efficiency can be
further improved by combining blockchain technology, sophisticated robots, and
artificial intelligence. Moreover, as smart farming is vital to fulfilling the world’s
growing food demand while reducing its environmental impact, resolving environ-
mental issues and guaranteeing security measures will be critical to the industry’s
future expansion.
302 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

7.1 Connectivity and Network Infrastructure

At the core of smart farming’s issues is connectivity and network infrastructure. The
importance of connection is only going to increase in the dynamic field of agricul-
ture. Low-power wide-area networks (LPWANs), satellite-based Internet, and 5G
and beyond will all be integrated into smart farming in the future to provide ubiqui-
tous, fast, low-latency access to even the most distant agricultural locations. The
extraordinary growth of autonomous machinery, remote-controlled operations, and
real-time data analytics will be made possible by these breakthroughs. But as we
move forward, issues like cybersecurity risks and data privacy issues will only
become worse. Ensuring network infrastructure security and preserving the accu-
racy of agricultural data will be crucial. It will also continue to be difficult to close
the digital gap and guarantee that rural agricultural communities in the United
States have fair access to these cutting-edge networks. Overall, the future of smart
farming will be shaped by the development of connection and network infrastruc-
ture, offering the agricultural sector both challenging and exciting potential.

7.2 Data Interoperability and Standardization

Two key elements influencing how smart farming develops in the future are data
interoperability and standards. Agriculture is becoming more and more dependent
on data-driven decision-making; thus being able to integrate and communicate data
from many sources in an effortless way is essential. Future developments in smart
farming will see the creation of common data formats and communication protocols
that provide effective interaction across various platforms, sensors, and equipment.
Farmers will be able to obtain a comprehensive understanding of their operations by
combining data from many sources, including weather stations, soil sensors, and
machinery. Establishing and upholding these norms in a quickly changing technol-
ogy environment will be difficult, though. There will be constant problems in ensur-
ing interoperability between new technology and existing systems while resolving
privacy and data security issues. Furthermore, because agriculture is a worldwide
sector, international collaboration will be necessary to unify standards internation-
ally. In conclusion, achieving data standardization and interoperability will be
essential to maximizing the benefits of smart farming, but overcoming the difficul-
ties involved in creating and upholding these standards will continue to be a major
obstacle.
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 303

7.3 Cost Considerations and Return on Investment

Smart farming’s future is heavily influenced by cost and return on investment (ROI)
factors. Even though using smart farming technology has a lot of potential benefits,
farmers still need to consider the upfront expenditures and continuing operating
expenses. The ability to lower the cost and increase the accessibility of these tech-
nologies for farmers of all sizes will determine the future course of smart farming.
Technological developments in hardware, software, and networking might assist
lower initial costs, but there are still issues in making sure that the return on invest-
ment is worthwhile. In order to assess the financial advantages of smart farming
practices—such as higher yields, less resource use, and enhanced operational effi-
ciency—farmers will require precise and measurable measurements. For smart
farming to be widely adopted and expand sustainably, it will be imperative to
address these financial concerns and show a favorable return on investment, espe-
cially for small- and medium-sized farms. One of the biggest challenges facing the
business going ahead will be balancing the initial costs with the long-term benefits.

7.4 Ethical and Legal Issues in Data Ownership

The future paths and problems of smart farming raise important ethical and legal
questions around data ownership. The amount of data produced in agriculture is
increasing, raising more and more urgent concerns regarding data ownership and
governance. There are complex discussions around data rights, privacy, and security
because farmers, technology suppliers, and data aggregators all have vested inter-
ests. To solve these challenges, smart farming in the future will need well-defined
legal and ethical frameworks. The difficulty is striking a balance between protecting
sensitive information and farmers’ rights while weighing the possible advantages of
data analysis and sharing for better farming methods [13]. The growth of data mar-
kets, data-sharing agreements, and data governance systems in the agriculture sec-
tor is expected to be influenced by the ownership and management of data. Finding
the ideal balance between data security and accessibility will be crucial to ensuring
data is used responsibly and fairly in the rapidly changing field of smart farming.

7.5 Emerging Trends in Cloud Computing for Smart Farming

Smart farming is undergoing a transformation because of new developments in

cloud computing. The growing use of edge computing in agriculture is one of the
most noticeable developments. Real-time decision-making in the field is made pos-
sible by edge computing, which lowers latency by moving data processing closer to
the source. This is especially helpful for jobs like autonomous machinery and
304 R. Cyriac and J. Thomas

precision farming. The incorporation of machine learning (ML) and artificial intel-
ligence (AI) into cloud-based systems is another noteworthy trend. With the help of
these technologies, farmers may optimize crop management and resource allocation
by taking use of actionable insights from more sophisticated data analytics, predic-
tive modeling, and automation. A unified and comprehensive picture of a farmer’s
activities may be created by smoothly connecting different equipment and sensors
with cloud-based systems, which are also becoming increasingly interoperable.
These new developments in cloud computing hold the potential to improve agricul-
tural production, sustainability, and efficiency as smart farming develops further.

8 Collaborative Initiatives and Partnerships

Partnerships and cooperative projects are essential to the development of smart

farming. To promote innovation and sustainable agriculture in this fast-paced indus-
try, farmers, technology suppliers, academic institutions, and government agencies
are collaborating more and more. These collaborations make it easier to share tech-
nology, exchange ideas, and co-create solutions to challenging agricultural prob-
lems. Collaborative approaches may include collaborations between technology
enterprises and agricultural cooperatives to deliver affordable technological solu-
tions to small-scale farmers or farmers exchanging data with researchers to create
more effective crop management practices. These programs, which combine knowl-
edge and resources, hasten the implementation of intelligent agricultural techniques
and enhance the robustness and sustainability of the world’s food supply chain.

8.1 Envisioning the Future of Smart Farming

with Cloud Computing

Using cloud computing to envision the future of smart farming opens up a world of
previously unimaginable possibilities. The foundation of smart farming will remain
cloud computing, which makes it easier to integrate data from several sources, such
as sensors, drones, satellites, and agricultural equipment. In order to make well-­
informed decisions about crop management, resource allocation, and pest control,
farmers will have access to real-time data analytics and machine learning algo-
rithms through the power of the cloud. Edge computing is going to proliferate, mak-
ing quick decisions possible right there in the field. Furthermore, cloud-based
technologies that optimize water consumption, minimize the environmental effect
of agriculture, and reduce chemical inputs will be an integral component of the
future of smart farming, which will incorporate sustainable practices. Global farmer
connections will be made possible via collaborative data-sharing systems, which
will promote information exchange and aid in meeting the world’s expanding food
Smart Farming with Cloud Supported Data Management Enabling Real-Time… 305

needs. Future agricultural practices will become more intelligent, effective, and
ecologically sensitive as cloud computing develops, guaranteeing a lucrative and
sustainable future for both farmers and customers.

9 Conclusion

Cloud computing for smart farming sheds light on how technology might revolu-
tionize the agricultural industry. Farmers may fully use precision agriculture, data-
driven decision-making, and sustainable practices by integrating cloud-based
technologies. Real-time data processing, predictive analytics, and remote monitor-
ing are made possible by the cloud, which gives farmers the ability to maximize
resource allocation, raise yields, and lessen their impact on the environment. Cloud
computing will continue to lead smart farming in the future by encouraging coop-
eration, creativity, and scalability. It does, however, also present issues with privacy,
data security, and equal access. Stakeholders must collaborate to overcome these
problems in order to fully fulfill the potential of cloud computing in agriculture and
guarantee that the advantages of smart farming are promising to address the global
food crises, accessible, and sustainable. In the end, cloud computing for smart farm-
ing offers a bright future where agriculture and technology come together to create
a more sustainable world.

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Applications of UAV-AD (Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle-Agricultural Drones)
in Precision Farming

Sandhya Soman, Rakesh Gnanasekaran, Gnanasankaran Natarajan,

and Fatema Khalifa Said ALSaidi

1 Introduction

Farming has undergone a considerable transition from hunting and gathering to

settled agriculture. As [1] humankind evolved, there has been a continuous effort to
understand and observe the plants and their domestication to transform them into
crops. Every revolution unfolded techniques to increase productivity in agriculture,
unveiled new crop breeds, and introduced new agricultural technologies.
Farming is witnessing another revolution, popularly termed precision farming,
aka smart agriculture. It has been defined as [2] “the usage of techniques and tools
which facilitate the farmers to enhance the quality of soil and increase the produc-
tivity through technological intervention.”
With advanced technological techniques, crop-specific treatment is possible, and
the exact intervention time can be gauged and utilized to enhance crop productivity.
This technological advancement has given farmers [3] the insight to understand
specific crop needs and adapt their farming practices accordingly. Studies have
revealed that precision farming has significantly reduced the environmental risk.

S. Soman (*)
GITAM (Deemed-to-be) University, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Gnanasekaran · G. Natarajan
Department of Computer Science, Thiagarajar College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
F. K. S. ALSaidi
Department of Information Technology, University of Technology and Applied Sciences-Al
Mussanah, Muladdah, Oman
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 307
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_15
308 S. Soman et al.

1.1 What Led to Precision Farming

The population around the world is increasing rapidly, with an expectation of reach-
ing ten million by 2050 [4], which has led to an increased demand for agricultural
production. The involvement of the technology can facilitate the production of such
scale, which can boost the farm output. Precision farming is, thus, very crucial for
the farmers and agricultural sector. With the growth seen in the past few years in the
field of Big Data and data analytics, the power of these techniques and methodolo-
gies can be leveraged in smart farming. It can help alleviate the problems related to
the degradation of soil. Since farmers can get crop-specific information, it can be
used to reduce the chemical application for the production of crops.
Efficient water utilization and quality improvement are other benefits that can be
derived from this. Most importantly, in an agro-nation like ours, it can help improve
the farmers’ social and economic conditions. Figure 1 depicts the timeline of devel-
opments in agriculture.

1.2 Data Points of Precision Farming

In this section, we shall discuss some of the fundamental data points used in smart
farming.
Precision farming is crop-specific. The characteristics of the crop, i.e., the type
of nutrients required, the growth cycle of the crop, diseases affecting the yield, and
stages of the life cycle, are pivotal data points.
The main steps of precision farming include gathering data, mapping variability,
determining the nature of the soil and suitable crop type, and making decisions
based on the above information.
The qualitative aspects of the soil include the properties, nutrient content, tem-
perature, and toxicity.

Fig. 1 Some of the significant events in the timeline of agriculture. (Own image)
Applications of UAV-AD (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Agricultural Drones) in Precision… 309

The crop’s seasonal and daily climate data are needed at the micro- and
macro-levels.
Water requirements for the plant.
Technological equipment and sensors that facilitate:
Application of fertilizer, pesticides, etc., in the right amount in the right place.
Detection of variation in the color of the field due to changes in the type of soil,
boundaries of the area, etc.
Recording of yield across a field
Detect soil properties
Detecting acidic areas, eroded soils, water-logged areas, dry areas
• Detection of soil roughness and moisture content
• Identification of insects harmful to crops
• Finding those areas in the field where nitrogen is more

2 Application of Drones in Precision Agriculture

India’s agriculture, forestry, and fishery contribute slightly over 20% of the national
GDP. This sector offers employment to the highest number of people, valued at over
152 million. Precision agriculture in India can significantly boost productivity and
yield in this sector.
Drones are unmanned aerial vehicles. Typically, a drone consists of sensors,
actuators, a communication module, and a ground control station. The algorithms
govern the drone’s positioning, the speed at which it flies, and its pitch, roll, and
yaw [5].
One of the primary advantages of these devices is that [6] they can be customized
according to the present needs. All that needs to be done is to install the required
hardware and the algorithms for the task.
The union government has approved the usage of drones for activities in agricul-
ture, which has paved the way for a new revolution. Farmers hire drones from entre-
preneurs to perform tasks like pesticide spraying on their fields [7]. This is more
cost-effective for them when compared to the usage of satellites or other aircraft.
Per the literature published, drones have been primarily classified as fixed-wing
and multi-rotor. The fixed-wing cuts the air at a specific angle, while the multi-rotor
uses the motor’s direction and speed to propel. Based on the number of engines,
they can be further classified as single, quad (4), hex (6), and Oct (8)-copters. The
classification has been depicted in Fig. 2.
From the multiple applications of drones in the agriculture sector, in the present
chapter, we shall be focusing only on the five most important application areas, i.e.,
crop spraying, crop monitoring, mapping, and soil analysis, livestock monitoring,
and seed planting, as shown in Fig. 3.
310 S. Soman et al.

Fig. 2 General classification of drones

Fig. 3 Common applications of UAV-AD

2.1 Monitoring of Crops [8]

Drones and UAVs enable capturing images of high resolution both in spatial and
temporal front since they can fly at low altitudes, making them helpful in capturing
cereal images. They also assist in crop phenotyping, i.e., it enables us to know the
condition of crops under variable/changing environmental conditions [2]. Other
Applications of UAV-AD (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Agricultural Drones) in Precision… 311

than this, it also reveals information about the weeds, pests, nutrient quantity, and
other diseases of the soil/farm.
Weed management requires high-resolution cameras and a topography survey to
differentiate the plants. AI and computer-based algorithms can help in this segmen-
tation task.
Another area where crop monitoring is beneficial is the identification of pests
and disease conditions in plants. The biomass content in a plant is measured, which
can reveal any nutrient deficiency. This permits us to take corrective measures, and
any deficiency can be treated well before the harvest. This is also beneficial in iden-
tifying areas with nutrient deficiency, like less nitrogen content. Drones can also
help spray once such deficient zones/regions are identified. The drones can be
equipped with sensors that can deviate the drone path based on the speed of the
wind and its intensity.
Monitoring can benefit phenotyping, where the plant features can be monitored
against different growth stages and generations. Manual observations for the same
are error-prone and quite time-consuming. These are beneficial in determining those
plant species that can adapt/survive well compared to others.
The crop images can also be used to determine vegetative indexes. The biomass
contents, canopy structure, etc. are selected from red/infrared bands. Visible bands
help determine nitrogen contents.
Usually, multi-rotor, helicopter, or fixed-winged types are used for monitoring.
However, each style has its limitations. Multi-rotors are suitable for smaller areas
because of their lower speed and capacity. Helicopters and fixed-winged can cover
larger areas and hence are preferred.

2.2 Crop Spraying

Drones have helped spray pesticides and nutrient solutions. Once the monitoring
has revealed significant results, the areas to be operated upon can be decided. A
drone used for spraying [9] typically follows this mechanism. Once the joystick
position of the drone is adjusted, the gyroscope adjusts the calibration, and based on
the movements in the throttle and the signals from the gyroscope, the UAV moves
to the specified location. Without throttle movement, the drone returns to its saved
start location.
Such drones must be small, have significant payload capabilities, be easy to use,
deal with RGB and other spectral images, and be lightweight. However, the existing
drones cannot function well with images captured in poor weather conditions, mak-
ing it an open area to be worked on. Multi-copters are a preferred choice in this area
because of their stability. The significant challenges in this area include:
• The cost involved
• Battery capacity
• Vision limitation of drones
• Lack of accurate algorithms for detection and identification
312 S. Soman et al.

2.3 Soil Analysis

Soil is the primary medium for the nutrients required for crop growth. The health of
the soil determines the quality of the yield of the crop. Traditionally, soil analysis
was done manually, which was a cumbersome, error-prone, and time-consuming
process. The sample was collected from one area and sent for analysis to a third
party, which, in turn, took some processing time before the results would reach the
farmer. Also, this process is quite cumbersome and nightmarish for big fields.
A remote monitoring system for analyzing the condition of the soil turned out to
be a blessing as the manual approach is tedious. Farmers (without third-party sup-
port) usually need more expertise to do the same.
Drones have been particularly beneficial in analyzing the condition of the soil as
they can operate on a predefined path in a pre-specified pattern. They have cameras
that capture information from the EM spectrum, capturing light in near-infrared,
infrared, and UV light. The wavelengths reflected by different elements are col-
lected and analyzed by software to get information about the composition of the
soil. The land images of the path are taken, which are processed algorithms like
inverse modeling, interpolation methods, etc. The data collected by the drones in
this way is compared to the ground truth values. This information can be further
used to estimate the yield of the crop. These techniques enable covering large acres
of land in significantly less time.
Drones have been advantageous over satellite images as the latter lack visibility
during cloudy weather conditions, and images might not be available for the current
season on time. Drones also facilitate getting higher-resolution images at a cm-level
(centimeter) compared to m-level (meter) in satellites. An example of such a drone
has been quoted in [10]. DJI Phantom 4 Pro [11] observes the conditions around the
field, captures images, processes them, and sends them to the connected AR glasses,
which the farmer can wear in real time to observe and understand the field condi-
tions. The information gathered can be used to determine the soil’s seeding pattern,
watering need and pattern, fertilizer requirement, etc.

2.4 Monitoring Livestock

Agricultural drones can be used for livestock management, i.e., they can be used to
detect, count, and track animals [12]. Drones can be used to provide live feed about
the location of the cattle and can help farmers act accordingly. Studies have revealed
the usage of quadcopters for monitoring live stocks. Such drones have ML algo-
rithms for detection, movement tracking, and counting. For detection and counting,
earlier thresholding, morphological operations, and masks were used, which could
separate the cattle images from the background and remove the noises. The resultant
blobs were counted for the final result. Owing to their primitive nature, the accuracy
is low. To boost the accuracy, CNN-based architecture with RPN (regional proposal
Applications of UAV-AD (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Agricultural Drones) in Precision… 313

networks) created regions of interest as boxes around the cattle, which were further
fed to an R-CNN for count and SVM for classification. Other techniques adopted
were YOLO and segmentation using U-Net/Mask R-CNN with residual networks.
The usage of drones effectively in this segment poses several challenges. The
first one includes the selection of the correct drone. The features of drones, like their
wing type, maneuver capability, payload, and application domain, play a significant
role in their selection. Another area is sensor selection, often limited by battery life,
load, and price. The drone’s capabilities are also determined by its flight time and
the areas it can cover. This can be solved by fitting larger batteries in the drones.
Operational issues like working around rough terrains can lead to problems.
Reducing the payload and autopilot working with GPS can help in this regard.
Economic factors could hinder the adoption of drones on a broader scale. Other
challenges include atmospheric conditions and cattle behavior like grazing in
groups, which can challenge effective segmentation.
Some solutions that can address the mentioned challenges include using energy-­
aware and low-power networks and deep learning architectures that could function
with limited UAV resources.

2.5 Seed Planting

Drones can be used for planting seeds, especially in areas where manual accessibil-
ity is low. Sites that are hindered by natural obstacles like hills and other landscape
features have low accessibility and also increase the risk for the workers involved.
Drones can help to mitigate this problem. One of the advantages drones offer,
besides accessibility, is the ability to save time. The drones initially gauge the land
on which the seeds must be planted and are equipped with canisters to hold the
seeds. The funnel facilitates the dropping of sources at the selected location.
Generally, the seed containers/pods have a nutrient solution that helps in seed ger-
mination. The seed dispersal mechanism might vary and may be controlled with the
help of IoT. Since these drones need to carry more payload, a hex-copter configura-
tion is preferred to a quad [13]. A larger compartment for releasing seeds could help
the drone have more smooth and precise rotations and reduce the hindrance in plant-
ing seeds.

3 Challenges Faced

Agricultural drones present a plethora of opportunities in farming [14]. However, its

adoption introduces several challenges as well [15].
A summary of the challenges faced have been listed below and are also depicted
in Fig. 4. Some of the prominent ones have been explained below.
314 S. Soman et al.

Fig. 4 Challenges with drones

3.1 Inter-drone Communication

Drones require a wireless medium for communication. The cellular network can be
adopted for this purpose. But, since these networks are designed for terrestrial
devices, they might be overloaded, which may result in a collision, primarily since
these drones operate in data above LOS.
A possible solution to the above could be to have a combination of cellular and
non-cellular drones. The cellular drones would connect with the base station through
the network. The non-cellular can have a mutual connection with each other and
other cellular nodes. This can significantly bring down the cost of communication
as well.

3.2 Associated Costs

Implementing drones requires specific hardware and software installations to be in

place. This includes systems for communication channels, devices with battery
backups, and devices having ample storage for capturing data and images. This
shoots up the installation charges and hence becomes unaffordable for most farm-
ers. The technical know-how required for these systems can also hinder their
adoption.

3.3 Security and Privacy Issues

Since drones use the cellular channel for communication, they pose a vulnerability
threat to data privacy. Attacks like the localization attack may provide falsified farm
images to the farmer, and they may be misled about the quality and quantity of farm
produce. The data about the farm, crop, and other sensitive information may be
Applications of UAV-AD (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Agricultural Drones) in Precision… 315

exposed to malicious intruders. One of the most accessible possible solutions to

combat the former situation would be incorporating authentication protocols.
Literature has also shown the usage of blockchain for storing and transmitting
this data.

3.4 Delay in Information Dissemination

The agricultural drones are designed [16] with limited capabilities to reduce their
price. The results should be processed in real time for the entire scheme to be effec-
tive. The latency in processing can be significantly reduced if the processing hap-
pens in the drone itself. If the processing occurs in the base station, this will bring
up the processing time, and the delay could also cause harm in some cases, like an
intruder attack on the farm.

3.5 Loss of Drone

There is a threat of losing the drones because of malicious attacks by intruders. The
functioning of the drones may also be affected by the loss of network and changes
in weather conditions.

3.6 Legal Aspects

To ensure hassle-free operation, appropriate licensing needs to be procured. The

drones used for spraying and other agricultural purposes must be certified by the
Director General of Civil Aviation in India. In other countries, the respective certify-
ing agencies must be approached to secure all legal permissions and ensure hassle-­
free operations.

3.7 Positioning

The operations of drones are relatively autonomous with the help of GPS and net-
works, but the attack on the drone’s trajectories might hinder the maneuvering capa-
bilities. The positioning of drones faces challenges, especially in heavily
populated areas.
316 S. Soman et al.

4 Sensors Used in Precision Agriculture

A sensor can be defined as a device [2] that accepts specific inputs and transforms
them into signals that we can further process to understand different phenomena.
For example, the sensors can capture the moisture level in the soil, and the farmer
can use it to take corrective measures. A wide range of sensors have been used in
agriculture. This section summarizes a few of them and their functionalities
through Fig. 5.

5 Embedded Systems in Smart Farming

To obtain the full benefits of precision agriculture, drones or other devices must be
able to perform the calculations/processing in the device itself instead of in the base
stations. If the information is processed only after it reaches the base station, it
would increase the response time. It would also delay timely responses, which may
incur huge losses in some situations.

Fig. 5 Sensors in precision agriculture

Applications of UAV-AD (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Agricultural Drones) in Precision… 317

One possible solution to the above problem is to have a design approach [3] that
combines hardware and software and allows the inclusion of algorithms capable of
processing the data collected by the sensors.
Various works in the literature have used embedded systems. The following is a
list of applications in which embedded systems have been used.
• Systems have been used for the detection of plant diseases in real time. Although
the system cannot adapt to the data flow from the camera, it still offers real-time
data processing.
• The binary patterns captured in the images have been used to classify weeds
from the plants.
• Embedded algorithms can monitor honey bees’ activities, especially in
fruit farms.
• CNN-based algorithms to detect the germination of seeds.
• FCN-based systems for management of greenhouses.
• Semantic and CNN for detection of early symptoms of diseases.
• R-CNN algorithms for counting the cattle.
• CNN-based systems for tracking animals that may potentially attack the farms.
• Estimating the water level in the field using neural networks.
• Microcontroller-based systems for evaluating the various states of the plants.
These algorithms have been developed in different types of environments. The
environments are either homogenous, e.g., CPU-CPU, GPU-GPU, or maybe heter-
ogenous, e.g., CPU-GPUs. Figure 6 summarizes the other application areas.
The algorithms heavily depend on the following factors:
1. Power required for processing
2. The dimensions of the device
3. The computing capability
A significant constraint for these algorithms is the size of the field they operate
upon. Operating larger areas would require more consumption of energy and battery
power. Hence, energy-efficient algorithms can be an area that requires further
exploration.
Another area that can significantly improve their performance includes DSS. The
existence of autonomous decision-making systems for this real-time embedded sys-
tem is an open area of research and requires further attention.

6 Role of ML and AI in Smart Farming

Most authors have classified the various agricultural tasks into three main catego-
ries. The tasks before harvesting are grouped under one category; the tasks done
during harvesting form the next category, while the tasks done after harvesting fall
under the third category.
318 S. Soman et al.

Fig. 6 Application of ES
in precision agriculture

Each of the categories has specific essential parameters that are considered sig-
nificant during each task. Various machine learning algorithms have been employed
to capture these parameters and use them to derive crucial decisions. This section
provides a list of ML algorithms that have been engaged in the past to capture these
parameters at various stages.

6.1 Supervised Algorithms

The following figure (Fig. 7) gives a summary of the unsupervised algorithms that
have been used in intelligent farming.

6.2 Unsupervised Algorithms

The following figure (Fig. 8) gives a summary of the unsupervised algorithms which
have been used in smart farming.
Applications of UAV-AD (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Agricultural Drones) in Precision… 319

Fig. 7 Supervised algorithms

7 Proposition of the Components for an Intelligent System

for Precision Agriculture (ISPA)

The following section proposes the components of an Intelligent System for

Precision Agriculture (ISPA). Figure 9 depicts the main modules. The textual
description of the modules for an ISPA can be explained as follows:
320 S. Soman et al.

Fig. 8 Unsupervised algorithms

Fig. 9 Main components of ISPA

7.1 Data Collection

Data for the IS may be collected from the captured drone or satellite images. Some
standard pictures can also be considered from public data repositories for training
the ML models.
Applications of UAV-AD (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Agricultural Drones) in Precision… 321

7.2 Preprocessing

The acquired data may not be in a form which can be utilized for analysis. Hence,
preprocessing steps make it fit for analysis. Applying filters like Decor stretch has
been advocated in the literature as beneficial. Segmenting the portions from the
image and identifying blobs are the primary tasks at this stage to make it suitable for
weed detection.

7.3 Weed Detection

Some properties of the image that can be utilized for differentiating weeds from
crops include the brightness determining the medium red and medium green. The
classifier uses these properties to localize the weed locations and label them.

7.4 Disease Detection

The drone images can be compared with the pre-trained model from standard data-
sets; blobs can be identified, and affected areas of the crops can be localized. The
above process can help detect discolored plant parts, which can signify nutrient
deficiency. The data can be sent to the drone analyzer subsystem to demarcate the
areas where the nutrient solution needs to be applied.

7.5 Yield Prediction

From the drone images and data from sensors, properties of the area, like rainfall,
soil type, humidity, and other location-specific features, can be captured to deter-
mine yield for a crop. Literature has shown algorithms using random forest to pre-
dict the yield of maize crops.

7.6 Data Storage

Instead of being stored locally, the data can be stored in the cloud and used later for
further and future analysis.
322 S. Soman et al.

8 The Way Forward: Agriculture 4.0 [17]

Smart farming introduced the usage of technology in agriculture. A new revolution

in agriculture is being unveiled—popularly termed Agriculture 4.0. This represents
more efficient usage of techniques and technology to enhance farm yields. The vari-
ous operations of agriculture generate tremendous data, [18] which so far had been
overlooked. Agriculture 4.0, with the aid of Big Data, AI, IoT, and AR, brings
together digital equipment that can gather and process volumes of data and pro-
duces results and insights that can be used for timely processing and conduct of
actions.
A list of application areas and advantages of the involvement of technology in
agriculture has been described in this section and illustrated in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10 Application of Agriculture 4.0

Applications of UAV-AD (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Agricultural Drones) in Precision… 323

• Applying nanotools like nano-biosensors, nano-pesticides, and sensor data

enables intelligent and timely decisions. The usage of robots helps in the reduc-
tion of regular farming chores.
• Agricultural drones and satellites can be used to capture real-time field data,
which assists the farmers in understanding the nature of the soil, its nutrient
level, and its health. This data can also be consolidated and stored as a block-
chain record.
• The formation of a network connecting agriculture and business, also termed the
farmers, can use the agri-business network to streamline prices according to the
market demand and trends. The distributors can also use this information to uti-
lize the market advantage.
• The introduction of mobile software can easily collect data about the farm and
geography and can be used for trusted interaction through [19] techniques like
blockchain technology.
• Technology usage will enhance the traceability and transparency of the
entire system.
• It can bring down resource consumption to a significant level as the farmers can
handle many chores remotely and without mainstream involvement. This can
further strengthen the socioeconomic condition of our farmers.
• The farmers can access information from other farmers working with similar
crops and climatic conditions. This will be particularly helpful in preventing the
spread of infectious diseases in crops and cattle and thus prevent severe losses
incurred due to them.
• Agricultural drones can be helpful while dealing with crop diseases. They can be
used to spray medicines across the field. This is helpful because[20] it would
reduce the need for direct human contact and provide enhanced field coverage.
• Time-sensitive data can be maintained in a paperless fashion. This digitization
prevents unnecessary data tampering and speeds up the transmission time.
• As real-time data is available to the farmers, they can analyze and make accurate
decisions about farm issues like crop selection and the amount of pesticide dos-
age required.
• Drones can be used for field mapping.
• The data generated from each field is massive and can be collectively used to
streamline the farms’ entire supply chain management.

9 Research Opportunities

The study has unveiled a couple of opportunities for open research, which can be
listed as follows:
• Creation of a common set of protocols and standards that could be used for drone
communication and information dissemination.[21]
• Protocols to reduce the delay in information transfer.
324 S. Soman et al.

• The drone can process information in real-time using local models rather than
relying on base systems to do the processing.
• Applications are reachable to the commoner to educate them and are relatively
easy to operate upon. This can significantly scale up the adoption of agricul-
tural drones.

10 Conclusion

This book chapter attempts to summarize the myriad areas where drones aid in
improving the techniques used in present-day agriculture. With the population
increasing rapidly, it is the need of the hour to have measures to increase agricultural
productivity as well.
The chapter also proposes the “components of an intelligent system” for preci-
sion agriculture, which includes subsystems for data collection, weed, disease, yield
detection, and a mechanism to store the data for future use.

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Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation
System for Sustainable Agricultural
Development

K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

1 Introduction

In India, agriculture is vital to the country’s economy. In spite of notable improve-

ments in the service industry, agriculture continues to be India’s biggest employer
and source of income. An efficient system is required to address various agricultural
problems and increase agricultural production. With so many possibilities for
Internet searches available nowadays, it might be challenging to decide what we
actually need. Indian farmers’ economic circumstances are unstable, and they are
finding it difficult to decide which crop to plant in their fields. The entity that keeps
life alive and responsible for sustainable agriculture on earth is the soil, also known
as the soul of infinite life. A portion of the world’s land area is covered by soil, a
dynamic, three-dimensional substance. It changes depending on the location. The
parent rock beneath the surface, time, organisms, geography, and climate are the
five elements that make it up. Four primary tasks are carried out by soil: It acts as a
habitat for burrowing mammals, bacterial, insects, fungi and other species; it recy-
cles raw components; it cleans water; it provides the structural support for engineer-
ing projects like bridges, buildings and roads; and it also serves as a growing
environment for plants.
Additionally, soil contributes to the production of food and preserves the har-
mony of regional, national and international environmental standards. Farmers in

K. Sankareswari (*)
Department of Computer Science, Sri Meenakshi Govt. Arts College for Women (A),
Affiliated to Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, India
Department of Computer Science, The American College, Madurai, India
G. Sujatha
Department of Computer Science, Sri Meenakshi Govt. Arts College for Women (A),
Affiliated to Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 327
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_16
328 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

India have been using traditional agricultural practices for generations to ensure
crop yield and production. They controlled the soil fertility maintenance. However,
the use of some types of seeds, herbicides and chemical fertilisers upsets the equi-
librium between agricultural yield production and fertility [1]. The population has
been expanding significantly lately. Crop production is insufficient to meet the
needs of the current population. Nutrient-rich soil has become increasingly signifi-
cant in the production of food, agriculture and industry. We focused on the soil
nutrients in this study and used time-series data obtained from the previous farm-
ing season.
Crop selection is usually based on their land soil parameters, i.e. nitrogen, phos-
phorous, potassium and pH level [2]. The fundamental introduction to soil is shown
in Sect. 1. A relevant information matrix and a description of an existing recom-
mender system are presented in Sect. 2 of the literature study. It was also considered
how crop recommendation research has changed over time. Crop selection categori-
sation algorithms are presented in Sect. 3. The method used for crop selection is
defined in Sect. 3 in addition to the results and an explanation of the study in Sect.
4. In Sect. 5, the publication has finally summarised the study’s findings while illu-
minating several research perspectives.

1.1 Physical Properties of Soil

Soil is made up of minerals, organic materials, water and air. These combinations
determine the properties of the soil (Fig. 1). The most obvious aspects of soil are its
physical characteristics, which may be seen without the aid of instruments like
scanners or microscopes. They serve as a reflection of the placement of the sand, silt
and clay solid soil particles. They can be used to categorise different horizons and
soil types. Additionally, they work fantastically well for both laboratory and outdoor
demonstrations.

1.1.1 Texture

The fineness or coarseness of the mineral particles in the soil is referred to as the soil
texture. Silt, clay and sand proportions affect the texture of the soil. Loam is the sum
of all three of them (Fig. 2). Sand and silt have no importance to the soil because
they don’t help the soil’s capacity to retain water or nutrients in the soil. Due to its
small particle size, high surface area per mass and assistance in storing ions and
water, clay is an active component of soil texture. The drainage, compressibility,
nutrient fixation, water holding capacity and aeration of the soil are all impacted by
the soil texture.
Minerals and biological materials are both present in the soil. Soil texture can be
used to determine its mineral content. Soil texture is defined by the ratios of silt,
sand and clay [3].
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable Agricultural Development 329

Fig. 1 Soil properties

Fig. 2 Texture of soil. (Source: European Soil Data Centre)

330 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

1.1.2 Structure

The arrangement of sand, silt and clay particles is referred to as the soil structure.
Soil organisms like bacteria and earthworms and organic materials (decaying plants
and animals) also have an effect on soil structure. Silt and clay are usually always
clumped together into bigger units called aggregates, but sand is frequently found in
soil as individual particles. The structure of soil is determined by how this aggrega-
tion occurs.

1.1.3 Pore Space

The gaps between soil particles, known as pores, are rarely firmly packed together.
Pore space is the portion of the bulk volume of soil that is neither covered by min-
eral nor organic materials but rather is an open space that is either filled with gases
or water.

1.2 Chemical Properties of Soil

In comparison to the rocks and minerals from which they were formed, soils are
chemically different in that they have a higher concentration of relatively insoluble
elements like iron and aluminium and a lower concentration of soluble weathering
products like sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and potassium (K). Iron
oxides and aluminium are typically found in high concentrations in old, severely
worn soils.
Because chemical reactions take place on particle surfaces, soil chemical activity
and particle size are connected. Compared to large particles, small particles have a
substantially larger surface area. Small particles involve a significant contribution in
two chemical processes, management of soil pH and support of the soil capacity to
store nutrients (CEC).
First of all, it’s crucial to understand that fertilisers are salts. A positively charged
ion and an anion which is a negatively charged ion are formed when salts dissolve
in the soil solution. For instance, when sodium chloride dissolves in water, sodium
which is positively charged and chloride which is negatively charged ions are pro-
duced. When we apply fertiliser containing sodium nitrate to the soil, it disinte-
grates into the soil solution as sodium cations and nitrate anions.

1.2.1 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

The phrase “cation exchange capacity” describes how well soil can store and
exchange cations. Constantly, ions are exchanged between plant roots, CEC sites on
clay and humus particles and the soil solution. The electron charge affects this pro-
cess, which is not random [3].
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable Agricultural Development 331

Humus and clay both display high CECs because of their numerous negative
sites, high surface-to-volume ratios and small particle sizes. Sand exhibited
extremely low CEC due to its huge particle size, low surface-to-volume ratio and
consequently lower number of negative sites.
When growing in a lump of clay or humus, a gardener can less frequently use
higher rates of fertiliser as opposed to sandy soil because the soil’s particles can
hold cations. It is preferable to fertilise in sandy soil more regularly with lower
amounts of fertiliser since sandy soil cannot contain the same quantity of cations.

1.2.2 pH

The pH of the soil describes how acidic and alkaline the soil reacts. The pH scale
has numbers 0 through 14. The soils typically have a pH range of 4.0 to 8.0. For soil,
a pH of 7 is regarded as neutral. A soil’s pH level greater than 7 suggests an alkaline
soil, whereas one less than 7 indicates an acidic soil.
The pH level of the soil is very important factor because it has a significant influ-
ence on plant growth and it controls how readily each nutrient is available to plants
in the soil. It affects the types of microorganisms, quantity and activity of soil.
These microorganisms in turn affect how quickly agricultural wastes, manures,
sludge and other organic materials decompose. Additionally, it has an impact on
other nutrient conversions, solubility, plant and several crucial plant nutrients.
Phosphorus is most readily available in soils that are slightly acidic to slightly alka-
line soils, but all other vital micronutrients except molybdenum become more read-
ily available when pH decreases. Even aluminium, manganese and even iron can
become soluble if pH is less than 5.5 and become hazardous to plants. In general,
bacteria that are important in a variety of nutrient transformation pathways under
soils tend to be most active in conditions that range from slightly acidic to slightly
alkaline.

