Fundamental of Control 1

Engineering
Control Theory
Systems Engineering Department
Second Class Second
Control andClass II semester
System Engineering Department
By M. J. Mohamed
Introduction:
Control Theory: It is that part of science which concern control
problems.

Control Problem: If we want something to act or vary according to a

certain performance specification, then we say that we have a control
problem.
Ex. We want to keep the temperature in a room at certain level and as
we order, then we say that we have temperature control problem.

Plant: A piece of equipments the purpose of which is to perform a

particular operation (we will call any object to be controlled a plant).
Ex. Heating furnace, chemical reactor or space craft.

Process: A progressively continuing operation (natural or artificial) that

consist of a series of actions or changes in a certain way leading towards
a particular result or end. We will call any operation to be controlled a
process. Processes could be chemical, economic, or biological.

System: A combination of components that act together and perform a

certain objective (could be physical, biological, or economic).

Disturbance: A signal which tends to conversely affect the value of the

 2

output of a system (of course it is undesired signal).

Command input i/p: The motivating input signal to the system which is
independent of the output of the system.

Reference i/p elements: An element which modifies the command i/p

into suitable signal (called reference i/p) for the controlled system.

Reference input: It is almost the desired output.

Actuating signal: The difference between the reference input and feed
back (f/b) signals. It actuates the control unit (controller) to maintain the
output at the desired value.

Control unit: The unit which receives the actuating signal and delivers
the control signal.

Controlled variable (actual o/p): The variable which we need actually

to control it.
Ex. temperature, pressure, liquid level, flow rate, etc.

Feedback signal: A signal representing a measure of the actual o/p

which is fed back into control system for purpose of comparison with the
reference signal.

Feedback element: Usually it represents a transducer, the purpose of

which is to convert the o/p of the system in to a signal of suitable
 3

physical nature for the next stage in the system (error detector).

Feedback control: An operation which tends to reduce the difference

between the o/p of the system and the reference i/p.

Servomechanism control system: A feedback control system in which

the o/p is mechanical variable (position, speed, acceleration).

Process control system: A feedback control system in which the o/p is a

variable such as temperature, pressure liquid level.

Automatic regulating system: A feedback control system in which the

reference i/p (desired output) is either constant or slowly varying with
time and the primary task is to maintain the o/p at the desired value in
the presences of disturbance.

Close loop control system: A control system in which the o/p signal has
a direct effect upon the control action.
Voltage

t
0
 4

Open loop control system: A control system in which the o/p signal has
no effect upon the control action.
Ex. heater, light, washing machine

Input signal Controller Plant Output signal

Open loop control system

C/L control system versus O/L control system:

1) F/b control system is relatively insensitive to external disturbance and
internal variation in system parameters. So we can use relatively
inexpensive components with close loop control.
2) The required power of the system is less in O/L than in C/L control
system.
Note: finally, which one to be used depends on the situation, sometimes
we might use both of them in a certain way to get optimum case.

Manual and automatic feedback control:

Temperature Temperature
measuring device Hot measuring device
Steam Steam Hot
water water

Cold Cold
water water
Drain Drain
Manual F/b control system Automatic F/b control system
of a steam thermal system of a steam thermal system
 5

Classification of control system:

1. linear or nonlinear
2. C/L or O/L
3. Electrical. mechanical,…, etc
4. Continuous or discrete
5. Time variant or time invariant.

Mathematical Representation of Control System:

1. Electrical system:
Ex(1).
1 1 i
Vc = ∫ i dt = i R
c cD
Vi
i= i/p Vi C Vc o/p
1
R+
cD
1
Vc = cD Vi
1
R+
cD

1
Vc = V Differential equation
RcD + 1 i

1
Vi RcD + 1 Vo
 6

Transfer function (T.f): the T.f of a linear time invariant system is

defined to be the relation of the laplace transform of the o/p (response
function) to the laplace transform of the i/p (deriving force) under the
assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

1 Vc (s) 1
by L.T, Vc = V =
RcD + 1 i Vi (s) Rcs + 1

Ex(2).
1
Vi = i (LD + R + )
cD i
L
1
i= Vi
1
LD + R + i/p Vi R Vr o/p
cD
C
Vr = i R

