MUCLecture 2023 10217748
MUCLecture 2023 10217748
Engineering
Control Theory
Systems Engineering Department
Second Class Second
Control andClass II semester
System Engineering Department
By M. J. Mohamed
Introduction:
Control Theory: It is that part of science which concern control
problems.
Command input i/p: The motivating input signal to the system which is
independent of the output of the system.
Actuating signal: The difference between the reference input and feed
back (f/b) signals. It actuates the control unit (controller) to maintain the
output at the desired value.
Control unit: The unit which receives the actuating signal and delivers
the control signal.
physical nature for the next stage in the system (error detector).
Close loop control system: A control system in which the o/p signal has
a direct effect upon the control action.
Voltage
t
0
4
Open loop control system: A control system in which the o/p signal has
no effect upon the control action.
Ex. heater, light, washing machine
Temperature Temperature
measuring device Hot measuring device
Steam Steam Hot
water water
Cold Cold
water water
Drain Drain
Manual F/b control system Automatic F/b control system
of a steam thermal system of a steam thermal system
5
1. Electrical system:
Ex(1).
1 1 i
Vc = ∫ i dt = i R
c cD
Vi
i= i/p Vi C Vc o/p
1
R+
cD
1
Vc = cD Vi
1
R+
cD
1
Vc = V Differential equation
RcD + 1 i
1
Vi RcD + 1 Vo
6
1 Vc (s) 1
by L.T, Vc = V =
RcD + 1 i Vi (s) Rcs + 1
Ex(2).
1
Vi = i (LD + R + )
cD i
L
1
i= Vi
1
LD + R + i/p Vi R Vr o/p
cD
C
Vr = i R
R
Vr = Vi
1
LD + R +
cD
RcD
Vr = Vi
2
LcD + RcD + 1
RcD
Vi Vr
LcD 2 + RcD + 1
7
2. Mechanical system:
Ex(1).
∑ F = ma
k Spring
2
F = ky + mD y + BDy
F
M mass
F = mD2 y + BDy + ky
y
B
y(s) 1 Dashpot
= 2
F(s) ms + Bs + k
Ex(2).
F
2
F = mD y + (k 2 + k1)y + (B1 + B2 )Dy
k1 k2 B1 B2 y
8
Ex(3). F
F = k1(y1 − y2 )
y1
k1
k1(y1 − y 2 ) = (k 2 + k 3 )y2 + (B1 + B2 )Dy2
y2
k2 k3 B1 B2
Ex(4).
F
F = k1(y1 − y 2 ) = k 2 (y2 − y3 ) = B1D(y3 − y 4 ) = B2Dy4
k1 y1
k2 y2
B1 y3
B2 y4
Jα = ∑ T
J: Moment of inertia
α : Rotational acceleration
T: Torque
9
Ex(1).
T = JD2θ + BDθ
T = JDω + Bω
where,
θ B
ω = θ& = Dθ
T
α = ω& = θ&& = D 2θ
Ex(2).
T = JD2θ 1 + k(θ1 − θ 2 )
k(θ1 − θ 2 ) = BDθ 2 θ2
θ1
B
T Flexible shaft
Rigid shaft
Ex(3).
B3 θ3 k2
Flexible shaft
θ2 J2
θ1 k1 J1
T
B2 Flexible shaft
T = k1(θ1 − θ 2 ) B1
qi − qo = c dh
dt
By , laplace transform.
Ho (s) = R
Qi (s) Rcs + 1
11
Q + q1
H1 + h1 H2 + h 2
Q + q2
h −h
q1 = 1 2 R1 R2
R1
h Q + qi
q2 = 2
R2
dh1
c1 = q − q1
dt
dh 2
c2 = q1 − q 2
dt
Q2 (s) 1
=
Q(s) R1c1R 2c2s + s(R1c1 + R 2c2 + R 2c1) + 1
2
h1
q1 = Q+q
R1
h2
q2 = H1+h1
R2
R1 Q+q1
dh1
q − q1 = c1
dt H2 +h2
dh 2 R2 Q+q2
q1 − q 2 = c2
dt
Q2 (s)
H.w. Find ,
Q(s)
13
Control Theory
Second Class Control and System Engineering Department
By M. J. Mohamed
Heater
4. Thermal system
Hot liquid
Mixer θo
θi
Cold liquid
Consider that heat input rate changes from H to H + h i then heat outflow
will change from H to H + h o also the temperature of the outfollwing
liquid will change from θo to θo + θ .