1.3 Biological Properties

The direct and indirect effects of the living things that inhabit a given soil are repre-
sented by the soil’s biological properties. The biological properties of soil represent
how well the soil supports life [3].
The biological characteristics of soil are influenced by the microorganisms that
reside there. Organic matter in soil contains metabolites, waste and residue from
plants and animals that decompose well and serve as fertilisers.
The organic matter in the soil is transformed by bacteria into usable forms such
as ammonia, phosphate, sulphate, etc. All living organisms and soil microorganisms
including bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, rodents, etc. contribute to
keeping the soil’s ecosystem in balance.
332 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

1.4 Plant Nutrients

Oxygen, carbon and hydrogen which are supplied by water and air are the three
important elements for plant growth. Plant nutrients are obtained from the soil or
applied as fertilisers which enter plants through their roots. Plant nutrients can be
classified into two types, i.e. macronutrients and micronutrients. Nitrogen, potas-
sium, phosphorus, magnesium and calcium are those that plants need in high quan-
tities. On the other hand, micronutrients that are required in small amounts for plant
growth include boron, cobalt, copper, iron, zinc, sodium and so on. Micro- and
macronutrients are needed in different amounts; the regular growth and develop-
ment of plants depend on both macronutrients and micronutrients and those required
in different amounts.
Numerous goods and procedures can deliver nutrients. When deciding on the
right fertiliser and application technique for each circumstance, factors such as cost,
accessibility, usability, required tools, time and philosophy should be taken into
account. Some micronutrients may occasionally be sprayed onto crop foliage in
cases of extreme nutrient deficit, but the majority are applied to the soil and absorbed
by plant roots. Nutrients are dissolved in water and applied to the visible roots of
plants in hydroponic production systems.
Most soils still contain some nutrients. Only a soil analysis can determine this.
Spending money and resources on fertiliser without considering the results of a soil
test can exacerbate an already-existing nutrient imbalance. Additionally, nutrients
may occasionally be in adequate supply but unavailable due to an improper pH bal-
ance. This can be discovered with a soil test, and experts in soil labs and crop con-
sultants can suggest solutions.

1.5 Types of Soil

The word “soil” is a term to describe the loose coating of earth that covers the sur-
face of the globe. The soil contains humus, crushed rock as well as both inorganic
and organic components. The growth of soil from rocks often takes 500 years or
longer. Normally, soil is created when rocks break down into their constituent ele-
ments. The soil is formed when the rocks are broken up into tiny bits as a result of
several forces, such as the effect of wind, water and salt reactions. There are three
soil stages: (i) soil that is firm, (ii) soil that has air pockets and (iii) soil with pores
filled with water.
Different environmental influences are applied to diverse soil types. The texture,
ratios and different mineral and organic compositions of soil make up its main prop-
erties. Four categories of soil exist: there are sandy soil, silty soil, loamy soil and
clay soil shown in Fig. 3.
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable Agricultural Development 333

Fig. 3 Four types of soil

1.5.1 Sandy Soil

Sandy soils are among the worst forms of soil for growing plants because they have
a low level of nutrients and a poor ability to hold water. It is challenging for plant
roots to absorb water. Sand-like soil is typically produced by the breakdown or
fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone and quartz.

1.5.2 Silty Soil

Silt is composed of smaller particles than sand and larger mineral particles than
clay. Due to its smoothness and fineness, it retains water better than sand. The third
type of soil, silt, is the most fertile and is frequently found next to rivers, lakes and
other bodies of water. Additionally, it is used in agricultural practices to improve
soil fertility.

1.5.3 Clay Soil

Clay has the smallest particles, which are closely packed together and devoid of any
airspace, as compared to the other two forms of soil. Due to this soil’s substantial abil-
ity to retain water, it is impervious to both air and moisture. When wet, it feels some-
what sticky to the touch; after drying, it feels smooth. The densest and heavy form of
soil is clay, which does not drain properly or allow plant roots to spread out very far.
334 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

1.5.4 Loamy Soil

The fourth type of soil is loam. Sand, silt and clay are mixed together to highlight
each material’s advantages. It is more suitable for agricultural growing and cultiva-
tion since it can keep nutrients and moisture. Given that all three types of soil mate-
rials are present and in harmony, it is sometimes referred to as agricultural soil.
Additionally, the calcium and pH levels are higher.

1.6 Soil Testing

Soil testing is a useful tool for assessing soil’s characteristics and nutrient level,
selecting the right crops to be cultivated and aids in calculating nutrients to be
needed to a particular soil depending on its soil fertility and crop requirements [5].
The soil test reports are used to categorise several important soil fertility indices like
soil pH, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), organic carbon (OC) and
boron (B). The classification and forecasting of soil parameters at the village level
help to reduce the excessive use of fertiliser, save the time of experts in chemical
soil analysis, boost up soil fertility and profitability and enhance the health of the
environment.
Smart agriculture and precision agriculture is a modern technique that is helpful
to address various problems that have affected agricultural production. Different
algorithms based on machine learning and deep learning have been proposed to sug-
gest the suitable crop based on the location-specific data such as soil types, soil
characteristics, soil nutrients at the micro and macro level and so on. Different algo-
rithms based on the soil properties have been used to recommend the crop for the
farmers.

2 Related Work

Nowadays, crop and fertiliser recommending systems have developed as a result of

various research using various methods relating to agriculture crops in the agricul-
ture field. This section describes different researchers’ contributions to the domain.
Motwani et al. and Panchamurthi [1, 2] proposed a system for crop recommenda-
tion that employs on random forest and convolutional neural network (CNN) to
suggest a suitable crop based on various characteristics including the soil type,
region, crop yield, selling price and so on. The accuracy of the random forest algo-
rithm was 75%, whereas CNN was 95.21%. The primary challenge for Indian farm-
ers is that they usually fail to select the right crop for their soil.
Bharath et al. [3] proposed a data mining technique that uses the naive Bayes
algorithm to recommend the crop based on nutritional features obtained from soil
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable Agricultural Development 335

samples collected by the farmer which was tested in a soil testing lab. The proposed
model’s accuracy was 75%.
Bouni et al. [4] presented a crop classification system using the deep reinforce-
ment learning (DRL) method for supporting precision agriculture to recommend
suitable crops for the farmers. The proposed system for crop recommendation com-
pared with various machine learning algorithms such as KNN, random forest and
naive Bayes for high accuracy and efficiency to suggest a site-specific crop.
Suchithra et al. [5] developed a model to classify soil based on soil fertility indi-
ces and pH values. The system might help to decide system to overcome the soil
nutrient deficiency problems. The results of the machine learning classifier and
decision system showed that optimized extreme learning machine (ELM) parame-
ters help to develop a model for classifying soil based on soil fertility index.
Classification issues have been solved using the fast learning classification method
termed as extreme learning machine (ELM) with various activation functions such
as sine-squared, Gaussian radial basis, triangular, hyperbolic tangent and sine
squared. Gaussian radial basis functions outperformed with better performance in
classification.
Precision agriculture which is a modern farming technique has been used to
solve this issue for farmers. In order to solve this issue, Pudumalar et al. (2017)
proposed system for precision agriculture that uses an ensemble model using differ-
ent classifiers random tree, naive Bayes, KNN and CHAID to suggest a crop based
on location-specific parameters such as soil type, characteristics and crop yield.
In order to recommend the crop and crop productivity, [7] built a system for crop
recommendation which combines the predictions together from different machine
learning classifiers to recommend the suitable crop based on the soil characteristics
and its type. Random forest, naive Bayes and linear SVM are used in this ensemble
model which classifies the soil input dataset for Kharif and Rabi crop types. The
dataset includes information such as chemical and physical characteristics of the
soil as well as climatic parameters including temperature and rainfall. The average
classification accuracy achieved by using this model is 99.91%.
Doshi et al. [8] designed an intelligent system that uses Big Data and machine
learning together to suggest the right crop for their farmer land based on environ-
mental factors, physical and chemical characteristics of soil and geographical
location.
Pruthviraj et al. [9] proposed machine learning (ML)-based model intends to
categorise the sample soil datasets into four different groups, namely, very high
fertile, high fertile, moderately fertile and low fertile soil using the support vector
machine (SVM). Additionally, it offers fertilisers that can be used to further increase
the soil fertility of the soil and forecasts the acceptable crops that can be grown
based on the class to which the soil sample belongs. Farmers can choose which crop
to produce based on the soil classification and determine the appropriate nitrogen
(N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K) fertiliser ratio by using the proposed model.
SVM performed more accurately when compared to decision tree (DT), K-nearest
neighbour (KNN) and other algorithms.
336 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

Kumar et al. [10] presented a model for predicting the suitable crop and pest
detection and suggests pest control techniques. In this study, they use the logistic
regression, SVM and decision tree method. They proved that the SVM classification
model provides greater accuracy than other algorithms.
Rajak et al. [11] proposed a model that uses learners such as SVM, random for-
est, naive Bayes and ANN to recommend a suitable crop with higher accuracy and
efficiency for location-specific values.
To suggest suitable crops and forecast production value, Venugopal et al. [12]
proposed and compared three machine learning algorithms such as random forest,
logistic regression and naive Bayes. They gathered historical information on the
climate, temperature and a variety of other variables to predict the crops. The ran-
dom forest algorithm outperformed with the higher accuracy than the other two
algorithms.
Mahendra et al. [13] presented a technique that predicted the best crop based on
soil characteristics such as composition, soil PH, weather and rainfall to predict
rainfall. The SVM algorithm was applied for rainfall prediction whereas decision
tree was used to predict the crops. For the benefit of farmers, we used machine
learning techniques to create the system. Additionally, the system offers details on
the type and amount of fertilisers and seeds needed for production. Therefore, farm-
ers can grow a new variety of crops to raise their profit margin and prevent soil
contamination.
Pande et al. [14] proposed a crop prediction system which is a mobile application
for the farmers. GPS assist the farmers to find their location. Machine learning algo-
rithms help the farmers to choose the right crop which is more profitable and predict
its yield. Machine learning algorithms, including random forest (RF), support vec-
tor machine (SVM), multivariate linear regression (MLR), artificial neural network
(ANN) and K-nearest neighbour (KNN), are used to estimate crop productivity. The
random forest has outperformed the best accuracy of 95% than others. The algo-
rithm also makes recommendations for fertilisers to achieve high crop yield.
Chakraborty et al. [15] suggested a system focuses on site-specific crop manage-
ment and help farmers to choose right crop by taking into account all the factors
such as soil type, sowing season and geographic location.
Goel et al. [16] To reach the final goal of advising farmers on the best crop based
on a variety of regional and farm-related characteristics, a softmax classifier and a
nature-inspired algorithm are used in the computational intelligence-based expert
system that has been presented. It incorporates the creation of a hybrid technique
employing two nature-inspired optimisation algorithms, namely, optimisation based
on biogeography and optimisation based on plate tectonics. Later, a hybrid PBO/
Adam algorithm is produced by combining PBO and the Adam optimisation tech-
nique. The weights of the classifier are then maximised using the proposed hybrid
technique.
Priya and Ramesh [17] have recognised that stability of crop’s productivity can-
not be stretched without the prudent application of macro- and micronutrients to
address any deficits in soil nutrients. The suggested study focuses on applying the
Adaboost.RT methods to precisely determine the N-P-K content of the designated
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable Agricultural Development 337

land that are also helpful for the farmers to determine how much amount of fertiliser
has been used for their land. The discussed method is helpful for increasing the crop
yield. A comparison of the nutritional intake using the suggested strategy and tradi-
tional approaches is also made. Experimental results show that the proposed algo-
rithm outperformed than other current approaches.
Priya et al. [18] proposed random forest algorithm to predict the crop yield. The
proposed model consists of parameters such as temperature, production season and
rainfall.
Khan and Ghosh [19] proposed a regression model based on neural network to
predict the rainfall in the specific geographical location and crop yield. They used
Meteorological Data of Chhattisgarh for the last 10 years which includes rainfall,
temperature and humidity values, and they also collected the data from Ahmednagar,
India, weather station. They used support vector machine (SVM) as a machine
learning classifier and obtained an accuracy of 97%.
Suresh et al. [20] proposed a framework based on supervised machine learning
approach to suggest appropriate harvests and recommend crop yield based on the
predicted values.
Sharma et al. [21] proposed a supervised learning approach to predict the uncer-
tain rainfall in uncertain volume in regions and compared the accuracy using the
ROC curve of machine learning classifiers such as naive Bayes, multilayer percep-
tron, random forest and SMO. This model is used to classify low, medium and
heavy rainfall, and it is practically implemented in regions which have different
uncertain rainfall in uncertain volume.
Rajak et al. [22] proposed a crop recommendation system that uses an ensemble
model with a majority voting technique using different classifiers random forest,
artificial neural network (ANN), support vector machine (SVM) and naive Bayes to
suggest a crop based on soil features such as pH, moisture, water density, etc., which
are collected from universities and soil testing labs.
Champaneri et al. [23] used random forest algorithm to predict the crop yield for
the specific state of Maharashtra. They collected climatic parameters including tem-
perature, vapour pressure, precipitation and cloud cover from different government
websites at a monthly basis which was used to train the model.
Reddy et al. [24] suggested a two-step model suggest the crop for the farmers.
Soil classification can be done during the first step, and crop suggestion can be done
during the second step. In the first phase, chemical characteristics of the soil, such
as potassium, magnesium, moisture, etc., were used to predict the type of soil. To
suggest crops in the second step, classification algorithms including KNN, support
vector machine and bagging were used.
Crop selection is one of the major problems for the farmers at the beginning state
of the agricultural process which would produce a high yield. An efficient system is
required for monitoring agricultural problems and supporting farmers to identify the
crops to be cultivated [25–27]. Farmers are depending on soil for growing crops
which is a warehouse of minerals. Soil is of different types in India, and soil proper-
ties and nature of the soil can vary from one location to another location. Each soil
can have different levels of minerals, nutrients and organic matter and can have
338 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

different characteristics based on the location. So, farmers need to know the soil
types and features of various kinds of soils to understand the right crop to be culti-
vated in that particular soil type in different climate conditions and what kind of
pesticides and fertilisers can be used for better crop yield. This process requires
farmers’ experience. To assist this process, Table 1 shows the information matrix
describing the detailed study of related work to address the problem based on differ-
ent approaches and techniques.

3 Input Sources and Methods

3.1 Dataset

Machine learning and deep learning algorithms will not achieve the desired results
without the contribution of high-quality and large number of training data. When
algorithms for machine learning and deep learning are trained on insufficient or
irrelevant data, they are useless. The publications under study offered a variety of
suggestions for inputs. The dataset provided in reviewed articles includes character-
istics like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), temperature, rainfall,
humidity and pH level of soil. Table 2 provides a list of the attributes that are present
in the dataset.

3.2 Dataset Pre-processing

Data pre-processing uses raw data to generate clean data. When the data are acquired
from various sources in raw form, analysis of data is not possible. We can change
data into a coherent format by using various techniques, such as substituting miss-
ing values and null values. The final phase in the data pre-processing process is the
separation of training and testing data. Data pre-processing was done in the reviewed
articles due to the fact that the model training usually requires as much high-quality
data as possible.

3.3 Classifiers for Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation

In this study, we investigated various articles provided by the researchers in the

same domain. Precision agriculture-enabled farming methods would provide the
best results for the farmers with the least amount of input. The most widely used
machine learning algorithms such as linear regression, naive Bayes, SVM, decision
tree, random forest, logistic regression, Ada Boost and XG Boost were quickly
introduced in this section.
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable Agricultural Development 339

Table 1 Related work information matrix

Methodology/
Reference technique Dataset Strength Weakness Accuracy
[1, 2] CNN and Image dataset CNN gave better Adapt to Accuracy of
random forest comprises the results than mixture of CNN,
15–200 images random forest soil types 95.21%; and
of clay, black, model for image and dataset the random
red and alluvial classification-­ in less forest, 75%
soil for phase 1, based soil number
and phase 2 dataset
comprises the
features such as
crop, area of
land, season,
district, state,
etc. which was
collected from
kaggle
[3] Naive Bayes Soil input from To predict the A proposed 75%
algorithm soil testing lab suitable crop in model is not
right time to compared
grow using data with other
mining ensemble
techniques based techniques
on soil features
[4] Deep Soil parameters Proposed system Previous 98%
reinforcement obtained from is evaluated record
learning soil testing lab against different should be
method machine learning included
algorithms through
including LSTM to
random forest, improve the
naive Bayes and outcome
KNN to order to
recommend a
right crop with
high level of
accuracy for the
specific location
[5] Extreme Soil input Classify soil and Result The Gaussian
machine dataset collected predict soil pH obtained radial basis
learning with from farmers value and soil from only functions
various and soil testing fertility indices particular obtained
activation lab to make a geographical better
functions decision system location performance
to overcome the in
soil nutrient classification
deficiency (nearly 90%)
problems
(continued)
340 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

Table 1 (continued)
Methodology/
Reference technique Dataset Strength Weakness Accuracy
[6] KNN, naive The soil dataset Recommend a Improved 88%
Bayes, random comprises the crop with high dataset
tree and features level of accuracy collection
CHAID including colour, and efficiency to with many
pH, texture, increase crop attributes is
depth, productivity and required
permeability, profit
drainage, water
holding and
erosion
[7] Naive Bayes, Soil input Predictions from Input dataset The
linear SVM and dataset for various machine is classified classification
random forest Kharif and Rabi learning models into crop accuracy was
crop types. The combined to type Kharif 99.91%
dataset contains predict the crop and Rabi
climatic selection using only
parameters such soil-specific
as temperature, parameters and
rainfall, the characteristics
chemical and with high
physical of the accuracy
soil
[8] Neural network Crop yield, soil Uses machine Improved Neural
and linear and climatic learning and big dataset network,
regression parameters data together to collection 89.88%
help the farmers with many Linear
to recommend attributes is regression,
the right crop for required 88.26%
their land using
environmental
factors, physical
and chemical
characteristics of
soil and
geographical
location
[9] SVM Soil features The proposed Fewer details SVM
such as system compared are provided outperformed
nitrogen-­ the results of for the with higher
phosphorous-­ SVM with KNN proposed accuracy
potassium and decision tree model and its
(NPK) performance
(continued)
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable Agricultural Development 341

Table 1 (continued)
Methodology/
Reference technique Dataset Strength Weakness Accuracy
[10] SVM, the The dataset The proposed Fewer soil SVM –
decision tree consists of soil model for attributes and 89.66%
and the logistic integral predicting the a small KNN – 88%
regression attributes and suitable crop, dataset Random
information pest detection forest – 88%
about the and suggest pest Naive
general crops control Bayes – 88%
techniques Decision
tree – 86.8%
Logistic
regression –
86.4%
[11] SVM, random Dataset Sensors for soil No Not
forest, naive comprises the testing integrated evaluation mentioned
Bayes and data obtained into the proposed metrics are
ANN from sensors ML and used
such as NPK, IoT-based
temperature, soil system. The
moisture and proposed system
soil pH level was useful
maintaining crop
health and
reducing the
likelihood of soil
deterioration
[12] Logistic The dataset Accurate Soil Random
regression, comprised the prediction of parameters forest –
naive Bayes factors like crop and were not 92.81%
and random temperature, calculation of added for Naive
forest rainfall, area, crop yield crop Bayes –
etc. prediction 91.5%
Logistic
regression –
87.8%
(continued)
342 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

Table 1 (continued)
Methodology/
Reference technique Dataset Strength Weakness Accuracy
[13] SVM – To GUI-based
Data of soil and GPS location Not
predict rainfall farmer-friendly
weather features was given mentioned
Decision such as system that manually to
tree – To temperature, predict the right predict the
suggest crop humidity, soil crop for best crop
pH and rainfallparticular
collected from farmer’s land
different Also provide
resources like information
VC farm about the
Mandya, Govt. required nutrient
websites, APMC level, required
website etc. amount of
fertilisers,
required seeds,
expected crop
yield and its
market price
using GPS
location.
Therefore,
farmers can
grow a new
variety of crop to
raise their profit
margin and
prevent soil
contamination
[14] Random forest, Soil and climatic GPS-enabled Fewer details The random
SVM, parameters mobile are provided forest has
multivariate applications for the outperformed
linear assist farmers to proposed higher
regression, find their model and its accuracy of
ANN and location and performance 95% than
K-nearest choose the more others
neighbour profitable crop.
(KNN) Additionally, the
proposed work
also suggests to
farmers when to
use fertilisers for
the crops to
increase the crop
yield
(continued)
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable Agricultural Development 343

Table 1 (continued)
Methodology/
Reference technique Dataset Strength Weakness Accuracy
[15] Decision tree, GPS and soil Modern Fewer details SVM – 78%
KNN, linear parameters agricultural are provided Linear
regression, technology is for the regression –
naive Bayes, used to proposed 88.26%
neural network, implement model and its Decision
SVM precision performance tree – 81%
agriculture Naive
Bayes – 82%
KNN – 85%
Cross
validation –
88%
Neural
network –
89.88%
[16] Hybrid PBO/ Soil-based Crop suggestion No Not
Adam features based on farm evaluation mentioned
algorithm obtained from and geographical metrics are
Landsat images parameters used
[17] Adaboost.RT The dataset Accurate Less details Proposed
method comprises the prediction of provided for method
features of soil N-P-K content the proposed achieved
parameters model and its higher
performance accuracy than
traditional
methods
[18] Random forest The dataset Accurate crop Proposed Not
consists of yield prediction model’s mentioned
rainfall, karif using the random efficiency is
and rabi seasons forest algorithm not
of every district, compared
max and min with other
temperature and ensemble
crop production techniques
in tonnes
sourced for the
years 1997 to
2013
[19] SVM Meteorological Proposed neural Fewer details 97%
data of network are provided
Chhattisgarh regression model for the
include rainfall, was built to proposed
humidity and predict the value model and its
temperature for of crop yield and performance
the last 10 years rainfall in the
specific
geographical
location
(continued)
344 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

Table 1 (continued)
Methodology/
Reference technique Dataset Strength Weakness Accuracy
[20] Data mining NPK and soil A supervised No Not
techniques and pH machine evaluation mentioned
machine learning-based metrics are
learning framework was used
algorithm proposed to
suggest
appropriate
harvests and
recommending
crop yield based
on the predicted
values
[21] Multilayer Dataset consists The proposed Fewer details –
perceptron, of rainfall data method is used are provided
naive Bayes, volume hourly, to classify the for the
random forest weekly and rainfall into low,proposed
and SMO monthly medium and model and its
high performance
[22] Naive Bayes, Soil features Recommend a Proposed SVM and
random forest, such as pH level, crop with high method can ANN
support vector water holding level of accuracy be tested provided high
machine capacity, water and efficiency to with rich set accuracy and
(SVM) and density, etc. increase crop of dataset efficiency
artificial neural collected from productivity and collection than others
network(ANN) universities and profit with many
soil testing labs attributes
[23] Random forest Climatic In all crops, the Proposed >75%
parameters usability and model’s
including accuracy are efficiency is
temperature, greater than 75% not
vapour pressure, compared
precipitation and with other
cloud cover ensemble
techniques
[24] KNN, support Soil dataset and Forecast suitable The accuracy Not
vector machine crop dataset crop for a values were mentioned
and bagging farmer’s specific very poor
land

3.3.1 Decision Tree

Machine learning, which is used for both classification and prediction, has benefited
from the decision tree’s expanded application. The objective is to create a model
that uses a tree-like structure and predicts the value of the target variable. A decision
tree’s single node is the starting point, and it branches out to possible decisions.
Each choice opens up new nodes that branch off into other options [32].
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable Agricultural Development 345

Table 2 Features of 1 Nitrogen (N)

soil dataset
2 Phosphorus (P)
3 Potassium (K)
4 Temperature
5 Humidity
6 pH
7 Rainfall

3.3.2 Linear Regression

Linear regression is a supervised machine learning algorithm and uses independent

variables to design a model to predict a value. It performs a regression task and used
to establish the relationship between variables.

3.3.3 Logistic Regression

The supervised machine learning classification approach known as logistic regres-

sion uses the sigmoid function to forecast the data and is based on the idea of prob-
ability (Eq. 1).

1
g  x  (1)
1 e  x

The real value is mapped with another value between 0 and 1 by a sigmoid
function.

3.3.4 Random Forest

Random forest is a well-known machine learning algorithm can be applied for both
classification and regression. It is based on the principle of ensemble learning and
the supervised learning technique, which uses a number of decision trees on various
subsets of the provided dataset. Each tree prediction is used to predict the final out-
put. When it has a greater number of trees, it improves accuracy and avoids the
overfitting issue [32].

3.3.5 Naive Bayes

The naive Bayes is a statistical classifier model developed based on the Bayes theo-
rem to predict the probability of occurrence that a given sample or set of data points
will fall into a specific class. The Bayes theorem’s equation (Eq. 2) is as follows:
346 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

PH | X PH
PH | X   (2)
PX

where P(H) is the prior probability of class (target) and P(H|X) is the posterior prob-
ability, whereas P(X|H) and P(X) are the likelihood and prior probabilities of the
predictor, respectively [32].

3.3.6 Support Vector Machine (SVM)

It is a machine learning technique that applies supervised learning for both classifi-
cation and regression. In machine learning, classification is mostly accomplished by
using it. Linear SVM and non-linear SVM are the two categories into which it can
be divided. Non-linear SVM is utilised for datasets which cannot be classified by
using a straight line, i.e. non-linearly separable data, while linear SVM is utilised
for datasets which can be divided into two classes by using a straight line, i.e. lin-
early separable data.

3.3.7 
K-Nearest Neighbours

KNN is a non-parametric technique that applies supervised learning for classifica-

tion and regression problems. The KNN categorises test samples based on the
majority of its K-nearest neighbours with shortest distance representing the charac-
teristics that are shared by most test samples [32].

3.3.8 Ada Boost

Ada Boost algorithm is also referred to as adaptive boosting. The weights are redis-
tributed to each instance, giving instances that were incorrectly recognised addi-
tional weights; this is why the method is known as “adaptive boosting”. Boosting is
used to reduce bias and variation in supervised learning. It operates on the premise
that learners develop in stages. Except for the first, every student after that is created
from a previous learner. Simply put, weak students become strong students [32].

3.3.9 XGBoost

The acronym for XGBoost is Extreme Gradient Boosting, and it uses gradient
boosting framework. The ensemble machine learning algorithm is made to be very
effective, adaptable and portable for classification, regression and ranking issues
[28–31].
Crop and Fertiliser Recommendation System for Sustainable Agricultural Development 347

4 Results and Discussion

Several evaluation metrics have been employed in reviewed articles. Formulation of

metrics used for evaluation in the reviewed articles is provided in Table 3. Equation
3, which employs numerical information of correctly categorised classes from all of
the soil samples in the dataset, has been used to calculate the accuracy of the soil
classification and crop recommendation system.

no.of identified samples

Accuracy   100 (3)
total no.of samples

For system evaluation, the following formulas are used to calculate the precision,
recall and F1 score, which are all important factors [32]:

 True Positives  TP 
Precision  100 (4)
  True Positives  TP   False Positives  FP  

 True Positives  TP 
Recall  100 (5)
  True Positives  TP   False Negatives  FP  

Precision  Recall
F1 Score  2  (6)
Precision  Recall

5 Conclusion

Despite the fact that for the vast majority of Indians, agriculture is their main source
of income and a key component of the national economy, precision agriculture and
smart farming were significant advancements in the agricultural field and were uti-
lised by the corporates involved in the agricultural field. Precision farming and smart
farming have not yet attracted the Indian farmers. In this study, we have provided a
thorough review of 25 articles that were published in the recent 5 years from 2017 to
2022. The aim of this study was to provide insights and propose new methods to
propose the right crop for the farmers. Such insights are useful for the farmers and

Table 3 Performance S.No. Metrics for evaluation

metrics used for evaluation
1 Accuracy
in reviewed articles
2 Precision
3 Recall
4 F1 score
348 K. Sankareswari and G. Sujatha

provide a good understanding of recent research trends in the agricultural field. We

look forward that the detailed study inspired by the researchers in the same domain
and that would be helpful to propose new methods to tackle the specific challenges
faced by the farmers and build efficient crop and fertiliser recommender systems.

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The Revolution of Edge Computing
in Smart Farming

D. Sathya, R. Thangamani, and B. Saravana Balaji

1 Introduction

Agriculture, the cornerstone of human civilization, has been on a remarkable jour-

ney of transformation throughout history. From the earliest days of manual cultiva-
tion to the mechanization of the Industrial Revolution, farming has consistently
evolved to meet the demands of a growing global population. In the twenty-first
century, a new and pivotal chapter is being written in the annals of agriculture, and
at the heart of this transformation lies a technological marvel—edge computing.
The story of agriculture has not been without its challenges. Traditional farming
practices, deeply rooted in centuries-old traditions, have often struggled to keep
pace with the complexities of modern society. Challenges such as labor-intensive
practices, uncertainty in decision-making, environmental sustainability, and vulner-
ability to climate change have tested the resilience of the agriculture sector.
Traditional farming methods, which relied heavily on manual labor and were
often guided by historical knowledge, have been challenged to keep up with the
ever-increasing demands for food production. Farmers faced the daunting task of
optimizing resource allocation while contending with the unpredictability of
weather, soil conditions, and pest infestations. The environmental consequences of
excessive water use, overuse of fertilizers, and pesticide application have raised
concerns about sustainability. Furthermore, the specter of climate change, with its
erratic weather patterns and extreme events, has added an element of

D. Sathya (*) · R. Thangamani

Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, Tamilnadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
B. S. Balaji
Lebanese French University, Erbil, Iraq
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 351
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_17
352 D. Sathya et al.

unpredictability to farming, making it increasingly difficult for farmers to safeguard

their livelihoods. In response to these challenges, the agriculture sector has embarked
on a technological revolution that is reshaping every facet of the industry. This revo-
lution is powered by a convergence of cutting-edge technologies, including the
Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), data analytics, and automation.
At the heart of this transformation is edge computing—an innovation that is redefin-
ing the way farming is conducted, known as “smart farming”(Bolan, S, et al., 2015).
Edge computing is a paradigm shift in the world of technology. It brings compu-
tational power closer to the data source, allowing real-time data processing and
decision-making. In the context of agriculture, this means that data collected on the
farm, whether it be soil moisture [71] levels, crop health indicators, or even live-
stock behavior, can be processed and acted upon immediately, without the need for
data to travel to distant cloud servers. This immediacy has profound implications for
farming operations. With the advent of edge computing, the agriculture sector has
entered a new era—one characterized by data-driven, precision agriculture. IoT sen-
sors and devices, strategically placed across farms, continuously collect data and
transmit it to edge computing devices. These devices, equipped with AI and machine
learning algorithms (Tiwari, S et al., 2018) [8], analyze the data and provide action-
able insights to farmers in real-time. The implications of this technological leap are
far-reaching:
Precision Agriculture: Edge computing empowers farmers to practice precision
agriculture with unparalleled accuracy. Every action on the farm, from planting
and irrigation to pest control and harvesting, is guided by precise data and analy-
sis. This precision minimizes resource use, reduces waste, and maximizes crop
yields, ultimately leading to higher profitability for farmers.
Resource Optimization: The ability to process data at the edge allows for precise
resource allocation. Farmers can make real-time decisions on water usage, fertil-
izer application, and energy consumption. This optimization not only reduces
operational costs but also contributes to sustainable farming practices.
Environmental Sustainability: Edge computing plays a pivotal role in promoting
sustainable agriculture. By optimizing resource use, minimizing environmental
impact, and reducing the reliance on chemicals, farmers can transition to eco-­
friendly and regenerative farming practices that are beneficial for both the envi-
ronment and consumers.
Early Disease Detection: Edge devices equipped with AI models are capable of
detecting signs of disease or pest infestations in crops or livestock at an early
stage. This early detection enables farmers to take prompt and targeted action,
reducing crop losses and the need for chemical interventions.
Risk Mitigation: The real-time data and predictive analytics made possible by edge
computing empower farmers to better mitigate risks associated with climate
change, disease outbreaks, and market fluctuations. This enhanced ability to
adapt to changing conditions leads to more resilient and sustainable farming
practices.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 353

As we embark on this exploration of the revolution of edge computing in smart

farming(Rai, P.K., 2009) [10], we will journey deeper into the applications, benefits,
challenges, and future directions of this transformative technology. Edge computing
is not merely a tool; it is a catalyst for change in an industry that sustains us all. It
represents the embodiment of the farming adage, “Make hay while the sun shines,”
in a world where technology and data are the new suns that illuminate the path to a
brighter, more sustainable future for agriculture and food production.

2 Smart Farming and Agricultural Transformation

The agricultural sector is undergoing a remarkable transformation, driven by a con-

vergence of cutting-edge technologies. This transformation, often referred to as
“smart farming” or “precision agriculture,” is reshaping traditional farming prac-
tices and revolutionizing the way we produce food. In this era of smart farming,
data-driven decision-making, automation, and sustainability are at the forefront of
agricultural innovation.
Data-Driven Insights
One of the pillars of smart farming is data. From Fig. 1, modern farms are increas-
ingly equipped with sensors and Internet of Things (IoT) devices that continuously
collect data on soil conditions, weather patterns, crop health, and livestock behavior.
This wealth of data is processed and analyzed using artificial intelligence (AI) and
machine learning (Tiwari, S et al., 2018) [8] algorithms to provide farmers with
real-time insights. Farmers can make informed decisions about resource allocation,

Fig. 1 Edge computing architecture

354 D. Sathya et al.

pest control, and irrigation, leading to optimized crop yields and reduced environ-
mental impact.
Precision Agriculture
Precision agriculture is a hallmark of the smart farming revolution. It involves the
precise management of farming practices based on data analytics. For example,
GPS-guided tractors and machinery can plant seeds and apply fertilizers with
centimeter-­level accuracy, reducing resource wastage and enhancing productivity.
This precision extends to all aspects of farming, from soil management to harvest-
ing techniques.
Resource Efficiency
Smart farming (Kim, S.W, et al., 2015) is synonymous with resource efficiency.
With the ability to monitor soil moisture levels [71], weather forecasts, and crop
health in real-time, farmers can tailor their resource usage to specific needs. This
results in reduced water consumption, minimized chemical use, and optimized
energy usage, all of which contribute to cost savings and environmental
sustainability.
Environmental Sustainability
Sustainability is a central focus of smart farming. The reduction of chemical inputs,
the adoption of organic practices, and the promotion of regenerative agriculture are
all made possible by data-driven insights. Farmers can implement practices that not
only protect the environment but also regenerate soil health and enhance
biodiversity.
Automation and Robotics
Automation and robotics are transforming labor-intensive farming tasks. Drones
equipped with cameras and sensors can monitor large fields, identifying areas that
require attention. Autonomous robots (Acosta, J.A, et al., 2011) [15] can perform
tasks such as weeding and harvesting with precision and efficiency. These technolo-
gies reduce the need for manual labor, address labor shortages, and improve farm
productivity.
Early Disease Detection
Smart farming technologies, including AI-powered image recognition systems,
enable early disease detection in crops and livestock. These systems can identify
signs of disease or pest infestations before they become widespread, allowing farm-
ers to take targeted and timely action. This reduces crop losses and minimizes the
use of chemical treatments.
Market Insights
Access to real-time data and market analysis tools empowers farmers to make stra-
tegic decisions regarding crop selection and timing. They can align their production
with market demand, ensuring that their products reach consumers at the right time
and price.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 355

2.1 The Need for Data-Driven Agriculture

In a world where the global population (Arora, M, et al., 2008) [4] continues to
burgeon, and the impacts of climate change pose new challenges to food production,
the agricultural sector faces an imperative: to produce more food with fewer
resources while mitigating environmental harm. In this context, the advent of data-­
driven agriculture emerges as an indispensable solution.
Growing Global Population
With the world’s population [Arora, M, et al., 2008] [4] projected to surpass 9 bil-
lion by 2050, the demand for food is escalating. To meet this demand, agriculture
must embrace innovation and efficiency. Data-driven agriculture leverages technol-
ogy to optimize resource use, boost crop yields, and ensure food security for a grow-
ing populace.
Resource Scarcity
Scarce resources, notably arable land and freshwater, intensify the pressure on agri-
culture. Data-driven approaches enable precise resource allocation, ensuring that
water, fertilizers, and other inputs are used judiciously. This minimizes waste and
promotes resource efficiency, crucial in a world where resource scarcity looms.
Climate Change and Environmental Impact
Climate change exacerbates the unpredictability of weather patterns, making agri-
culture more vulnerable to extreme events. Data-driven agriculture equips farmers
with tools for climate adaptation. Additionally, it promotes sustainable practices
that reduce environmental harm, mitigating agriculture’s contribution to cli-
mate change.
Optimizing Crop Yields
Data-driven insights enable farmers to make informed decisions at every stage of
cultivation. Precision agriculture, guided by data analytics, ensures optimal planting
densities, timely irrigation, and targeted pest control. This leads to maximized crop
(Nagajyoti, P.C, et al., 2010) [5] yields while minimizing inputs, bolstering agricul-
tural sustainability.
Minimizing Environmental Impact
The environmental consequences of traditional agriculture, such as soil degradation
and water pollution, necessitate a paradigm shift. Data-driven agriculture minimizes
these impacts by enabling the adoption of eco-friendly practices. Farmers can
implement regenerative agriculture and reduce the reliance on harmful chemicals.
Resilience to Disease and Pest Outbreaks
Data-driven agriculture incorporates early warning systems through AI and sensor
technology. This proactive approach enables farmers to detect disease outbreaks
and pest infestations swiftly. By taking targeted measures, they can minimize crop
losses(Nagajyoti, P.C, et al., 2010) [5] and reduce the need for chemical treatments.
356 D. Sathya et al.