R
Vr = Vi
1
LD + R +
cD

RcD
Vr = Vi
2
LcD + RcD + 1

RcD
Vi Vr
LcD 2 + RcD + 1
 7

2. Mechanical system:

a) Translational mechanical system:

Ex(1).
∑ F = ma
k Spring
2
F = ky + mD y + BDy
F
M mass
F = mD2 y + BDy + ky
y
B
y(s) 1 Dashpot
= 2
F(s) ms + Bs + k

k: spring constant (stiffness coefficient )

B: viscous friction coefficient

Ex(2).
F
2
F = mD y + (k 2 + k1)y + (B1 + B2 )Dy

F = mD2 y + (B1 + B2 )Dy + (k 2 + k1)y

Mass

k1 k2 B1 B2 y
 8

Ex(3). F

F = k1(y1 − y2 )
y1
k1
k1(y1 − y 2 ) = (k 2 + k 3 )y2 + (B1 + B2 )Dy2
y2
k2 k3 B1 B2

Ex(4).
F
F = k1(y1 − y 2 ) = k 2 (y2 − y3 ) = B1D(y3 − y 4 ) = B2Dy4

k1 y1

k2 y2

B1 y3

B2 y4

b) Rotational mechanical systems:

Jα = ∑ T

J: Moment of inertia
α : Rotational acceleration

T: Torque
 9

Ex(1).
T = JD2θ + BDθ
T = JDω + Bω
where,
θ B
ω = θ& = Dθ
T
α = ω& = θ&& = D 2θ

Ex(2).
T = JD2θ 1 + k(θ1 − θ 2 )

k(θ1 − θ 2 ) = BDθ 2 θ2
θ1
B

T Flexible shaft
Rigid shaft

Ex(3).
B3 θ3 k2
Flexible shaft

θ2 J2
θ1 k1 J1
T
B2 Flexible shaft

T = k1(θ1 − θ 2 ) B1

k1(θ1 − θ 2 ) = J1D2θ2 + B3D(θ 2 − θ3 ) + B1Dθ 2

B3D(θ 2 − θ3 ) = J 2D2θ3 + B2Dθ3 + k 2θ3

 10

3. Liquid level systems:

Ex(1).
Q : S.S liquid flow rate ft 3/sec Control
Q + qi Valve
H : S.S head.ft
qi : Small deviation of the input flow

rate from its S.S value ft 3/sec .

H+h
qo : Small deviation of the output flow
Q + qo
rate from its S.S value ft 3/sec . Load
Valve
h : Small deviation of the head Resistance
R
from its S.S value ft.
c : area

qi − qo = c dh
dt

qo = h (for laminar flow)

R
qo = k h (for turbulent flow)
h
qi − = c dh
R dt

Rc dh + h = Rqi Differential equation

dt

By , laplace transform.

(Rcs + 1)H(s) = RQi (s)

Ho (s) = R
Qi (s) Rcs + 1
 11

We can find that:-

Qo (s)
= 1
Qi (s) Rcs + 1

Transfer function in case when Qo =o/p and Qi = i/p

where, qo = h
R
by L.T Qo (s) = H(s)
R
H(s) = RQo (s)

Ex(2). Liquid level systems with interaction

Q+q

Q + q1
H1 + h1 H2 + h 2
Q + q2
h −h
q1 = 1 2 R1 R2
R1
h Q + qi
q2 = 2
R2

dh1
c1 = q − q1
dt

dh 2
c2 = q1 − q 2
dt

Q2 (s) 1
=
Q(s) R1c1R 2c2s + s(R1c1 + R 2c2 + R 2c1) + 1
2

Q1(s) H1(s) H 2 (s)

H.W find the T.Fs ; , ,
Q(s) Q(s) Q(s)
 12

Ex(3). Non interaction liquid level system:

h1
q1 = Q+q
R1

h2
q2 = H1+h1
R2
R1 Q+q1
dh1
q − q1 = c1
dt H2 +h2

dh 2 R2 Q+q2
q1 − q 2 = c2
dt

Q2 (s)
H.w. Find ,
Q(s)
 13

Control Theory
Second Class Control and System Engineering Department
By M. J. Mohamed

Heater
4. Thermal system
Hot liquid
Mixer θo

θi
Cold liquid

θi : S.S Temperature of inflowing liquid, Fo

θo : S.S Temperature of outflowing liquid, Fo
G : S.S liquid flow rate lb/sec.
M : mass of liquid in tank , lb
o
c : specific heat of liquid , B tu/lb. F
o
R : thermal resistance , F sec/B tu.
o
Q : thermal capacitance, B tu/ F .
H : S.S heat i/p rate , B tu/sec.