Considering change only:
h i − h o = Q dθ , θ = h.R
dt
or, RQ dθ + θ = Rh i
dt
θ(s)
By L.T : = R This is the T.f between changes in h
Hi (s) RQs + 1
and θ
If we consider that the driving function (i.e) i/p was a change in θi then:-
Q dθ = G.c.θi − h o
dt
1 θ
Q dθ = .θi −
dt R R
RQ dθ + θ = θi θ (s) = 1
dt θi (s) RQs + 1
R.c dθ + θ = θi + Rh i
dt
θi (s)
1
Hi (s) R ++ RQs +1 θo (s)
5) Gear Trains:
A gear train is a mechanical device that transmits energy from one part
of a system to another in such a way that force, torque, speed, and
displacement are altered. Two gears are shown coupled together in
following figure. The inertia and friction of the gears are neglected in the
ideal case considered.
The relationships between the torque T1 and T2 , angular displacements
θ1 and θ2 , and the teeth numbers N1 and N 2 , of the gear train are
derived from the following facts.
15
N2
T1 , θ1
T2 , θ2
N1
r1 N 2 = r2 N1
2- The distance traveled along the surface of each gear is the same.
Therefore,
θ1.r1 = θ2 .r2
3- The work done by one gear is equal to that of the other since there is
assumed to be no loss, thus
T1 θ1 = T2 θ2
T1 θ2 N1 ω2 r1
= = = =
T2 θ1 N 2 ω1 r2
16
6) Hydraulic servomotor.
The following figure shows the hydraulic servomotor. It is essentially a
pilot valve controlled hydraulic power amplifier and actuator. The pilot
valve is a balanced valve, in the sense that the pressure forces acting on
it are all balanced. A very large power output can be controlled by a pilot
valve, which can be positioned with very little power.
The operation of this hydraulic servomotor is as follows: if the pilot
valve is moved to the right, then port I is connected to the supply port,
and the pressured oil enters the left hand side of the power piston. Since
port II is connected to the drain port, the oil in the right hand side of the
power piston is returned to the drain. The oil flowing into the power
cylinder is at high pressure, and the oil flowing out from the power
cylinder into the drain is at low pressure. The resulting difference in
pressure on both sides of the power piston will cause it to move to the
right. The returned oil is pressurized by a pump and is recirculated in the
system. When the pilot piston is moved to the left, the power piston will
move to the left.
Oil under
Drain pressure Drain
Pilot value
a b c
x
Q B
A C Load
y Port I Port II
M
P1 P2
17
i
Vs
1) Potentionmeter (transducer).
Vo = i . r ...........................(2)
Vs
Vo = . r ........................(3)
R
Vo = Vs . x = Vs .x
X k X
k
Vs
If , Kp =
X
∴ Vo = K p.x
18
2) Rotational pot.
Vs
Vo = .θ
θm θ
∴ Vo = K p. θ θm
Vs
Vo
3) Synchro
Synchos are electromechanical device used for position transducer
application in ac control system. Synchros are used widely in control
systems as detectors and encoders because of their ruggedness in
construction and high reliability. Basically, a synchro is a rotary device
that operates on the same principle as a transformer and produces a
correlation between an angular position and a voltage or set of voltages.
S3 S1 S3 S1
19
The forgoing equations show that, despite the similarity between the
construction of the stator of a synchro and that of a three phase machine,
there are only single phase voltages induced in the stator.
Volts
0 60 90 180 240 360
Rotor position
θ (degree)
Synchro Synchro
transmeter transformer
S2 S2
Rotor Rotor
R1 R 1 Output voltage
ac voltage proportional to
Stator Stator
R2 R 2 sin(θ r − θ L )
n n
S3 S1 S3 S1
θr θL
slop = Ks
Ks = E =E
θr − θL θe
4) Tachometers
Tachometers are electromechanical device that convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy. The device works essentially as a generator
with the output voltages proportional to the magnitude of the angular
velocity.
ω
Vo
T
5) Incremental encoder:
One type of encoder that is frequently found in modern control systems
converts linear or rotary displacements into digitally coded or pulse
signals. The encoders that output a digital signal are known as the
absolute encoders.
Rotating Stationary
disk mask
24
error detector
Vs
Vi θi θo Vo
Vi = k1. θ1 E
Vo = k 2 . θo
E = k1. θi − k 2 . θo
If k = k1 = k 2
E = k (θi − θo )
input
E A B
Error voltage
Resistance thermometer
for output measurement
25
i/p
E
Vi Vo
ωi ωo
E = Vi − Vo
5v
0
0
-5v
Vi Vo o/p shaft
E
26
Control Theory
Second Class Control and System Engineering Department
By M. J. Mohamed
Output elements:
a) Armature control .