Market Alignment
Data-driven agriculture empowers farmers with market insights. They can make
informed decisions about crop selection and timing, aligning production with mar-
ket demand. This reduces food waste and enhances the economic viability of farm-
ing operations.
Challenges and the Path Forward
While the need for data-driven agriculture is clear, it is not without challenges. Data
privacy, connectivity in rural areas, and the digital literacy of farmers are notable
hurdles. Nonetheless, collaborative efforts among stakeholders, investment in digi-
tal infrastructure, and education are key to realizing the full potential of data-driven
agriculture.

2.2 The Rise of IoT in Agriculture

In recent years, the agricultural landscape has witnessed a profound transformation,

catalyzed by the rise of the Internet of Things (IoT) as shown in Fig. 2. This trans-
formative technology, which connects physical objects and devices to the Internet,
has found fertile ground in agriculture, giving rise to what is now commonly referred
to as “smart farming.” In this section, we explore the ascent of IoT in agriculture and
its far-reaching implications.

Fig. 2 Application of IoT in various fields

The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 357

Sensors and Data Collection

At the heart of IoT in agriculture are sensors—tiny, yet powerful devices that can be
deployed across fields, orchards, and livestock farms. These sensors are equipped to
collect a vast array of data, including soil moisture levels [71], temperature, humid-
ity, and even the health and behavior of livestock. The data collected by these sen-
sors forms the foundation of data-driven agriculture.
Real-Time Monitoring and Insights
IoT sensors provide real-time monitoring capabilities, granting farmers unprece-
dented insights into their operations. They can track soil conditions, detect early
signs of disease in crops (Nagajyoti, P.C, et al., 2010) [5], and monitor livestock
health—all from a digital dashboard. This real-time visibility empowers farmers to
make informed decisions promptly.
Precision Agriculture
IoT in agriculture has ushered in the era of precision agriculture. With the ability to
precisely measure and analyze data, farmers can optimize their farming practices
down to the square meter. GPS-guided tractors can plant seeds with millimeter
accuracy, while automated irrigation systems adjust water flow based on real-time
soil moisture [71] data. Precision agriculture maximizes resource efficiency and
crop yields.
Resource Optimization
Resource scarcity is a pressing issue in agriculture, with water being a prime exam-
ple. IoT-driven irrigation systems use data to determine precisely when and how
much water is needed. This not only conserves water but also reduces energy usage
and operational costs.
Environmental Sustainability
The environmental impact of agriculture has raised concerns worldwide. IoT
empowers farmers to adopt sustainable practices that mitigate harm to the environ-
ment. By minimizing chemical inputs, reducing waste, and optimizing resource use,
IoT plays a pivotal role in fostering environmentally friendly farming practices.
Early Detection of Issues
One of IoT’s most compelling applications in agriculture is early issue detection.
Through AI-powered image recognition and sensor data analysis, farmers can spot
signs of disease outbreaks or pest infestations before they spread. Early intervention
reduces crop losses and lessens the need for chemical treatments.
Data-Driven Decision-Making.
The data collected by IoT sensors and devices serve as the foundation for data-­
driven decision-making. Farmers can assess historical data, weather forecasts, and
real-time field conditions to make informed choices about planting, harvesting, and
resource allocation.
358 D. Sathya et al.

Challenges and Future Directions

Despite its immense potential, IoT in agriculture faces challenges such as data secu-
rity and connectivity in rural areas. However, ongoing advancements in technology,
coupled with investments in digital infrastructure and farmer education, promise to
overcome these obstacles.
In conclusion, the rise of IoT in agriculture has unlocked a world of possibilities,
transforming farming into a data-driven, efficient, and sustainable industry. With
IoT sensors and devices as their allies, farmers are poised to address the pressing
challenges of resource scarcity, climate change, and food security. The journey of
IoT in agriculture is one of innovation, resilience, and a commitment to shaping a
more sustainable and productive future for farming.

3 Edge Computing: Enabling Real-Time Intelligence

In the realm of technology, there is a constant pursuit of pushing boundaries, mak-

ing systems smarter, and achieving greater efficiency. Edge computing represents
one such leap in the evolution of computing paradigms. It is a concept that brings
computation closer to data sources, and its impact on industries, including agricul-
ture, is profound. In this section, we explore the essence of edge computing and its
role in enabling real-time intelligence.
The Essence of Edge Computing
Edge computing represents a fundamental shift from the conventional cloud com-
puting paradigm. Instead of relying on distant data centers, edge computing places
computational power at the “edge” of the network, in close proximity to where data
is generated and needed. This closeness to data sources reduces latency, enhances
real-time processing, and enables faster decision-making.
Real-Time Data Processing
In the context of agriculture, where timeliness is critical, edge computing shines.
With IoT sensors and devices deployed throughout farms, data is continuously gen-
erated, whether it’s soil moisture [71] readings, weather data, or livestock health
metrics. Edge computing devices, strategically placed on the farm, process this data
locally and instantaneously.
Immediate Decision-Making
One of the primary benefits of edge computing in agriculture is immediate decision-­
making. Consider a scenario where a field’s soil moisture [71] level drops unexpect-
edly due to a sudden heatwave. An edge computing device can analyze this data in
real-time and trigger an irrigation system to ensure the crop [Nagajyoti, P.C, et al.,
2010] [5] receives adequate water promptly. This real-time responsiveness opti-
mizes resource use and safeguards crop health.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 359

Enhanced Precision Agriculture

Edge computing elevates the concept of precision agriculture to new heights. With
data analyzed at the edge, farming practices become highly precise and granular.
Planting, irrigation, fertilization, and pest control can all be tailored to specific con-
ditions within a field. This level of precision minimizes resource waste and maxi-
mizes crop yields.
Resource Efficiency
Resource efficiency is at the core of edge computing‘s impact on agriculture. With
immediate access to data on soil conditions, weather forecasts, and crop health,
farmers can optimize the use of water, fertilizers, and pesticides. This not only con-
serves resources but also reduces operational costs and environmental impact.
Environmental Sustainability
Sustainability is a pressing concern in agriculture. Edge computing supports sus-
tainable practices by enabling the adoption of eco-friendly farming methods. By
reducing chemical inputs, minimizing waste, and optimizing resource use, edge
computing contributes to environmentally responsible farming.
Early Disease Detection
Edge computing is a crucial tool in early disease detection. AI models running on
edge devices can analyze images of crops or livestock and detect signs of disease or
pest infestations swiftly. Timely identification allows farmers to take targeted action,
reducing crop losses and the need for chemical treatments.

3.1 Understanding Edge Computing

Edge computing is a crucial concept in the context of smart farming, where it plays
a pivotal role in revolutionizing agricultural practices. Here, we’ll delve into under-
standing edge computing with respect to smart farming:
1. Definition of Edge Computing
• Edge computing refers to a decentralized computing paradigm where data
processing and analysis occur closer to the data source, at the “edge” of the
network, rather than relying solely on centralized cloud servers.
• In smart farming, the “edge” often represents various on-farm devices and
sensors, such as IoT (Internet of Things) (Routray et al., 2019) [1] sensors,
drones, and machinery, which collect and generate a wealth of data.
2. Significance in Smart Farming
• Real-Time Data Processing: Edge computing enables real-time data pro-
cessing, which is critical in smart farming. It allows for immediate analysis of
data generated by sensors in the field, providing timely insights for
decision-making.
360 D. Sathya et al.

• Reduced Latency: By processing data at the edge, edge computing mini-

mizes latency, ensuring that critical decisions, such as irrigation adjustments
or pest control measures, can be implemented swiftly.
• Bandwidth Optimization: Edge computing reduces the need to transmit vast
amounts of data to centralized servers, optimizing bandwidth usage and low-
ering data transmission costs for farmers.
• Offline Capabilities: Edge devices in smart farming can operate offline or
with intermittent connectivity, ensuring that data collection and analysis con-
tinue even in remote areas.
3. Use Cases in Smart Farming
• Precision Agriculture: Edge devices and sensors on farming equipment col-
lect data on soil conditions, weather, and crop health. This data is processed
locally to provide real-time insights for optimizing planting, fertilization, and
irrigation.
• Livestock Monitoring: Wearable sensors on livestock animals collect health
and behavior data. Edge computing processes this data to detect anomalies,
helping farmers identify and address health issues promptly.
• Crop Monitoring: Drones equipped with sensors capture high-resolution
images of crops. Edge computing on the drone processes these images to
identify areas requiring attention, such as disease outbreaks or nutrient
deficiencies.
• Farm Equipment Automation: Edge computing is integral to autonomous
farming equipment, allowing tractors and harvesters to make real-time deci-
sions about field navigation and precision tasks.
• Climate and Environmental Monitoring: Edge devices can measure envi-
ronmental parameters like temperature, humidity, and air quality. This data
helps farmers manage their agricultural practices in response to changing
environmental conditions.
4. Benefits in Smart Farming
• Real-Time Decision-Making: Edge computing empowers farmers with
immediate insights, enabling them to make informed decisions on the spot,
leading to improved crop yields and resource efficiency.
• Cost Savings: By reducing the need for constant data transmission to central-
ized servers, edge computing can lower data transmission costs and reduce
the dependence on expensive, always-on Internet connections.
• Scalability: Smart farming systems can scale easily by adding more edge
devices as needed, without overloading centralized servers.
• Privacy and Security: Local data processing at the edge enhances data pri-
vacy and security since sensitive agricultural data can be kept on-farm rather
than transmitted to external servers.
In essence, edge computing is a cornerstone of smart farming, enabling farmers
to harness the power of real-time data processing and analysis to optimize their
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 361

agricultural practices, reduce costs, and enhance sustainability. It represents a sig-

nificant leap forward in modernizing agriculture and addressing the growing chal-
lenges of food production in an increasingly complex world.

3.2 Edge Devices and Sensors in Agriculture

Edge devices and sensors are integral components of modern agriculture, playing a
crucial role in collecting, monitoring, and analyzing data at the field level. These
devices are deployed directly in the agricultural environment, often at the “edge” of
the network, to gather a wide range of data that can inform decision-making and
optimize farming operations. Here’s an overview of edge devices and sensors in
agriculture:
1. Types of Edge Devices and Sensors
• Sensors: Internet of Things (IoT)[Rai, P.K. et al., 2019] [6] sensors are widely
used in agriculture to collect data on various parameters. These sensors
include soil moisture[71] sensors, weather stations, temperature and humidity
sensors, and nutrient sensors. They provide real-time information about envi-
ronmental conditions, helping farmers make informed decisions about irriga-
tion, fertilization, and pest control.
• GPS and GNSS Receivers: Global Positioning System (GPS) and Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers are used for precision agricul-
ture. They enable accurate mapping and tracking of field activities, allowing
for precise planting, harvesting, and field navigation.
• Imaging and Camera Systems: Drones and other imaging systems equipped
with cameras and multispectral sensors capture high-resolution images of
crops. This imagery can be used for crop health assessment, disease detec-
tion, and yield prediction.
• Livestock Monitoring Devices: Wearable sensors and RFID tags are used
for monitoring livestock health and behavior. They collect data on parameters
like body temperature, activity levels, and feeding patterns, helping farmers
detect health issues and optimize animal care.
• Automated Farm Equipment: Modern farm equipment, such as tractors and
harvesters, often come equipped with edge computing capabilities and sen-
sors. These sensors monitor equipment performance, fuel efficiency, and field
conditions, contributing to more efficient and precise farming operations.
2. Key Functions and Applications
• Data Collection: Edge devices and sensors collect data on a wide range of
agricultural parameters, including soil moisture [71], temperature, humidity,
crop growth, livestock health, and equipment performance.
• Real-Time Monitoring: These devices provide real-time monitoring of field
conditions and livestock behavior. Farmers can access this data remotely
362 D. Sathya et al.

through mobile apps or web interfaces, allowing them to make timely

decisions.
• Decision Support: The data gathered by edge devices and sensors serve as
the foundation for decision support systems in precision agriculture. Farmers
can use this data to optimize irrigation, fertilization, pest control, and harvest-
ing schedules.
• Predictive Analytics: Data from sensors and edge devices can be analyzed
using predictive analytics algorithms to forecast crop yields, disease out-
breaks, and equipment maintenance needs.
• Automation: Some edge devices are integrated with automation systems that
can control irrigation, machinery, and other farm operations based on real-­
time data. For example, automated irrigation systems can adjust water deliv-
ery based on soil moisture [71] readings.
3. Benefits and Impact
• Increased Efficiency: Edge devices and sensors improve the efficiency of
farming operations by providing data-driven insights and automation
capabilities.
• Resource Optimization: Farmers can optimize resource use, including
water, fertilizers, and pesticides, based on real-time data, reducing waste and
environmental impact.
• Crop Yield Improvement: Precision agriculture techniques enabled by these
devices often lead to higher crop yields and better quality produce.
• Livestock Welfare: Livestock monitoring devices improve animal welfare
by allowing early detection of health issues and optimizing feeding and care
practices.
• Cost Reduction: Edge devices can help reduce operational costs by optimiz-
ing resource use and minimizing downtime through predictive maintenance.
• Sustainability: Sustainable farming practices are promoted through the effi-
cient use of resources and reduced environmental impact.
In conclusion, edge devices and sensors have become indispensable tools in
modern agriculture, enabling data-driven decision-making, automation, and
resource optimization. They empower farmers to enhance productivity, reduce
costs, and embrace more sustainable and environmentally friendly farming practices.

4 Real-Time Data Processing at the Field Edge

Real-time data processing at the field edge is a critical aspect of modern agriculture,
revolutionizing how farmers collect, analyze, and act upon data to optimize their
operations. This approach involves processing data directly on-site, near the source
of data generation, rather than relying solely on centralized cloud-based solutions.
Here’s an exploration of the concept of real-time data processing at the field edge in
agriculture:
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 363

1. Data Sources
• IoT Sensors: Internet of Things (IoT) (Kohzadi, S, et al., 2019) [11] sensors
placed throughout the field collect data on soil moisture, temperature, humid-
ity, nutrient levels, and other environmental factors. Livestock wearables,
such as health monitoring devices, also contribute data.
• Imaging Systems: Drones equipped with cameras and multispectral sensors
capture high-resolution images of crops. These images can be used for crop
health assessment, disease detection, and yield prediction.
• Automated Farm Equipment: Modern agricultural machinery, including
tractors and harvesters, are equipped with sensors that monitor equipment
performance, fuel consumption, and field conditions.
2. Key Components of Real-Time Data Processing
• Edge Devices: These are computing devices deployed in the field, such as
IoT gateways[Rai, P.K., et al., 2019] [6] or embedded systems on farm equip-
ment, capable of processing data locally.
• Edge Computing: Edge computing technology enables the processing and
analysis of data at or near the data source. It involves running algorithms and
applications on the edge devices to make sense of the collected data.
• Connectivity: Edge devices are often connected to the Internet or private
networks to facilitate data transmission and remote monitoring.
3. Importance and Benefits
• Immediate Insights: Real-time data processing provides farmers with imme-
diate insights into field conditions, livestock health, and equipment perfor-
mance. This timely information empowers them to make informed decisions
on the spot.
• Latency Reduction: By processing data at the edge, latency is significantly
reduced compared to sending data to a centralized cloud server. This is crucial
for time-sensitive actions, such as adjusting irrigation or applying pest (Feng,
W.et al., 2020) [13] control measures.
• Data Privacy: Processing data at the field edge enhances data privacy and
security since sensitive agricultural data can be kept on-site rather than trans-
mitted to external servers.
• Bandwidth Optimization: Edge processing minimizes the need to transmit
large volumes of data over the Internet, reducing data transmission costs and
reliance on high-speed connectivity.
• Offline Capabilities: Edge devices can operate offline or with intermittent
connectivity, ensuring data collection and analysis continue even in remote
areas with limited network access.
4. Applications in Agriculture
• Precision Agriculture: Real-time data processing informs precision agricul-
ture practices, helping farmers optimize irrigation, fertilization, and pest con-
trol based on current field conditions.
364 D. Sathya et al.

• Livestock Management: Livestock wearables and sensors process data on

animal health, behavior, and environmental conditions, allowing early disease
detection and improved animal welfare.
• Crop Monitoring: Drones equipped with edge computing capabilities ana-
lyze crop images on-site to detect issues like nutrient deficiencies, pest [13]
infestations, and drought stress.
• Equipment Optimization: Farm machinery with edge devices monitor
equipment performance, enabling predictive maintenance and efficient
operation.
In conclusion, real-time data processing at the field edge represents a fundamen-
tal shift in agricultural practices, empowering farmers with immediate insights,
reducing latency, and enhancing data privacy. This approach contributes to increased
efficiency, resource optimization, and sustainability in modern farming operations.

4.1 Immediate Benefits of Local Data Processing

The immediate benefits of local data processing in agriculture, particularly at the

field edge, are profound and have a direct impact on farming practices and out-
comes. Here are the key advantages:
1. Real-Time Decision-Making: Local data processing enables farmers to make
informed decisions in real-time. By analyzing data collected from sensors and
devices within the field, farmers can adjust various parameters like irrigation,
fertilization, and pest (Feng, W.et al., 2020) [13] control instantly. This agility
in decision-making minimizes response times, crucial for managing changing
environmental conditions or unexpected issues.
2. Reduced Latency: Processing data at the field edge significantly reduces
latency compared to sending data to centralized servers or the cloud for analy-
sis. This reduction in delay is vital for critical operations such as automated
irrigation, where immediate adjustments based on soil moisture levels can save
water resources and improve crop health.
3. Bandwidth Optimization: Local data processing optimizes the utilization of
limited network bandwidth in rural or remote farming areas. Instead of con-
stantly transmitting large volumes of data to centralized servers, only relevant
information or actionable insights are sent, reducing data transmission costs
and potential network congestion.
4. Offline Capabilities: Edge devices can operate autonomously and continue to
collect and process data even in areas with poor or intermittent connectivity.
This capability ensures that data collection and analysis persist without inter-
ruption, maintaining the integrity of the farming operation.
5. Data Privacy and Security: Keeping sensitive agricultural data within the
farm’s local network enhances data privacy and security. Farmers have greater
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 365

control over who accesses their data, reducing the risk of unauthorized access,
data breaches, or information leaks.
6. Resource Optimization: Local data processing supports the efficient use of
resources such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides. By analyzing data on soil
conditions, weather, and crop health at the field edge, farmers can precisely
target resource application, minimizing waste, and environmental impact.
7. Early Issue Detection: Immediate data analysis allows for the early detection
of issues like pest (Feng, W.et al., 2020) [13] infestations, diseases, or equip-
ment malfunctions. Early intervention can prevent crop damage, reduce losses,
and improve overall farm productivity.
8. Scalability and Adaptability: Local data processing systems can be easily
scaled up or modified to accommodate changing needs or expanding farms.
Farmers can add more edge devices or sensors as required without overburden-
ing centralized data infrastructure.
9. Compliance and Traceability: For farms that need to comply with regulations
or require traceability in their supply chain(Burhan, M. et al., 2018) [16], local
data processing systems can store and manage necessary records efficiently
while maintaining data integrity.
10. Improved Crop Yields and Efficiency: Ultimately, the immediate benefits of
local data processing contribute to improved crop yields, resource efficiency,
and the overall economic viability of farming operations.
In summary, local data processing in agriculture offers a range of immediate
advantages that empower farmers to make data-driven decisions, optimize resources,
enhance security, and respond quickly to changing conditions, all of which collec-
tively lead to more sustainable and productive farming practices.

4.2 Case Studies: On-Field Sensor Data Analysis

Case studies showcasing on-field sensor data analysis in agriculture highlight the
practical applications and benefits of local data processing. Here are two illustrative
examples:
Case Study 1: Precision Irrigation in Vineyards
Background: A vineyard in California sought to improve water efficiency in their
irrigation practices to conserve water resources while maintaining high-quality
grape yields.
Solution: The vineyard deployed soil moisture sensors throughout the field. These
sensors collected data on soil moisture levels at different depths. Edge comput-
ing devices installed in the vineyard processed this data locally.
Results:
1. Real-Time Decision-Making: Local data processing allowed vineyard man-
agers to access up-to-the-minute soil moisture information, enabling them to
adjust irrigation schedules as needed.
366 D. Sathya et al.

2. Water Savings: By optimizing irrigation based on real-time data, the vine-

yard reduced water usage by 30% while ensuring grapevines received the
right amount of moisture for healthy growth.
3. Improved Grape Quality: Precise control over soil moisture levels led to
improved grape quality, resulting in higher market prices for the vine-
yard’s wine.
Case Study 2: Pest Management in Citrus Orchards
Background: A citrus orchard in Florida faced challenges with pest infestations,
which were affecting crop yields (Feng, W.et al., 2020) [13] and quality.
Traditional pest management (Feng, W.et al., 2020) [13] methods were costly
and often resulted in pesticide overuse.
Solution: The orchard deployed insect monitoring traps equipped with sensors that
tracked pest activity. Data from these traps, including pest counts and activity
patterns, were processed locally using edge computing devices.
Results:
1. Timely Pest Alerts: Local data analysis allowed for immediate alerts when
pest activity reached predetermined thresholds, enabling rapid response to
potential infestations.
2. Reduced Pesticide Usage: By targeting pesticide application based on real-­
time data, the orchard reduced pesticide use by 40%, resulting in cost savings
and reduced environmental impact.
3. Enhanced Crop Health: Early pest detection and targeted interventions
improved the overall health of the citrus trees, leading to increased fruit yields
and improved fruit quality.
These case studies highlight how on-field sensor data analysis, powered by edge
computing, can transform agricultural practices by optimizing resource usage,
improving crop quality, and reducing environmental impact. These benefits demon-
strate the value of local data processing in precision agriculture.

5 Reducing Latency for Efficient Farming

Reducing latency in agriculture is a critical aspect of achieving efficient and data-­

driven farming practices. Latency refers to the delay or lag in data transmission and
processing, and in the context of agriculture, minimizing latency is essential for
timely decision-making and optimizing various farming operations. Here’s an
exploration of how reducing latency contributes to efficient farming:
1. Real-Time Decision-Making:
• Precision Agriculture: Minimizing latency allows farmers to access real-­
time data from sensors and devices in the field. This immediate information
empowers them to make timely decisions regarding irrigation, fertilization,
pest control, and harvesting.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 367

• Crop Health Monitoring: Low-latency data from imaging systems and

drones provide instant insights into crop health. Detecting issues like nutrient
deficiencies or disease outbreaks in real-time enables rapid corrective action.
2. Automated Systems:
• Equipment Control: Modern farm machinery, equipped with low-latency
communication systems, can be remotely operated or guided with minimal
delay. This feature enhances the efficiency of operations like planting, har-
vesting, and field navigation.
• Irrigation Management: Low-latency data from soil moisture sensors
allows for immediate adjustments to irrigation systems. This precision pre-
vents over- or under-irrigation, conserving water resources and optimizing
crop growth.
3. Environmental Response:
• Weather and Climate Monitoring: Timely weather data with minimal
latency enables farmers to respond swiftly to weather changes, protecting
crops from adverse conditions like frost, storms, or excessive heat.
• Pest and Disease Control: Rapid alerts about pest or disease outbreaks
through low-latency monitoring systems enable farmers to implement tar-
geted interventions, reducing crop damage.
4. Resource Efficiency:
• Resource Optimization: Reduced latency contributes to efficient resource
management. Farmers can precisely target the application of water, fertiliz-
ers, and pesticides based on real-time data, minimizing waste and environ-
mental impact.
• Energy Efficiency: In livestock management, low-latency data from sensors
on animal behavior and health can help optimize feeding schedules, leading
to energy savings and improved livestock welfare.
5. Crop Yield Enhancement:
• Yield Prediction: Low-latency data processing enables the use of predictive
analytics to forecast crop yields accurately. This information aids in planning
harvesting and post-harvest processes for optimal efficiency.
6. Data Transmission Efficiency:
• Bandwidth Optimization: Reduced latency minimizes the need for con-
stantly transmitting large volumes of data to centralized servers, optimizing
bandwidth usage and lowering data transmission costs for farmers.
7. Remote Farming:
• Remote Monitoring: With low-latency connectivity and data analysis, farm-
ers can remotely monitor their fields, livestock, and equipment. This capabil-
ity is especially valuable for large-scale or geographically dispersed farms.
368 D. Sathya et al.

8. Sustainability:
• Water Conservation: Efficient irrigation through reduced latency not only
conserves water resources but also contributes to sustainable farming
practices.
• Reduced Chemical Use: Targeted pest and disease control based on real-­
time data lead to reduced pesticide and chemical usage, aligning with envi-
ronmentally friendly agriculture.
In summary, reducing latency in agriculture is fundamental to achieving effi-
cient, data-driven, and sustainable farming practices. It empowers farmers with
timely information and enhances their ability to make informed decisions, ulti-
mately leading to improved crop yields, resource conservation, and the economic
viability of farming operations.

5.1 Challenges of Latency in Agriculture

Reducing latency in agriculture is crucial for efficient and data-driven farming prac-
tices, but it comes with its own set of challenges. These challenges can impact the
adoption and implementation of low-latency solutions in agricultural operations.
Here are some of the key challenges associated with latency in agriculture:
1. Network Connectivity:
• Limited Coverage: In rural and remote farming areas, access to high-speed
Internet or reliable network connectivity can be limited. This lack of infra-
structure hinders the seamless transmission of real-time data from the field to
the farm office or cloud-based systems.
• Intermittent Connectivity: Even when connectivity is available, it may be
intermittent. Fields with poor or unreliable network connections can experi-
ence delays in data transmission, affecting the timeliness of
decision-making.
2. Data Volume and Complexity:
• Data Overload: Agriculture generates vast amounts of data from various
sensors and devices. Processing and transmitting this data in real-time can
strain network bandwidth and lead to congestion.
• Data Processing: Analyzing complex data, such as high-resolution images
from drones or multispectral sensors, in real-time requires significant com-
puting power and can introduce latency.
3. Security and Privacy:
• Data Security: Real-time data transmission may expose sensitive agricul-
tural information to potential cyber threats if not adequately secured. Ensuring
data security and privacy is a critical concern.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 369

• Privacy Regulations: Compliance with data privacy regulations, such as

GDPR [Poveda J et al., 2021] [3] in Europe or HIPAA in the United States,
adds complexity to the collection and transmission of agricultural data.
4. Costs and Infrastructure:
• Investment Costs: Implementing low-latency solutions, including edge
computing devices and high-speed networks, can be costly. Smaller or
resource-constrained farms may struggle to make these investments.
• Infrastructure Development: Building the necessary infrastructure, such as
deploying new communication towers or laying fiber-optic cables, can be
time-consuming and expensive in rural areas.
5. Compatibility and Integration:
• System Compatibility: Integrating low-latency solutions with existing farm
equipment and software systems can be challenging. Compatibility issues
may arise, requiring additional effort and resources for seamless integration.
• Training and Education: Farmers and agricultural workers need training to
effectively use low-latency technologies and interpret real-time data. Bridging
the knowledge gap can be a hurdle.
6. Power and Energy Supply:
• Edge Device Power: Edge computing devices require a stable power supply.
Ensuring uninterrupted power in the field, especially in remote locations, can
be a logistical challenge.
• Energy Efficiency: The continuous operation of edge devices and sensors
can lead to increased energy consumption, which may not align with sustain-
ability goals.
7. Scalability:
• Scaling Solutions: As farms grow or evolve, scaling low-latency solutions to
accommodate additional sensors or data sources can be complex. Ensuring
that the system remains responsive and efficient at scale is crucial.
8. Environmental Factors:
• Harsh Conditions: Farming environments can be harsh, with exposure to
extreme temperatures, humidity, and dust. Ensuring the durability and reli-
ability of low-latency equipment in these conditions is essential.
Addressing these challenges requires a coordinated effort from farmers, technol-
ogy providers, policymakers, and stakeholders in the agricultural industry.
Overcoming these obstacles is essential to unlock the full potential of low-latency
solutions in agriculture and realize the benefits of efficient, data-driven farming
practices.
370 D. Sathya et al.

5.2 Edge Computing and Low-Latency Solutions

Edge computing and low-latency solutions play a pivotal role in addressing the
challenges posed by latency in agriculture while enabling efficient and data-driven
farming practices. Here’s an exploration of edge computing and its significance in
achieving low-latency solutions in agriculture:
1. Edge Computing Defined:
• Decentralized Data Processing: Edge computing is a decentralized comput-
ing paradigm that brings data processing closer to the data source, often at or
near the “edge” of the network, rather than relying solely on centralized
cloud-based servers.
• On-Field Processing: In agriculture, edge computing involves deploying
computing devices directly in the field or on farming equipment. These
devices process data locally, allowing for immediate analysis and
decision-making.
2. Significance of Edge Computing in Agriculture:
• Real-Time Data Analysis: Edge computing enables real-time analysis of
data generated by sensors, drones, and other devices in the field. This imme-
diate analysis provides farmers with timely insights for decision-making.
• Reduced Latency: By processing data locally, edge computing minimizes
latency, ensuring that critical decisions, such as irrigation adjustments or pest
control measures, can be implemented swiftly.
• Bandwidth Optimization: Edge computing reduces the need to transmit vast
amounts of data to centralized servers, optimizing bandwidth usage and low-
ering data transmission costs for farmers.
• Offline Capabilities: Edge devices in agriculture can operate offline or with
intermittent connectivity, ensuring that data collection and analysis continue
even in remote areas.
3. Low-Latency Solutions in Agriculture:
• Sensor Networks (Chukwuemeka, P.-I.K., et al., 2018) [7]: Deploying sen-
sors directly in the field, such as soil moisture sensors or weather stations,
provides real-time data on environmental conditions. Edge computing devices
process this data locally, reducing the time it takes to make irrigation or fer-
tilization decisions.
• Drone Imaging: Drones equipped with cameras and multispectral sensors
capture high-resolution images of crops. Edge computing on the drone
­processes these images to identify areas requiring attention, such as disease
outbreaks or nutrient deficiencies, with minimal delay.
• Livestock Monitoring: Wearable sensors on livestock animals collect health
and behavior data. Edge computing processes this data locally, allowing for
immediate detection of anomalies and timely intervention.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 371

• Equipment Automation: Edge computing is integral to autonomous farming

equipment, allowing tractors and harvesters to make real-time decisions
about field navigation and precision tasks.
4. Benefits of Low-Latency Solutions:
• Real-Time Decision-Making: Low-latency solutions empower farmers with
immediate insights, enabling them to make informed decisions on the spot.
• Cost Savings: By reducing the need for constant data transmission to central-
ized servers, low-latency solutions can lower data transmission costs and
reduce the dependence on expensive, always-on Internet connections.
• Scalability: Smart farming systems can scale easily by adding more edge
devices as needed, without overloading centralized servers.
• Privacy and Security: Local data processing at the edge enhances data pri-
vacy and security since sensitive agricultural data can be kept on-farm rather
than transmitted to external servers.
In summary, edge computing and low-latency solutions are integral to modern-
izing agriculture, reducing latency challenges, and enabling efficient and data-­
driven farming practices. These technologies empower farmers with immediate
insights and the ability to make informed decisions, leading to improved crop yields,
resource efficiency, and sustainability in agricultural operations.

6 Optimizing Resource Management

A tabulated summary of optimizing resource management in agriculture (Table 1).

These aspects highlight various strategies and technologies used in agriculture to
optimize resource management, improve sustainability, and enhance productivity.

6.1 Precision Agriculture and Resource Allocation

Precision agriculture and resource allocation go hand in hand in modern farming

practices. Precision agriculture involves using advanced technologies and data-­
driven approaches to optimize the allocation of resources such as water, fertilizers,
pesticides, and labor. Here’s how precision agriculture enhances resource allocation
in farming:
1. Data-Driven Decision-Making:
• Precision agriculture relies on data collected from various sources, including
sensors, satellite imagery, and weather stations, to make informed decisions.
• Data analysis helps farmers understand the specific needs of different areas
within a field, allowing for precise resource allocation.
372 D. Sathya et al.

Table 1 Summary of optimizing resource management in agriculture

Aspect Description
Precision agriculture Using data and technology to precisely allocate resources such as
water, fertilizers, and pesticides, minimizing waste and
maximizing crop yields
IoT and sensor networks Deploying sensors and IoT devices to monitor soil conditions,
(Chukwuemeka, P.-I.K. weather, and crop health in real-time, enabling data-driven
et al., 2018) [7] resource management
AI and machine learning Utilizing AI algorithms and machine learning models to analyze
(Tiwari, S et al., 2018) [8] data and make predictions, optimizing resource allocation and
crop planning
Smart irrigation Implementing intelligent irrigation systems that adjust water
delivery based on real-time weather and soil moisture data,
conserving water resources
Crop rotation Employing crop rotation strategies to improve soil health and
nutrient management, reducing the need for external inputs
Cover crops Planting cover crops between main crops to prevent soil erosion,
enhance soil fertility, and reduce the need for chemical inputs
Organic farming Embracing organic farming practices that focus on natural
resource management (Nicholson, et al., 2021) [2], sustainable
soil health, and reduced chemical use
Sustainable livestock Implementing sustainable livestock management practices to
optimize feed, reduce waste, and minimize environmental impact
Renewable energy Integrating renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, to
power farm operations and reduce reliance on fossil fuels
Data-driven insights Leveraging data analytics to gain insights into resource usage
patterns and make informed decisions for efficient management

2. Variable Rate Technology (VRT):

• VRT allows farmers to adjust the application of resources based on real-time
data and field conditions.
• For example, VRT systems can vary the rate of fertilizer application, irriga-
tion, or planting density within a single field, optimizing resource use.
3. Efficient Irrigation:
• Soil moisture sensors and weather data are used to determine when and how
much irrigation is needed.
• Precision irrigation ensures that water is allocated precisely where it is
needed, reducing water wastage and energy consumption.
4. Nutrient Management:
• Soil testing and analysis help farmers understand nutrient levels in the soil.
• This information guides the precise application of fertilizers, minimizing
over-application and nutrient runoff.
5. Pest and Disease Control:
• Precision agriculture integrates data on pest and disease pressures with GPS
technology.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 373

• This enables farmers to target pesticide applications to specific areas of the

field, reducing chemical usage while maintaining crop health.
6. Livestock Management:
• Wearable sensors and RFID tags are used for monitoring the health and
behavior of livestock.
• This data helps optimize feeding schedules and resource allocation for ani-
mal welfare and productivity.
7. Predictive Analytics:
• Machine learning (Tiwari, S et al., 2018) [8] and AI algorithms analyze his-
torical and real-time data to predict crop yields, weather patterns, and dis-
ease outbreaks.
• Predictive analytics guide resource allocation decisions, allowing farmers to
proactively address challenges.
8. Soil Conservation:
• Precision agriculture promotes sustainable soil management practices, such
as no-till farming and cover cropping, to improve soil health.
• These practices optimize resource allocation by reducing erosion and
enhancing nutrient retention.
9. Labor Efficiency:
• Precision agriculture automates certain tasks, such as planting and harvest-
ing, using GPS-guided machinery.
• Labor resources are allocated efficiently, and the risk of human error is
reduced.
10. Monitoring and Feedback:
• Continuous monitoring of field conditions and resource usage provides real-­
time feedback to farmers.
• Farmers can adjust their resource allocation strategies based on this feed-
back for ongoing improvement.
11. Economic Viability:
• Precise resource allocation not only conserves resources but also improves
crop yields and quality, leading to increased profitability for farmers.
Precision agriculture revolutionizes resource allocation by optimizing the use of
inputs while minimizing waste. By harnessing technology and data-driven insights,
farmers can achieve sustainable and efficient resource allocation practices, ulti-
mately benefiting both their agricultural operations and the environment.
374 D. Sathya et al.

6.2 Edge Computing’S Role in Resource Optimization

(Table 2)

Edge computing’s role in agriculture is instrumental in resource optimization,

enabling real-time data analysis, precision agriculture, efficient irrigation, and sus-
tainable farming practices, among other benefits. It empowers farmers with timely
insights and supports data-driven decision-making, ultimately enhancing the eco-
nomic and environmental sustainability of farming operations.