Consider that heat input rate changes from H to H + h i then heat outflow
will change from H to H + h o also the temperature of the outfollwing
liquid will change from θo to θo + θ .
Considering change only:

h i − h o = Q dθ , θ = h.R
dt
or, RQ dθ + θ = Rh i
dt

Note: ho = G.c.θ , G.c = 1 , Q=M.c

R
 14

θ(s)
By L.T : = R This is the T.f between changes in h
Hi (s) RQs + 1
and θ
If we consider that the driving function (i.e) i/p was a change in θi then:-

Q dθ = G.c.θi − h o
dt

1 θ
Q dθ = .θi −
dt R R

RQ dθ + θ = θi θ (s) = 1
dt θi (s) RQs + 1

In case of changes in both h i and θi then we have:-

R.c dθ + θ = θi + Rh i
dt
θi (s)

1
Hi (s) R ++ RQs +1 θo (s)

5) Gear Trains:

A gear train is a mechanical device that transmits energy from one part
of a system to another in such a way that force, torque, speed, and
displacement are altered. Two gears are shown coupled together in
following figure. The inertia and friction of the gears are neglected in the
ideal case considered.
The relationships between the torque T1 and T2 , angular displacements
θ1 and θ2 , and the teeth numbers N1 and N 2 , of the gear train are
derived from the following facts.
 15

N2
T1 , θ1

T2 , θ2

N1

1- The number of teeth on the surface of the gear is proportional to the

radius r1 and r2 of the gears, that is.

r1 N 2 = r2 N1

2- The distance traveled along the surface of each gear is the same.
Therefore,

θ1.r1 = θ2 .r2

3- The work done by one gear is equal to that of the other since there is
assumed to be no loss, thus

T1 θ1 = T2 θ2

If the angular velocities of the two gears are ω1 and ω2 .

T1 θ2 N1 ω2 r1
= = = =
T2 θ1 N 2 ω1 r2
 16

6) Hydraulic servomotor.
The following figure shows the hydraulic servomotor. It is essentially a
pilot valve controlled hydraulic power amplifier and actuator. The pilot
valve is a balanced valve, in the sense that the pressure forces acting on
it are all balanced. A very large power output can be controlled by a pilot
valve, which can be positioned with very little power.
The operation of this hydraulic servomotor is as follows: if the pilot
valve is moved to the right, then port I is connected to the supply port,
and the pressured oil enters the left hand side of the power piston. Since
port II is connected to the drain port, the oil in the right hand side of the
power piston is returned to the drain. The oil flowing into the power
cylinder is at high pressure, and the oil flowing out from the power
cylinder into the drain is at low pressure. The resulting difference in
pressure on both sides of the power piston will cause it to move to the
right. The returned oil is pressurized by a pump and is recirculated in the
system. When the pilot piston is moved to the left, the power piston will
move to the left.

Oil under
Drain pressure Drain

Pilot value
a b c
x

Q B
A C Load
y Port I Port II
M
P1 P2
 17

Control system components (Transducer and error detectors)

i
Vs
1) Potentionmeter (transducer).

Consider linear resistance

R X
x = kr
Vo x r
X = kR
i = Vs ................................(1)
R

Vo = i . r ...........................(2)

From (1) and (2):

Vs
Vo = . r ........................(3)
R

Vo = Vs . x = Vs .x
X k X
k

Vs
If , Kp =
X

∴ Vo = K p.x
 18

2) Rotational pot.

Vs
Vo = .θ
θm θ

∴ Vo = K p. θ θm
Vs

Vo
3) Synchro
Synchos are electromechanical device used for position transducer
application in ac control system. Synchros are used widely in control
systems as detectors and encoders because of their ruggedness in
construction and high reliability. Basically, a synchro is a rotary device
that operates on the same principle as a transformer and produces a
correlation between an angular position and a voltage or set of voltages.