Ra La
ia
ea eb J
T θ f
i f = constant
where,
b) Field control.
Rf if Ra ia
ef Lf J ea
T θ f
T ∝ ψ1 ∝ ψ2
T = k ψ1 ψ2
T = k (k aia )(k f if )
T = K if K = k k a k f ia
di
L f f + R f i f = ef
dt
2
J d θ2 + f dθ = T = Kif
dt dt
θ (s) = K = Km
Ef (s) s(Lf s + R f )(Js + f) s(Tf s + 1)(Tms + 1)
Block diagram:
Beside what is mentioned above, block diagrams illustrate the
operation and interrelationships of different system components since
the block diagram gives the relationship between the i/p and o/p of the
component.
i/p o/p
T.F
R + R ±C
+
. ±
C
3) Take off point: This operation is used to provide a dual i/p or o/p to a
system element and is represented by,
Takeoff point
C C
C
30
Rules of B.D
C C
+ A -B+C A−B
Summing A
+ + +
+
A-B+C
A …………
operation - -
B B
Cascaded
block R G1 G2 C R G1G 2 C C =G G
R 1 2
Eliminating a +
C
forward loop R G1
+- R G1 ± G2 C C =G ±G
G2 R 1 2
Eliminating R
+
G C R
G
C
a f/b loop 1± GH C= G
+-
H R 1 ± GH
Moving pickoff R C
R G C C =G
G
point beyond a 1
R
block R G
31
Moving pickoff R G C C
point a block a
R G
C =G
head C C G
R
Moving
summing point R1 +
G C R1 G
+
C C =G
beyond a block
-
+
-
+ R1 m R 2
R2 G
R2
Moving +
summing point R1 G
-
C R1 +
G C C = R 1G m R 2
-
a head of a + +
1
R2
block R2
G
Moving block R G1
+
C 1 +
R G2 G1 C
To the forward + G2
C = R(G1 + G 2 )
+
path G2
Moving f/b R
+ G1 C
block to - R
1 +
G2
G2 G1 C C = G1
forward path G2 -
R 1+ G G
1 2
1
Vo = i .....................(2)
sc i/p Vi C Vo o/p
32
Vi + iR i
1 1 Vo
R cs
−
Vo
Vi + 1 Vo
Rcs
−
Vo
1
Vi Rcs Vo
1+ 1
Rcs
Vi 1 Vo
Vo = 1
Rcs + 1 Vi Rcs + 1
Ex. Construct the B.D for the system shown below.( q , q1 , q 2 , h1 , h 2 are
changes from steady state).
Q+q
Q + q1
H1 + h1 H2 + h 2
Q + q2
R1 R2
Q + qi
dh
q − q1 = c1 1
dt
h −h
q1 = 1 2
R1
dh
q1 − q 2 = c2 2
dt
33
h2
q2 =
R2
……………………
H 2 (s)
c1sH1(s) c2sH 2 (s)
Q(s) H1(s) _
+ 1 1 Q1(s) 1 1
c1s R1 +_ c2s R2 Q2 (s)
_ + H 2 (s)
Q1(s) Q2 (s)
c1s R2
1
Q(s) + _
1 Q1(s) 1
1 1
c1s R1 +_ c2s R2 Q2 (s)
_
Q1(s) Q2 (s)
2 3
loop(3)
1 1
Q2 (s) c sR 1
= 2 2 =
Q1(s) 1 + 1 1 c R s + 1
c2 s R 2 2 2
34
loop(2)
1 1
Q(s) csR 1
= 1 1 =
Q1(s) 1 + 1 1 c R s + 1
c1s R1 1 1
c1s R2
Q(s) + _
1 1
c1R1s +1 c2R 2s +1 Q2 (s)
loop(1)
1 1
Q2 (s) (c1R1s + 1) (c2R 2s + 1)
=
Q1(s) 1 + 1 1 cR s
(c1R1s + 1) (c2R 2s + 1) 1 2
Q2 (s) 1
=
Q1(s) c c R R s 2 + (c R + c R + c R )s + 1
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2
is indicated along the branch. The signal flow graph depicts the flow of
signals from one point of a system to another and gives the relationships
among the signals.