Table 2 Overview of how edge computing plays a significant role in resource optimization in
agriculture
Aspect of resource
optimization Role of edge computing in agriculture
Data processing – Edge devices process data locally in real-time, reducing the need to
transmit large volumes of data to centralized servers. This minimizes
latency and optimizes bandwidth usage
– Immediate data analysis enables timely decision-making for resource
allocation
Precision – Edge computing supports precision agriculture by providing on-field
agriculture data processing for sensors and devices
– It enables variable rate technology (VRT), allowing for precise resource
allocation based on specific field conditions
– Real-time data analysis informs decisions on irrigation, fertilization, and
pest control, optimizing resource use
Efficient irrigation – Soil moisture sensors, when integrated with edge computing, allow for
immediate assessment of moisture levels, optimizing irrigation schedules
– Edge devices process weather data and sensor information to determine
precise irrigation needs, reducing water wastage
– Drip and micro-irrigation systems can be controlled with low-latency
edge computing for efficient water distribution
Nutrient – Soil testing data is processed locally through edge computing, enabling
management precise and immediate fertilizer application
– Data analytics on nutrient levels guide resource allocation for
fertilization, preventing over-application and nutrient runoff
Pest and disease – Edge devices analyze data from pest and disease sensors in real-time,
control allowing for targeted and timely pesticide applications
– Integration of GPS technology enables accurate and efficient resource
allocation for pest management
– Early detection of pests and diseases through edge computing minimizes
chemical usage while maintaining crop health
Livestock – Wearable sensors and RFID tags on livestock transmit data to edge
management devices for real-time monitoring
– Edge computing processes livestock health and behavior data,
optimizing resource allocation for animal welfare and productivity
– Efficient feeding schedules are generated based on data analysis
(continued)
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 375

Table 2 (continued)
Aspect of resource
optimization Role of edge computing in agriculture
Predictive analytics – Machine learning and AI algorithm (Tiwari, S et al., 2018) [8] run on
edge devices to predict crop yields, weather patterns, and disease
outbreaks
– Predictive analytics guide resource allocation decisions for proactive
problem-solving
– Edge computing ensures immediate access to predictive insights
Soil conservation – Sustainable practices like no-till farming and cover cropping are
enhanced through edge computing
– Real-time monitoring of soil conditions helps optimize resource
allocation for soil health and erosion prevention
– Nutrient cycling and retention are improved
Labor efficiency – Edge computing automates tasks using GPS-guided machinery,
optimizing labor allocation
– Labor resources are efficiently allocated, and the risk of human error is
minimized
Monitoring and – Continuous monitoring of field conditions and resource usage provides
feedback real-time feedback to farmers through edge computing
– Farmers can adjust their resource allocation strategies based on
immediate feedback for ongoing improvement
– Edge devices facilitate timely course correction
Economic viability – Edge computing supports increased profitability by optimizing resource
allocation, conserving resources, and improving crop yields and quality
– Efficient resource use contributes to the economic sustainability of
farming operations

7 Autonomous Machinery and Edge Intelligence

Autonomous machinery and edge intelligence are two key components of modern
agriculture that work together to revolutionize farming practices. Here’s a break-
down of their roles and how they intersect:
Autonomous Machinery:
• Definition: Autonomous machinery in agriculture refers to vehicles and
equipment that can perform tasks without direct human intervention. These
machines are equipped with sensors, GPS technology, and onboard comput-
ing systems.
• Roles and Functions:
–– Planting and Seeding: Autonomous tractors can precisely plant seeds at
optimal depths and spacing, ensuring efficient use of resources.
–– Harvesting: Self-driving combines and harvesters can autonomously col-
lect and process crops, minimizing waste and increasing harvesting
efficiency.
376 D. Sathya et al.

–– Weeding and Pest Control: Autonomous robots (Acosta, J.A, et al., 2011)
[15] equipped with cameras and AI algorithms can identify and remove
weeds or apply targeted pesticide treatments.
–– Fertilization: Autonomous machinery can distribute fertilizers with preci-
sion, reducing overuse and minimizing environmental impact.
• Benefits:
–– Labor Efficiency: Autonomous machinery reduces the need for manual
labor, addressing labor shortages and allowing farmworkers to focus on
more skilled tasks.
–– Resource Optimization: These machines optimize resource use, includ-
ing fuel, water, fertilizers, and pesticides, contributing to sustainable
farming.
–– Data Collection: Autonomous machinery can collect valuable data on
field conditions, crop health, and equipment performance, which can be
used for decision-making.
Edge Intelligence:
• Definition: Edge intelligence involves the processing and analysis of data at
or near the source of data generation, rather than sending it to a centralized
cloud server. In agriculture, edge intelligence typically involves onboard com-
puting systems within autonomous machinery.
• Roles and Functions:
–– Real-Time Data Analysis: Edge intelligence allows autonomous machin-
ery to analyze data from sensors and cameras in real-time. For example, a
self-driving tractor can adjust its planting depth based on soil conditions
detected by onboard sensors.
–– Decision-Making: Autonomous machinery equipped with edge intelli-
gence can make autonomous decisions on tasks like steering, adjusting
planting rates, or applying treatments based on pre-programmed algo-
rithms and real-time data.
–– Communication: Edge intelligence enables autonomous machinery to
communicate with other equipment and share data, facilitating coordinated
operations within a field.
• Benefits:
–– Reduced Latency: Edge intelligence minimizes data transmission delays,
allowing for immediate decision-making and responses to changing field
conditions.
–– Privacy and Security: Onboard processing enhances data privacy and
security, as sensitive information remains within the equipment rather than
being transmitted to external servers.
–– Reliability: Edge intelligence ensures that autonomous machinery can
function independently even in areas with limited network connectivity.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 377

Intersection of Autonomous Machinery and Edge Intelligence:

• Autonomous machinery relies on edge intelligence to function effectively.
These onboard computing systems process data from various sensors and
cameras in real-time, enabling autonomous decision-making.
• Edge intelligence enables autonomous machinery to adapt to changing condi-
tions and make split-second decisions, such as adjusting planting depth, steer-
ing to avoid obstacles, or applying treatments only where needed.
• Data collected by autonomous machinery with edge intelligence can be used
to optimize resource allocation, such as determining precise planting rates or
adjusting irrigation schedules based on real-time soil moisture levels.
In summary, the combination of autonomous machinery and edge intelligence is
a powerful force in modern agriculture. These technologies work together to
enhance efficiency, reduce resource waste, and improve the overall sustainability
and productivity of farming operations.

7.1 Autonomous Farming Equipment

A tabulated summary of autonomous farming equipment (Table 3).

These autonomous farming equipment and technologies are transforming agri-
culture by increasing efficiency, reducing labor costs, and enabling precise and sus-
tainable farming practices.
Autonomous farming equipment, also known as self-driving or robotic farming
machinery, is revolutionizing the agriculture industry. These advanced machines
can perform various tasks without direct human intervention, significantly increas-
ing efficiency, precision, and productivity in farming operations. Here are key
aspects of autonomous farming equipment:
1. Types of Autonomous Farming Equipment:
• Autonomous Tractors: These are self-driving tractors equipped with GPS,
sensors, and advanced control systems. They can perform tasks like plowing,
planting, and harvesting with high precision.
• Harvesting Robots: Autonomous harvesters and robots (Acosta, J.A, et al.,
2011) [15] are designed to pick fruits, vegetables, or crops with minimal
human intervention. They use computer vision and robotic arms for precise
harvesting.
• Weeding and Pest Control Robots: These machines are equipped with cam-
eras and AI algorithms to identify and remove weeds or apply targeted pesti-
cide treatments, reducing the need for chemical use.
• Autonomous Seeders and Planters: These machines can autonomously
plant seeds at optimal depths and spacing, ensuring efficient use of resources.
378 D. Sathya et al.

Table 3 Summary of autonomous farming equipment

Type of equipment Description
Autonomous Self-driving tractors equipped with GPS, sensors, and AI algorithms that
tractors can perform tasks such as plowing, planting, and harvesting
Autonomous Machines capable of autonomously harvesting crops like fruits, vegetables,
harvesters and grains with precision and efficiency
Autonomous Equipment that automatically plants seeds at precise intervals and depths,
planters optimizing crop establishment
Autonomous Self-driving sprayers equipped with sensors and AI to apply fertilizers,
sprayers pesticides, and herbicides with accuracy and reduced chemical usage
Autonomous Machines designed to identify and remove weeds with minimal human
weeders intervention, reducing the need for herbicides
Autonomous Equipment capable of autonomously seeding fields with precision,
seeders ensuring even crop distribution
Autonomous Robots (Acosta, J.A, et al., 2011) [15] and systems for managing livestock,
livestock including autonomous feeders, milkers, and herders
Autonomous UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) equipped with cameras and sensors to
drones monitor crops, livestock, and land, providing valuable data for precision
agriculture
Autonomous soil Sensors buried in the ground to monitor soil conditions and nutrient levels,
sensors [68] allowing for precise irrigation and fertilization
Autonomous data AI-powered software and platforms (Chopra, A.K, et al., 2009) [12] that
analysis analyze data from autonomous equipment to optimize farming practices
and resource allocation

• Precision Sprayers: Autonomous sprayers equipped with sensors and AI can

precisely apply fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides only where needed,
reducing overuse.
• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or Drones: Drones equipped with cam-
eras and sensors are used for aerial crop monitoring, mapping, and even crop
spraying in some cases.
2. Key Technologies:
• GPS and GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems): These technologies
provide accurate positioning data to guide autonomous equipment
within fields.
• Sensors: Various sensors, including soil moisture sensors, weather sensors,
and cameras, collect data on field conditions, crop health, and environmental
factors.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI algorithms process sensor data to make real-­
time decisions, such as adjusting planting rates or applying treatments based
on field conditions.
• Edge Computing: Onboard computing systems, known as edge computing,
enable autonomous equipment to process data locally, reducing latency and
improving decision-making.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 379

3. Benefits of Autonomous Farming Equipment:

• Increased Efficiency: Autonomous equipment can work around the clock, in
varying weather conditions, and with consistent precision, leading to
increased operational efficiency.
• Resource Optimization: These machines optimize resource use, including
fuel, water, fertilizers, and pesticides, contributing to sustainable and environ-
mentally friendly farming practices.
• Labor Savings: Autonomous equipment reduces the need for manual labor,
addressing labor shortages and allowing farmworkers to focus on more
skilled tasks.
• Data Collection: Autonomous machinery collects valuable data on field con-
ditions and crop health, which can be used for decision-making, yield predic-
tions, and long-term farm planning.
• Precision Farming: These machines enable precise and targeted applications
of inputs, leading to higher crop yields, better quality produce, and
reduced waste.
4. Challenges and Considerations:
• High Initial Costs: The upfront investment in autonomous farming equip-
ment can be significant, especially for smaller farms.
• Maintenance and Repairs: Autonomous machinery requires regular main-
tenance and may need specialized technicians for repairs.
• Data Privacy and Security: Collecting and managing data from autono-
mous equipment requires robust cybersecurity measures to protect sensitive
information.
• Regulatory and Liability Issues: There may be regulatory hurdles and lia-
bility concerns related to the use of autonomous farming equipment, espe-
cially in areas with strict regulations.
• Integration with Existing Systems: Integrating autonomous equipment with
existing farm infrastructure and management systems can be complex and
require additional investment.
Autonomous farming equipment represents a significant step forward in modern
agriculture, offering the potential for increased productivity, sustainability, and
profitability. As technology continues to advance and costs decrease, the adoption
of autonomous machinery is likely to continue growing, transforming the way farms
operate around the world.

7.2 Edge Computing for Safe and Efficient Autonomy

Edge computing plays a crucial role in ensuring safe and efficient autonomy in vari-
ous domains, including autonomous farming equipment. It enables real-time data
processing, decision-making, and control at the edge of the network, closer to the
380 D. Sathya et al.

source of data generation. In the context of autonomous farming equipment, here’s

how edge computing contributes to safe and efficient autonomy:
1. Real-Time Data Processing:
• Onboard Computing: Edge computing involves onboard computing sys-
tems within autonomous farming equipment. These systems can process data
from various sensors, cameras, and other sources in real-time.
• Low Latency: Edge computing minimizes data transmission delays by pro-
cessing information locally. This low-latency processing is critical for ensur-
ing timely responses and safe operation in dynamic farm environments.
2. Immediate Decision-Making:
• Autonomous Control: Edge computing enables autonomous machinery to
make real-time decisions based on processed data. For instance, a self-driving
tractor can adjust its path or speed autonomously to avoid obstacles detected
by onboard sensors.
• Safety Algorithms: Safety-critical algorithms run at the edge to ensure that
autonomous equipment operates within predefined safety parameters. These
algorithms can override commands if necessary to prevent accidents.
3. Enhanced Privacy and Security:
• Data Isolation: Edge computing keeps sensitive data within the equipment,
reducing the need to transmit it to external servers. This isolation enhances
data privacy and security.
• Security Protocols: Edge devices can employ robust security protocols and
encryption to protect against unauthorized access and cyber threats.
4. Reliable Operation in Low Connectivity Areas:
• Offline Capabilities: Edge devices can operate with intermittent or no con-
nectivity, which is common in rural farming areas. They continue to process
data and make decisions, ensuring uninterrupted operation.
5. Efficient Resource Utilization:
• Resource Optimization: Edge computing supports resource-efficient opera-
tion by processing data related to resource allocation, such as precise planting
or targeted pesticide application.
6. Scalability:
• Modular Architecture: Edge computing solutions can be modular, allowing
farms to scale their autonomous fleets by adding more equipment with mini-
mal impact on central server infrastructure.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 381

7. Localized Data Insights:

• Immediate Feedback: Edge computing provides immediate insights into
field conditions, equipment performance, and crop health. This localized
feedback helps farmers make informed decisions quickly.
8. Integration with Cloud Resources:
• Hybrid Approach: While edge computing handles real-time processing, it
can also be integrated with cloud-based resources for more extensive data
analysis, long-term planning, and data storage.
9. Safety Overrides:
• Emergency Protocols: Edge computing can incorporate emergency proto-
cols that prioritize safety in unforeseen situations. For example, autonomous
equipment can stop or slow down if it detects anomalies or unsafe conditions.
In summary, edge computing is a critical enabler of safe and efficient autonomy
in autonomous farming equipment. It allows for immediate data processing, real-­
time decision-making, enhanced privacy and security, and reliable operation in low-­
connectivity areas. By leveraging edge computing, farmers can harness the benefits
of autonomous machinery while ensuring safety, resource optimization, and respon-
siveness in their agricultural operations.

8 Sustainable Agriculture Through Edge Technologies

Sustainable agriculture is increasingly reliant on cutting-edge technologies, includ-

ing edge computing, to address environmental, economic, and social challenges in
farming practices. Here’s how edge technologies contribute to sustainable
agriculture:
1. Precision Resource Management:
• Data-Driven Decisions: Edge devices process data from various sensors
and sources to provide real-time insights into soil conditions, weather pat-
terns, and crop health.
• Variable Rate Technology (VRT): Edge computing supports VRT, enabling
precise allocation of resources such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides based
on specific field conditions. This minimizes waste and environmental impact.
2. Efficient Water Usage:
• Precision Irrigation: Soil moisture sensors and weather data, processed at
the edge, allow for precise irrigation scheduling, reducing water wastage and
conserving this critical resource.
382 D. Sathya et al.

3. Reduced Chemical Usage:

• Targeted Application: Edge devices equipped with cameras and AI algo-
rithms can identify and treat weeds, pests, and diseases with high precision.
This reduces the need for broad-spectrum chemicals[73] and minimizes
environmental impact.
4. Soil Health Management:
• Real-Time Monitoring: Edge computing enables continuous monitoring of
soil conditions, facilitating the implementation of sustainable soil manage-
ment practices such as cover cropping, crop rotation, and reduced tillage.
5. Renewable Energy Integration:
• Energy Efficiency: Edge devices can optimize the use of energy resources
in farming operations, including the integration of renewable energy sources
such as solar panels and wind turbines.
6. Reduced Emissions:
• Efficient Machinery Operation: Edge computing supports autonomous
and semi-autonomous farm equipment, which can be optimized for fuel effi-
ciency and emissions reduction.
7. Data-Driven Sustainability:
• Data Analytics: Edge computing platforms facilitate the analysis of large
volumes of data, helping farmers identify trends and make data-driven deci-
sions that enhance sustainability.
8. Localized Decision-Making:
• Real-Time Feedback: Edge devices provide immediate feedback on field
conditions, equipment performance, and crop health, allowing for rapid
adjustments to improve sustainability.
9. Low Latency for Safety:
• Safety Protocols: Edge computing allows for immediate safety overrides
and emergency responses, crucial for preventing accidents in autonomous
farming equipment.
10. Rural Connectivity: Operational Continuity—Edge devices can operate in
areas with limited connectivity, ensuring that sustainable farming practices can
be implemented even in remote locations.
11. Data Privacy and Security: Protecting Sensitive Data—Edge computing
keeps sensitive farm data within the local network, reducing the risk of data
breaches and ensuring data privacy and security.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 383

12. Regulatory Compliance: Environmental Regulations—Edge technologies

support compliance with environmental regulations by enabling precise
resource management and data documentation.
13. Scalability and Accessibility: Affordable Adoption—Edge technologies can
be adopted incrementally, making them accessible to a wide range of farmers,
including smallholders.
In conclusion, edge technologies are pivotal in advancing sustainable agriculture
by promoting resource efficiency, reducing environmental impact, enhancing data-­
driven decision-making, and ensuring the long-term viability of farming practices.
As agriculture continues to evolve, the integration of edge computing and related
technologies will play a central role in achieving the goals of sustainability, resil-
ience, and productivity in farming.

8.1 Environmental Benefits

Environmental benefits in the context of agriculture refer to the positive impacts and
contributions of sustainable farming practices and technologies on the environment.
These benefits are crucial for mitigating the environmental challenges associated
with traditional farming methods. Here are some key environmental benefits of sus-
tainable agriculture:
1. Soil Health Improvement:
• Sustainable practices like reduced tillage, cover cropping, and organic farm-
ing [70] promote soil health and reduce soil erosion, helping to maintain
fertile and productive land.
2. Water Conservation:
• Precision irrigation systems, soil moisture monitoring, and responsible water
management reduce water wastage and minimize the environmental impact
of agricultural runoff, which can contain pollutants.
3. Reduced Chemical Usage:
• Sustainable farming practices, including integrated pest management and
precision agriculture, minimize the need for synthetic pesticides and fertil-
izers, lowering chemical runoff into water bodies.
4. Biodiversity Preservation:
• Sustainable farming methods create habitat diversity on farms, supporting
pollinators and beneficial insects. This, in turn, helps maintain biodiversity
and ecosystem services.
384 D. Sathya et al.

5. Carbon Sequestration:
• Practices such as agroforestry, afforestation, and cover cropping sequester
carbon dioxide in soil and vegetation, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions
and combating climate change.
6. Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
• Sustainable agriculture promotes the use of energy-efficient machinery and
practices that reduce emissions, contributing to climate change mitigation.
7. Enhanced Nutrient Cycling:
• Sustainable agriculture encourages nutrient cycling through practices like
composting and crop rotation, reducing nutrient runoff and eutrophication of
water bodies.
8. Reduced Deforestation:
• Sustainable farming discourages deforestation for agriculture by promoting
practices that make better use of existing land.
9. Reduced Soil and Water Pollution:
• Sustainable agriculture minimizes the leaching of chemicals[73] into soil
and water, reducing contamination and its adverse effects on ecosystems.
10. Improved Air Quality: Reduced use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in
sustainable farming helps maintain better air quality by reducing the release of
volatile organic compounds[70].
11. Resilience to Climate Change: Sustainable practices enhance the resilience of
agricultural systems to extreme weather events, helping farms adapt to the
changing climate.
12. Wildlife Habitat Creation: Sustainable farms often incorporate wildlife-­
friendly practices and habitats, providing shelter and food sources for various
species.
13. Preservation of Natural Resources: Sustainable agriculture ensures the
responsible use and preservation of natural resources(Nicholson, et al., 2021)
[2] like water, soil, and biodiversity.
14. Long-Term Sustainability: By promoting practices that prioritize the environ-
ment, sustainable agriculture helps ensure that farming remains viable for
future generations.
15. Compliance with Environmental Regulations: Sustainable farming practices
align with environmental regulations and support farmers in meeting compli-
ance standards.
16. Economic Benefits for Farmers: Many sustainable practices lead to cost sav-
ings for farmers, making them economically beneficial while also being envi-
ronmentally responsible.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 385

These environmental benefits demonstrate the potential for agriculture to be a

positive force for conservation and environmental protection. By adopting sustain-
able practices and integrating advanced technologies, agriculture can contribute to
a more sustainable and resilient future for both the environment and food production.

8.2 Economic and Social Sustainability

A tabulated summary of economic and social sustainability in agriculture (Table 4).

These aspects highlight the multifaceted nature of sustainability in agriculture,
encompassing economic viability and social well-being for farmers and communities.

9 Challenges and Considerations

Challenges and considerations in sustainable agriculture encompass various factors:

1. Environmental Stewardship: Balancing increased production with minimizing
environmental impacts, such as soil degradation and water pollution.
2. Economic Viability: Ensuring that sustainable practices remain financially fea-
sible for farmers, especially in the face of market volatility.

Table 4 Summary of economic and social sustainability in agriculture

Aspect Economic sustainability Social sustainability
Profitability Ensuring farms generate profits and Fair wages, access to education,
financial stability and healthcare for farm labor
Diversification Expanding income sources through Supporting local communities and
value addition and diversification businesses
Resource efficiency Optimizing resource use for cost Ensuring safe and fair working
savings conditions
Access to markets Access to fair and competitive Providing access to safe and
markets affordable food for all
Financial resilience Preparing for economic risks and Strategies for community
shocks development and engagement
Investment in Adoption of advanced technologies Preserving cultural heritage and
technology for productivity indigenous knowledge
Farm labor Ensuring fair wages, safe working Promoting equity, diversity, and
conditions, and benefits inclusion
Community Contributing positively to the Land tenure security and stable
engagement community’s social fabric rural communities
Food security Ensuring access to nutritious and Preserving cultural traditions and
affordable food heritage
Land tenure and Secure land tenure and ownership Providing educational and training
ownership rights opportunities
386 D. Sathya et al.

3. Resource Scarcity: Addressing challenges related to resource scarcity, such as

water scarcity and land degradation.
4. Climate Change: Adapting farming practices to changing climate conditions
and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
5. Social Equity: Promoting fair labor practices, gender equality, and equitable
access to resources and opportunities in agriculture.
6. Technological Adoption: Encouraging the adoption of sustainable technologies
while addressing the digital divide in rural areas.
Balancing these challenges and considerations is essential for achieving long-­
term sustainability in agriculture.

9.1 Data Security and Privacy

A tabulated summary of key aspects of data security and privacy in agriculture

(Table 5).

9.2 Infrastructure and Connectivity

Infrastructure and connectivity play pivotal roles in modernizing and advancing

agriculture. Here are key considerations related to infrastructure and connectivity in
agriculture:

Table 5 Summary of key aspects of data security and privacy in agriculture

Aspect Data security Data privacy
Data storage Secure storage of agricultural data Ensuring that personal and
to prevent unauthorized access or sensitive data is stored safely and
breaches access is restricted
Encryption Encrypting data during Protecting individual privacy by
transmission and storage to protect anonymizing or de-identifying
against interception data
Access control Implementing access controls and Clearly defining data ownership
user authentication to restrict rights and responsibilities
unauthorized access
Cybersecurity Employing cybersecurity measures Transparent data handling
such as firewalls and intrusion practices, including data-sharing
detection systems agreements
Software updates Regularly updating software and Obtaining informed consent for
(Chopra, A.K, et al., systems with security patches to data collection and use
2009) [12] prevent vulnerabilities
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 387

Infrastructure:
1. Transportation: Well-maintained roads and transportation networks are
essential for the efficient movement of agricultural products to markets and
distribution centers.
2. Irrigation Systems: Infrastructure for irrigation, including canals, pipelines,
and reservoirs, is crucial for water management and crop cultivation.
3. Storage Facilities: Adequate storage infrastructure, such as silos and cold
storage units, is necessary to prevent post-harvest losses and ensure food
security.
4. Energy Supply (Burhan, M. et al., 2018) [16]: Reliable energy infrastruc-
ture, including electrification and renewable energy sources, supports modern
farming practices and technology adoption.
5. Research Facilities: Research institutions and agricultural extension ser-
vices require infrastructure for conducting experiments, trials, and dissemi-
nating knowledge to farmers.
6. Digital Infrastructure: Robust digital infrastructure, including broadband
Internet access and data centers, is vital for data-driven agriculture and preci-
sion farming.
Connectivity:
1. Broadband Internet: High-speed Internet connectivity is essential for
accessing agricultural information, market prices, and weather forecasts, as
well as for remote monitoring and data sharing.
2. Mobile Networks: Mobile networks provide real-time communication and
access to mobile apps and services, facilitating remote data collection and
decision-making.
3. IoT Connectivity: The Internet of Things (IoT) relies on connectivity to
enable sensors, drones, and smart devices to collect and transmit data for
precision agriculture.
4. Satellite Communication: Satellite-based communication systems offer
connectivity in remote rural areas, ensuring that farmers have access to infor-
mation and services.
5. Data Interoperability: Ensuring that different agricultural technologies and
systems can communicate and share data seamlessly enhances efficiency and
effectiveness.
6. Cybersecurity: Connectivity also brings security challenges, and robust
cybersecurity measures are necessary to protect sensitive agricultural data
and infrastructure.
7. Rural Connectivity: Bridging the digital divide in rural areas is essential to
ensure that all farmers, regardless of location, can benefit from modern agri-
cultural practices.
Investment in infrastructure and connectivity is a prerequisite for the adoption of
advanced technologies in agriculture. It enhances productivity, enables data-driven
decision-making, and supports sustainable farming practices, ultimately contribut-
ing to food security and rural development.
388 D. Sathya et al.

10 Future Directions and Innovations

Emerging trends in smart farming (Meena, A.K, et al., 2005) [9] are revolutionizing
agriculture with innovative technologies and sustainable practices. Digital twins for
crops, powered by advanced modeling and simulation, enable precise crop manage-
ment and yield predictions. Integrated farm management software provides real-­
time insights (Chopra, A.K, et al., 2009) [12] for data-driven decision-making,
optimizing operations. Artificial intelligence is enhancing pest and disease detec-
tion through image analysis, reducing crop losses. Blockchain ensures transparent
and traceable supply chains(Burhan. M. et al., 2018) [16], building consumer trust.
Vertical and urban farming methods address land scarcity and offer year-round cul-
tivation in controlled environments. Agri-robotics, backed by AI and machine learn-
ing (Tiwari, S et al., 2018) [8], automate tasks, cutting labor costs. Climate-resilient
crops are developed for resilience in a changing climate, while smart irrigation sys-
tems optimize water use.
Evolving edge technologies are at the forefront of this transformation, facilitat-
ing real-time data processing and decision-making. Edge computing ensures rapid
responses, crucial for autonomous machinery and drones. Edge AI and machine
learning (Tiwari, S et al., 2018) [8] enable on-device data analysis, enhancing tasks
like crop monitoring and pest detection. Low-power sensors provide continuous
monitoring in remote areas. Edge robotics platforms perform tasks autonomously,
from weeding to data collection. Wireless connectivity solutions like LoRaWAN
extend data collection in rural regions. Edge-to-cloud integration ensures seamless
data transfer. Fleet management benefits from real-time insights and optimized
routes, while robust edge security safeguards sensitive agricultural data. These
evolving edge technologies are reshaping agriculture, enabling efficiency, cost sav-
ings, and data-driven innovation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the world of agriculture is undergoing a profound transformation
driven by technology, data, and sustainability imperatives. Emerging trends in smart
farming are reshaping traditional practices and revolutionizing the way we produce
food. From digital twins for crops to blockchain-enabled supply chains, these trends
are enhancing efficiency, reducing waste, and ensuring food safety (Wild, S.R,
et al., 1992) [14]. Evolving edge technologies are playing a pivotal role in this trans-
formation, enabling real-time data processing and decision-making at the field level.
Edge computing, AI, low-power sensors, and robotics are empowering farmers to
make informed choices, optimize resource use, and increase productivity.
The future of agriculture is one of sustainability, where innovative solutions
address the challenges of a growing population, climate change, and resource scar-
city. By embracing these emerging trends and leveraging evolving edge technolo-
gies, agriculture is poised to become more efficient, resilient, and environmentally
friendly. As we move forward, the collaboration between technology innovators,
farmers, and policymakers will be essential to unlock the full potential of smart
farming (Kim, S.W, et al., 2015) and ensure food security for generations to come.
The Revolution of Edge Computing in Smart Farming 389

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Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future
of Smart Farming

J. Immanuel Johnraja, P. Getzi Jeba Leelipushpam, C. P. Shirley,

and P. Joyce Beryl Princess

1 Traditional Farming: An Overview

Traditional farming which is a practice that involves the intensive use of inherent
knowledge, primitive tools, various natural resources, organic manures, and fertil-
izers and the cultural beliefs of farmers can be defined as primitive farming. Around
50% of the world’s population still uses it and it is shown in Fig. 1 [37].

1.1 Key Characteristics of Traditional Farming

1.1.1. Subsistence Farming: Traditional farming is mainly subsistence, where only

sufficient quantities of food are produced by the farmer to feed his family and
sell surpluses on the local market. The focus shall be on the cultivation of
crops required for survival, like rice, wheat, and vegetables [7].
1.1.2. Use of Natural Resources: The traditional farming method is based on the
exploitation of natural resources, for example, soil, water, and seeds. To
enrich the soil and increase the growth of crops, farmers use organic manures
and compost. They are also using their animals’ strength to plow the land and
for carrying goods.
1.1.3. Crop Rotation and Intercropping: A significant technique used in traditional
farming is crop rotation and intercropping. Crop rotation allows for the sow-
ing of various crops over some time in order to preserve soil fertility and

J. I. Johnraja · P. G. J. Leelipushpam · C. P. Shirley (*) · P. J. B. Princess

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and
Sciences, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 391
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_18
392 J. I. Johnraja et al.

Fig. 1 Traditional farming

avoid soil depletion. To achieve maximum productivity and minimize the

risk of failure of crops, intercropping involves planting various crops in a
single field.
1.1.4. Extensive farming with simple tools and crops: Extensive farming with sim-
ple tools and crops harkens back to a time when farming was more about the
breadth of land than technological intensiveness. Instead of focusing on
maximizing yield per unit of land, as in intensive farming, extensive farming
relies on vast tracts of land and typically yields less produce per hectare. The
reliance on basic tools—like the hand plow, scythe, and hoe—means that the
relationship between the farmer and the land is direct and unmediated by
complex machinery. Such a method, while less efficient in terms of yield, can
be more sustainable since it often avoids the exhaustive use of chemicals and
heavy machinery that can degrade soil health over time.
1.1.5. Usage of Simple and Traditional Means: Simple and traditional means of
farming are a testament to time-honored agricultural practices that have sus-
tained communities for centuries. Instead of relying on advanced machinery,
chemical fertilizers, and genetically modified organisms, these methods har-
ness the natural synergy between land, water, and seeds. Farmers using such
techniques often employ hand tools like hoes, sickles, and wooden plows,
following rhythms dictated by nature rather than industrial timetables. Crop
rotation, composting, and natural pest management are cornerstones of this
approach, ensuring that the land remains fertile and productive over
generations.
1.1.6. Usage of Natural Seeds and Manure: In traditional farming, the use of natu-
ral seeds preserves the genetic diversity of crops, ensuring resilience against
pests, diseases, and changing climate conditions. These seeds, often passed
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 393

down through generations, are adapted to local soils and weather patterns,
optimizing their growth potential. Complementing this, the application of
organic manure not only enriches the soil with vital nutrients but also pro-
motes its microbial health, leading to more robust and sustainable crop yields.
1.1.7. Sustainability and Resource Efficiency: Sustainability and resource effi-
ciency are intrinsic to traditional farming methods, which have evolved over
generations to work in harmony with local ecosystems. These practices often
prioritize the health of the soil, water conservation, and biodiversity, ensur-
ing the land remains fertile for future crops. By leveraging nature’s processes
and cycles, traditional farming reduces waste and minimizes the need for
external inputs, making it both environmentally and economically sustain-
able [9].

1.2 Impact and Implications

Soil organic matter is reduced by the primitive method of framing, and in a short
period crops will take over the nutrient content of the soil. This is why farmers are
forced to go somewhere else for farming. This results in the process of deforestation
where the forest lands are converted to farms, ranches, or urban use. Jungle rainfor-
ests have the highest concentration of deforestation. The forests, which led to the
situation of deforestation, had to be savagely cut and burned to allow for cultivation.
Soil erosion is a process that is caused by natural physical forces of water and wind,
as well as factors associated with agricultural activity such as plowing, to remove
topsoil.
Traditional farming, rooted in age-old practices, plays a pivotal role in preserv-
ing biodiversity by maintaining a diverse array of crops adapted to various environ-
ments. These methods, often devoid of synthetic chemicals, reduce environmental
pollution, safeguarding both the land and water sources. Traditional farming can
occasionally produce lower yields than modern agricultural techniques, which
could present problems for feeding expanding populations. Finding a balance
between traditional practices and contemporary needs is crucial because traditional
farmers may experience economic constraints and competitiveness as the global
economy grows more intertwined [8].

2 The Transformation of Traditional Farming into

Smart Farming

Precision agriculture, which was first introduced in the early 1990s, marked the
beginning of the evolution of smart farming. Precision agriculture is a method of
farming where technical instruments are used to focus on specific farm areas that
394 J. I. Johnraja et al.

require attention, such as the moisture content of the soil or nutrient shortages.
Utilizing data analysis tools, smart farming technology combines input optimiza-
tion and waste reduction techniques to increase yields while lowering expenses [1].
In recent years, a diverse set of cutting-edge technologies have been gathered by
the smart farming movement. When used in conjunction with a camera or sensor, a
drone can provide invaluable information on the health of a crop and its potential
yield. In order to make informed decisions about irrigation and fertilizer applica-
tion, farmers can utilize soil sensors to measure soil moisture, temperature, and
nutrient content [2]. Farmers everywhere may now make use of IoT-enabled sensors
and tools to optimize their weather, irrigation, and fertilizer management. For data
to facilitate well-informed choices, it must be consolidated in one place [3, 4].

2.1 Traditional Farming

The old farming method is one of the ancient ways of agriculture which has existed
for hundreds of years. To grow crops and raise livestock, it is necessary to use indig-
enous methods of cultivation. The sun, rain, and soil are mainly relied upon by
farmers in order to guarantee crop health and productivity. They cultivate and har-
vest their crops in traditional methods, giving plants and animals what they need to
survive. Traditional farming is still an effective means of food production even
though it may be technologically less advanced than smart farming. Farmers have
an excellent understanding of the land and vegetation that may grow on it, so they
are able to take care of their cattle as well as deal with pests, insects, or diseases.
This experience will typically be passed down to younger generations, enabling
them to adapt to changing conditions and develop their methods over time [12].

2.2 Smart Farming

Smart farming aims at using modern technologies, in order to increase the effective-
ness and productivity of agriculture. Everything from using sensors and drones for
crop monitoring to the use of artificial intelligence that can predict weather condi-
tions or optimize irrigation schedules could be included. Smart farming can help to
increase farmers’ yields and reduce their use of resources over time, which may lead
to improvements in agricultural sustainability. Nevertheless, some opponents argue
that intelligence farming can help to consolidate and exacerbate existing problems
such as water scarcity [6, 10].
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 395

3 Introduction to Smart Farming: An Overview

Smart farming aims to enhance the quality and quantity of products so that they are
useful for humans by using advanced technology, information, and communication
in agriculture. The transformation from traditional farming to smart farming
involves the following key components (Fig. 2).

3.1 Sensing Technologies

An agricultural sensor is one of the sensors applied in smart farming. The sensors
provide information that will help farmers to monitor and optimize the crops in
response to changing environmental conditions. Electrochemical sensors facilitate
the collection, processing, and mapping of soil’s chemical data. Usually, it’s fitted
onto specially designed sleds. They provide the relevant details needed for agricul-
tural purposes including the level of nutrients in the soil and pH values [11].

Fig. 2 Smart farming

396 J. I. Johnraja et al.

3.2 Software Tools and Applications

With the use of agriculture software applications specifically tailored to meet agri-
cultural needs and challenges, farmers will be able to enhance their efficiency and
control over all aspects of their operations. The aim is to speed up the process of
making important managerial decisions through these agricultural software tools.
But farming applications are much more than a means of saving time; they also help
farmers to make informed and predictive decisions. By referring to the past crop
rotation data, obtained from satellite images combined with technical recommenda-
tions for growing specific types of crops, software programs and mobile applica-
tions can recommend the most profitable planting plan (Fig. 3) [38].

3.3 Communication Systems

Old farming practices and poor resource management are frequent problems, for
example, lack of appropriate storage facilities, excessive pesticide usage, or overir-
rigation. The asymmetry of information can be directly addressed by appropriate

Fig. 3 Web applications for smart farming

Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 397

communication channels and tools for farmers. There are a lot of current protocols
that can be used, such as Wi-Fi 802.11n, LoRaWAN, WiMAX Ethernet, LRWPAN,
BLE Bluetooth Low Energy RFID, MQTT, Zigbee, Sigfox, etc. [13].

3.4 Telematics and Positioning Technologies

To achieve minimum effort and optimum results, farmers need to select the best
means of tracking and managing their machines. Telematics solutions that monitor
the location, speed, and maintenance of these vehicles can be used in order to reduce
downtime and increase their efficiency through smart farming. With telematics data,
farmers can monitor the performance and usage information, make better-informed
decisions for daily usage such as seed and fertilizer distribution and long-term usage
such as predictive maintenance, and maximize their equipment’s ROI [14].

3.5 Hardware and Software Systems

Smart farming involves the usage of various sensors for soil monitoring, water,
light, humidity, and temperature. Technologies in telecommunications such as
advanced network technologies and GPS are involved. Various hardware and soft-
ware for specific applications, enabling the use of IIoT solutions, robotics, and auto-
mation are used. Numerous agricultural management software solutions such as
Farmbrite, Agrivi, Farmlogs, Granular, Conservis, Agworld, Croptracker, Trimble,
Agriculture, Farmlogic, Harvest Profit, etc. are available for modern agriculture.
Each of them has its own specific functions.