Synchro Transmitter: A synchro transmitter has a Y-connected stator

winding which resembles the stator of a three-phase induction motor.
The rotor is dumbellshaped magnet with a single winding the schematic
diagram of a synchro transmitter is shown in figure below. A single
phase ac voltage is applied to the rotor through two slip rings. The
symbol G is often used to design a synchro transmitter.
Stator Stator
S2 S2
θ
Rotor
R1
ac voltage Slip ringes
R1
R2
n R2

S3 S1 S3 S1
 19

Let the ac voltage applied to the rotor of a synchro transmitter be

er = E r sin (wc .t)
When the rotor is at the position of θ = 0 with reference to figure, which
is defined as the electrical zero, the voltage induced a cross the stator
winding between S2 and the neutral n is maximum and is written,
eS2n (t ) = K .E r .sin (w.t)
where, K is proportional constant. The voltages a cross the terminals S1n
and S3n
o
eS1n (t) = K .E r cos(240 )sin (w.t) = −0.5.K .E r .sin (w.t)
o
eS3n (t) = K .E r cos(120 )sin (w.t) = −0.5.K .E r . sin (w.t)

Then the terminal voltages of the stator are,

eS1S2 = eS1n − eS2n = −1.5.K.Er .sin (w.t)

eS2S3 = eS2n − eS3n = 1.5.K.E r .sin (w.t)
eS3S1 = eS3n − eS1n = 0

The forgoing equations show that, despite the similarity between the
construction of the stator of a synchro and that of a three phase machine,
there are only single phase voltages induced in the stator.

Consider now that the rotor of the synchro transmitter is at an angle of θ

with reference to electrical zero, as shown in above figure. The voltages
in each stator winding will be vary as a function of the cosine of the rotor
displacement θ ; that is, the voltage magnitude are,
o
ES1n = K.E r .cos (θ − 240 )
ES2n = K.E r .cos (θ )
o
ES3n = K.Er .sin (θ − 120 )
 20

The magnitudes of the stator terminal voltages become

o
ES1S2 = ES1n − ES2n = 3.K.E r .sin (θ + 240 )
o
ES2S3 = ES1n − ES3n = 3.K.Er .sin (θ + 120 )
ES3S1 = ES3n − ES1n = 3.K.E r .sin (θ )

A plot of these terminal voltages as a function of the rotor shaft position

is shown in the following figure. Notice that each rotor position
corresponds to one unique set of stator voltages. This leads to the use of
the synchro transmitter to identify angular positions by measuring and
identifying the sets of voltages at the three stator terminals.

Es3s1 Es1s2 Es2s3

Volts
0 60 90 180 240 360

Rotor position
θ (degree)

Synchro control Transformer: since the function of an error detector is

to convert the difference of two shaft positions into an electrical signal, a
signal synchro transmitter is apparently inadequate. A typical
arrangement of a synchro error detector involves the use of two
synchros: a transmitter and a control transformer, as shown in the
following figure.
 21

Synchro Synchro
transmeter transformer

S2 S2

Rotor Rotor
R1 R 1 Output voltage
ac voltage proportional to
Stator Stator
R2 R 2 sin(θ r − θ L )
n n

S3 S1 S3 S1

θr θL

Basically, the principle of operation of a synchro control transformer is

identical to that of the synchro transmitter, except that the rotor is
cylindrically shaped so that the air cap flux is uniformly distributed
around the rotor. This feature is essential for a control transformer, since
its rotor terminals are usually connected to an amplifier or similar
electrical device, in order that the latter sees constant impedance. The
change in the rotor impedance with rotations of the shaft position should
be minimized. The symbol CT is often used to designate a synchro
control transformer.

Referring to the arrangement shown in figure , the voltage given by Eqs

o
ES1S2 = ES1n − ES2n = 3KE rsin (θ + 240 )
o
ES2S3 = ES1n − ES3n = 3KE rsin (θ + 120 )
ES3S1 = ES3n − ES1n = 3KE rsin (θ )

are now impressed across the corresponding stator terminals of the

control transformer. When the rotor positions of two synchros are in
perfect alignment, the voltage generated across the terminals of the rotor
windings is zero. When the two rotor shafts are not in alignment, the
 22

rotor voltage of the CT is approximately a sine function of the difference

between the two shaft angles, as shown in figure.

slop = Ks

0 90 180 270 360

Form figure above it is apparent that the synchro error detector is a

nonlinear device. However, for small angular deviations of up to
o
15 degree, the rotor voltage of the CT is approximately proportional to
the difference between the positions of the rotors of the transmitter and
the control transformer. Therefore for small deviation, the transfer
function of the synchro error detector can be approximated by a
constant Ks .