Definitions:
X 4 Input node
Mixed nodes (source)
a b X3 1 X3
X1
Input node X2 output node
(source) (sink)
c
X1 a X1 ac
c
X4 = X4
X3
X2 b X2 bc
ab
a X2 b ab 1 − bc
X1 X3 = X1 X3 = X1 X3
c
bc
Hence,
X 3 = bX 2
X 2 = aX1 + cX 3
a11
x2 x3
b1
u1
x1 a12
a13
Note that aij is the transmittance between x j and xi . Equation (1) state
that x1 is equal to the sum of the four signals, a11x1, a12 x2 , a13 x3 , and b1u1 .
The signal flow graph representing Eq(1) is shown above. Eq(2) states
that x2 is equal to the sum of a21x1, a22 x2 , a23 x3 , and b2u2 . The
corresponding signal flow graph is shown below.
a 22
x1 x2 x3
a 21
b2
a 23
u
The signal flow graph representing
2 Eq(3) is shown below.
39
a31
a33
x2 a32
x1
x3
x1
a 31
a11 a 33
1 a 22 x 2
b1 a 21 1
x2 1
u1 x3
a 32 x3
x1 a12 a 23
b2
u2
a13
40
Control Theory
Second Class Control and System Engineering Department
By M. J. Mohamed
E(s) 1 G(s)
+
R(s) G(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)
- E(s)
H(s) - H(s)
N(s)
N(s)
E(s) 1
+ + 1 G1(s) G 2 (s)
R(s) G1(s) G 2 (s) C(s) R(s) C
- + E(s)
H(s)
- H(s)
N(s)
N(s)
E(s) 1
+ + 1 G(s) 1
R(s) G(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)
- + E(s) C(s)
H(s) - H(s)
+ G11(s)
R1(s) G11(s) C1(s) R1(s) C1(s)
+
G12(s) G22(s)
R 2 (s) C2 (s)
+
R 2 (s) G22(s) C2 (s)
+
41
Mason’s gain formula for signal flow graphs: In many practical cases
we wish to determine the relationship between an input variable and an
output variable of the signal flow graph. The transmittance between an
input node and an output node is the overall gain, or overall
transmittance, between these two nodes. Mason’s gain formula, which is
applicable to the overall gain, is given by;
P = 1 ∑ Pk Δ k
Δk
where, Pk = path gain or transmittance of the kth forward path.
Δ k =cofactor of the kth forward path determinant for the graph
with the loops touching the kth forward path removed.
Δ = determinant of graph.
Δ = 1 − (sum of all different loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of two nontouching loops) - (sum of gain products of all possible
combination of three nontouching loops) + ........
Δ = 1 − ∑ La + ∑ Lb Lc − ∑ L d L e L f + .............
a b, c d, e, f
Ex. Consider the system shown below. a signal flow graph for this
system is also shown. Let us obtain the closed-loop transfer function
C(s)/R(s) by use of Mason’s gain formula.
H2
_
+ +
R G1 G2 G3 C
_ + +
H1
- H2
1 1 G1 G2 G3 1
R(s) C(s)
C(s)
H1
-1
In the system there is only one forward path between the input R(s) and
the output C(s). The forward path gain is,
P1 = G1G 2G3
From the signal flow graph, we see that there are three individual loops.
The gains of these loops are;
L1 = G1G 2H1
L2 = −G 2G3H 2
L3 = −G1G 2 G3
Note that since all three loops have a common branch, there are no non-
touching loops; hence, the determinant Δ is given by;
43
Δ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 )
= 1 − G1G 2H1 + G 2G 3H 2 + G1G 2G3
The factor Δ1 of the determinant along the forward path connecting the
input node and output node is obtained by removing the loops that touch
this path. Since path P1 touches all three loops, we obtain;
Δ1 = 1
Therefore, the overall gain between the input R(s) and the output C(s), or
the closed-loop transfer function, is given by,
C(s) = P1Δ1
R(s) Δ
C(s) = G 1G 2 G 3
R(s) 1 − G G H + G G H + G G G
1 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 3
which is the same as the closed-loop transfer function obtained by block
diagram reduction. Mason’s gain formula thus gives the overall gain
C(s)/R(s) without a reduction of the graph.
H.w. Find T.f using B.D reduction operations?
Ex. Consider the system shown in the following figure. Obtain the
closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) by use of Mason’s gain formula.