3.6 Data Analytics Solutions

Analytics along with the Internet of Things represent a number of use cases in agri-
culture and are, for example, remote monitoring of agricultural machinery and its
performance, analytics for the monitoring of farm operations and to improve their
efficiency, and predictive analytics for accurate weather forecast. Digital soil and
crop mapping can be carried out using data science. Farmers and agronomists may
use this information to optimize the use of their land, thereby gaining better under-
standing of what crops are needed. Moreover, the forecasting of weather patterns
and crop yields can also be based on data science.
398 J. I. Johnraja et al.

3.7 Human-Machine Association

A variety of tasks, such as planting, irrigation, pest control, and soil analysis, can be
performed by introducing various flexible machines. The benefits of higher produc-
tivity, lower labor charges, and a reduction in the usage of harmful chemicals are
available to farmers when these processes are automated. The majority of the agri-
cultural work in today’s farm is done by tractors and machines that till the ground,
plant seeds, and perform other tasks. Tillage harvesting equipment loosens the soil,
kills weeds or competing plants, and prepares the area for planting.

3.8 Sustainability and Resource Efficiency

Smart farming emphasizes resource efficiency and sustainability. Resource effi-

ciency is measured in terms of how effectively resources such as land, energy, rain-
water, underground water, and labor are used in agricultural production. It is a topic
of great importance in sustainable agriculture because it can help mitigate negative
environmental effects on agricultural production while maximizing productivity
and profitability.
The transformation from traditional farming to smart farming represents a leap
forward in the agricultural sector. It involves the integration of various sensors, soft-
ware programs and applications, communication systems, data analytics, and posi-
tioning technologies to create a highly responsive, efficient, and productive
agricultural environment. This evolution not only enhances productivity but also
shapes agricultural sectors’ ability to meet dynamic market demands while promot-
ing sustainability and human-machine collaboration.

4 Cloud Computing: Understanding Its

Fundamental Concepts

Cloud indicates a network or the Internet. This mentions a technology used to store,
receive, and access data from a network instead of local disk drives by using distant
servers on the Internet. All sorts of data such as files, pictures, documents, audio,
and video can be included. To understand more about cloud computing, let us
explore its fundamental concepts.
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 399

4.1 Cloud Computing Architecture: Key Components

Cloud computing is an on-demand service that you can use via the Internet to man-
age and run your applications. In cloud computing, the “cloud” denotes only a net-
work or servers that are used by your web applications, databases, and so on.
Compute, storage, database, networking, and security are some of the fundamental
key components of cloud computing [15]. Let’s delve into the key components and
types of cloud computing architecture.

4.1.1 Compute

The processing capacity required by the system and application to handle the data
and perform a variety of calculations may be considered as compute. This comput-
ing power required for the server can be obtained from a cluster of virtual machines
on the cloud instead of having it installed in an existing local data center. A virtual
machine’s computing capability depends only on the hardware resources allocated
to its host computer. The CPU, storage, memory, and network bandwidth of the
machine in which the VM is running are referred to as compute resources. Today,
most cloud service providers have done a fine job of preparing an extensive set of
pre-configured servers that can be used for all kinds of tasks.

4.1.2 Storage

The main advantage of storing data in a cloud environment is that it allows the user
to increase their storage capacity without having to maintain or buy additional local
hard drives. If a disk failure occurs, it will be hard to prevent data corruption. Data
can be stored on a physical storage server which is hosted by the cloud service pro-
vider for an indefinite period in the cloud environment through logical pools. The
user can store various types of data, e.g., pictures, files, and backups.

4.1.3 Databases

A database is a system for the storage and management of structured and unorga-
nized information. Cloud service providers typically manage and offer cloud data-
bases as a service. This means that the user no longer has any responsibility for
maintaining or updating the components of a database instance, such as updates to
operating systems and software patches. In actuality, scalability and availability of
cloud databases are also very high.
400 J. I. Johnraja et al.

4.1.4 Networking

The cloud is a vast network of computers that interact, share, and integrate to offer
specific services to its clients. Cloud service providers guarantee that their infra-
structures can constantly maintain a quick network connection in order to meet the
expectations of their end users. The user’s application may be disseminated globally
thanks to the cloud’s ability to provide a worldwide link.

4.1.5 Security

The cloud’s remote, secure data centers are where data is kept. This indicates that
hazards to users like theft and data breaches are rare. When using a cloud service,
the user’s obligation is more heavily centered on data management. Users will be
able to gain access to a set of tools in the cloud environment that allow them to
achieve higher security levels. With regard to encryption and decryption of data,
users are responsible for themselves. To access the applications, the users have the
option to authenticate or authorize selected users and services.

4.2 Characteristics of Cloud Computing

Cloud computing offers a wide range of characteristics that might be beneficial to

customers, along with those specified by the National Institute of Standards
Technology (NIST) [16]. Let us have a brief discussion on them:

4.2.1 On-Demand Self Service

Computer services like server time and network storage can be automatically provi-
sioned with cloud computing. There will be no need for interaction with the cloud
service provider. To view the cloud services and monitor their usage, provisioning
and de-provisioning the services, the customers using the cloud can access their
cloud accounts through a web self-service portal. No human administrators are
required to access the cloud computing services.

4.2.2 Broad Network Access

Broad access to the Internet is another essential feature associated with cloud com-
puting. Cloud services are made available to the user over the network on various
portable devices, such as smartphones, tablets, notebooks, or desktop computers.
Internet is used for public clouds; local area networks are used for private clouds. In
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 401

cloud computing and wide network connectivity, both latency and bandwidth are
crucial factors affecting the quality of service.

4.2.3 Resource Pooling

Multiple customers using the multitenant model can share physical resources with
one another through resource pooling. These models assign and reassign physical
and virtual resources to multiple users on the basis of demand. Multitenancy sup-
ports the sharing of application and infrastructure between customers while main-
taining privacy and security. Although the customer may not have been able to
determine exactly where their resources are located, he or she is free to specify a
location at a higher level of abstraction such as country, state, and data center. Some
of the resources that customers can pool are memory, processing, and bandwidth.

4.2.4 Rapid Elasticity

In order for customers to scale quickly based on demand, cloud services may be
flexibly configured and released, sometimes automatically. There are virtually
unlimited capabilities available for provisioning. These capacities can be used by
customers in any quantity at any time. Without additional fees or charges, customers
also have the option of scaling up their cloud use, capacity, and costs. With rapid
elasticity, the user need not buy computer hardware. Rather, the cloud service pro-
vider’s computing resources can be used.

4.2.5 Measured Service

A metering capability that is appropriate for the type of service will optimize
resource utilization at an abstraction level in cloud systems. For example, a mea-
sured service may be used for monitoring the storage used, processing capacity
utilized, bandwidth consumed, and users utilizing them. The payment shall be made
on the basis of the actual consumption of the customer by means of a payment for
what, what you use, model. For both consumers and the service providers, a trans-
parent experience will be achieved with monitoring, control, and report on use of
resources.

4.2.6 Resiliency and Availability

Cloud computing resilience refers to the fact that, in case of an error, a service can
be quickly repaired. The speed of its servers, databases, and networks to get back up
and running after a disruption is an indication of cloud resilience. A copy of stored
402 J. I. Johnraja et al.

data shall be created by cloud services in order to avoid loss of data. Copy version
from the other server shall be restored when one server loses data for any reason.
In cloud computing, availability is an adherent concept. Cloud services offer the
advantage of being able to view them remotely, which means that you do not have
restrictions on geographical location when using their resources.

4.2.7 Flexibility

As their businesses grow, companies will have to expand. The cloud service pro-
vides clients with more flexibility of movement, and they don’t have to restart the
server anymore. In order to avoid overspending on the resources they do not need,
they can also choose from a range of payment options.

4.2.8 Remote Work

Users benefit from cloud computing by being able to work in a remote location.
Remote workers can safely and rapidly obtain corporate data through the use of
their equipment, e.g., laptops or mobile phones. Remote workers can also commu-
nicate with each other and use the cloud effectively to carry out their tasks.

4.3 Cloud-Based Services

Cloud computing refers to the practice of storing, managing, and processing data
rather than local or personal computers on an international network of remote serv-
ers that are maintained in a web site. Cloud providers are companies that offer these
types of computing services and typically provide them for free or at a price deter-
mined by usage. The foundations of cloud computing are grids and clusters. Five
broad categories account for the majority of cloud computing services (Fig. 4).

4.3.1 Software as a Service (SaaS)

An Internet-based method of offering services and applications is software as a

service. Users are only given access to the Internet so they can avoid having to
install or update software or deal with other laborious hardware and software admin-
istration tasks. Users can deploy and run programs on their computer or data center
with its assistance, saving money on hardware expenditures and software upkeep.
SaaS originates from the cloud services provider, which offers users entire software
solutions for pay-as-you-go purchases. As long as they don’t need to be downloaded
or installed, the majority of Internet browsers can be used to access software as a
service applications. The application as a service might be referred to as web-based
software, on-demand software, or hosting software [17].
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 403

Fig. 4 Cloud-based services

4.3.2 Platform as a Service (PaaS)

Platform as a service is the area of cloud computing that offers a setting for pro-
grammers to create Internet-based apps and services. Users can access the PaaS
service by using just a web browser because it is located in the cloud. The PaaS
provider’s own infrastructure must host all hardware and software. As a result, PaaS
enables customers to avoid installing their own proprietary hardware or software for
the creation and management of a new application. Consumers are in charge of
deploying and configuring apps in an application hosting environment but not the
cloud infrastructure itself, including the network, servers, operating system, and
storage environment [18].

4.3.3 Information as a Service (IaaS)

Services for infrastructure IaaS refers to the method by which IT services are out-
sourced to support various processes. The term “infrastructure as a service,” or
“IaaS,” refers to a service that enables the outsourcing of infrastructure, including
web servers, various devices, networking hardware, and other items. Hardware as a
service (HaaS) is another name for IaaS. IaaS users are charged according on the
number of users, typically by the hour, week, or month. Customers may also be
charged based on how much virtual machine space they utilize by some providers.
IaaS only offers the underlying operating systems, security, networking, and servers
needed to construct applications and services and to deploy development tools,
databases, etc. [19].
404 J. I. Johnraja et al.

4.3.4 Anything as a Service (XaaS)

“Anything as a service” (XaaS) also known as “everything as a service” denotes a

general category of services related to both cloud computing and remote access. It
also recognizes the enormous number of products, tools, and technologies now
being delivered as a service to users via the Internet. Essentially, it is possible to turn
any IT function into a service for enterprise consumption. Instead of paying for the
service through an upfront purchase or license, it is made available as a discretion-
ary consumption model. XaaS can also be called everything as a service. Today, the
majority of cloud service providers are offering anything that can be classified as a
service by combining all these different services together and providing some other
services [20].

4.3.5 Function as a Service (FaaS)

Function as a service (FaaS), is a cloud-computing service that enables the custom-

ers to execute code as a response to events, without having the need for managing
the complex infrastructure associated with building and launching the related
microservice applications. When hosting software applications on the Internet, it is
normally necessary to provide and run a virtual or physically based server, as well
as operating system and web server services. With FaaS, a cloud service provider
provides full automatic management of physical equipment, virtual operating sys-
tem, and web server software. This ensures that the developers are focused exclu-
sively on specific functions in their application code [21].

5 Integration of Cloud Computing in Smart Farming

The integration of cloud computing in smart farming leads to a transformative

approach to optimizing production processes, enhancing quality control, and
enabling predictive maintenance. Cloud computing techniques play a vital role in
analyzing large volumes of data generated by interconnected sensors, devices, and
machines in a smart farming environment. By extracting valuable insights from the
reference data obtained from the cloud, other smart farming facilitates real-time
decision-making, production optimization, and adaptive farming can be carried out
[22–24]. Here’s a broad overview of how cloud computing can be integrated into
smart farming.
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 405

5.1 Data Management

A number of sensors are being used in smart farming using the Internet of Things
(IoT) to monitor environmental conditions. The sensor’s primary task is to gather
data across the field and send it into the cloud. A number of basic measurements are
set up in the cloud, and these will be compared to sensed data [5].

5.2 Data Collection and Retrieval

Data collection and retrieval are the most common uses of cloud-based software in
agriculture. In order to provide accurate and rapid information, it stores a large
amount of data on weather, crop patterns, soil quality, harvesting, and satellite imag-
ery. The cloud stores all the data relating to the farm, making it easy to access. In
this way, the data can be used more rapidly to identify a remedy in order to avoid
large losses when crops are afflicted with symptoms similar to those seen 10 years
earlier.

5.3 Data Processing and Analysis

Database management in the cloud environment allows decision-makers to make

precise decisions and connects all data sources that are available for farms such as
weather data, market data, agricultural data, GIS, and water availability. Weather
data agricultural data, geographic information system, and water availability, all
forms of old and existing data and current information must be analyzed in detail
before valuable information is made available on optimal requirements to plant
seeds, water, or pesticides. Whenever there is a discrepancy in the growth of crops,
these systems have an alert system to communicate with the farmers. Therefore, in
the event of a pest attack, these systems work effectively to inform farmers of rele-
vant information.

5.4 Data Storage and Dissemination

Data storage is the core of predictive analysis. Storage of data has always been a
hardware-based system; thus, the infrastructure requires constant monitoring and
updates. The data was permanently lost if the hardware had been damaged. Today,
agricultural technology has evolved to cloud-based systems that mean there is no
need for investment in hardware purchases or maintenance. All information is avail-
able 24 hours a day and can be accessed from your computer or mobile device.
406 J. I. Johnraja et al.

Other devices and solutions can also benefit from this approach of data storage for
further analysis. With more data on farms available, it’s easier for farmers to gain an
accurate picture of agriculture output and management, the detection of pests and
diseases, as well as yield estimates.

5.5 Real-Time Data Analysis

The deployment of scalable cloud computing with powerful analytic tools to iden-
tify patterns in data and obtain new information is called cloud analytics. Businesses
increasingly rely on data analysis to achieve competitive advantage, advance scien-
tific knowledge, or improve human life in a variety of ways. With cloud-based ana-
lytics tools, data collected from various sensors can be processed and analyzed in
real time. This offers farmers immediate insights into soil health, weather condi-
tions, and crop status, facilitating timely interventions and decision-making.

5.6 Remote Monitoring and Control

Through cloud integration, farmers can remotely monitor and control various farm-
ing operations via smartphones, tablets, or computers. This involves using cloud-­
based software to modify irrigation, track equipment, and even deploy drones.

5.7 Enhanced Decision Support Systems

When machine learning and artificial intelligence are linked into cloud platforms, a
powerful decision-support system for farmers can be created. These systems can
forecast agricultural yields, evaluate disease risks, and optimize irrigation schedules
thanks to the power of cloud computing.

5.8 Continuous Improvement

The ability of cloud computing to continuously learn and adapt is one of the key
advantages of smart farming. Models can be updated with fresh data, allowing them
to develop over time as they take into account differences in production processes
and real-world experiences.
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 407

5.9 Cost Efficiency

Farms can save the expenses of maintaining and upgrading their on-site IT infra-
structure by implementing cloud computing. Additionally, cloud service models
often operate on a pay-as-you-go basis, which means farms only pay for the com-
puting resources they actually use.
The integration of cloud computing into smart farming offers immense potential
to transform the way products are produced, quality is ensured, and resources are
managed. By harnessing the power of the cloud and AI, farmers can achieve higher
efficiency, improved product quality, reduced costs, and enhanced sustainability,
thereby shaping the future of the agricultural industry.

6 Implementation of Cloud Computing in Various Stages

of Smart Farming

Cloud computing is revolutionizing smart farming by offering data-driven insights,

predictive capabilities, and process optimization across various stages of agriculture
[25–27]. Let’s explore how cloud computing is implemented in each of these stages
with reference to Fig. 5 [36].

6.1 Data Collection and Sensors

Cloud computing enables smart farming by collecting data from various sensors
placed in the field. In the foundation of smart farming lies the ability to collect data.
Sensors placed in various parts of the farm gather crucial information such as soil
moisture, temperature, humidity, and plant health. Farmers can make data-driven
decisions by transferring this data to cloud platforms, which enable them to gain a
real-time overview of the field conditions.

6.2 Remote Monitoring

Through cloud-connected cameras and sensors, farmers can remotely watch their
crops in real time, enabling them to make educated decisions regarding irrigation,
pest management, and harvesting. Regardless of physical distance, cloud comput-
ing enables a continuous link between the farm and the farmer. Farmers can monitor
crop development, keep a watch on their fields, and even see the first signs of pest
infestations with cloud-connected cameras and sensors without having to physically
be there.
408 J. I. Johnraja et al.

Fig. 5 Multilayer smart farming architecture

6.3 Data Storage

Huge amounts of agricultural data, such as historical crop yield data and meteoro-
logical data, may be stored securely and flexibly on cloud systems. The capacity to
securely store a massive amount of data is one of the key benefits of cloud comput-
ing. A trustworthy reference point for upcoming farming operations can be found in
the cloud storage of historical information on crop yields, pest activity, and
weather trends.

6.4 Data Analysis

Cloud-based analytics solutions can process the collected data to provide insights
into crop health, yield projections, and ideal planting times. Using sophisticated
cloud-based analytics technologies, farmers can glean insights from their data that
is beneficial to them. These systems may predict crop yields, identify trends, and
suggest the most effective agricultural practices based on past results.

6.5 Weather Forecasting

Farmers may organize their activities and make weather-informed decisions with
the use of cloud computing, which has access to real-time meteorological data. For
farming, timely and precise weather information is essential. Farmers may schedule
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 409

their activities properly when real-time weather forecasts are integrated into cloud
platforms. This integration lowers the dangers brought on by erratic weather
fluctuations.

6.6 Precision Agriculture

By maximizing the use of resources, such as water and fertilizers, as well as a reduc-
tion in waste and an increase in crop yields, cloud-based platforms enable precision
agriculture. Precision agriculture, which involves applying farming resources in
precisely the right amounts where they are needed, is a practice that heavily relies
on cloud-based technologies. Cloud systems may advise farmers on when and
where to irrigate, fertilize, or apply pesticides by analyzing data from the field,
maximizing resource use.

6.7 Remote Control

In addition to monitoring, farmers can act remotely thanks to the cloud. Cloud-­
enabled gadgets provide farmers unparalleled control over their operations from any
location, whether it is to change irrigation settings, turn on greenhouse lights, or use
drones for monitoring. Through cloud-connected devices, farmers may remotely
control irrigation systems, drones, and other equipment, improving efficiency and
lowering the requirement for on-site presence.

6.8 Mobile Applications

Mobile apps enabled by the cloud make farming more practical and effective by
enabling farmers to access data and manage farm operations from their smartphones
or tablets. The widespread use of smartphones and tablets has made cloud-powered
mobile apps essential tools for farmers. These apps ensure that farmers have access
to their operations at their fingertips by offering real-time updates, alarms, and even
remote control.

6.9 Machine Learning and AI

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms are supported by cloud
computing and can be used to recognize crop illnesses, forecast insect infestations,
and suggest the best farming techniques. The true power of cloud computing is
410 J. I. Johnraja et al.

unleashed when combined with machine learning and AI. These technologies can
automatically detect crop diseases from images, predict pest activities based on past
patterns, and even recommend crop rotation schedules for optimal soil health.

6.10 Inventory Management

Cloud solutions also extend to inventory management. Keeping track of seeds,

equipment, fertilizers, and other resources becomes straightforward with cloud-­
based systems. Automated alerts can notify farmers when stocks are low, ensuring
seamless operations.

6.11 Supply Chain Optimization

From the farm to the marketplace, cloud platforms can monitor and manage the
entire supply chain. Real-time updates about crop availability, demand patterns, and
distribution logistics help in reducing wastage and improving market responsive-
ness. Cloud computing aids in supply chain management by providing real-time
information on crop availability and demand, improving distribution, and reduc-
ing waste.

6.12 Farm-to-Table Traceability

Consumers today are more conscious about the origin of their food. Cloud solutions
can track produce from its source farm to the dining table, ensuring transparency,
and safety, and building trust among consumers.

6.13 Energy Efficiency

Smart farming systems in the cloud can optimize energy consumption, such as con-
trolling irrigation pumps and ventilation systems based on real-time data. With
cloud-based energy management systems, farms can reduce their carbon footprint.
Whether it’s optimizing the operation hours of irrigation pumps based on soil mois-
ture levels or managing greenhouse temperatures, the cloud ensures energy is used
judiciously.
Cloud computing has ushered in a new era in agriculture. With its myriad appli-
cations in data collection, analysis, remote operations, and supply chain
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 411

management, it has transformed the way farming is perceived and conducted. As

technology continues to evolve, the synergy between cloud computing and farming
promises even more groundbreaking solutions in the future.

7 Real-Time Case Studies for the Application of Cloud

Computing in Smart Farming

The fusion of cloud computing with smart farming has given birth to innovative
agricultural solutions around the world. Numerous real-world case studies attest to
the transformative power of this integration, illustrating how farms—both big and
small—are harnessing the potential of the cloud for increased productivity and
sustainability.

7.1 Cropin’s Smart Farming with Cloud Computing

CropIn, an agtech company based in India, has been at the forefront of integrating
cloud computing with smart farming practices. CropIn offers SaaS solutions that
help farmers, agribusinesses, and governments optimize agricultural operations by
utilizing the power of the cloud. Using sensors, satellite imaging, or manual input,
their platform gathers enormous volumes of field data and processes it in real time
on a cloud-based platform. Predictive analytics, crop monitoring, and risk assess-
ment are made possible by this. The platform also provides farmers with practical
advice on resource management, insect control, and the best times to harvest.
CropIn’s integration of cloud computing with conventional farming has therefore
improved farmers’ ability to make decisions, dramatically increased crop yields,
decreased losses, and paved the road for sustainable and scalable agricultural opera-
tions [29].

7.2 Precision Irrigation in California

Cloud-based solutions were used by a vineyard in California to combat the area’s

regular drought circumstances. The vineyard was equipped with sensors to track the
soil moisture in real time. The precise amount of water that each section of the vine-
yard needed was then determined by using this data, which was then uploaded to the
cloud for analysis. As a consequence, the vineyard preserved its ideal grape yield
and quality while cutting its water use by up to 25% [30].
412 J. I. Johnraja et al.

7.3 Livestock Disease Prediction in Kenya

In Kenya, smallholder farmers faced challenges with crop diseases, particularly

maize lethal necrosis disease. A cloud-based system was deployed that utilized AI
to analyze data from satellite imagery, weather forecasts, and local sensors. The
system would then predict potential disease outbreaks, allowing farmers to take
preventive measures in time. As a result, agricultural yields were raised, and disease
outbreak-related losses were reduced [31].

7.4 Livestock Monitoring in Australia

Keeping track of the whereabouts and health of the cattle is a difficult undertaking
in Australia’s huge ranches. One ranch combined a cloud system with livestock
wearing sensors. These sensors sent data to the cloud while continuously tracking
the animals’ position and health indicators. Farmers could then access this informa-
tion from their smartphones, ensuring that sick animals receive prompt medical
attention and identifying any stray animals [32, 33].

7.5 Supply Chain Management in Brazil

Brazil’s coffee industry utilized cloud computing to streamline its complex supply
chain. From the time beans were harvested to when they reached the consumer,
cloud-based platforms tracked and stored data on bean quality, storage conditions,
transportation, and more. This ensured that consumers received the best quality cof-
fee and could even trace their coffee’s journey from farm to cup [34].

7.6 Drone Surveillance in India

In India, a vast rice farm employed drones equipped with cameras and sensors to
monitor crop health. These drones sent images and data to a cloud platform that
used AI to detect pest infestations, diseases, and other issues. The system would
then notify farmers in real time, allowing them to address problems promptly and
minimize crop damage [35].
These case studies underscore the transformative potential of integrating cloud
computing into smart farming practices. From water conservation and disease pre-
vention to livestock management and supply chain optimization, the cloud is reshap-
ing agriculture. As technology continues to evolve, we can expect even more
innovative solutions that bolster food security, sustainability, and economic viability
in the agricultural sector.
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 413

8 Applications of Cloud Computing in Smart Farming

Smart farming is characterized by the integration of various digital technologies,

automation of systems, data exchange mechanisms, and advanced analytics in vari-
ous agricultural sectors. Cloud computing plays a vital role in enabling and enhanc-
ing various applications within smart farming:
• Data readiness anytime and anywhere: In today’s hyper-connected world, the
demand for real-time access to information has never been greater. Cloud com-
puting has emerged as a transformative solution to this challenge, ensuring data
readiness anytime and anywhere. With the cloud, data storage is not confined to
a single physical location or device; instead, it’s hosted on virtual servers, acces-
sible from any Internet-connected device. This ubiquitous accessibility empow-
ers professionals across various sectors, from business executives to scientists, to
retrieve, analyze, and act upon their data irrespective of their geographical loca-
tion. Furthermore, cloud platforms often come with built-in tools for data analy-
sis, collaboration, and backup, ensuring that the data is not only accessible but
also meaningful and secure. The era of waiting to get back to the office to access
critical files or databases is long gone; with the cloud, the world truly has its data
at its fingertips.
• Local and global communication: In the realm of smart farming, the blend of
local and global communication has revolutionized agricultural practices. At the
local level, on-farm communication between sensors, equipment, and centralized
systems ensures real-time monitoring and immediate response to changing con-
ditions. For instance, a soil moisture sensor might relay data to an irrigation
system to optimize water distribution, ensuring plants receive the right amount of
hydration. On a global scale, smart farming benefits from a vast interconnected
network of data sources. Farmers can access global weather forecasts, satellite
imagery, or market trends to make informed decisions. They can also collaborate
with experts from around the world, sharing insights, research, and innovations.
This fusion of local and global communication not only enhances efficiency and
productivity but also fosters a collaborative global community dedicated to sus-
tainable agricultural practices and food security.
• Improve the economic condition of the nation: The integration of cloud comput-
ing into smart farming holds transformative potential for a nation’s economy. By
optimizing agricultural processes, cloud platforms enhance productivity, leading
to higher yields with lower resource input. This efficiency translates to increased
profits for farmers, fostering rural development and strengthening the backbone
of many national economies. Furthermore, real-time data access ensures rapid
response to market demands, reducing wastage and ensuring maximum returns
on produce. On a larger scale, the data-driven insights from cloud platforms can
guide national agricultural policies and strategies, promoting sustainable farm-
ing practices that ensure long-term food security. Moreover, as nations embrace
these advanced technologies, they invariably position themselves at the forefront
of agricultural innovation, attracting investments, and partnerships, and creating
414 J. I. Johnraja et al.

new job opportunities in the tech-agri domain. In essence, by intertwining cloud

computing with agriculture, nations can catalyze a ripple effect of economic
growth, sustainability, and global competitiveness.
• Enhance the GDP of the nation: Harnessing the transformative potential of cloud
computing in smart farming can significantly enhance a nation’s GDP. As farm-
ers tap into the vast reservoirs of data-driven insights made available through the
cloud, they can optimize irrigation, improve pest control, and predict harvest
yields with greater accuracy. This amplification of productivity and reduction in
resource waste can lead to a more prosperous agricultural sector. Furthermore,
by integrating cloud-based solutions, the entire supply chain, from farm to table,
can be streamlined, reducing overhead costs and driving up profit margins. The
resultant upswing in the agricultural output not only ensures food security but
also positions the sector as a robust contributor to the nation’s economic growth.
• Ensure food security level: Ensuring food security is a critical global challenge,
and cloud computing in smart farming is emerging as a vital tool in this endeavor.
By leveraging the advanced analytics and storage capabilities of the cloud, farm-
ers can access real-time data on soil health, weather patterns, and pest activities.
This facilitates the timely and precise deployment of resources, leading to
increased crop yields and reduced losses. Predictive analytics, powered by the
cloud, allow farmers to anticipate potential threats or changes in demand, thereby
ensuring a consistent and sufficient food supply. Furthermore, with cloud-based
platforms, knowledge sharing becomes seamless, enabling farmers across
regions to adopt best practices, utilize innovative solutions, and collaboratively
tackle challenges. By integrating cloud technology into the agricultural fabric,
we can establish a resilient framework that elevates food security levels globally.
• Motivation of farmers and researchers: The infusion of cloud computing into
smart farming has created an inspiring nexus for both farmers and researchers,
energizing their collaborative efforts. For farmers, the cloud offers not just a tool,
but a treasure trove of insights, demystifying age-old agricultural challenges and
revealing optimized paths to yield enhancement. Every piece of data becomes a
source of empowerment, transforming traditional farming into a precision-­
focused endeavor. For researchers, this vast and ever-growing database of agri-
cultural metrics opens avenues for innovation, enabling them to devise advanced
algorithms, forecast models, and tailor solutions for varied farming scenarios.
The direct and tangible benefits witnessed by farmers from these innovations
further motivate researchers to push the boundaries of technological application.
As both parties witness the transformative effects of their combined efforts, their
motivation soars, setting the stage for a renaissance in agriculture, driven by the
harmonious blend of tradition and technology.
• Reduction of technical issues: Cloud computing in smart farming has been
instrumental in drastically reducing technical issues that once plagued the agri-
cultural sector. Traditional farming practices, reliant on standalone systems and
disjointed technologies, often encountered inefficiencies and technical break-
downs that impeded optimal farming operations. With the advent of cloud-based
solutions, farmers now benefit from centralized data storage, regular system
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 415

updates, and real-time troubleshooting. Learning can analyze customer feed-

back, market trends, and historical data to inform product design and develop-
ment. This can lead to products that better meet customer needs and preferences.
• Rural-urban movement: The advent of cloud computing in smart farming has the
potential to reshape the dynamics of rural-urban movement. Historically, limited
opportunities and technological stagnation in rural areas have driven populations
toward urban centers in search of better prospects. However, with the integration
of cloud-based solutions into agriculture, rural zones are now becoming hubs of
technological innovation. Smart farming, powered by the cloud, provides farm-
ers with access to real-time data, sophisticated analytics, and global market-
places, thereby enhancing the profitability and appeal of agricultural endeavors.
As a result, the younger generation may find incentives to remain in or return to
their rural roots, armed with the tools to revolutionize traditional farming
practices.
• Improved market price of food, seeds, and other products: Cloud computing’s
impact on smart farming transcends the fields and directly influences the market
dynamics of food, seeds, and other agricultural products. By leveraging the vast
analytical capabilities of the cloud, farmers can gain real-time insights into
­market demands, crop yields, and potential disruptions. This facilitates a more
predictive and dynamic pricing model. For instance, if data indicates a potential
shortfall in a particular crop yield, farmers can adjust prices accordingly to reflect
the anticipated scarcity. Similarly, cloud platforms enable seamless global com-
munication, allowing farmers to tap into international markets, compare prices,
and ensure they’re getting the best value for their products. For seed producers,
cloud-based databases can store genetic information and track seed performance
across different geographies and climates, thereby assisting in setting a value
based on its proven productivity. Furthermore, by reducing inefficiencies and
wastage in the supply chain through cloud-enhanced logistics, the overall cost of
bringing products to market can be reduced, leading to fair and competitive pric-
ing. In essence, cloud computing in smart farming provides a transparent, data-­
driven foundation for stabilizing and improving the market prices of agricultural
outputs.
• Smart analytics and insights: Cloud computing in smart farming acts as a cata-
lyst for unlocking the true potential of smart analytics and insights. By pooling
together vast amounts of data from diverse sources, such as soil sensors, weather
forecasts, and satellite imagery, cloud platforms can process and analyze this
data in real-time. This results in actionable insights that would be inconceivable
through traditional means. Farmers can gain a comprehensive understanding of
their fields down to the minutest detail, be it the moisture content of a specific
patch or the predicted pest activity based on environmental conditions.
• Smart analytics powered by the cloud enables precise decision-making, from
determining the optimal time for sowing seeds to identifying the best harvest
window. Predictive analytics can also foresee potential challenges, allowing
farmers to mitigate risks before they manifest. Moreover, these insights are not
confined to individual farms. The collaborative nature of cloud platforms means
416 J. I. Johnraja et al.

that insights from one region can benefit another, fostering a global community
of informed and empowered farmers.
• Supply chain optimization: Cloud computing’s intersection with smart farming
has revolutionized supply chain optimization in agriculture. Traditionally, the
agricultural supplychain faced inefficiencies stemming from information silos,
unpredictable weather changes, and transportation hitches. The cloud offers a
unified platform where real-time data from various sources converges, enabling
stakeholders at every point in the chain to make informed decisions. For instance,
predictive analytics can forecast harvest yields, allowing distributors to align
transportation and storage resources ahead of time. Similarly, retailers can access
this data to manage inventory and reduce food wastage. By having a holistic view
of the supply chain, from sowing to sales, potential bottlenecks can be identified
and addressed proactively. Furthermore, cloud-based platforms facilitate seam-
less communication among farmers, distributors, and retailers, ensuring syn-
chronized operations. In essence, cloud computing in smart farming transforms
the agricultural supply chain from a traditionally fragmented and reactive system
into a cohesive, transparent, and agile entity, leading to reduced costs, minimized
wastage, and maximized value delivery to the end consumer.
Overall, cloud computing plays a crucial role in driving innovation and efficiency
across various aspects of smart farming, helping farmers adapt to the rapidly chang-
ing technological landscape and stay competitive in the global market.

9 Challenges in Integrating Cloud Computing

with Smart Farming

Integrating cloud computing with smart farming presents several challenges that
need to be addressed to ensure successful implementation and maximize the bene-
fits of both technologies [28]. Here are some of the key challenges:
• Infrastructure Deficiency: Many rural areas lack the necessary infrastructure,
such as high-speed Internet and data centers, to fully harness cloud computing
capabilities.
• High Initial Costs: Setting up sensors, and IoT devices, and integrating them
with cloud platforms require a significant initial investment.
• Digital Literacy: Farmers, especially in developing nations, might not be well-­
versed in advanced technologies, making adoption challenging.
• Data Security Concerns: Storing sensitive agricultural data on the cloud raises
concerns about potential breaches and misuse.
• Reliability Issues: Internet connectivity, especially in remote farming areas, can
be intermittent, affecting real-time data access and decision-making.
• Integration Hurdles: Integrating various existing farming technologies with new
cloud-based platforms can be complex.
Impact of Cloud Computing on the Future of Smart Farming 417

• Regulatory Challenges: In many countries, regulations related to data storage,

transfer, and cloud computing are still evolving, posing legal challenges.
• Data Overload: While cloud computing can handle vast amounts of data, farm-
ers might get overwhelmed by the sheer volume of information and struggle to
make sense of it.
• Cultural Resistance: Traditional farmers might resist transitioning to tech-based
practices due to deep-rooted beliefs or fear of the unknown.
• Vendor Lock-In: Committing to one cloud service provider might hinder flexibil-
ity and make it challenging to switch or integrate other services in the future.
• Scalability Issues: As farms grow and diversify, ensuring that cloud solutions
scale efficiently can become a challenge.
• Limited Customization: Off-the-shelf cloud solutions might not cater to the
unique requirements of every farm, necessitating customization which can be
costly and time-consuming.
• Maintenance and Upgrades: Regular system maintenance and software upgrades
might require technical expertise which not all farmers possess.
• Privacy Concerns: Sharing data about crop yields, farming techniques, and other
proprietary information on the cloud might raise concerns about intellectual
property rights.
• Environmental Concerns: The energy consumption of vast data centers powering
cloud services has environmental implications, which could be a point of conten-
tion for eco-conscious farmers.
Overcoming these challenges requires a collaborative effort among cloud archi-
tects, domain experts, farmers, and cloud service providers. Successful integration
of cloud computing with smart farming involves careful planning, continuous moni-
toring, and adaptation to ensure that the technology delivers the desired benefits
while mitigating potential risks.

10 Conclusion

In conclusion, cloud computing emerges as a transformative force in the realm of

smart farming, acting as the digital backbone that supports a new age of agricultural
efficiency and innovation. Its capability to store, process, and provide real-time data
analytics brings unparalleled advantages to farmers, from optimizing resource use
to predicting market trends. While challenges do exist in its integration, the over-
arching benefits, such as increased yields, reduction in wastage, and supply chain
optimization, position cloud computing as an indispensable tool for the future of
farming. As the world grapples with increasing food demand and climate uncertain-
ties, leveraging the cloud’s prowess in smart farming becomes not just an opportu-
nity but a necessity for sustainable agricultural growth.
418 J. I. Johnraja et al.

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AI Green Revolution: Reshaping
Agriculture’s Future

R. Thangamani, D. Sathya, G. K. Kamalam, and Ganesh Neelakanta Lyer

1 Introduction

In the midst of a world grappling with intricate challenges like burgeoning popula-
tions, climate uncertainty, and the imperative for sustainable resource management,
a new era of agricultural transformation is dawning. This era, known as the “AI
Green Revolution,” is defined by the convergence of cutting-edge technologies, arti-
ficial intelligence (AI), and ecological consciousness. It holds the promise of revo-
lutionizing the way we produce food, ensuring that agriculture not only sustains us
but also safeguards our planet. Building on the legacy of the Green Revolution of
the mid-twentieth century which saw remarkable advancements in crop yields, the
AI Green Revolution introduces a paradigm shift that transcends mere productivity.
It integrates the power of AI, data-driven insights, and precision techniques to culti-
vate a future where agriculture is both bountiful and environmentally sustainable.
In this narrative, fields transform into smart landscapes teeming with intercon-
nected devices, drones glide above analyzing crops with pinpoint accuracy, and
algorithms process vast amounts of data to optimize every planting, irrigation, and
harvesting decision. But beyond the technological marvels, the AI Green Revolution
is a call to reimagine agriculture’s role in our world—a catalyst for embracing inno-
vative practices that restore ecosystems, preserve biodiversity, and mitigate cli-
mate change.
This expedition is one of immense potential, not just for large-scale agribusi-
nesses, but also for smallholders striving to secure their livelihoods and

R. Thangamani (*) · D. Sathya · G. K. Kamalam

Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
G. N. Lyer
National University, Singapore, Singapore

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 421
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_19
422 R. Thangamani et al.

communities working toward food security. It envisions equitable access to

AI-driven knowledge, bridging the digital divide and fostering inclusive growth. As
we embark on this transformative expedition, it’s essential to unravel the multi-­
faceted layers of the AI Green Revolution. From the ethical considerations of data
privacy to the socioeconomic impacts on rural communities, the coming chapters
will explore how this revolution is shaping the future of agriculture, redefining its
relationship with nature, and inspiring a collective commitment to a greener, more
prosperous world.