Ks = E =E
θr − θL θe

Where, E = error voltage.

θr = shaft position of synchro transmitter, degrees.
θL = shaft position of synchro control transformer, degree.
θe = error in shaft positions.
Ks = sensitivity of the error detector, volt per degree.
 23

4) Tachometers
Tachometers are electromechanical device that convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy. The device works essentially as a generator
with the output voltages proportional to the magnitude of the angular
velocity.

ω
Vo
T

5) Incremental encoder:
One type of encoder that is frequently found in modern control systems
converts linear or rotary displacements into digitally coded or pulse
signals. The encoders that output a digital signal are known as the
absolute encoders.

Light Sensor (photovoltaic

Source cell , phototransister,
Lamp, led photodiode)

Rotating Stationary
disk mask
 24

error detector

Vs

Vi θi θo Vo

Vi = k1. θ1 E
Vo = k 2 . θo
E = k1. θi − k 2 . θo
If k = k1 = k 2
E = k (θi − θo )

7) Resistance thermometer bridge error detector

input

E A B
Error voltage
Resistance thermometer
for output measurement
 25

8) Thermo couple bridge error detector

i/p
E

Vi Vo Thermo couple for

Error voltage o/p
measurement
9) Tachogenerator bridge error detector

i/p shaft o/p shaft

Vi Vo
ωi ωo

E = Vi − Vo

10) Potentionmeter tachogenerator bridge error detector

5v

0
0

-5v
Vi Vo o/p shaft

E
 26

Control Theory
Second Class Control and System Engineering Department
By M. J. Mohamed

Output elements:

Ex. (electrical example) D.C servo motor

a) Armature control .

Ra La

ia
ea eb J
T θ f

i f = constant

R a : Armature winding resistance.

La : Armature winding inductance.
ia : Armature winding current.
if : Field current.
ea : applied armature voltage.
eb : back emf.
θ : Angular displacement of the motor shaft.
T : Torque delivered by the motor.
J : equivalent moment of inertia of the motor and load referred to the
motor shaft.
f : equivalent viscous friction coefficient of the motor and load referred
to the motor shaft.
 27
T ∝ ψ1 ∝ ψ2
T = k ψ1 ψ2
T = k (k aia )(k f if )
T = K ia K = k k a k f if
eb = k b dθ θ& = ω
dt
ea = La dia + R aia + eb
dt
2
T = J d θ2 + f dθ
dt dt
2
K ia = T = J d θ2 + f dθ
dt dt
ea (i/p) θ (o/p)
ea = La Dia + R aia + eb
ea − eb = ia (La D + R a )
e −e e − (k bDθ )
ia = a b = a
La D + R a La D + R a

Kea − K(k bDθ )

= J D2θ + f Dθ
La D + R a

By L.T and arrangement

θ(s) K
=
Ea (s) s(La Js + (La f + R a J)s + R a f + Kk b )
2

If we consider La is small enough to be neglected.

θ (s) km
∴ =
Ea (s) s(Tms + 1)

where,

km = K ( motor gain constant )

(R a f + K k b )
Tm = RaJ ( motor time constant )
(R a f + K k b )
 28

b) Field control.

Rf if Ra ia

ef Lf J ea

T θ f

T ∝ ψ1 ∝ ψ2
T = k ψ1 ψ2
T = k (k aia )(k f if )
T = K if K = k k a k f ia
di
L f f + R f i f = ef
dt
2
J d θ2 + f dθ = T = Kif
dt dt

(Lf s + R f )If (s) = Ef (s)

(Js2 + fs)θ (s) = KIf (s)

θ (s) = K = Km
Ef (s) s(Lf s + R f )(Js + f) s(Tf s + 1)(Tms + 1)

where, K m = K motor time constant

Rf f
L
Tf = f time constant of field cct.
Rf
Tm = J time constant of inertia-friction element
f
 29

Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs:

In general it is extremely difficult to handle, analysis, or find the
mathematical representation of composite and complicated systems.
That is why we need some tools to simplify these requirements.
Among these tools are the block diagrams and signal flow graphs.