G 7 (s)
G 6 (s)
- H1(s)
- H 2 (s)
44
In this system, there are three forward paths between the inputs R(s) and
the output C(s). The forward path gains are;
P1 = G1G 2 G 3G 4G5
P2 = G1G 6 G 4G5
P3 = G1G 2 G 7
There are four individual loops; the gains of these loops are,
L1 = -G 4H1
L2 = -G 2G 7H 2
L3 = -G6G 4G5H 2
L4 = -G 2G 3G 4G5H 2
Loop L1 does not touch loop L2 . Hence, the determinant Δ is given by,
Δ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 ) + L1L2 ……………………..(*)
The factor Δ1 is obtained from Δ by removing the loops that touch
path P1 . Therefore, by removing L1 , L2 , L3 , L4 and L1 L2 from equation(*),
we obtain.
Δ1 = 1
Similarly, the factor Δ 2 is,
Δ2 = 1
The factor Δ3 is obtain by removing L2 , L3 , L4 and L1 L2 from equation
(*), giving.
Δ3 = 1 − L1
Ex. Consider the system shown in the following figure. Obtain the
closed-loop transfer function H(s)/Q(s).
−1
1 1 1
1 c1s R1 1 c 2s
Q(s) H(s)
1
−
R2
−1
Sol: in the given system, there is only one forward path that connects
the input Q(s) and the output H(s). thus,
P1 = 1 1 1
c1s R1 c2s
L1 = − 1 1
c1s R1
L2 = − 1 1
c2s R 2
L3 = − 1 1
R1 c2s
Loop L1 does not touch loop L2 . ( loop L1 touches loop L3 , and loop L2
touches loop L3 ). Hence the determinant Δ is given by.
Δ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 ) + L1L2
46
1 1 1 1
Δ = 1+ + + +
R 1c1s R 2 c 2 s R 1c 2 s R c R c s 2
1 1 2 2
Since all three loops touch the forward path P1 , we remove L1 , L2 , and L3
from Δ and evaluate the cofactor Δ1 as follows,
Δ1 = 1
H(s) 1
= PΔ
Q(s) Δ 1 1
1
2
H(s) = R c c
1 1 2
s
Q(s) 1 1 1 1
1+ + + +
R 1c1s R 2 c 2 s R 1c 2 s R c R c s 2
1 1 2 2
H(s) = R2
Q(s) R c R c s 2 + (R c + R c + R c )s + 1
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1
State: The state of dynamic system is the smallest set of variables (called
state variables) such that the knowledge of these variables at t = to
together with the i/p for t > to completely determines the behavior of the
system for any time t ≥ to .
47
x1 = y x&1 = x2
x2 = y& x&2 = x3
x3 = &y& x&3 = x4
M M
M x&n−1 = xn
xn = yn − 1 x&n = −an x1 − an − 1x2 ...... − a1xn + u
Our
r aim is the following form:
r r r
& = A X+Bu
X
r
where, X
r is state vector.
r is state matrix.
A
B is the input vector.
⎡ x& ⎤ ⎡0 1 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x&2 ⎥ ⎢0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x&3 ⎥ = ⎢⎢0 0 0 1 0 ⎥
⎥ ⎢ x3 ⎥ + ⎢0⎥ u
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢M ⎥ 0 0 0 1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢M ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣- an - an −1 - a3 - a2 - a1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ xn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
⎣⎢ xn ⎦⎥
&
r r
A B
48
x1 = y x&1 = x2
x2 = y& x&2 = x3
x3 = &y& x&3 = −6 x1 − 11x2 − 6 x3 + 6u
r r r r
& = A X+Bu
X
⎡ x& ⎤ ⎡0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x& ⎥ = ⎢0 0 1⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ + ⎢0⎥ u
⎢ 2⎥
⎢⎣ x&3 ⎥⎦
⎢
⎢⎣- 6 -11 - 6⎥⎥⎦ ⎢⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎥⎦ ⎢⎢⎣6⎥⎥⎦
⎡x ⎤
⎢ 1⎥
Y= [ 1 0 0 ] ⎢ x2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ x3 ⎦⎥
49
+ x3 x2 x1
u 6 1 1 1 y
s s s
+
+ −6
+
+ −11
+
−6
y(s)
G(s) = = 2 1
U(s) s + 2s + 2
&y& + 2y& + 2y = u
x1 = y x&1 = x2
x2 = y& x&2 = −2 x1 − 2 x2 + u
r r r r
& = A X+Bu
X
⎡ x& ⎤ ⎡0 1⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ 1⎥ =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥u
⎢⎣ x&2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢- 2 - 2⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ x2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢1 ⎦⎥