1.1 The Changing Landscape of Agriculture: Challenges

and Opportunities

Agriculture, the foundation of human sustenance, is undergoing a profound trans-

formation driven by a complex interplay of challenges and opportunities [1]. As we
navigate this shifting landscape, it becomes evident that the path forward demands
a holistic understanding of the multifaceted dynamics that shape the future of food
production. This exploration delves into the challenges that agriculture faces and
the opportunities that emerge in response.
Challenges
Population Growth and Food Security: The global population is projected to reach
9.7 billion by 2050. Meeting the increased demand for food while ensuring its equi-
table distribution poses a significant challenge.
• Climate Change and Resource Constraints [2]: Unpredictable weather patterns,
rising temperatures, and water scarcity disrupt traditional farming practices.
Climate-­resilient strategies are vital to safeguarding yields and livelihoods.
• Soil Degradation and Biodiversity Loss: Intensive farming practices have led to
soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and loss of biodiversity. Sustainable agricultural
approaches are necessary to restore soil health and ecosystems.
• Rural-Urban Migration and Labor Shortages [3]: As populations shift from rural
to urban areas, agriculture faces labor shortages. Mechanization and technologi-
cal solutions are needed to bridge this gap.
• Market Access and Value Chains: Limited access to markets, post-harvest losses,
and inefficient supply chains impede profitability for farmers.
• Environmental Impact and Sustainable Practices: Conventional agricultural
practices contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, pollution, and deforestation.
Sustainable practices are crucial to minimize the sector’s environmental footprint.
Opportunities
• Technological Advancements: Emerging technologies like AI, machine learning,
IoT [4], and remote sensing offer data-driven insights that optimize resource use,
improve productivity, and enhance decision-making.
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 423

• Precision Agriculture and Data-Driven Insights: Precision techniques enable

site-specific resource allocation, reducing waste and maximizing yield. Real-­
time data collection empowers informed decision-making.
• Climate-Smart Agriculture [2]: Implementing practices that mitigate climate
change impacts, conserve water, and enhance soil health fosters resilience in
agriculture.
• Innovative Farming Practices: Agroecology, vertical farming, hydroponics, and
aquaponics offer sustainable alternatives that minimize environmental impact.
• Digital Connectivity and Access to Information: Digital platforms provide small-
holders with market information, weather forecasts, and best practices, enabling
informed choices.
• Economic Diversification: Expanding value-added activities, such as agro-­
processing and niche market cultivation, can enhance rural incomes [5].
• Policy and Institutional Support: Government policies that prioritize sustainable
agriculture, provide incentives, and enhance market access can create an enabling
environment.
Navigating this evolving landscape requires a comprehensive approach that
leverages innovative technologies, promotes sustainable practices, and ensures
inclusivity. As we confront the challenges and seize the opportunities, the transfor-
mation of agriculture holds the potential not only to feed a growing population but
also to safeguard the planet and foster prosperity for generations to come.

1.2 Defining the AI Green Revolution: AI’s Transformative

Role in Farming

In the wake of pressing global challenges and rapid technological advancements, a

new agricultural era is unfolding—the AI Green Revolution. This transformative
movement leverages the power of artificial intelligence to redefine the way farming
operates, ushering in a sustainable, efficient, and environmentally conscious
approach to food production. At its core, the AI Green Revolution harnesses AI’s
capabilities to address the intricate complexities of modern agriculture [6].
• Data-Driven Precision: AI empowers farmers with data-driven precision. Sensors
[7], drones, and IoT [4] devices gather real-time information about soil health,
weather patterns, and crop conditions. AI algorithms process this data to opti-
mize planting, irrigation, and pest control, ensuring resources are used efficiently.
• Predictive Analytics: The AI Green Revolution thrives on predictive analytics.
Machine learning algorithms analyze historical and real-time data to anticipate
disease outbreaks, optimize planting schedules, and predict crop yields. This
foresight enhances decision-making and minimizes risks.
• Resource Efficiency: AI-driven insights enable resource-efficient farming.
Precision irrigation systems deliver water precisely where needed, reducing
waste. Similarly, the precise application of fertilizers and pesticides minimizes
environmental impact.
424 R. Thangamani et al.

• Climate Resilience [8]: The AI Green Revolution contributes to climate resil-

ience. AI models analyze weather patterns to predict climate shifts, enabling
farmers to adapt their practices accordingly and mitigate the impact of extreme
weather events.
• Empowering Smallholders: This revolution is inclusive, extending benefits to
smallholders. AI-driven platforms provide small-scale farmers with access to
information, market insights, and best practices, leveling the playing field and
enhancing their livelihoods.
• Circular Economy Principles: AI encourages circular economy principles in
agriculture. By optimizing nutrient cycling, reducing waste, and promoting sus-
tainable practices, the AI Green Revolution contributes to ecosystem restoration
and long-term sustainability.
• Ethical Considerations: As AI becomes integral to agriculture, ethical consider-
ations arise. Ensuring data privacy, transparency in algorithms, and equitable
access to technology are paramount in this revolution.
• Collaborative Networks: The AI Green Revolution thrives on collaboration.
Partnerships between technology companies, researchers, farmers, and govern-
ments foster the exchange of knowledge, best practices, and resources.
• Beyond Productivity: Unlike the historical Green Revolution, the AI Green
Revolution isn’t solely focused on yield increase. It emphasizes sustainable prac-
tices, ecosystem health, and equitable distribution of benefits.
As AI’s transformative potential converges with the imperatives of sustainable
agriculture, the AI Green Revolution emerges as a beacon of hope for a future where
food security, environmental stewardship, and technological innovation converge
harmoniously. It’s a call to reimagine farming as a dynamic, data-driven endeavor—
one that ensures prosperity not just for farmers but for the planet as well.

2 Literature Survey

The emergence of the “AI Green Revolution” represents a significant shift in the
agricultural landscape, poised to profoundly reshape the future of farming. A com-
prehensive literature survey reveals that this revolution hinges on the integration of
artificial intelligence (AI) and data-driven technologies into agriculture. These inno-
vations hold the potential to revolutionize the industry by optimizing crop manage-
ment, resource utilization, and sustainability practices. As documented in various
studies, AI is playing a pivotal role in transforming agriculture into a more efficient,
environmentally friendly, and economically viable sector.
One key aspect highlighted in the literature is AI’s capacity to enhance agricul-
tural productivity while minimizing resource inputs. AI-driven solutions, such as
predictive analytics and remote sensing technologies, enable farmers to make data-
informed decisions regarding crop planting, irrigation, and pest control. This preci-
sion agriculture approach results in increased yields, reduced waste, and lower
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 425

operational costs. Furthermore, AI’s contribution to sustainability cannot be over-

stated. It helps mitigate the environmental footprint of agriculture by reducing the
use of water, fertilizers, and pesticides, thereby preserving valuable resources and
promoting ecological balance.

2.1 Addressing Agricultural Challenges with AI

Agriculture, the backbone of our global food system, faces an array of challenges,
from population growth and climate change to resource scarcity and market ineffi-
ciencies [9]. To tackle these complex issues, the integration of artificial intelligence
(AI) emerges as a powerful tool. Here’s how AI is being harnessed to address these
agricultural challenges [10]:
• Precision Farming for Resource Efficiency: AI-powered sensors, drones, and sat-
ellites gather real-time data on soil conditions, weather patterns, and crop health.
Machine learning algorithms process this information to provide actionable
insights, enabling precise resource allocation. This enhances water management,
reduces excessive fertilizer use, and optimizes pest control, all contributing to
increased resource efficiency.
• Climate Resilience and Adaptation [8]: AI models analyze historical and current
climate data to predict weather patterns and shifts. Farmers can make informed
decisions on planting, irrigation, and harvesting based on these predictions,
enhancing climate resilience and reducing losses due to extreme weather events.
• Disease and Pest Management: AI-driven disease and pest prediction models
analyze data from various sources to anticipate outbreaks. This early warning
system allows farmers to take preventive measures, reducing crop losses and
minimizing the need for chemical interventions.
• Data-Driven Decision-Making: AI processes vast amounts of data to provide
real-time insights. Farmers can make well-informed decisions on crop selection,
planting times, and market strategies, leading to higher yields and profitability.
• Access to Information for Smallholders: AI-powered mobile apps and platforms
provide small-scale farmers with access to weather forecasts, market prices, and
best practices. This democratizes information and empowers smallholders to
make informed choices.
• Market Access and Value Chain Optimization: AI helps streamline agricultural
supply chains by predicting demand, optimizing logistics, and reducing post-­
harvest losses. This ensures fresher produce reaches consumers and enhances the
incomes of farmers.
• Sustainable Practices and Biodiversity Conservation: AI assists in designing sus-
tainable cropping systems by analyzing soil health, biodiversity data, and
­ecosystem interactions. This promotes regenerative agriculture that enhances
biodiversity, soil fertility, and carbon sequestration.
426 R. Thangamani et al.

• Monitoring and Management of Large-Scale Farms: For large farms, AI-­powered

autonomous machinery, remote sensing, and predictive maintenance reduce
labor costs and improve farm management efficiency.
• Early Warning Systems and Disaster Management: AI can predict natural disas-
ters like droughts and floods, enabling governments and organizations to imple-
ment disaster management strategies to mitigate their impact on agriculture [11].
• Agroecology and Sustainable Practices: AI supports agroecological approaches
by analyzing local ecosystems and suggesting suitable crop rotations, cover
cropping, and intercropping strategies [12].
Table 1 shows the overview of existing technologies, challenges, and applica-
tions in the AI Green Revolution reshaping agriculture’s future.
These technologies are collectively contributing to the AI Green Revolution in
agriculture, but they also come with various challenges, including issues related to
data, adoption, regulation, and ethics. Successful implementation and widespread
adoption of these technologies require careful consideration and solutions to these
challenges.

Table 1 Overview of existing technologies, challenges, and applications

Technology/
category Description Challenges Applications
Artificial Utilizes machine Data privacy and Crop yield prediction,
intelligence learning and deep security, access to data,disease detection, pest
learning algorithms model accuracy management
IoT (Internet of Sensors, devices, and Scalability, data Soil monitoring, climate
Things) connectivity for data management, power control, irrigation
collection consumption automation
Remote sensing Satellite and drone Data processing, Crop health assessment,
imagery for real-time accuracy, cost, and yield estimation,
data capture accessibility drought monitoring
Precision GPS technology for Initial investment, Variable rate application
farming precise crop education, and training of resources, precision
management planting
Blockchain Distributed ledger for Adoption and integration Supply chain
transparent and secure challenges, regulatory traceability, food safety,
data compliance and authenticity
Robotics and Autonomous machines Cost, technical Labor-saving, precision
automation for tasks like planting complexity, and tasks, weed control
and harvesting maintenance
Data analytics Advanced data analysis Data quality, Market analysis,
for informed interpretation, and predictive modeling,
decision-making integration resource optimization
Biotechnology Genetic modification for Ethical concerns, public Disease resistance,
crop improvement perception, regulatory higher yields, nutrient
approval efficiency
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 427

2.2 Enhancing Precision Agriculture: Predictive Insights

and Decision Support

Precision agriculture is undergoing a revolutionary transformation through the inte-

gration of advanced technologies and data-driven approaches [13]. Central to this
transformation is the utilization of predictive insights and decision support systems
powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and data analytics [13]. These technologies
empower farmers with the tools to make informed decisions, optimize resource
management, and maximize productivity. Here’s how enhancing precision agricul-
ture with predictive insights and decision support is shaping the future of farming
shown in Fig. 1.
• Predictive Analytics for Yield Optimization: AI algorithms analyze historical and
real-time data, including [14] weather patterns, soil conditions, and crop health,
to forecast yield outcomes. This allows farmers to adjust planting strategies, irri-
gation schedules [15], and other practices to optimize yields.
• Disease and Pest Management: Predictive models use AI to identify early signs
of disease or pest outbreaks. Farmers receive timely alerts and recommendations,
enabling them to take preemptive actions and minimize crop losses.
• Weather-Responsive Practices: Real-time weather data integration into decision
support systems allows farmers to adjust their practices according to changing
weather conditions, reducing risks associated with extreme events.

Fig. 1 Applications of precision agriculture

428 R. Thangamani et al.

• Efficient Resource Allocation: Decision support systems consider factors such as

soil moisture levels, nutrient content, and growth stages to recommend precise
irrigation, fertilization, and pesticide application strategies. This minimizes
resource waste and environmental impact.
• Risk Mitigation and Crop Insurance: Predictive insights help farmers assess
potential risks to their crops, enabling them to make informed decisions about
implementing crop insurance or taking measures to mitigate those risks.
• Market-Driven Strategies: AI-powered platforms integrate market data and con-
sumer trends, enabling farmers to align their production with market demands.
This reduces food waste and improves profitability.
• Data-Driven Farm Management: AI consolidates data from various sources, such
as satellite imagery and sensor networks, providing a comprehensive view of the
farm. This holistic perspective informs decisions related to crop rotation, plant-
ing density, and overall farm management.
• Remote Monitoring and Precision Interventions: AI-enhanced sensors and
drones provide real-time information about crop conditions. Farmers can
remotely monitor fields and implement timely interventions without being physi-
cally present.
• Long-Term Sustainability: By predicting the impact of different practices on soil
health and ecosystem balance, decision support systems guide farmers toward
sustainable farming methods that enhance long-term productivity.
• Inclusivity and Accessibility: Decision support systems, often accessible through
mobile apps, bridge the gap between technology and farmers. Smallholders and
rural communities can leverage these tools to enhance their practices.
The integration of predictive insights and decision support systems into precision
agriculture marks a pivotal advancement that empowers farmers to navigate the
complexities of modern farming. As AI and data analytics continue to evolve, their
potential to revolutionize agricultural practices [16], increase efficiency, and con-
tribute to sustainable food production becomes increasingly evident.

2.3 Disease Detection and Early Warning Systems: A Resilient

Approach to Crop Health

Crop health is a cornerstone of agricultural productivity and global food security.

The threat of diseases, both known and emerging [17], poses a significant risk to
crops and can have devastating consequences for farmers and communities. To bol-
ster resilience and combat these challenges, the implementation of disease detection
and early warning systems is emerging as a transformative strategy. This approach
leverages cutting-edge technologies and data-driven insights to proactively monitor,
detect, and manage crop diseases. Here’s how disease detection and early warning
systems are fostering resilience in agriculture [12]:
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 429

• Real-Time Monitoring with Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery and drones

equipped with advanced sensors provide real-time data on crop health, identify-
ing changes in vegetation, moisture levels, and other indicators that signal poten-
tial disease outbreaks.
• Data-Driven Disease Identification: Machine learning algorithms analyze large
datasets of crop images, symptoms, and environmental conditions to accurately
identify diseases. This speeds up diagnosis and enables timely intervention.
• Early Detection and Rapid Response: By detecting diseases in their early stages,
farmers can take swift action to mitigate their spread. Early warning systems
help prevent outbreaks from reaching epidemic proportions.
• Predictive Modeling: AI-powered predictive models analyze historical data,
weather patterns, and disease prevalence to forecast disease risk. Farmers can
adjust planting and management strategies accordingly.
• Smart Sensor Networks [7]: IoT-based sensor networks collect real-time data on
environmental conditions such as humidity, temperature, and soil moisture.
Deviations from normal patterns can indicate disease presence [18].
• Localized Disease Mapping: Geographic information systems (GIS) create
localized disease maps, enabling farmers to identify disease hotspots and plan
targeted interventions.
• Reducing Chemical Dependency: Timely disease detection reduces the reliance
on broad-spectrum pesticides. Targeted interventions minimize chemical usage
and environmental impact.
• Cross-Border Disease Management: Early warning systems transcend borders,
allowing for timely information sharing and coordinated responses to trans-
boundary diseases.
• Resilient Agricultural Systems: Disease detection and early warning systems
contribute to the overall resilience of agricultural systems by minimizing crop
losses and preserving farmer livelihoods.
As climate change and globalization reshape disease dynamics, disease detection
and early warning systems offer a proactive and technology-driven approach to
safeguarding crop health. By equipping farmers with tools to identify and manage
diseases promptly, these systems not only protect yields but also promote sustain-
able and resilient agricultural practices. Embracing this approach empowers farm-
ers to stay ahead of threats, reduce the environmental impact of disease management,
and contribute to food security in an increasingly uncertain world.

3 AI’s Role in Smart Farming

Smart farming, also known as precision agriculture, represents a paradigm shift in

the way we cultivate crops and raise livestock. At the heart of this transformation
lies Artificial Intelligence (AI), a technology that harnesses data-driven insights to
430 R. Thangamani et al.

optimize every aspect of agricultural operations. AI’s integration into smart farming
[19] is revolutionizing how we produce food, making it more efficient, sustainable,
and responsive to the challenges of a rapidly changing world. Here’s how AI is
shaping the future of smart farming [20]:
• Data Collection and Analysis: AI-driven sensors, drones, and satellite imagery
collect vast amounts of data about soil conditions, weather patterns, crop health,
and livestock behavior. AI algorithms process this data to provide real-time
insights, enabling farmers to make informed decisions.
• Predictive Analytics: AI employs historical and current data to forecast future
trends and outcomes. Farmers can predict crop yields, disease outbreaks, and
market demands, allowing them to plan accordingly and optimize resource
allocation.
• Precision Farming: AI’s ability to process data at a granular level enables preci-
sion agriculture. Farmers can apply inputs such as water, fertilizers, and pesti-
cides with pinpoint accuracy, reducing waste and increasing efficiency.
• Disease Detection and Management: AI-powered image recognition and data
analysis can identify early signs of disease in crops and livestock. Early detection
allows for timely interventions, minimizing losses and reducing the need for
chemical treatments.
• Autonomous Machinery: AI-driven autonomous vehicles and robots can perform
tasks like planting, weeding, and harvesting with precision. This reduces labor
costs and enhances efficiency.
• Resource Optimization: AI optimizes resource use by analyzing data to deter-
mine the optimal amount of water, nutrients, and other inputs required for healthy
crop growth.
• Livestock Monitoring: AI-powered sensors track livestock behavior, health, and
feeding patterns. This helps farmers detect health issues early, ensure animal
welfare, and improve productivity.
• Market Insights: AI processes market data to provide insights into consumer
trends and demands. Farmers can align their production with market needs,
reducing food waste and increasing profitability.
• Climate Resilience: AI analyzes weather patterns and climate data to help farm-
ers adapt to changing conditions. It provides recommendations for planting
times, irrigation schedules, and crop choices.
• Data-Driven Decision-Making: AI generates actionable insights from complex
datasets, empowering farmers to make informed decisions about planting strate-
gies, resource management, and risk mitigation.
In essence, AI’s integration into smart farming is driving a shift from traditional,
experience-based farming to a data-driven, responsive, and efficient approach. As
technological advancements continue, AI’s role in agriculture will evolve, further
optimizing food production, conserving resources, and ensuring a sustainable and
resilient agricultural future.
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 431

3.1 AI as an Enabler of Data-Driven Decision-Making

In an era marked by information abundance, the ability to transform data into action-
able insights has become a cornerstone of success across various domains.
Agriculture, too, is undergoing a data revolution, where the integration of Artificial
Intelligence (AI) as an enabler of data-driven decision-making is reshaping the
landscape. This convergence is empowering farmers, researchers, and stakeholders
with the tools to optimize resource use, enhance productivity, and address chal-
lenges with unprecedented precision. Here’s how AI is driving data-driven decision-­
making in agriculture:
• Data Collection and Integration: AI systems gather data from diverse sources
such as sensors, satellites, drones, and historical records. This data fusion creates
a comprehensive view of the farm, encompassing weather conditions, soil health,
crop growth, and more.
• Real-time Insights: AI processes data in real-time, providing farmers with up-to-­
the-minute insights. This enables swift reactions to changing conditions and
minimizes risks associated with crop health, weather patterns, and pest outbreaks.
• Predictive Analytics: AI algorithms analyze historical and current data to predict
future trends. Farmers can anticipate disease outbreaks, optimize planting sched-
ules, and plan resource allocation based on AI-generated forecasts.
• Precision Agriculture: AI’s granular analysis guides precision agriculture prac-
tices. It determines optimal seeding rates, irrigation amounts, and nutrient appli-
cation, reducing waste and maximizing yields.
• Customization and Personalization: AI tailors recommendations to the specific
needs of each field or crop. This individualized approach ensures that interven-
tions are precise and effective.
• Risk Management: AI assesses risk factors like weather events, market fluctua-
tions, and disease prevalence. Farmers can then adopt strategies to mitigate these
risks and protect their investments.
• Resource Optimization [21]: AI-driven insights enable efficient resource alloca-
tion. By understanding each field’s unique conditions, farmers can optimize
water usage, reduce chemical inputs, and conserve energy.
• Market Insights: AI analyzes market data, consumer trends, and demand pat-
terns. Farmers can align their production with market needs, reducing waste and
enhancing profitability.
• Accessibility and Inclusivity: AI platforms, often accessible through mobile
apps, bridge the technology gap for smallholders and remote farmers, ensuring
they benefit from data-driven insights.
• Sustainability and Environmental Stewardship: AI supports environmentally
conscious decisions. It identifies opportunities for sustainable practices like
cover cropping, crop rotation, and integrated pest management.
As AI technologies continue to evolve, their potential to optimize resource use,
increase yields, and promote sustainable practices grows, positioning agriculture to
432 R. Thangamani et al.

meet the challenges of a rapidly changing world. In this data-rich era, AI catalyzes
farmers, researchers, and stakeholders to make smarter, more informed choices that
enhance productivity while preserving the environment for future generations.

3.2 From Machine Learning to Robotics: Diverse Applications

of AI in Agriculture

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is driving a transformative wave across the agricultural

sector, offering a wide array of applications that range from data analysis to robot-
ics. This convergence of AI technologies is reshaping traditional farming [22] prac-
tices and revolutionizing how we approach agricultural challenges. From harnessing
machine learning for predictive insights to deploying robots for labor-intensive
tasks, here’s a glimpse into the diverse applications of AI in agriculture:
• Precision Agriculture and Data Analytics: Machine learning processes data from
various sources—sensors, satellites, and drones—to provide insights on soil
health, weather patterns, and crop conditions [23]. These insights inform deci-
sions about resource allocation, planting strategies, and disease management.
• Disease Detection and Management: AI-powered image recognition and data
analysis identify early signs of diseases in crops. Farmers receive timely alerts
and recommendations for interventions, reducing crop losses and the need for
chemical treatments.
• Weather and Climate Analysis: AI models analyze historical climate data and
predict weather patterns. This enables farmers to adapt practices and mitigate
risks associated with extreme weather events.
• Yield Prediction and Forecasting: Machine learning algorithms analyze histori-
cal yield data, weather conditions, and agronomic practices to forecast crop
yields. This helps farmers plan for market demands and allocate resources
effectively.
• Livestock Monitoring and Management: AI-driven sensors and data analytics
monitor livestock behavior, health, [14] and feeding patterns. This early detec-
tion of issues improves animal welfare and productivity.
• Autonomous Machinery and Robotics: Robots equipped with AI navigate fields
to perform tasks such as planting, weeding, and harvesting. This reduces labor
costs, increases efficiency, and mitigates the challenges of labor shortages.
• Supply Chain Optimization: AI optimizes the supply chain by predicting demand,
improving logistics, and reducing post-harvest losses. This ensures fresher pro-
duce reaches consumers and reduces waste.
• Crop Rotation and Nutrient Management: AI recommends optimal crop rotation
and nutrient management strategies based on soil data and historical perfor-
mance. This enhances soil health and minimizes nutrient runoff.
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 433

• Pest Control and Integrated Pest Management: AI analyzes pest data and recom-
mends integrated pest management strategies, reducing reliance on chemical
pesticides and promoting sustainable practices.
• Food Traceability and Quality Assurance: Blockchain and AI are combined to
track the journey of food products from farm to table. This enhances transpar-
ency, food safety, and consumer trust.
• Soil Health and Erosion Prevention: AI assesses soil erosion risk using satellite
data and recommends erosion-prevention strategies, preserving soil fertility and
preventing environmental degradation.
The applications of AI in agriculture are as diverse as the challenges faced by the
industry. From enabling precision farming through data analytics to revolutionizing
labor-intensive tasks with robotics, AI’s impact spans the entire agricultural value
chain. As technology continues to advance, the potential for AI to enhance produc-
tivity, sustainability, and food security in agriculture is vast, presenting an exciting
future for the field.

4 The Power of Big Data: Collecting, Analyzing,

and Interpreting Agricultural Data

In the age of technology, data has emerged as a pivotal force driving innovation and
transformation across various industries [17], including agriculture. Big Data, char-
acterized by its volume, velocity, and variety, is reshaping the way we approach
farming practices, resource management, and decision-making. In agriculture, [24]
harnessing the power of Big Data involves a comprehensive process of collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting vast amounts of information to drive informed and sus-
tainable agricultural practices. Here’s how the process unfolds [25]:
• Data Integration: The diverse datasets collected from different sources are inte-
grated into a unified platform. This consolidation enables a comprehensive view
of the agricultural landscape and facilitates cross-domain analysis.
• Data Storage and Management: Storing and managing Big Data requires robust
infrastructure and techniques. Cloud computing and data warehouses provide the
capacity to store and access vast datasets efficiently.
• Data Cleaning and Preparation: Raw data often contain errors, missing values,
and inconsistencies. Data cleaning and preprocessing ensure that the information
used for analysis is accurate and reliable.
• Data Analysis: Advanced analytics, including machine learning and AI, process
the data to identify patterns, correlations, and trends. These algorithms unveil
insights that might not be apparent through traditional methods.
• Predictive Modeling: Big Data analytics enable the creation of predictive mod-
els. These models forecast future scenarios, such as crop yields, disease out-
breaks, and market demand, helping farmers plan accordingly.
434 R. Thangamani et al.

• Decision Support Systems: Interpretation of analyzed data results in actionable

insights. Decision support systems provide farmers with real-time recommenda-
tions, aiding them in making informed choices about resource allocation, plant-
ing strategies, and more.
• Resource Optimization [21]: Big Data insights guide the optimization of
resources such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides. Farmers can apply these
resources precisely, reducing waste and environmental impact.
• Risk Mitigation: Analyzing historical data helps farmers identify and manage
risks associated with weather events, pests, and market fluctuations. This allows
for proactive risk mitigation strategies.
• Continuous Improvement: The cyclical process of collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting data allows for continuous improvement. Farmers can refine their
practices based on real-time feedback and evolving insights.
The power of Big Data in agriculture lies not just in its volume, but in the action-
able insights it provides. By collecting, analyzing, and interpreting agricultural data,
farmers and stakeholders can make more informed decisions, optimize resource
use, increase productivity, and contribute to sustainable and resilient farming prac-
tices. In a rapidly evolving world, Big Data is transforming agriculture into a
dynamic, data-driven industry, shaping the future of food production.

4.1 AI-Driven Insights: Optimizing Planting, Irrigation,

and Fertilization

In the quest for sustainable and efficient agriculture, artificial intelligence (AI) is
emerging as a game-changing tool, particularly in optimizing critical processes
such as planting, irrigation, and fertilization. By harnessing the power of AI-driven
insights, farmers can make informed decisions that maximize resource efficiency,
minimize environmental impact, and enhance overall crop yield. Here’s how AI is
revolutionizing these fundamental agricultural practices:
• Precision Planting: AI analyzes historical data, soil conditions, weather patterns,
and crop performance to determine optimal planting strategies. These insights
guide farmers in choosing the right crop varieties, planting densities, and timing
for each field, maximizing germination rates and overall productivity.
• Smart Irrigation [26]: AI integrates real-time data from sensors and weather fore-
casts to precisely manage irrigation. By calculating soil moisture levels, crop
water requirements, and rainfall predictions, AI ensures water is applied where
and when it’s needed, reducing water waste and conserving resources.
• Nutrient Management: AI-driven insights help farmers optimize fertilization
practices. By considering factors such as soil nutrient content, crop growth stage,
and environmental conditions, AI recommends precise fertilizer application rates
and timings, minimizing nutrient runoff and pollution.
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 435

• Data-Driven Decision Support: Farmers receive actionable recommendations

from AI-powered decision support systems. These systems consolidate data, pro-
cess it using machine learning algorithms, and provide real-time guidance on
planting, irrigation, and fertilization strategies.
• Variable Rate Application: AI enables variable rate application, adjusting plant-
ing density, irrigation levels [7], and fertilizer amounts across different zones
within a field. This approach optimizes resource allocation based on specific
conditions, leading to uniform crop growth.
• Risk Mitigation: AI considers risk factors such as climate variability and soil
characteristics when providing recommendations. This helps farmers mitigate
the impact of weather events and ensure crop health.
• Continuous Learning and Improvement: As AI algorithms learn from each sea-
son’s data, insights become more accurate and refined over time. This iterative
process supports ongoing improvement in planting, irrigation, and fertilization
practices.
• Environmental Stewardship: AI’s precise resource allocation reduces the envi-
ronmental footprint of agriculture. Water, fertilizers, and pesticides are used
more efficiently, minimizing runoff and pollution.
• Increased Profitability: AI’s optimization strategies lead to higher crop yields,
reduced input costs, and improved overall profitability for farmers.
• Adaptive Management: AI’s real-time insights allow farmers to adapt their prac-
tices to changing conditions. Whether it’s adjusting irrigation schedules due to
unexpected rain or altering planting strategies based on evolving weather pat-
terns, AI-driven insights enhance adaptability.
In essence, AI-driven insights provide farmers with a data-driven blueprint for
optimizing planting, irrigation, and fertilization practices. By leveraging AI’s capa-
bilities, agriculture is moving toward a more precise, resource-efficient, and sustain-
able future, where technology helps strike the balance between productivity and
environmental conservation.

5 Automation and Robotics in Agriculture

Automation and robotics have ushered in a new era of efficiency and innovation in
the field of agriculture. From planting and harvesting to monitoring and data collec-
tion, these technologies are transforming traditional farming practices and revolu-
tionizing the way we produce food. Here’s a comprehensive overview of how
automation and robotics are reshaping agriculture [27]:
• Precision Planting and Seeding: Automated planting machines use advanced
algorithms to precisely space and place seeds in the soil, optimizing germination
rates and crop uniformity.
436 R. Thangamani et al.

• Autonomous Tractors and Machinery: Self-driving tractors and machinery

equipped with GPS and AI navigate fields, performing tasks such as plowing,
cultivating, and spraying with precision and minimal human intervention.
• Robotic Harvesting: Robots equipped with sensors and cameras identify ripe
fruits and vegetables, ensuring gentle and efficient harvesting. This reduces labor
costs and increases efficiency.
• Weed and Pest Control: Robots equipped with AI-driven cameras and robotic
arms can target and remove weeds with high precision, reducing the need for
chemical herbicides.
• Monitoring and Data Collection: Drones and ground-based robots collect real-­
time data on soil moisture, crop health, and weather conditions. This data aids in
making informed decisions about irrigation, fertilization, and disease
management.
• Autonomous Greenhouses: Automated greenhouses regulate temperature,
humidity, and lighting conditions to optimize plant growth. Robots can also per-
form tasks like planting, pruning, and harvesting in controlled environments [28].
• Dairy and Livestock Management: Robotic systems monitor and manage live-
stock, including milking, feeding, and health monitoring, leading to improved
animal welfare and productivity.
• Autonomous Sorting and Packing: Robots equipped with computer vision sys-
tems sort and pack harvested produce based on quality and size, reducing post-­
harvest losses and ensuring consistency.
• Soil Sampling and Analysis: Robotic systems collect soil samples from various
parts of a field, providing data for accurate nutrient management and improving
soil health.
• Labor Shortage Mitigation: Automation and robotics address labor shortages in
agriculture by performing tasks that are labor-intensive, time-consuming, or
physically demanding.
• Remote Monitoring and Management: Farmers can remotely monitor and con-
trol agricultural operations through mobile apps and connected devices, increas-
ing operational efficiency.
• Reduction of Chemical Usage: Precision application of pesticides and fertilizers
by robots minimizes chemical usage, reducing environmental impact.
• 24/7 Operations: Robots and automated systems can work around the clock,
optimizing productivity and reducing the constraints of daylight hours.
• Data-Driven Decision-Making: Automated systems provide real-time data,
enabling farmers to make informed decisions for resource allocation, planting
strategies, and more.
• Sustainable Practices: Automation and robotics enable more precise resource
management, reducing waste and supporting sustainable farming practices.
As automation and robotics continue to evolve, they offer the potential to increase
agricultural productivity, reduce environmental impact, and enhance the resilience
of farming systems. The integration of these technologies into agriculture is paving
the way for a more efficient, sustainable, and technologically advanced future in
food production.
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 437

5.1 Robotic Farming Systems: From Planting to Harvesting

The integration of robotics into agriculture is revolutionizing traditional farming

practices, from the initial stages of planting to the final steps of harvesting [5].
These robotic farming systems are changing the way we cultivate crops, offering
increased efficiency, precision, and sustainability. Here’s an exploration of how
robotics is transforming the entire farming process [29]:
• Precision Planting: Robotic planting systems use advanced algorithms and sen-
sors to precisely plant seeds at optimal depths and intervals. This ensures uni-
form germination and strong crop establishment.
• Automated Irrigation and Fertilization: Robots equipped with sensors [30] can
monitor soil moisture levels and nutrient content. They autonomously apply irri-
gation [26] and fertilizers in precise amounts, reducing waste and enhancing
resource efficiency.
• Weed and Pest Management: Robotic systems equipped with cameras and AI can
identify and target weeds, removing them with precision. This reduces the need
for chemical herbicides and promotes sustainable practices.
• Crop Monitoring and Disease Detection: Drones and ground-based robots
equipped with sensors and cameras collect data on crop health, spotting disease
outbreaks and enabling timely interventions.
• Precision Spraying: Robotic sprayers precisely apply pesticides or other treat-
ments to specific areas of crops, reducing chemical usage and minimizing envi-
ronmental impact.
• Autonomous Tractors and Machinery: Self-driving tractors equipped with GPS
and AI can perform various tasks, such as plowing, cultivating, and seeding, with
minimal human intervention.
• Robotic Harvesting: Robots equipped with sensors and AI can identify ripe fruits
and vegetables and harvest them gently and efficiently. This reduces labor costs
and post-harvest losses.
• Controlled Environment Farming: Automated greenhouses and vertical farms
use robotics to manage lighting, temperature, and humidity conditions, creating
optimal growing environments.
• Data-Driven Insights: Robotic systems collect and analyze data to provide real-­
time insights on crop health, soil conditions, and other factors. These insights
guide decision-making for better farming practices.
• Labor Efficiency: Robotic farming systems address labor shortages by perform-
ing labor-intensive tasks, ensuring operations continue seamlessly.
• Energy Efficiency: Robots can optimize energy use by precisely managing light-
ing, irrigation, and climate control systems in indoor farming environments.
• Soil Health and Nutrient Management: Robotic soil sampling and nutrient appli-
cation systems help maintain soil health and ensure optimal nutrient levels for
plant growth.
438 R. Thangamani et al.

• Data Integration and IoT: Robotic systems [27] can be part of the Internet of
Things (IoT) ecosystem, sharing data and insights with other connected devices
for comprehensive farm management.
• Reduced Environmental Impact: Robotic systems enable targeted interventions
[27], reducing the need for chemical inputs and minimizing the environmental
footprint of farming.
• Continuous Improvement: As robotics and AI technologies advance, these sys-
tems continuously learn and improve, adapting to changing conditions and opti-
mizing performance.