x2 x1
u + 1 1 y
s s
+
+ −2
+
+ −2
x1 = y - Bo u
x2 = y& - Bo u& − B1u = x&1 − B1u
x3 = &y& - Bo u&& − B1u& − B2u = x&2 − B2u
M
xn = yn - 1 - Bo u n − 1 − B1u n − 2........ − Bn - 2 u& − Bn - 1 u = x&n −1 − Bn - 1 u
where,
Bo = bo
B1 = b1 − a1Bo
B2 = b2 − a1B1 − a2Bo
B3 = b3 − a1B2 − a2B1 − a3Bo
M
Bn = bn − a1Bn - 1.............. − an - 1B1 − anBo
51
r r r r
& = A X+Bu
X
⎡ ⎤
⎡ x& ⎤
⎢ 1⎥
⎡0 1 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎢B1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ x&2 ⎥ ⎢0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ ⎢⎢B2 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ x&3 ⎥ = ⎢⎢0 0 0 1 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x3 ⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢B3 ⎥⎥ u
⎢ ⎥
⎢M ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢M ⎥ ⎢B ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ n − 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣- an - an −1 - an-2 - a2 - a1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ xn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢
⎢⎣ x&n ⎥⎦ B ⎥
⎣⎢ n ⎦⎥
r r r
Y = C X + Du
⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ x2 ⎥
Y= [ 1 0 0 0 0] ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x3 ⎥ + Bo u
⎢ ⎥
⎢M ⎥
⎢⎣ xn ⎥⎦
Y (s) 160(s + 4)
= 3
U (s) s + 18s2 + 192s + 640
Let us define :-
52
x1 = y - Bo u
x2 = x&1 − B1u
x3 = x&2 − B2u
Bo = bo =0
B1 = b1 − a1Bo =0-18(0)=0
B2 = b2 − a1B1 − a2Bo =160-18(0)-192(0)=160
B3 = b3 − a1B2 − a2B1 − a3Bo =640-18(160)-192(0)-640(0)=-2240
Then
r the state equation becomes:-
r r r
X& = A X+Bu
⎡ x& ⎤ ⎡0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x&2 ⎥ = ⎢0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ + ⎢ 160 ⎥ u
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ x&3 ⎥⎦
⎢
⎣⎢- 640 -192 -18⎥⎦⎥ ⎢⎣⎢ x3 ⎥⎦⎥ ⎢⎣⎢− 2240⎥⎦⎥
The output
r r equation is,
Y=CX
⎡x ⎤
⎢ 1⎥
Y= [ 1 0 0 ] ⎢ x2 ⎥ + Bo u
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ x3 ⎦⎥
Ex. Find the state space representation for the following system
F = ky + mD2 y + BDy
F = mD2 y + BDy + ky
1 k
&y& = − B y& − k y + f
Spring
m m m F
M
x1 = y , x&1 = x2 mass
y
x2 = y& k x −Bx + 1 f
, x&2 = − m B
1 m 2 m Dashpot
⎡0 1⎤ x ⎡ 0⎤
⎡ x& ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 1⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1⎥ =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥ f
⎢⎣ x&2 ⎥⎦ ⎢- k B x
⎣ m
- ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
m m
x
The output equation is, Y= [ 1 0 ] ⎡⎢ x1 ⎤⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥
53
Output
Input
Step iv: combine the equations obtained above so that the system is
represented as:-
+ compensator G
-
H
54
Step v: test the system behaviour by using impulse, step, or ramp inputs.
Testing may be done by;
1) direct calculations
2) computer simulation
Step vi: if the response is unsatisfactory. A compensation is designed by
following the techniques available in control theory.
15 v
R1 = 6.01k
5.985 v
R2 = 3.99k
( 6 − eo 3.99 )900 = 0
10
eo = 14.9958
55
e2
B
eoB
1) Show that the ratio of output to input for C.L system is given by.
eo = A
ei 1 + AB
2) Show that if A changes by ± x% , the percentage change in eo is
ei
given by ± x %.
1 + AB(1± 0.01x)
3) Show that if B changes by ± y% , the percentage change in eo is
ei
given by ± AB y
%.
1 + AB(1± 0.01x)
ei − eoB = ee ………..(1)
ee * A = eo …………..(2)
e
ei − eoB = o
A
Aei − ABeo = eo
Aei = eo (1 + AB)
eo = A
ei 1 + AB
…………………………………………………………………………….
Changed x
A (A ± A) = A (1 ± 0.01x) = αA
100
where, α = (1 ± 0.01x)
56
(A ± 0.01xA)
( eeo )new =
i 1 + (A ± 0.01xA)B
e e αA ) − ( A )
( e )new − ( e )original
o o (
1 + αAB 1 + AB
i i 100% = 100%
( eeo )original ( A )
i 1 + AB
= (1 ± 0.01x) −1 = ± 0.01x = ±x %
1 + αAB 1 + AB(1± 0.01x) 1 + AB(1± 0.01x)
…………………………………………………………………………….
Changed y
B (B ± B) = B (1 ± 0.01y) = ΘB
100
where, Θ = (1± 0.01y)
A
( A )−( ) A(1+ AB) - A(1+ ΘAB)
1 + ΘAB 1 + AB
100% = (1 + ΘAB)(1+ AB) 100%
( A ) ( A )
1 + AB 1 + AB
= ± 0.01yAB = ± AB y %
1 + AB(1± 0.01y) 1 + AB(1± 0.01y)
External
a)
Generator voltage = k . If .speed
220 = k *2.2 * 1500
k=0.06667
A constant speed of 1500 r.p.m
eo = k * If *1500 = 100 * If
G
Potentiometer
eo = k * If * speed
eo = 0.06667 * If *1400
eo = 93.333 * If
eo = 93.333 , the gain of the last block
If
eo = ei G
1 + GH
eo = 12 * 933.33
1 + 933.33 * 0.0535
eo = 219.895
If 1
=
e1 50D + 100
59
100000
G= , H = 0.0535
50D + 100
100000
50D + 100 100000
eo = *12 , eo = *12
100000 50D + 100 + 5350
1+ * 0.0535
50D + 100
100000 100000 24000
eo = *12 , eo = *12 , eo =
50D + 5450 50 * (D + 109) (D + 109)
deo + 109e = 24000
o
dt
g) What is the time constant of the close loop system for an amplifier
gain of (i) 1000 (ii) 200?
dx(t ) + ax(t ) = u(t )
dt
For gain =1000 , T = 1 = 9.17 msec
109
For gain =200 ,
20000
eo = 50D + 100
*12
20000 *
1+ 0.0535
50D + 100
20000
eo = *12
50D + 100 + 20000 * 0.0535
20000
eo = *12
50D + 1170
4800
eo =
D + 23.4
deo + 23.4 e = 4800
o
dt
T = 1 = 42.73 msec
23.4
60
Control Theory
Second Class Control and System Engineering Department
By M. J. Mohamed
dx(t ) + ax(t ) = u(t ) This may be the equation of a physical system with
dt
input u(t) and output x(t).
Solution:
i) Transient part (Tr) (complementary function) is that part of the
response which occurs near t=0 and then decays. This part of the
response is due to the characteristics of the system only.
ii) Steady state part (S.S) (particular integral) is that part of the response
which is present through out the period t=0 to t= ∞ . But at t → ∞ this is
the complete solution because the transient part is absent.
The nature of the steady state response depends on external input only.
m+a=0 m=-a
x(t ) = U (1 − e−at )
a
U
at t = 0 , x(t) = 0 a
at t = ∞ , x(t) = U 0.632 U
a a
1 U
at t = , x(t) = 0.632
a a
1
T = ≡ Time constant
a t
0 1
t= =T
a
u(t) x(t)
C
voltage
d.c voltage
t
0
i
R
Current
u(t) x(t)
L current
d.c voltage
t
0
62
ii) A sudden voltage applied an electric oven.
o
C Temp
Source oven
t
0
speed
Supply motor
t
0
ee = k (θi −θo )
es e1
Amp
θi θo
Mechanical
coupling
θo θm
Gears Motor
ee = k (θi − θo )
k = ee
(θi − θo )
k = es
θ Max
Block diagram:
1 1
(θi −θo ) D(D + a) n
θi ee e1 θm θo
+
k A Motor Gears
-
θo
64
Simplified block diagram:
+
θi G θo
-
TEST INPUTS:
u(t)= 1 t > t1
=0 t ≤ t1
0 t1 t
Step function at t1
65
ii) RAMP FUNCTION: Ramp is a signal which starts from a zero level
and increase linearly with respect to time.