6 The Smart Agriculture Process

Smart agriculture encompasses a range of processes and technologies aimed at

improving the efficiency, sustainability, and productivity of farming practices [31].
An overview of the smart agriculture process is shown in Fig. 2:

Fig. 2 Smart agriculture process

AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 439

• Data Collection: The process begins with the collection of data from various
sources using IoT sensors, cameras, drones, and other monitoring devices. These
sensors can gather data on soil conditions [32], weather, crop health, livestock
behavior, and more. This real-time data forms the foundation for smart
decision-making.
• Data Transmission: Collected data is transmitted to a central system or cloud
platform through wireless or wired networks. This allows for remote access and
real-time monitoring, which is crucial for making timely decisions and
adjustments.
• Data Analysis: Once the data is collected, it is analyzed using data analytics and
machine learning algorithms. This analysis helps in identifying trends [33], pat-
terns, and anomalies, providing valuable insights into the state of the farm and its
various components.
• Decision Support: Farmers receive actionable insights and recommendations
based on data analysis. These recommendations can include optimal irrigation
[34] schedules, precise fertilization plans, disease detection in crops, or health
monitoring for livestock. Farmers can use this information to make informed
decisions.
• Automation: Smart agriculture often involves automation through the use of
autonomous machinery and equipment. This can include automated tractors,
drones for precision spraying, and robotic milking machines. Automation
reduces the need for manual labor and ensures tasks are carried out with preci-
sion and efficiency.
• Resource Management: Smart agriculture optimizes the use of resources such as
water, energy, and fertilizers. IoT-enabled systems can adjust irrigation [26]
based on soil moisture levels, reduce energy consumption through efficient
equipment usage, and minimize fertilizer runoff.
• Monitoring and Control: Through IoT-connected devices, farmers can remotely
monitor and control various aspects of their operations. This includes adjusting
irrigation systems, managing livestock feeding, and even controlling greenhouse
environments for specialized crops.
• Predictive Maintenance: IoT technology can predict when machinery or equip-
ment might require maintenance, reducing downtime and preventing costly
breakdowns. This proactive approach ensures that farming operations remain
efficient.
• Market Analysis: Smart agriculture systems can also provide insights into mar-
ket conditions, helping farmers make decisions about crop selection and timing
for optimal prices in the market.
• Environmental Sustainability: By optimizing resource use and reducing waste,
smart agriculture contributes to environmental sustainability. It minimizes the
environmental impact of farming practices, which is crucial for long-term agri-
cultural viability.
Overall, smart agriculture is a data-driven and technology-enabled approach that
aims to make farming more efficient, profitable, and sustainable while ensuring
440 R. Thangamani et al.

food security for a growing global population. It integrates data, connectivity, and
automation to transform traditional farming into a high-tech industry.

6.1 Application of IoT on Smart Agricultural

The application of IoT (Internet of Things) in smart agriculture has revolutionized

the way farmers manage their crops and livestock. IoT technology involves the use
of sensors, data analytics, and connectivity to gather real-time information from
various agricultural assets, such as fields, machinery, and animals. These innova-
tions have significantly improved agricultural efficiency and sustainability. For
instance, IoT-enabled sensors placed in fields can monitor soil moisture levels, tem-
perature, and nutrient content, allowing farmers to make data-driven decisions about
irrigation and fertilization. This precision agriculture approach minimizes resource
wastage and maximizes crop yields. Furthermore, IoT-connected livestock monitor-
ing systems can provide farmers with valuable insights into the health and behavior
of their animals, helping to prevent disease outbreaks and optimize feeding sched-
ules. Overall, IoT in smart agriculture has the potential to increase food production,
reduce environmental impacts, and enhance the overall sustainability of farming
practices shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Application of IoT on smart agriculture

AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 441

Another critical aspect of IoT in smart agriculture is the automation of various

tasks through smart machinery and autonomous vehicles. IoT-connected tractors
and drones equipped with sensors and cameras can perform tasks like planting,
harvesting, and pest control with high precision and efficiency. This not only reduces
labor costs but also minimizes the need for chemical inputs, promoting sustainable
farming practices. Additionally, IoT-based farm management platforms enable
remote monitoring and control of farm operations, allowing farmers to make timely
adjustments and respond to changing environmental conditions. With the help of
predictive analytics and machine learning algorithms, IoT can also provide early
warnings about weather events or crop diseases, helping farmers mitigate risks and
optimize their production strategies. In summary, the application of IoT in smart
agriculture is transforming traditional farming [8] into a data-driven, efficient, and
sustainable industry that can better meet the growing global demand for food while
minimizing its impact on the environment.
The expedition from planting to harvesting is being reimagined by the capabili-
ties of robotic farming systems. These systems offer farmers the potential to increase
productivity, reduce resource waste, and promote sustainable practices while also
addressing the challenges of labor shortages and changing climate conditions. As
technology continues to evolve, the impact of robotics on agriculture promises a
more efficient, resilient, and technologically advanced future.

6.2 AI-Powered Drones and Sensors: The Revolutionizing

Field Monitoring

Combination is empowering farmers with real-time insights, precise data collection,

and targeted interventions that enhance productivity, optimize resource use, and
promote sustainable practices. Here’s how AI-powered drones and sensors are
transforming field monitoring [35]:
• Aerial Surveillance and Imaging: Drones equipped with high-resolution cameras
capture detailed images of fields. AI algorithms analyze these images to assess
crop health, detect disease, and identify areas that require attention.
• Crop Health Assessment: AI algorithms process drone-captured images to iden-
tify early signs of stress, disease, or nutrient deficiencies in crops. This enables
timely interventions, reducing losses and improving yields.
• Precision Mapping: Drones use GPS technology to create detailed field maps. AI
interprets these maps to provide insights into soil variations, drainage patterns,
and other factors that impact crop growth.
• Soil Moisture and Nutrient Analysis: Ground-based sensors and drones equipped
with sensors measure soil moisture levels and nutrient content. AI analyzes this
data to optimize irrigation and fertilization strategies.
442 R. Thangamani et al.

• Pest and Weed Detection: AI-powered sensors and cameras on drones identify
pests and weeds in real-time. This enables targeted interventions, reducing the
need for broad-spectrum pesticides.
• Weather Monitoring: Drones equipped with weather sensors collect real-time
data on temperature, humidity, wind, and other environmental factors. AI inter-
prets this data to provide insights for decision-making.
• Irrigation Management: Sensors detect soil moisture levels, and AI recommends
precise irrigation schedules based on crop needs and weather forecasts, conserv-
ing water and ensuring optimal growth.
• Disease Outbreak Prediction: AI analyzes historical data, current conditions, and
disease patterns to predict disease outbreaks. Farmers receive alerts and recom-
mendations to mitigate risks.
• Yield Estimation: Drones capture data on plant height, density, and other param-
eters. AI uses this data to estimate crop yields, aiding in harvest planning and
market projections.
• Data-Driven Insights: AI processes the vast amount of data collected by drones
and sensors, providing actionable insights for decision-making in real-time.
• Reduced Resource Usage [36]: AI-powered field monitoring enables precise
resource allocation, reducing water waste, chemical usage, and other inputs.
• Environmental Sustainability: By targeting interventions and optimizing prac-
tices, AI-powered field monitoring supports sustainable farming practices and
reduces the environmental impact of agriculture.
• Increased Efficiency: AI-powered drones and sensors cover large areas quickly
and accurately, enhancing monitoring efficiency and reducing labor requirements.
• Rapid Response to Emergencies: In the event of weather-related disasters or dis-
ease outbreaks, AI-powered field monitoring provides rapid, data-driven insights
for effective response and recovery.
The synergy of AI-powered drones and sensors is transforming field monitoring
into a dynamic, data-driven process. By providing farmers with real-time, accurate
insights, these technologies are helping to maximize yields, conserve resources, and
promote environmentally responsible farming practices. As technology continues to
advance, the potential for AI-powered field monitoring to drive agricultural innova-
tion and sustainability is limitless.

7 Sustainability and Resource Optimization

The pursuit of sustainability has become a cornerstone of modern agriculture. As

the global population grows and environmental challenges escalate, optimizing
resources while minimizing negative impacts is essential. Through innovative tech-
nologies, data-driven insights, and sustainable practices, agriculture [37] is striving
to balance productivity with environmental stewardship. Here’s how the principles
of sustainability and resource optimization are being integrated into the agricultural
landscape:
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 443

• Precision Agriculture: Precision agriculture leverages technology such as GPS,

sensors, and data analytics to optimize resource use. Farmers apply inputs like
water, fertilizers, and pesticides with precision, reducing waste and minimizing
their impact on ecosystems.
• Efficient Water Management [36]: Water scarcity is a pressing concern.
Techniques like drip irrigation, soil moisture sensors, and AI-driven irrigation
management ensure water is used efficiently, reducing overuse and runoff.
• Nutrient Management: Balancing nutrient inputs with crop needs is crucial. Soil
testing, nutrient analysis, and AI-driven recommendations help farmers apply
fertilizers judiciously, minimizing nutrient runoff into water bodies.
• Organic Farming: Organic farming practices avoid synthetic pesticides and fer-
tilizers, focusing on natural alternatives. This approach promotes soil health,
reduces chemical pollution, and enhances biodiversity.
• Cover Cropping and Crop Rotation: Cover crops prevent soil erosion, enhance
soil structure, and capture carbon. Crop rotation disrupts pest and disease cycles
and helps maintain soil fertility.
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM): IPM combines biological, cultural, and
chemical control methods to manage pests sustainably. This reduces reliance on
chemical pesticides and preserves beneficial insects.
• Renewable Energy Adoption: Solar panels, wind turbines, and other renewable
energy sources power farms, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and decreasing
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Data-Driven Decision-Making: Data analytics and AI-driven insights guide
farmers to make informed decisions about resource allocation, planting strate-
gies, and risk management.
• Erosion Prevention and Soil Conservation: Practices like contour plowing, ter-
racing, and maintaining grassed waterways prevent soil erosion and protect valu-
able topsoil.
• Sustainable Livestock Management: Practices that prioritize animal welfare,
rotational grazing, and efficient feed conversion help reduce the environmental
impact of livestock farming.
• Agroforestry and Biodiversity Enhancement: Planting trees and incorporating
diverse plant species on farms enhance biodiversity, provide habitat for benefi-
cial organisms, and sequester carbon.
• Sustainable Supply Chains: Integrating sustainability throughout the supply
chain ensures that farming practices are aligned with environmental and social
considerations.
• Circular Economy Practices: Recycling agricultural waste, adopting regenerative
practices, and reducing food waste contribute to a circular economy that maxi-
mizes resource use efficiency.
• Carbon Sequestration: Techniques like agroforestry, cover cropping, and no-till
farming help capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in soils and
vegetation.
444 R. Thangamani et al.

Sustainability and resource optimization are not only crucial for the well-being
of our planet but also for ensuring food security in the face of changing climate pat-
terns and population growth. As technology and agricultural practices continue to
evolve, the integration of these principles will drive the future of farming, fostering
resilience, productivity, and a healthier environment.

7.1 Precision Water Management: Efficient Irrigation with AI

Water is a precious resource, and in agriculture, its efficient use is vital for sustain-
ability and productivity. Precision water management [13], empowered by artificial
intelligence (AI), is transforming irrigation practices by providing farmers with
data-driven insights and tools to optimize water usage [38]. Here’s how AI is revo-
lutionizing irrigation for more efficient and sustainable farming [39]:
• Real-Time Monitoring: AI-powered sensors and IoT devices continuously moni-
tor soil moisture levels, weather forecasts, and crop needs in real-time. This data
is used to make informed irrigation decisions.
• Data Analysis and Predictive Insights: AI algorithms analyze historical and real-­
time data to predict future irrigation requirements based on crop growth stages,
weather conditions, and soil characteristics.
• Variable Rate Irrigation: AI determines different irrigation rates for various parts
of a field, accounting for variations in soil composition and water needs. This
ensures uniform plant growth and efficient water distribution.
• Automated Irrigation Scheduling [15, 26, 38]: AI-driven systems automatically
adjust irrigation schedules based on the specific needs of each field, reducing
water wastage and increasing efficiency.
• Soil Moisture-Based Irrigation: AI interprets data from soil moisture sensors to
determine optimal irrigation timings and amounts, preventing over-irrigation and
waterlogging.
• Weather Integration: AI considers weather forecasts, evaporation rates, and rain-
fall predictions to fine-tune irrigation schedules, avoiding unnecessary watering
during rainy periods.
• Mobile Apps and Notifications: AI-powered apps provide farmers with real-time
data and notifications, allowing them to remotely control and monitor irrigation
systems.
• Drip and Micro-irrigation Optimization: AI optimizes drip and micro-irrigation
systems by calculating precise water amounts needed for each plant, minimizing
water waste.
• Water Use Efficiency: AI-powered irrigation reduces water wastage, conserving
this valuable resource and promoting sustainable water use.
• Water Stress Avoidance: AI detects signs of water stress in plants through data
analysis, prompting timely irrigation interventions to prevent crop losses.
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 445

• Crop-Specific Recommendations: AI considers the water needs of different

crops, ensuring tailored irrigation strategies that promote healthy growth
and yield.
• Environmental Conservation: By preventing over-irrigation, AI-driven systems
reduce the risk of nutrient leaching and runoff, preserving water quality in sur-
rounding ecosystems.
• Reduced Energy Costs: Efficient irrigation practices powered by AI also lead to
energy savings, as less energy is required for water pumping and distribution.
• Increased Crop Resilience: Proper irrigation through AI-guided practices helps
crops better withstand drought conditions and other environmental stresses.
• Food Security Enhancement: Precision water management ensures consistent
and optimized irrigation, contributing to a stable food supply.
AI’s integration into irrigation practices is a key step toward sustainable agricul-
ture in a world challenged by water scarcity and climate change. By maximizing
water efficiency, minimizing waste, and promoting optimal plant growth,
AI-powered precision water management is playing a pivotal role in shaping a resil-
ient and productive agricultural future.

7.2 Reducing Chemical Usage: Precision Pest

and Weed Management

The sustainable management of pests and weeds is a critical aspect of modern agri-
culture. Precision pest and weed management, driven by advanced technologies and
data-driven approaches, aims to minimize the use of chemical pesticides and herbi-
cides while effectively safeguarding crops. Here’s how precision management tech-
niques are revolutionizing pest and weed control [40]:
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM): IPM combines various strategies, including
biological control, cultural practices, and chemical interventions as a last resort.
This holistic approach reduces chemical reliance and promotes natural predators
and beneficial organisms.
• Remote Sensing and Imaging: Drones equipped with cameras and sensors pro-
vide real-time imaging of fields, enabling early detection of pest outbreaks and
allowing for targeted interventions.
• AI-Powered Pest Detection: AI algorithms process images and data to identify
pests and diseases. This enables timely and accurate pest identification for
prompt action.
• Trapping and Monitoring Systems: AI-enhanced traps and monitoring systems
detect pest activity. This data guides decisions on when and where to apply
interventions.
• Beneficial Insect Promotion: Precision management practices foster populations
of beneficial insects that prey on pests, reducing the need for chemical treatments.
446 R. Thangamani et al.

• Resistant Crop Varieties: Plant breeding techniques are used to develop crop
varieties that are naturally resistant to specific pests or diseases.
• Trap Crops and Border Planting: Specially planted trap crops or border plants
attract pests away from main crops, reducing the need for chemical treatments.
• Herbicide-Resistant Weed Control: Precision genetic modification has led to the
development of crops resistant to specific herbicides. This enables targeted weed
control without affecting the main crop.
• Site-Specific Application: AI-driven systems analyze data to determine where
and when chemical treatments are needed, minimizing overuse and reducing
environmental impact.
• Autonomous Weed Detection and Removal: Robots equipped with cameras and
AI algorithms can identify and remove weeds with precision, minimizing the
need for herbicides.
• Biological Control Agents: The introduction of natural predators or pathogens
that target specific pests can control their populations without resorting to
chemicals.
• Cultural Practices: Practices like crop rotation, intercropping, and adjusting
planting dates disrupt pest life cycles and reduce the need for chemical treatments.
• Disease Forecasting Models: AI-powered models analyze weather and other data
to predict disease outbreaks. Early warnings enable timely interventions.
• Reduced Environmental Impact: Precision management techniques reduce
chemical runoff, minimize soil and water contamination, and protect nontarget
organisms.
• Improved Soil Health: Reduced chemical usage enhances soil microbial diver-
sity and overall soil health, supporting plant growth.
Precision pest and weed management not only addresses environmental con-
cerns but also contributes to healthier crops and safer food products. By embracing
data-driven strategies, innovative technologies, and holistic approaches, modern
agriculture is finding ways to strike a balance between protecting crops and preserv-
ing ecosystems.

8 Economic and Environmental Benefits

The AI Green Revolution is ushering in a transformative era for agriculture, with

profound economic and environmental benefits that hold the promise of reshaping
the future of farming. On the economic front, this revolution is boosting productiv-
ity by enabling farmers to make data-driven decisions. Through advanced technolo-
gies like machine learning and precision farming, it empowers farmers to optimize
resource allocation, reduce input costs, and enhance labor efficiency. The result is
higher crop yields, improved crop quality, and greater economic returns for farmers.
In an era marked by increasing global demand for food and volatile market condi-
tions, these economic benefits are vital for the sustainability of the agricultural sec-
tor [28].
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 447

In parallel, the AI Green Revolution is delivering substantial environmental

advantages. Minimizing resource wastage through precise management of water,
fertilizers, and pesticides contributes to resource efficiency and conservation. This
translates into reduced water consumption, lower energy usage, and minimal chemi-
cal runoff, leading to a substantial decrease in the environmental footprint of agri-
culture. Moreover, the adoption of sustainable farming practices encouraged by AI
technologies helps preserve soil health, conserve biodiversity, and mitigate the
impact of climate change. These environmental benefits align with global efforts to
combat environmental degradation and climate-related challenges, making
AI-driven agriculture an essential component of environmental stewardship.
The AI Green Revolution also fosters resilience to climate change by offering
adaptive solutions for farmers. With the capacity to monitor changing weather pat-
terns and adapt crop management accordingly, it enhances farmers’ ability to miti-
gate risks associated with climate volatility. Furthermore, it promotes climate-smart
farming practices [41], including soil carbon sequestration, which plays a pivotal
role in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Ultimately, the economic and environ-
mental benefits of the AI Green Revolution are tightly intertwined, underpinning its
pivotal role in reshaping agriculture’s future by ensuring food security, economic
stability, and environmental sustainability on a global scale.
The AI Green Revolution brings together economic and environmental benefits
by promoting sustainable and efficient agricultural practices that not only increase
farmers’ profitability but also reduce the environmental footprint of agriculture.
These combined benefits make AI-driven agriculture a crucial element in address-
ing global challenges related to food security, climate change, and resource scarcity
shown in Table 2.

8.1 Increasing Productivity and Yield: AI’s Contribution

to Food Security

The global challenge of providing food security for a growing population has
prompted the agricultural sector to harness the capabilities of artificial intelligence
(AI) to enhance productivity and yield. AI’s integration into various aspects of farm-
ing has the potential to revolutionize food production, ensuring a stable and suffi-
cient food supply. Here’s how AI is contributing to food security by increasing
productivity and yield [42]:
• Precision Resource Management: AI analyzes data from sensors, satellites, and
drones to optimize the application of water, fertilizers, and pesticides. This tar-
geted approach maximizes resource efficiency and crop yields.
• Early Disease Detection: AI-powered systems process vast amounts of data to
identify signs of disease or pest infestations early. This timely intervention pre-
vents crop losses and ensures higher yields.
448 R. Thangamani et al.

Table 2 Economic and environmental benefits

Benefits Economic benefits Environmental benefits
Increased productivity Higher crop yields and quality Reduced resource wastage (water,
fertilizer, pesticides)
Improved labor efficiency Preservation of natural habitats
Greater economic returns for Lower greenhouse gas emissions
farmers
Cost savings Reduced input costs (water, Lower energy consumption
fertilizers, pesticides)
Lower operational and labor costs Conservation of biodiversity
Resource efficiency Precise resource allocation (water, Preservation of soil health
nutrients)
Reduced water consumption Enhanced water quality and
conservation [41, 43, 44]
Minimal waste due to precision Reduced land degradation
farming practices
Environmental Sustainable farming practices Mitigation of climate change
stewardship Reduced chemical runoff and Reduced use of synthetic chemicals
pollution
Resilience to climate Improved adaptability to Climate-smart farming practices
change changing weather patterns
Better risk management in Enhanced soil carbon sequestration
volatile markets
Economic Opportunities for ag-tech industry Reduced dependency on traditional
diversification growth farming methods

• Climate-Resilient Crops: AI-assisted breeding techniques enable the develop-

ment of crop varieties that are more resilient to changing climate conditions,
enhancing yield stability.
• Crop Monitoring and Analysis: AI-driven drones and sensors monitor crops for
stress, nutrient deficiencies, and other factors. This real-time data guides inter-
ventions that boost productivity.
• Predictive Analytics: AI algorithms use historical and current data to predict
future crop yields, enabling better planning and decision-making.
• Automated Planting and Harvesting: Robotics and AI streamline planting and
harvesting processes, reducing labor requirements and increasing efficiency.
• Soil Health Management: AI interprets soil data to recommend optimal planting
strategies, contributing to healthy soil and improved crop yields.
• Data-Driven Decision-Making: AI processes vast datasets to provide farmers
with actionable insights, guiding them in making informed choices for improved
productivity.
• Efficient Pest Management: AI helps in identifying and targeting specific pests,
minimizing damage and losses to crops.
• Sustainable Intensification: AI optimizes land use, enabling higher yields with-
out expanding agricultural land, thus reducing pressure on natural ecosystems.
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 449

8.2 Minimizing Environmental Impact: AI’s Role

in Sustainable Farming

Sustainable farming practices are vital for preserving the environment and ensuring
the long-term viability of agriculture. AI plays a crucial role in promoting such
practices by enabling data-driven decision-making that minimizes environmental
impact. Here’s how AI contributes to sustainable farming by reducing its environ-
mental footprint:
• Precision Application of Inputs: AI-driven systems apply inputs such as water,
fertilizers, and pesticides precisely where and when needed, reducing waste and
pollution.
• Reduced Chemical Usage: AI identifies optimal times for chemical applications,
minimizing the amount needed and decreasing chemical runoff.
• Soil Health Monitoring: AI analyzes soil data to determine soil health, enabling
practices that enhance soil fertility and minimize erosion.
• Biodiversity Enhancement: AI-driven practices promote biodiversity by support-
ing integrated pest management, pollinator habitats, and sustainable crop
rotation.
• Efficient Water Management: AI optimizes irrigation practices, minimizing
water usage and conserving this valuable resource.
• Carbon Sequestration: AI assists in implementing practices like cover cropping
and agroforestry, which sequester carbon from the atmosphere.
• Waste Reduction: AI helps prevent overproduction and food waste by aligning
production with demand, reducing the environmental impact of surplus food.
• Energy Efficiency: AI-driven automation and optimization reduce energy con-
sumption in various farming processes.
• Adaptive Planning: AI adjusts farming strategies based on real-time environmen-
tal conditions, ensuring minimal impact on ecosystems.
• Conservation of Ecosystems: AI enables targeted interventions that protect sur-
rounding ecosystems from contamination and disturbance.
The combination of AI’s capabilities with sustainable farming practices holds the
promise of not only increasing food security but also safeguarding the environment
for future generations. By embracing AI-driven innovation, agriculture [45] can
strike a harmonious balance between productivity and environmental preservation.

8.3 Challenges and Ethical Considerations

While the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in agriculture holds tremendous

promise for improving productivity and sustainability, it also presents a range of
challenges and ethical considerations. Addressing these issues is crucial to ensure
that AI-driven advancements benefit both farmers and the environment while
450 R. Thangamani et al.

upholding ethical standards. Here are some key challenges and ethical consider-
ations in agricultural AI:
Challenges:
• Data Privacy and Ownership: The collection of extensive data raises concerns
about who owns and controls the data generated by AI systems, as well as how it
is used and shared.
• Data Quality and Bias: AI models rely on accurate and unbiased data. If the data
used for training is incomplete or biased, it can lead to inaccurate predictions and
decisions.
• Access to Technology: Access to AI-driven technology may be limited for small-­
scale and resource-constrained farmers, exacerbating inequalities in the agricul-
tural sector.
• Technical Infrastructure: Adequate infrastructure, such as high-speed Internet
and reliable electricity, is necessary for the effective deployment of AI in remote
agricultural areas.
• Skilled Workforce: The adoption of AI requires a workforce skilled in data anal-
ysis, programming, and AI implementation, which may be a challenge in some
regions.
• Cost of Implementation: The initial investment required for AI technology and
infrastructure can be a barrier, particularly for small-scale farmers.
• Algorithm Complexity: Understanding and interpreting AI algorithms can be
challenging, leading to potential mistrust or lack of transparency.
• Risk of Overreliance: Overreliance on AI systems without farmer expertise could
lead to disengagement from the decision-making process.
• Environmental Impact: The energy consumption associated with AI infrastruc-
ture could counteract the sustainability goals of precision agriculture.
Ethical Considerations:
• Data Privacy and Security: The collection and storage of sensitive agricultural
data raise concerns about privacy and the potential for data breaches.
• Transparency and Accountability: AI algorithms should be transparent, explain-
able, and accountable, enabling farmers to understand decisions made by AI
systems.
• Equitable Access: Ethical considerations require that AI-driven benefits are
accessible to all farmers, irrespective of their size or location.
• Fair Compensation: Farmers providing data for training AI models should be
fairly compensated for their contributions.
• Environmental Impact Assessment: The environmental impact of AI deployment
should be carefully evaluated to ensure that sustainability goals are not
compromised.
• Avoiding Monopolies: Ensuring competition and preventing monopolies in the
AI agricultural technology sector is crucial for a diverse and accessible market.
• Informed Consent: Farmers should be adequately informed about the implica-
tions of using AI technology and provide informed consent.
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 451

• Ethical Treatment of Animals: AI systems used in livestock management should

prioritize the welfare and ethical treatment of animals.
• Long-Term Consequences: The long-term effects of AI on agricultural practices,
ecosystems, and rural communities should be considered.
Balancing the potential benefits of AI in agriculture with these challenges and
ethical considerations is essential to ensure that technological advancements are
deployed responsibly and ethically. A collaborative effort involving governments,
researchers, farmers, and industry stakeholders can guide the development and
adoption of AI solutions that contribute positively to agriculture while upholding
ethical standards.

9 Data Privacy and Security in Agricultural Systems

As agriculture becomes increasingly data-driven, concerns about data privacy and

security are paramount. The use of technology and AI in farming generates substan-
tial amounts of sensitive data, including crop information, location data, and farmer
practices. Safeguarding this data is essential to maintain trust among farmers and
ensure the integrity of agricultural systems. Here’s how data privacy and security
are managed in agricultural AI:
• Secure Data Storage and Transmission: Data should be stored in encrypted for-
mats and transmitted securely to prevent unauthorized access.
• Access Control and Authentication: Implement strict access controls, requiring
proper authentication for anyone accessing the data.
• Anonymization and Aggregation: Personal and sensitive data can be anonymized
or aggregated to protect individual privacy while still providing valuable insights.
• Consent and Ownership: Farmers should have clear knowledge of how their data
is used, and they should provide informed consent for data collection and
utilization.
• Data Sharing Agreements: When sharing data with third parties, clear agree-
ments should be established to define how the data will be used and protected.
• Regular Auditing: Regular audits of data storage and processing systems can
identify vulnerabilities and ensure compliance with data protection regulations.
• Compliance with Regulations: Adherence to data protection regulations, such as
GDPR, CCPA, and regional agricultural data laws, is crucial.
• Educating Farmers: Farmers should be educated about data privacy risks and
best practices to ensure responsible data management.
Balancing AI with Human Expertise: Ensuring Equitable Access to
Technology
While AI holds great potential for transforming agriculture, ensuring equitable
access to these technologies is essential to avoid exacerbating existing disparities.
Balancing AI with human expertise acknowledges the importance of local
452 R. Thangamani et al.

knowledge and fosters inclusivity in technological adoption. Here’s how to ensure

equitable access to AI technology in agriculture:
• Training and Capacity Building: Provide training and support for farmers to
understand and effectively use AI tools, regardless of their scale of operation.
• Local Context Integration: Develop AI solutions that consider local practices,
languages, and cultural factors to ensure relevance and adoption.
• Accessible User Interfaces: AI systems should have intuitive user interfaces that
accommodate users with varying levels of technological literacy.
• Collaboration and Partnerships: Collaborate with local organizations, NGOs,
and governments to facilitate technology adoption and provide resources.
• Affordable Solutions: Develop cost-effective AI solutions that cater to the finan-
cial constraints of small-scale farmers.
• Open Data and Knowledge Sharing: Foster a culture of open data and knowledge
sharing, promoting equitable access to insights and solutions.
• Rural Connectivity: Improve Internet connectivity in rural areas to ensure that
farmers can access and benefit from AI technologies.
• Local Innovation Hubs: Establish local innovation centers that provide training,
support, and resources for adopting AI in agriculture.
• Policy Considerations: Governments can play a role in ensuring that AI technol-
ogy is accessible to all by implementing policies that encourage inclusivity and
prevent monopolies.
By prioritizing data privacy, security, and equitable access, the agricultural sector
can harness the benefits of AI while respecting individual rights and promoting fair
and inclusive technological advancement. This approach ensures that AI enhances
farming practices and supports the livelihoods of all farmers, regardless of their
scale or location.

9.1 Empowering Farmers and Communities

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in agriculture holds the potential to

empower farmers and rural communities by providing them with access to valuable
insights, tools, and resources. This technological transformation can enhance agri-
cultural practices, improve livelihoods, and contribute to sustainable rural develop-
ment. Here’s how AI is empowering farmers and communities:
• Access to Information: AI-powered platforms offer real-time information on
weather forecasts, market prices, and best farming practices, enabling informed
decision-making.
• Knowledge Sharing: AI facilitates the exchange of knowledge and expertise
among farmers, both locally and globally, fostering a community of learning.
• Crop Management Guidance: AI-driven advice on planting, irrigation, and dis-
ease management helps farmers optimize their crop yields and minimize losses.
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 453

• Financial Management: AI tools assist in financial planning, budgeting, and opti-

mizing input costs, contributing to better financial outcomes for farmers.
• Market Access: AI-based market insights and price predictions help farmers
make strategic decisions on when and where to sell their produce.
• Smallholder Empowerment: AI levels the playing field for small-scale farmers
by providing them with access to advanced tools and resources typically avail-
able to larger operations.
• Digital Payments and Transactions: AI-powered payment platforms enable
secure and convenient transactions, reducing the risks associated with han-
dling cash.
• Resource Optimization: AI-driven recommendations for water, fertilizer, and
pesticide use enhance resource efficiency and reduce costs.
• Skill Development: Farmers gain digital literacy skills as they interact with AI
tools, contributing to their personal growth and adaptability.
• Climate Resilience: AI-generated climate information helps farmers adapt to
changing weather patterns and make decisions that enhance resilience.
• Inclusive Innovation: Customized AI solutions can address specific challenges
faced by marginalized and underserved farming communities.
• Women’s Empowerment: AI-enabled tools can empower women in agriculture
by providing them with access to information and decision-making tools.
• Conservation Agriculture: AI supports sustainable farming practices that protect
soil health, water resources, and biodiversity.
• Entrepreneurship Opportunities: AI-powered platforms can help farmers explore
value-added opportunities, such as processing and niche markets.
• Community Development: AI-driven improvements in agriculture can lead to
enhanced food security, increased income, and overall improved quality of life in
rural communities.
The empowerment of farmers and rural communities through AI requires a col-
laborative effort from governments, organizations, researchers, and technology pro-
viders. By tailoring AI solutions to the needs and contexts of farmers, the potential
benefits of this technology can be harnessed to drive positive change and sustainable
development in agricultural communities around the world.

9.2 Digital Divide: Bridging the Gap for Small-Scale Farmers

The digital divide, characterized by unequal access to technology and information,

poses significant challenges for small-scale farmers, often limiting their ability to
benefit from technological advancements like artificial intelligence (AI). Bridging
this gap is essential to ensure that small-scale farmers can also harness the potential
of AI for improved agricultural practices and livelihoods. Here’s how the digital
divide can be addressed for the benefit of small-scale farmers:
454 R. Thangamani et al.

• Accessible Technology: Develop user-friendly AI tools and applications that are

tailored to the needs and capabilities of small-scale farmers.
• Affordable Solutions: Create cost-effective AI solutions that cater to the financial
constraints of small-scale farming operations.
• Local Language Support: Offer AI platforms in local languages to enhance
usability for farmers with varying levels of literacy.
• Training and Capacity Building: Provide training and support to small-scale
farmers, helping them understand and effectively utilize AI tools.
• Mobile-Friendly Interfaces: Develop AI applications that can be accessed and
used on basic smartphones, which are more prevalent in rural areas.
• Extension Services: Leverage AI to provide virtual extension services that offer
expert advice and guidance to small-scale farmers.
• Community Hubs: Establish community centers equipped with AI-enabled tools
where farmers can access information and receive training.
• Public-Private Partnerships: Collaborations between governments, NGOs, and
private sector entities can provide resources and support to bridge the digital gap.
• Internet Connectivity: Invest in improving Internet connectivity in rural areas,
enabling small-scale farmers to access online resources.
• Local Innovation Ecosystems: Foster innovation hubs that offer training, sup-
port, and resources for adopting AI in agriculture.
• Tailored Solutions: Develop AI applications that address specific challenges
faced by small-scale farmers, such as pest control, irrigation, and market access.
• Awareness Campaigns: Raise awareness among small-scale farmers about the
benefits of AI and how it can enhance their productivity and income.
• Financial Inclusion: Integrate digital payment solutions that enable small-scale
farmers to conduct transactions securely and conveniently.
• Farmer-Centric Design: Involve small-scale farmers in the design and develop-
ment of AI solutions to ensure their relevance and usability.
• Government Support: Governments can play a crucial role by implementing
policies that promote technology access and adoption in rural areas.
Addressing the digital divide for small-scale farmers is not only essential for
their prosperity but also for ensuring global food security and sustainable agricul-
ture. By providing these farmers with the tools and knowledge to embrace AI, we
can empower them to overcome challenges, make informed decisions, and contrib-
ute to a more equitable and resilient agricultural sector.

9.3 Rural Revitalization: AI’s Potential to Strengthen

Agricultural Communities

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in agriculture has the potential to play
a pivotal role in revitalizing rural communities and driving sustainable develop-
ment. By enhancing agricultural practices, improving livelihoods, and fostering
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 455

innovation, AI can contribute to the growth and resilience of agricultural communi-

ties. Here’s how AI can strengthen rural areas and promote rural revitalization:
• Economic Diversification: AI-driven innovations can open doors to new revenue
streams and value-added activities, reducing dependence solely on traditional
farming.
• Enhanced Agricultural Productivity: AI-powered precision agriculture increases
crop yields and efficiency, leading to improved income for farmers.
• Access to Information: AI provides farmers with real-time data on weather, mar-
ket prices, and best practices, empowering them to make informed decisions.
• Skill Development: The adoption of AI encourages skill development among
rural residents, fostering a tech-savvy workforce.
• Entrepreneurship Opportunities: AI can help identify niche markets and value-­
added opportunities, encouraging the development of agri-entrepreneurs.
• Youth Engagement: AI-driven technologies can attract the younger generation to
agriculture by offering innovative and tech-driven approaches.
• Sustainable Practices: AI promotes sustainable agriculture, preserving natural
resources and ensuring long-term economic viability.
• Digital Infrastructure Development: The deployment of AI necessitates improved
Internet connectivity, benefiting rural areas with enhanced communication and
access to services.
• Smart Infrastructure: AI can facilitate the development of smart rural infrastruc-
ture, including smart irrigation and energy-efficient systems.
• Market Access: AI-powered market insights enable farmers to connect with
larger markets, improving their bargaining power.
• Community Engagement: AI platforms can facilitate communication and col-
laboration among farmers, fostering a sense of community and shared knowledge.
• Agricultural Innovation Hubs: Establishing AI-driven innovation centers in rural
areas provides resources, training, and support for tech adoption.
• Climate Resilience: AI helps farmers adapt to changing climate conditions,
ensuring the sustainability of agricultural practices.
• Food Security: AI’s contributions to improved productivity and efficient resource
management enhance local food security.
• Sustainable Tourism: AI-powered agritourism initiatives can attract visitors
interested in experiencing advanced and sustainable agricultural practices.
• Government Support: Government policies and incentives can promote the adop-
tion of AI in agriculture and support rural development initiatives.
The revitalization of rural areas through AI integration requires a holistic
approach that involves collaboration between governments, private sectors, local
communities, and technology providers. By leveraging the transformative power of
AI, rural communities can not only enhance their agricultural productivity but also
foster innovation, entrepreneurship, and long-term sustainability, ultimately con-
tributing to the holistic development of the entire region.
456 R. Thangamani et al.

10 A Vision for the Future: AI’s Long-Term Impact

on Agriculture

The path ahead in agriculture is illuminated by the promising potential of artificial

intelligence (AI) to revolutionize farming practices, enhance sustainability, and
ensure food security. AI-enabled agriculture represents a journey toward more effi-
cient [44], resilient, and responsive farming systems. By embracing AI, we pave the
way for a future where data-driven insights, precision resource management, and
innovative technologies harmonize to create a new era of agricultural advance-
ment [41].
• Data-Driven Decision-Making: AI empowers farmers with real-time data,
enabling them to make informed decisions that optimize crop yields, reduce
waste, and increase profitability.
• Precision Resource Management: Through AI-driven insights, the allocation of
water, fertilizers, and pesticides becomes precise, conserving resources and min-
imizing environmental impact.
• Climate Resilience: AI equips farmers to adapt to changing climate conditions,
making agriculture more resilient against unpredictable weather patterns.
• Sustainable Practices: AI fosters the adoption of sustainable practices that safe-
guard soil health, water resources, and biodiversity.
• Customized Solutions: Tailored AI applications address specific challenges faced
by diverse farming communities, fostering inclusivity and equitable growth.
• Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing: AI platforms facilitate collaboration,
enabling farmers to exchange experiences, insights, and best practices on a
global scale.
• Empowered Rural Communities: AI revitalizes rural areas by offering new eco-
nomic opportunities, skill development, and access to modern technologies.
• Ethical and Responsible Deployment: The ethical integration of AI prioritizes
data privacy, transparency, and accountability to ensure a responsible agricul-
tural transformation.
Looking ahead, the long-term impact of AI on agriculture holds the promise of a
more resilient, productive, and sustainable global food system. This vision encom-
passes not only increased yields and optimized resource use but also a harmonious
relationship between human ingenuity and technological innovation. As AI contin-
ues to evolve, agriculture will embrace a future where the well-being of farmers,
communities, and the planet is paramount.
• Food Security: AI’s potential to enhance productivity and improve resource man-
agement contributes to global food security by ensuring a consistent and abun-
dant supply of quality produce.
• Ecosystem Preservation: AI-driven sustainable practices protect ecosystems,
conserve biodiversity, and mitigate the impact of agriculture on the environment.
• Empowered Farmers: AI empowers farmers of all scales with tools and knowl-
edge to navigate challenges, make informed decisions, and succeed in a rapidly
changing agricultural landscape.
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 457

• Technological Synergy: AI synergizes with other cutting-edge technologies such

as robotics, nanotechnology, and biotechnology to create holistic solutions for
complex agricultural problems.
• Data-Driven Innovation: AI’s ability to analyze vast datasets accelerates the dis-
covery of innovative solutions, unlocking new pathways for agricultural
advancement.
• Inclusive Growth: AI ensures that the benefits of agricultural progress reach all
stakeholders, from smallholders to large agribusinesses, creating a more equita-
ble industry.