0 t
Ramp function at t = 0
x
x
0 T t 0 T t
Ideal Practical
x(t) = x 0<t ≤T
=0 elsewhere
δ (t )
Impulse at t=0
0 t
A.δ (t )
d 2θo (t ) dθo (t )
+a + kθo (t ) = kθi (t )
dt 2 dt
For step input, θi (t ) = R , t > 0
d 2θo (t ) dθo (t )
+a + kθo (t ) = kR
dt 2 dt
Solve the differential equation.
i) S.S solution (θ&o (t ) = θ&&o (t ) = 0 )
(θo ) = R
s.s
2
67
Case I : The two roots are distinct. Imaginary
r1, r2 = − α1 , − α 2 ; a 2 > 4k
−α t
(θo )Tr = Coe 1 + C1e− α 2 t
Complex plane
−α t
θo (t ) = R + Coe 1 + C1e− α 2 t
Real
−∞ −α 2 − α1 0
θ o (t )
t
0 T S.S
42r4444444
1444444 3 1444444
424444444
3
0
Real axis
−∞ −α
θ o (t ) 68
t
0
Imaginary
Case III: Complex conjugate Roots. axis
r1, r2 = − α ± jw ; a 2 < 4k − α + jw
θo (t ) = R + C2 e− α t sin(wt + C3 )
−α 0
Real axis
−∞ −α
− α − jw
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
θo (t )
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t
69
Response of Position Control System
− α 1t
i) Distinct Roots. θo (t ) = R + Coe + C1e− α 2 t
ii) Repeated Roots. θo (t ) = R + (Co + C1 t ) e− α 1t
iii) Complex Conjugate Roots. θo (t ) = R + C2 e− α t sin(wt + C3 )
1.4
Overshoot
θo (t ) 1.2
Repeated (Critically DAMPED)
R 1
0.8
Complex
(Under DAMPED)
0.6
Distinct (OVER DAMPED)
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time
Imaginary
Faster Response
Frequency of
oscillation
Real
70
1) Response becomes faster and faster as the roots moved along the
–ve real axis. The time constant 1 also decreases progressively.
α
2) Damping increase as the roots moves away in the –ve real dirction.
3) Frequency of oscillation increases as the roots move away from the
real axis (along the imaginary axis dirction).
All control system design methods attempt to shift the roots of the
characteristic equation from an undesirable location to a dersirable
location.
a) if the motor is supplied with a step input of 100mA what is the steady
state speed in r.p.m.
at S.S w& = 0
b) in (a) how much time would be taken by the motor to reach i) 25% ,
ii) 50 % and iii) 75% of the steady state speed?
Characteristic equation
(0.5m+1)=0
m = -2
wTr = Ae−2t
w(t ) = 157 + Ae−2t
at t=0 , w(0)=0
0=157+A
A=-157
71
w(t ) = 157 * (1 − e−2 t )
i) w(t1) = 25% of the S.S speed ( 157 rad/second)
w(t )
157
75%
50%
25%
t
0 t1 t 2 t
3
w
et
Tachogenerator
5 volt/1000 r.p.m
Draw the block diagram of the system and write down the differential
equation of the closed loop system. Given that field resistance =100 Ω ,
inductance 20 H.
72
1000 14.992
1000 20D + 100 (0.5D + 1)
er ee ef if w(t )
+ Field
Amp Motor
mA r.p.m
-
et
Tacho
volts
dif
ef = Rf if + Lf
dt
ef = 100 * if + 20D if
ef = 100 * if + 20D if
if 1
= = 1000 mA
ef 100 + 20D 100 + 20D
from system equation.
( 0.5 D+1 ) w =1.57 if
w = 1.57 in rad/second = 14.992 in r.p.m
if 0.5 D + 1 0.5 D + 1
Oven Oven
Temperature Voltage
o
t = 0 , T = 25
o
t = 30 , T = 625
o
t = ∞ , T = 1225
74
T2 − T1 = 0.5
1.415 *1.1* A − 1.415 * A = 0.5
0.023 + 1.415 *1.1*10−3 * A 0.023 *1.415 *10−3 * A
1.10122375 * A2 + 34.172251* A + 264.5 = 3254.5 * A
1.10122375 * A2 − 3220.32775 * A + 264.5 =
3220.3277 ± (3220.3277)2 − 4 *1.10122375 * 264.5
A=
2 *1.10122375
A = 2924.158
d) Calculate the time constant of the close loop system for the value of
‘A’ calculated in part (c).
T (t ) 1.415 A K
= =
e1 D + 0.023 + A *1.415 *10−3 (D + a)
T = 994.472 * e1
at T = 100
100 = 994.472 * e1 , e1 = 0.100555 volt
at T = 1000
1000 = 994.472 * e1 , e1 = 1 .00555 volt
The range of input command is 0.100555 ≤ e1 ≤ 1.00555