10.1 The Synergy of Human Innovation and AI Advancements

The convergence of human innovation and AI advancements marks a pivotal

moment in agricultural history. It’s a synergistic relationship where human creativ-
ity, experience, and intuition combine with AI’s computational power and predictive
capabilities. This synergy elevates agriculture to new heights of efficiency, sustain-
ability, and prosperity, ensuring that the future of farming is not only shaped by
technology but guided by human values and aspirations. As we navigate this evolv-
ing landscape, the vision of AI-enabled agriculture promises a future where human-
ity and technology work hand in hand to nourish the world sustainably.
AI’s Transformation of Agriculture
Artificial intelligence (AI) and agriculture are ushering in a profound transforma-
tion that redefines how we produce food, manage resources, and ensure sustainabil-
ity. From precision resource management to data-driven decision-making, AI is
revolutionizing the agricultural landscape, offering solutions to some of the most
pressing challenges facing the industry. This transformation is not just about tech-
nology; it’s about enhancing the well-being of farmers, fostering rural development,
and safeguarding our environment for future generations.
AI’s integration in agriculture empowers farmers with actionable insights, opti-
mizes resource allocation, and enhances productivity. It bridges gaps, breaks down
barriers, and democratizes access to information and innovation. Moreover, AI’s
positive impact extends beyond fields and farms, touching every facet of the global
food supply chain, from production to distribution and consumption. As we embrace
this transformation, we must also recognize the importance of ethical consider-
ations, data privacy, and the equitable distribution of benefits. Ensuring that
AI-enabled agriculture is responsible, inclusive, and sustainable will be essential in
reaping the full benefits of technological advancement.
Collaboration between farmers, researchers, policymakers, and technology
developers will play a pivotal role. By harnessing the power of AI and combining it
with human expertise, we can propel agriculture into an era of unprecedented effi-
ciency, resilience, and innovation. This fusion of human ingenuity and AI-driven
capabilities will shape the future of agriculture, creating a world where food secu-
rity, environmental sustainability, and economic prosperity coexist harmoniously.
458 R. Thangamani et al.

10.2 A Greener and More Efficient Agricultural

Future with AI

The vision of a greener and more efficient agricultural future powered by artificial
intelligence (AI) is not just a distant aspiration; it’s a tangible reality that is reshap-
ing the way we cultivate, manage resources, and nourish the planet. The harmonious
integration of AI and agriculture holds the promise of sustainable food production,
environmental conservation, and enhanced livelihoods. As we draw this exploration
to a close, it’s evident that AI’s transformative influence on agriculture is steering us
toward a future that is both prosperous and ecologically responsible.
Through AI-enabled precision and data-driven insights, agriculture is becoming
a greener endeavor, minimizing waste, conserving resources, and reducing the envi-
ronmental footprint. AI’s capabilities are unlocking new levels of efficiency in irri-
gation, pest control, and energy usage, contributing to the overarching goal of
sustainable farming practices. This transformation is not just limited to individual
farms; it extends to entire ecosystems, preserving biodiversity, mitigating climate
change, and promoting responsible land stewardship. The efficiency gains enabled
by AI extend beyond environmental considerations. They embrace economic sus-
tainability by improving crop yields, optimizing resource allocation, and ensuring
resilient farming systems. These advancements translate to improved livelihoods for
farmers, strengthened rural communities, and enhanced global food security.
As we move forward, collaboration between agricultural stakeholders, technol-
ogy developers, policymakers, and local communities will be essential. By fostering
an ecosystem of innovation, knowledge-sharing, and responsible adoption, we can
collectively steer the trajectory of AI’s impact on agriculture toward a future that is
ecologically harmonious and economically vibrant. In embracing the potential of AI
to cultivate a greener and more efficient agricultural future, we are not just redefin-
ing the way we grow food; we are reimagining our relationship with the planet and
the generations that will inherit it. As we harness the power of AI, we commit to
leaving a legacy of sustainable practices, resilient ecosystems, and nourished com-
munities. This is not merely a technological advancement; it’s a shared commitment
to shaping a future where agriculture and nature thrive in unison.

11 Conclusion

The AI Green Revolution is undeniably reshaping the future of agriculture, offering

a promising vision of sustainable, efficient, and productive farming practices. By
harnessing the power of artificial intelligence, farmers are gaining unprecedented
insights into their operations, enabling data-driven decisions that optimize resource
use, reduce waste, and increase crop yields. AI-driven tools, such as predictive ana-
lytics and autonomous machinery, are enhancing productivity and mitigating the
impact of climate change by allowing farmers to adapt to shifting weather patterns
AI Green Revolution: Reshaping Agriculture’s Future 459

and environmental conditions. Additionally, AI-powered precision agriculture is

contributing to greater food security by ensuring that resources are used more effi-
ciently and effectively, ultimately allowing for the production of more food with
fewer inputs. As the world faces the challenges of feeding a growing global popula-
tion while confronting climate-related disruptions, the AI Green Revolution repre-
sents a beacon of hope in addressing these complex agricultural and
environmental issues.
However, it’s important to acknowledge that the AI Green Revolution is not
without its challenges and ethical considerations. Issues related to data privacy,
accessibility, and the digital divide must be addressed to ensure that the benefits of
AI in agriculture are accessible to all farmers, regardless of their location or
resources. Additionally, responsible AI development and deployment are essential
to prevent unintended consequences and ensure the long-term sustainability of agri-
culture. In conclusion, the AI Green Revolution holds immense promise for the
future of agriculture, offering the potential to revolutionize how we produce food
while addressing critical global challenges. To fully realize this potential, it is cru-
cial to strike a balance between technological advancement, ethical considerations,
and inclusive access to AI-driven solutions.

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Cloud Computing for Smart Farming:
Applications, Challenges, and Solutions

Justin Rajasekaran, Saleem Raja Abdul Samad, and Pradeepa Ganesan

1 Introduction

Farming has been vital to humans for millennia. Recent years have witnessed the
implementation of numerous advanced technologies because of rapid population
growth. The term “smart farming” refers to the application of cutting-edge commu-
nication and technology in the agricultural sector [1]. Modern-day smart farming
drives worldwide demand. It involves using contemporary technology and sensors
in agriculture. Agricultural land is typically monitored by sensors and managed by
software. Using cutting-edge technology, yield of the agriculture land increases
with less labor intervention. It also agricultural practices by minimizing the con-
sumption of resources such as fertilizers and water. Using varied farming methods
can make farming more environmentally friendly and create higher-quality products
[2]. In smart farming, cloud computing helps farmers in numerous ways. Globally,
there is a great deal of data pertaining to weather, crops, and soil that needs to be
gathered and analyzed. The information regarding farming must be gathered, after
which it must be archived and analyzed. Thus, cloud computing is an excellent
technology that can be utilized to gather, analyze, and store agricultural data. The
data kept in the cloud comprises soil, crop, and ecommerce data that have been
gathered from diverse sources. This data can be used to track the meteorological
conditions on the farm. Only authorized users have access to this information [3] as
shown in Fig. 1. Cloud computing offers a diverse range of services to support the
implementation of smart farming practices. Table 1 shows the growth of IoT-based
adoption in agriculture sector from year 2000 to 2016 and forecasts of year

J. Rajasekaran (*) · S. R. A. Samad · P. Ganesan

Information Technology Department, College of Computing and Information Sciences,
University of Technology and Applied Sciences-Shinas, Shinas, Oman
e-mail: [email protected]; https://doi.org/10.1007/979-0-12345-123-113

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 463
S. Balasubaramanian et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0_20
464 J. Rajasekaran et al.

Fig. 1 End-to-end interaction between various stakeholders

Table 1 The growth of Year Data analysis

IoT-­based adoption in
2000 525 million farms connected to IoT
agriculture sector [5]
2016 540 million farms till date are connected to IoT
2035 780 million farms would be connected to IoT
2050 2billion farms are likely to be connected to IoT

2035–2050 [4]. This chapter discusses the various roles of cloud computing in smart
farming, as well as the necessary infrastructure and challenges.

2 Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture (PA)

Smart farming is a broader concept that incorporates the improvement of various

aspects of farming through the use of technology and data-driven solutions [6]. The
primary objective of smart farming is to improve the efficiency, sustainability, and
data-driven nature of agricultural operations [7]. It entails incorporating Big Data
analytics, cloud computing, IoT sensors, artificial intelligence, and cloud comput-
ing into a range of farming operations. It encompasses sustainable practices, live-
stock management, supply chain optimization, and precision agriculture. Precision
agriculture is a subset of smart farming [8]. It is primarily concerned with increas-
ing crop yields and optimizing resource utilization (including water, fertilizers, and
pesticides) through the application of precision techniques driven by data and tech-
nology. The purpose of precision agriculture is to maximize crop yield and
Cloud Computing for Smart Farming: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions 465

minimize waste [9]. It incorporates soil type, geography, weather, plant growth, and
yield data while managing crops. In order to gather real-time data, sensors are
installed in the field to detect the soil’s moisture content, temperature, and surround-
ing air. Upon the completion of data collection, the utilization of analytical software
enables farmers to access vital insights pertaining to crop rotation, as well as deter-
mine the most advantageous periods for planting and harvesting.

3 Cloud Computing

Cloud computing makes huge data storage affordable and scalable. In accordance
with the National Institute for Standards and Technology [10], “Cloud Computing
is based on pay-per-use services for enabling convenient, on-demand network
access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources such as servers, net-
works, and services that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal man-
agement effort or service provider interaction.” Cloud computing services can be
categorized into the three categories as shown in Fig. 2.
Cloud users can select the best appropriate model depending on their individual
requirements from among several models that provide varying degrees of abstrac-
tion and administration.

3.1 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

Virtualized computing resources are made available to users via the Internet by
IaaS. It provides standard IT services like virtual machines (VMs), storage, net-
working, and even additional features like firewalls and load balancers [11].
IaaS gives users greater control over their infrastructure by letting them handle
data, operating systems, and apps. Hosting web applications, operating virtual serv-
ers, and cloud data storage are the common use cases.

SaaS PaaS IaaS

Fig. 2 Cloud services

466 J. Rajasekaran et al.

3.2 Platform as a Service (PaaS)

PaaS abstracts infrastructure management further by providing a development and

deployment platform in addition to underlying infrastructure components. It offers
tools, frameworks, and runtime environments for building, testing, and deploying
applications [12].
PaaS is great for developers and businesses that focus on making and deploying
apps. It makes development easier by getting rid of the need to manage infrastruc-
ture details. DevOps, web, and mobile app development are common use cases.

3.3 Software as a Service (SaaS)

SaaS delivers fully functional software applications over the Internet. Users access
and use software applications hosted in the cloud without needing to worry about
underlying infrastructure, maintenance, or updates [13].
SaaS is beneficial for end-users and businesses looking to access software solu-
tions without the complexities of software installation and management. Common
SaaS applications include email services, office productivity suites (Microsoft 365,
Google Workspace), customer relationship management (CRM) tools, and collabo-
ration platforms [14].
Cloud computing offers unparalleled scalability, allowing businesses to easily
scale up or down their resources based on demand. Cloud computing enables users
to access their applications and data from anywhere with an Internet connection and
on various devices. By migrating to the cloud, organizations can significantly reduce
their capital expenses and eliminate the need for costly infrastructure mainte-
nance [15].

4 Integration of Smart Farming and Cloud Computing

The implementation of cloud computing in smart farming encompasses the amalga-

mation of diverse technologies and components with the aim of enhancing agricul-
tural methodologies, augmenting productivity, and mitigating resource utilization.
The key components for cloud-enabled smart farming [16, 17] are listed in Table 2.

4.1 Sensors

To transform conventional agricultural practices into data-driven, highly efficient

operations, the use of sensors and Internet of Things (IoT) devices is crucial in
smart farming.
Cloud Computing for Smart Farming: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions 467

Table 2 Key components of smart farming with cloud integration

Sensors Communication
Soil moisture sensors Wireless networks (Wi-Fi, LoRaWAN, NB-IoT)
Weather stations Edge computing devices for local data processing
GPS-enabled tractors and machinery Data aggregators and gateways
Livestock monitoring devices Cloud-connected IoT platforms for data
Crop health sensors (camera) transmission
Water quality sensors
Smart irrigation systems
Cloud infrastructure Data analytics
Public or private cloud platforms (AWS, Big Data analytics tools for processing large
Azure, Google Cloud) datasets
Cloud storage for data storage and Machine learning models for predictive analytics
retrieval AI algorithms for crop disease detection and yield
Scalable computing resources for data prediction [18]
analysis Data visualization tools for farmers and
Data security and encryption measures stakeholders
Decision support systems Mobile application
Crop management software Mobile apps for farmers to access data and insights
Weather forecasting tools Remote monitoring and control of farm equipment
Pest and disease prediction models Notifications and alerts for critical events
Irrigation scheduling algorithms
Crop rotation and planning tools
Drones and remote sensing Blockchain for supply chain transparency
UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) for Blockchain technology to track the origin and
aerial imagery journey of agricultural products
Satellite data for monitoring large Smart contracts for automated payments and
agricultural areas compliance
Remote sensing technologies for crop
health assessment

• Soil moisture sensors optimize irrigation to meet crop needs, save waste, and
boost yields [19].
• Weather stations assist farmers plan planting and harvesting dates and reduce
weather risks using real-time weather data.
• GPS-enabled tractors and machines automate agricultural work and reduce
fuel use.
• Tracking livestock health and behavior improves animal welfare, while crop
health sensors like NDVI cameras help spot illnesses and manage nutrients.
• Water quality sensors promote sustainability by ensuring the purity of irrigation
and drinking water for both plants and animals.
These technologies provide farmers with data and control to optimize resource
allocation and productivity in modern agriculture.
468 J. Rajasekaran et al.

4.2 Communication

Cloud computing is seamlessly integrated with data collection and connectivity to

revolutionize modern smart agricultural practices.
• Wireless networks including Wi-Fi, LoRaWAN, and NB-IoT connect agricul-
tural sensors and devices for data transfer [20].
• Edge computing devices enable real-time analysis and decision-making on the
farm, lowering latency and enabling quick reactions to changing conditions.
• Intermediaries like data aggregators and gateways collect and prepare data for
transmission.
• Cloud-connected IoT platforms deliver this important data to cloud servers for
storage, analysis, and actionable insights.
This networked ecosystem allows farmers to access real-time data, optimize
resource allocation [21], and make informed decisions to improve crop yields,
decrease resource waste, and promote sustainable agriculture.

4.3 Cloud Infrastructure

Smart farming relies on cloud computing infrastructure to use data to improve agri-
cultural practices. The enormous processing capabilities of the cloud enable the
aggregation, cleansing, and transformation of diverse data sources into actionable
information. Cloud computing services play a significant role in enabling smart
farming.

4.4 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

IaaS can offer the fundamental cloud infrastructure required for a range of agricul-
tural applications in smart farming. This covers the supply of networking, storage,
and virtual machines. IaaS can be used by farmers to set up and maintain edge
computing devices, sensor networks, and data storage options. These tools are
adaptable to seasonal variations and data expansion, allowing for adjustments as
needed. In addition, IaaS can facilitate the hosting of vital elements such as data
processing clusters and IoT gateways, which are necessary for gathering and pro-
cessing data from sensors and other agricultural equipment [22].
Amazon Web Services (AWS) is a well-known infrastructure as a service (IaaS)
platform that can be utilized in smart farming. AWS offers a wide range of cloud
computing services and resources that are appropriate for different agricultural
applications.
Cloud Computing for Smart Farming: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions 469

4.5 Platform as a Service (PaaS)

Custom agriculture apps and analytics tools can be developed and deployed more
quickly with the help of PaaS services. Applications that process agricultural data
can be created and hosted using PaaS by farmers and agricultural software develop-
ers. Examples include data analytics, predictive modeling, and decision support.
PaaS solutions also improve stakeholder collaboration by providing a common plat-
form for the development and sharing of farm-related software applications.
Google Cloud Platform (GCP) is one of the top platform as a service (PaaS)
systems that can be utilized in smart farming. GCP provides a wide range of tools,
services, and development platforms that can help simplify agricultural application
development, deployment, and management [23].

4.6 Software as a Service (SaaS)

Farmers, agricultural consultants, and other stakeholders can easily manage farm
operations and obtain vital data with the use of SaaS applications. Specialized farm
management software, tools for weather forecasting, models for predicting pests
and diseases, and more are available through a number of cloud-based SaaS provid-
ers. These SaaS applications frequently have user-friendly interfaces that allow
farmers to access data, generate reports, and make decisions without extensive tech-
nical knowledge.
One of the well-known software as a service (SaaS) platforms in the field of
smart farming is “FarmLogs.” FarmLogs offers a cloud-based SaaS solution
designed to assist farmers in managing their agricultural operations efficiently [24].

4.7 Data Analytics

Agricultural practices have undergone a radical transformation due to the conver-

gence of Big Data analytics, machine learning, AI algorithms, and data visualiza-
tion tools, which are enabled by cloud computing.
• Cloud-enabled smart farming utilizes the vast capabilities of Big Data analytics
tools to analyses large datasets, hence facilitating the development of machine
learning models [25].
• Cloud-based machine learning models predict crop yields, insect infestations,
and optimal planting times by utilizing historical and real-time data. These fore-
casts are crucial for planning and resource allocation.
• Cloud-based AI algorithms are capable of analyzing images captured by sensors
or drones to identify indicators of crop diseases. This early detection enables
producers to safeguard their crops and maximize yields through proactive
measures.
470 J. Rajasekaran et al.

• This convergence, along with data visualization tools, empowers farmers and
stakeholders to make educated decisions, visualize agricultural patterns, and
improve modern farming practices, increasing productivity and sustainabil-
ity [26].

4.8 Decision Support System

Cloud technology in smart farming has revolutionized agriculture by providing

decision support systems (DSS) like crop management software, weather forecast-
ing tools, pest and disease prediction models, irrigation scheduling algorithms, and
crop rotation and planning tools. These cloud-based DSS give farmers real-time
knowledge to optimize planting plans, manage resources, and respond quickly to
weather issues. Farmers can improve crop yields, reduce pests and illnesses, and
encourage sustainable practices using data-driven decisions, creating a more resil-
ient and productive agricultural [27].

4.9 Mobile Application

Smart farming in the cloud relies heavily on the incorporation of mobile applica-
tions to provide producers with real-time connectivity and control. These mobile
applications enable producers to make informed decisions on the go by facilitating
seamless access to vital data and insights [28]. In addition, they enable remote mon-
itoring and control of agricultural machinery, thereby enhancing operational effi-
ciency and decreasing the necessity for physical presence in the field. In addition,
these applications provide punctual alerts and notifications for critical events,
enabling farmers to promptly adapt to shifting circumstances, thereby promoting
improved resource efficiency, resilience, and productivity in contemporary agricul-
tural practices.

4.10 Drones and Remote Sensing

The agricultural sector can utilize drones for a variety of purposes, including data
collection regarding crop health, weather report, etc., crop mapping, soil analysis,
irrigation, and insect management [29]. The use of drones in agriculture offers the
following main advantages:
• Increased efficiency: Drones can quickly cover large amounts of land, helping
farmers gather data and monitor crops. Early detection allows for faster and more
effective interventions.
Cloud Computing for Smart Farming: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions 471

• Increased crop yields: The use of drones to collect data on crop health enables
producers to pinpoint areas that need attention. By effectively tackling these con-
cerns, agricultural practitioners have the potential to enhance their crop produc-
tivity and augment their financial gains.
• Cost reduction: By identifying problem areas on the farm, drones can reduce the
consumption of pesticides and other chemicals, as well as the need for man-
ual labor.
• Enhanced accuracy: Drones can take high-resolution photos and data of crops for
farmers. This can identify problem areas and guarantee targeted and effective
solutions.

4.11 Blockchain for Supply Chain Transparency

The combination of cloud and smart farming with blockchain and smart contracts
transforms agricultural supply chain management. Blockchain methodically tracks
agricultural products from farm to consumer, ensuring transparency and traceabil-
ity. Cloud-based smart contracts automate compliance and payments, thereby expe-
diting transactions and reducing administrative burden. This innovative combination
fosters a new era of secure and transparent agricultural commerce by enhancing
efficiency, reducing fraud, and enabling real-time visibility into product provenance
and quality, thereby bolstering confidence in the supply chain [30].

4.12 Benefits of Cloud Computing in Smart Farming

• The cloud enables farmers to dynamically increase or decrease their access to

computational and storage resources.
• Farmers can derive valuable insights from their data by utilizing cloud-based
data analytics applications.
• Cloud-based solutions enable producers to oversee their farms and equipment
remotely.
• Cloud-based applications offer a centralized platform that enables seamless col-
laboration among multiple users from diverse organizations, irrespective of their
technical proficiencies. As a consequence, collaboration is enhanced, and
decision-­making is expedited.
• Real-time data helps farmers and agronomists make quick changes [31].
• Data and applications hosted in the cloud are accessible from a wide range of
devices, such as smartphones and tablets.
• Cloud-based AI and machine learning can create crop management forecasting
models [32].
472 J. Rajasekaran et al.

5 Key Challenges

Even though cloud computing presents smart farming with a number of advantages,
it also presents a number of challenges.
Expenses
• Expenses constitute a significant challenge for farmers. This requires the pur-
chase of technological devices like sensors, drones, and IoT devices. In addition
to the initial investment, routine maintenance may be necessary, which can
be costly.
• Overestimating resources can increase expenses, while underestimating can
lower performance.
Solutions
• Calculate the ROI by comparing technology procurement, installation, and
maintenance expenses to predicted gains.
• Sharing the expense of drones, sensors, and irrigation systems with other farmers.
• Investigate grants, programs, and subsidies from the government that are intended
to foster smart agricultural initiatives.
• Effectively manage costs by closely monitoring resource utilization, implement-
ing cloud cost management tools, and adopting a pay-as-you-go model.
Infrastructure
• The implementation of smart farming in rural locations necessitates a high-­
performance infrastructure, given its reliance on the Internet. Internet access in
remote farms may be unreliable.
Solution
• Reduce reliance on continual internet access by utilizing satellite Internet, long-­
range wireless technologies, or local edge computing solutions.
Training
• Farmers in agriculture may lack the abilities to employ cloud-based technolo-
gies. Smart agriculture produces vast quantities of data. Farmers therefore require
the capacity to efficiently gather and analyze data.
Solution
• Training and support farm staff to close the skill gap and maximize cloud-based
technologies and applications.
Data Security and Privacy
• Preventing unauthorized access to sensitive farm information and assuring adher-
ence to data privacy regulations. Smart farming generates vast quantities of data
from a variety of sources, including sensors, devices, and the environment. Those
data are vulnerable. Leaking agriculture anti-jamming devices information can
let an attacker evade these security measures, while leaking soil, crop, and agri-
culture purchasing information might cause farms serious economic losses if
utilized by competitors or hostile parties [33]. Therefore, ensuring data security
Cloud Computing for Smart Farming: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions 473

and privacy is a fundamental necessity and a key goal in establishing a depend-

able functioning smart agricultural ecosystem.
Solution
• Strong encryption, access limits, and authentication. Select cloud service provid-
ers that offer robust security measures and guarantee adherence to data protec-
tion regulations.

6 Cloud-Enabled Platforms for Smart Farming

• FarmLogs is a cloud-based farm management application that helps farmers

make data-driven decisions for precision agriculture. It helps farmers optimize
operations and boost productivity using field mapping, crop health monitoring,
and financial tracking [34].
• The Bushel Farm app is a multifunctional and intuitive mobile application
designed specifically for contemporary farmers who employ smart farming prac-
tices. This application enhances the profitability and efficacy of agricultural
operations by equipping users with critical tools for grain management, pricing,
and marketing [35].
• Agrivi, a cloud-based farm management platform, supplies farmers with crop
management, inventory monitoring, financial analysis, and decision assistance
tools. Agrivi uses real-time data and analytics to help farmers choose planting,
harvesting, resource allocation, and pest control [36].
• A powerful cloud-based technology, John Deere Operations Center, helps farm-
ers use data analytics and precision agriculture. It has many features, including
data collecting and analysis, field and equipment management, and connection
with connected John Deere equipment. Farmers are able to assess the perfor-
mance of their machinery, monitor real-time field conditions, and make data-­
driven decisions regarding planting, harvesting, and resource management using
the platform [37, 38].
• The IBM Watson Decision Platform for Agriculture provides producers with
weather forecasts, soil data, and crop insights through the use of artificial intel-
ligence (AI) and cloud computing. Farmers can plant, irrigate, and harvest more
wisely [39].

7 Related Research Works

Using Internet of Things (IoT) and long range (LoRa) technologies, Saban et al.
[40] created a customized smart farming system that makes advantage of a low-cost,
low-power, and wide-range wireless sensor network. Their system incorporated a
recently developed web-based monitoring application that is hosted on a cloud
474 J. Rajasekaran et al.

server. This application enables remote visualization and control of all connected
devices by processing data collected from the agricultural environment. Moysiadis
et al. [41] proposed a smart farming application built on cloud computing.
Agronomists and farmers can utilize this information to enhance their decision-­
making when using measurements from ground sensors and photos taken by UAVs
or ground cameras. Docker containers are used as the virtualization technology in
an implementation based on the microservices architecture. Rajak et al. [42] pro-
posed a plant health monitoring system to solve several issues pertaining to both
farmers and plants. These monitoring tools help the farmer make sure the plant stays
healthy in a particular environment and conserves water.

8 Future Trends and Research Opportunities

The agriculture industry is experiencing huge changes and facing lot of problems
like climate change, growing population, more demand, food quality, and availabil-
ity of agro items. In order to overcome all these problems, a smart farm with smart
application for the agriculture industry is needed. The integration of digital tech-
nologies into agriculture needs to be opened for new opportunities. This brings
revolution in the farming to manage crops and resources. Smart farming and preci-
sion agriculture continue to evolve, offering numerous opportunities for research
and innovation.
• Research AI-driven techniques for early detection of diseases, pests, and nutrient
deficiencies in crops using image analysis and sensor data.
• Investigate the use of IoT and wireless sensor networks to enhance data collec-
tion, transmission, and integration on farms.
• Research drought-resistant crop varieties and climate-smart farming techniques.
• Explore AI-driven pest control methods that use data analytics to identify pest
outbreaks and deploy targeted interventions.

9 Conclusion

Cloud computing has emerged as a transformative force in smart farming, revolu-

tionizing traditional agricultural practices by providing scalable, data-driven solu-
tions that enhance productivity, sustainability, and efficiency. From data storage and
analytics to precision resource management and remote monitoring, the cloud
empowers farmers with real-time insights, enabling them to make informed deci-
sions and optimize their operations. This technology not only improves crop yields
and resource utilization but also fosters collaboration, traceability, and environmen-
tal stewardship, heralding a promising future for agriculture in the digital age.
Cloud Computing for Smart Farming: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions 475

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Index

A Crop prediction, 66, 83, 101–115, 146,

AdaBoost, 64, 65, 73–75, 79, 82–85, 336, 343 336, 341
Agricultural sensors, 5–12, 395, 468 Crop recommendation, 106, 115, 328, 334,
Agriculture, 3, 19, 46, 63, 87, 101, 119, 139, 335, 337, 347
159, 179, 207, 241, 265, 283, 307, 327, Crop scouting and phenotyping, 49–50
394, 421, 463
Agriculture 4.0, 46, 140, 322–323
Agriculture drones, 307–324 D
AI agriculture transformation, 421, 427, 429, Data-driven decision-making, 36, 143, 213,
452, 457 241–243, 249, 261, 302, 305, 353, 357,
Artificial intelligence (AI), 3, 20, 46, 122, 140, 362, 371, 374, 383, 387, 425, 430, 431,
182, 207, 250, 279, 301, 394, 421, 464 443, 448, 449, 456, 457
Augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR), 254 Data-driven farming, 207, 262, 291,
Autonomous machinery, 141, 246, 248, 257, 366, 368–371
302, 303, 375–381, 388, 426, 430, 432, Data security, 160, 162, 164, 167, 176, 177,
439, 458 246, 256, 262, 286, 290, 294, 298, 302,
303, 305, 358, 368, 386, 416, 467, 472
Decentralization, 215, 218, 232
B Decision-making, 4, 22, 23, 29, 33, 35, 48, 72,
Blockchain, 30, 164, 165, 207–239, 301, 388, 81, 88, 94, 106, 142, 156, 162, 167,
426, 433, 467, 471 176, 213, 221, 225, 226, 234, 241–243,
249, 255, 261, 262, 279, 286, 293, 295,
296, 298, 299, 302, 303, 305, 351–353,
C 357–362, 364–366, 368, 370, 371, 374,
Cloud, 12, 31, 46, 88, 129, 142, 160, 191, 258, 376–383, 387, 388, 404, 406, 415, 416,
272, 321, 337, 352, 398, 439, 463 422, 423, 425, 426, 430–433, 436, 437,
Cloud computing, 35, 141, 160, 283, 358, 399, 439, 442, 443, 448–450, 452, 453, 456,
433, 463 457, 468, 471, 474
Computational intelligence, 159, 163 Decision tree regressor (DTR), 65, 67–69,
Convolutional neural network (CNN), 95, 96, 79, 82, 83
99, 107, 108, 112–113, 125, 142, 183, Deep-learning (DL), 21, 22, 24–29, 51, 53, 66,
184, 188, 189, 193, 194, 200, 334, 339 90, 106–107, 112–113, 115, 128, 141,
Crop monitoring, 15, 46, 106–107, 145, 161, 142, 156, 161, 166, 169, 174, 177,
196, 200, 250, 271, 273, 286, 291, 292, 183–185, 188, 194–196, 200, 334,
360, 364, 378, 388, 394, 411, 437, 448 338, 426

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 477
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
B. Sundaravadivazhagan et al. (eds.), Intelligent Robots and Drones
for Precision Agriculture, Signals and Communication Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51195-0
478 Index

Digital agriculture, 30, 33 L

Digital twin, 35, 36, 87–99, 388 Latency, 30–32, 241, 243, 244, 247, 255, 262,
Drones, 3, 20, 48, 89, 119, 180, 208, 244, 270, 296, 315, 358, 360, 363, 364, 366–371,
309, 354, 394, 421, 469 376, 378, 382, 401, 468
Drone technology, 119, 120, 131, 189, 200 Latency reduction, 363
LiDAR, 49, 120, 132

E
Ecological agricultural revolution, 421 M
Edge computing, 255, 296, 303, 304, 351–388, Machine learning (ML), 21–29, 31, 36, 37, 39,
467, 468, 472 41, 48, 53, 63–73, 75, 77, 78, 82–83,
Ensemble based method, 65, 73, 79, 83 88, 94, 101–115, 123–125, 127, 132,
136, 141, 142, 146, 156, 157, 159, 161,
166, 167, 179–200, 251, 258, 272, 274,
F 276, 279–281, 291–293, 295–298, 304,
Farming smart application, 271–272, 276–278 334–341, 344–346, 352, 353, 372, 373,
5G, 3, 30–32, 139, 241–263, 302 375, 388, 406, 409–410, 422, 423, 425,
Flying robots, 52 426, 429, 432–433, 435, 439, 441, 446,
467, 469, 471
Multidimensional data, 160, 166
G
Global Positioning System (GPS), 8, 13, 29,
48–50, 89, 92, 121, 124, 140, 147, 251, N
291, 294, 336, 342, 343, 361, 372, 374, Near-infrared (NIR), 121, 128, 131, 132,
375, 377, 378, 397, 426, 436, 437, 135, 194
441, 443 Normalized difference vegetation index
Gradient boosting (GB), 64, 65, 73, 75–77, 79, (NDVI), 121, 131, 132, 294, 467
82–85, 113, 174, 346

O
H Organic farming, 48, 141, 211, 249, 267–268,
Harvesting robots, 14, 53, 377 272, 274–279, 281, 372, 383, 443
Hyperspectral image analysis, 180, 183, 184

P
I Pervasive automation, 139, 140, 144, 147
Image processing, 48, 50, 51, 55, 56, 104, 180, Pollinating and pruning robots, 52–53
182–186, 188–192, 200 Precision agriculture, 3, 20, 46, 63, 102, 130,
Innovation in agriculture, 209, 210 140, 167, 180, 208, 241, 271, 283, 309,
Internet of Things (IoT), 1–3, 16, 21, 33, 35, 334, 352, 393, 423, 464
141, 144–146, 148, 159–177, 185–186, Precision farming, 5, 30, 129, 130, 159–161,
207, 214, 221, 230, 241, 243, 249, 253, 195, 200, 214, 257–260, 291, 304,
261, 270, 278, 284, 292–294, 296, 297, 307–324, 347, 379, 387, 425, 426, 430,
352, 353, 356, 359, 361, 363, 387, 397, 433, 446, 448
405, 426, 438, 440, 466, 473 Predictive analytics, 31, 87–99, 115, 258, 285,
IoT solutions to organic farming, 270–273 286, 296, 305, 352, 362, 367, 373, 375,
397, 411, 414–416, 423, 424, 427, 430,
431, 441, 448, 458, 467
K
K-nearest neighbor (K-NN), 39–41, 64–66,
69–73, 79, 82, 112, 194, 335–337, Q
339–344, 346 Quality control, 224, 293, 404
Index 479

R Supply chain management, 31, 215, 218,

Real-time data processing, 305, 352, 358–360, 224–225, 410–412, 471
362–366, 379, 380, 388 Support vector regressor (SVR), 64–66, 71,
Remote sensing, 15, 102, 105–109, 115, 72, 79, 82, 83, 112
128–129, 141, 208, 214, 291, 422, 424, Sustainability, 32–35, 55, 63, 101, 107, 139,
426, 429, 445, 467, 470–471 141–144, 146, 208–210, 213, 226, 234,
Resource optimization, 33, 245, 248–249, 287, 237, 238, 243, 244, 247, 248, 253, 256,
295, 299, 352, 357, 362, 364, 365, 367, 257, 260, 262, 287, 292–296, 299–301,
374–376, 379–381, 426, 430, 431, 434, 304, 351–355, 357, 359, 361, 362, 364,
442–446, 453 368, 369, 371, 374, 375, 377, 379,
Robotic irrigation, 46, 52 382–386, 388, 393, 394, 398, 407, 411,
Robotics, 3, 12, 13, 46–53, 55, 56, 128, 135, 412, 414, 424, 425, 428, 431, 433,
136, 140, 141, 144, 145, 243, 261, 262, 437–440, 442–447, 449, 450, 455–459,
354, 377, 388, 397, 426, 432–433, 464, 467, 470, 474
435–439, 441, 448, 457 Sustainable crop management, 424
Robotic sowing, 49
Robotic weeding, 31, 46, 50–51, 55
Robots, 13, 20, 26, 27, 31, 34, 41, 45–56, 88, T
91, 141, 211, 291, 301, 354, 376–378, Traditional farming, 1, 16, 20, 21, 28, 210, 284,
430, 432, 436, 437, 446 351, 353, 383, 391–395, 398, 414, 415,
Role of drones in precision 422, 432, 435, 437, 440, 441, 448, 455
agriculture, 309–313

U
S UAV technology, 121, 129
Sensor data analysis, 357, 365–366 Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), 27, 90, 91,
Sensors, 1, 20, 46, 63, 87, 120, 159, 191, 208, 106, 120–122, 129–132, 134, 180,
241, 271, 309, 341, 352, 394, 423, 463 186–196, 200, 273, 378, 467, 474
Smart agricultural systems, 161, 301
Smart agriculture, 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 46, 91, 99,
141–143, 146–148, 159–177, 223, 226, W
307, 334, 438–442 Wireless networks, 20, 241, 467, 468
Smart farming, 1, 20, 46, 63, 88, 122, 139,
160, 207, 241, 270, 283, 308, 347, 352,
393, 429, 463 X
Smart IoT, 275 XGBoost, 65, 77–79, 83, 84, 346
Smart organic farming, 270–273, 276
Soil classification, 101–115, 335, 337, 347
Supply chain, 23, 30, 31, 212–215, 218, Y
220–225, 227, 231, 235, 237, 238, 284, Yield prediction, 27, 63–85, 102, 142, 156,
365, 388, 410, 412, 414–417, 422, 425, 291, 292, 343, 361, 363, 367, 379, 388,
426, 432, 443, 457, 464, 471 426, 432, 467