Block diagram:
Beside what is mentioned above, block diagrams illustrate the
operation and interrelationships of different system components since
the block diagram gives the relationship between the i/p and o/p of the
component.

Symbols used in block diagrams(B.D):

1) Block: The T.f of the system element is placed in the block

symbolized by,

i/p o/p
T.F

2) Summing points: The operation of addition or subtraction is

performed by this system element and is symbolized by.

R + R ±C
+
. ±

C
3) Take off point: This operation is used to provide a dual i/p or o/p to a
system element and is represented by,
Takeoff point
C C

C
 30

4) Directional arrows: This symbol defines unidirectional flow of the

signal.

Rules of B.D

Transformation B.D Equivalent B.D Equation(T.f)

A- B A+B
Summing + + A - B+ C
A + + A - B+ C
operation - + A
B
+ - ………….
C C B

C C
+ A -B+C A−B
Summing A
+ + +
+
A-B+C
A …………
operation - -
B B

Swapping RG1 RG2

cascaded C =G G
R G1 G2 C R G2 G1 C
blocks
R 1 2

Cascaded
block R G1 G2 C R G1G 2 C C =G G
R 1 2

Eliminating a +
C
forward loop R G1
+- R G1 ± G2 C C =G ±G
G2 R 1 2

Eliminating R
+
G C R
G
C
a f/b loop 1± GH C= G
+-
H R 1 ± GH

Moving pickoff R C
R G C C =G
G
point beyond a 1
R
block R G
 31

Moving pickoff R G C C
point a block a
R G
C =G
head C C G
R

Moving
summing point R1 +
G C R1 G
+
C C =G
beyond a block
-
+
-
+ R1 m R 2
R2 G
R2

Moving +
summing point R1 G
-
C R1 +
G C C = R 1G m R 2
-
a head of a + +
1
R2
block R2
G

Moving block R G1
+
C 1 +
R G2 G1 C
To the forward + G2
C = R(G1 + G 2 )
+
path G2

Moving f/b R
+ G1 C
block to - R
1 +
G2
G2 G1 C C = G1
forward path G2 -
R 1+ G G
1 2

Constructing B.Ds of systems:

Ex- Construct B.D of the system shown below.

Vi Vo
i
Vi − Vo = iR ............(1) R

1
Vo = i .....................(2)
sc i/p Vi C Vo o/p
 32

Vi + iR i
1 1 Vo
R cs
−
Vo

Vi + 1 Vo
Rcs
−
Vo

1
Vi Rcs Vo
1+ 1
Rcs

Vi 1 Vo
Vo = 1
Rcs + 1 Vi Rcs + 1

Ex. Construct the B.D for the system shown below.( q , q1 , q 2 , h1 , h 2 are
changes from steady state).
Q+q

Q + q1
H1 + h1 H2 + h 2
Q + q2
R1 R2

Q + qi
dh
q − q1 = c1 1
dt
h −h
q1 = 1 2
R1
dh
q1 − q 2 = c2 2
dt
 33
h2
q2 =
R2
……………………

Q(s) − Q1(s) = c1sH1(s)

H (s) − H 2 (s)
Q1(s) = 1
R1
Q1(s) − Q2 (s) = c2sH 2 (s)
H (s)
Q2 (s) = 2
R2

H 2 (s)
c1sH1(s) c2sH 2 (s)
Q(s) H1(s) _
+ 1 1 Q1(s) 1 1
c1s R1 +_ c2s R2 Q2 (s)
_ + H 2 (s)
Q1(s) Q2 (s)

c1s R2
1
Q(s) + _
1 Q1(s) 1
1 1
c1s R1 +_ c2s R2 Q2 (s)
_
Q1(s) Q2 (s)
2 3

loop(3)
1 1
Q2 (s) c sR 1
= 2 2 =
Q1(s) 1 + 1 1 c R s + 1
c2 s R 2 2 2
 34

loop(2)
1 1
Q(s) csR 1
= 1 1 =
Q1(s) 1 + 1 1 c R s + 1
c1s R1 1 1

c1s R2

Q(s) + _
1 1
c1R1s +1 c2R 2s +1 Q2 (s)

loop(1)

1 1
Q2 (s) (c1R1s + 1) (c2R 2s + 1)
=
Q1(s) 1 + 1 1 cR s
(c1R1s + 1) (c2R 2s + 1) 1 2
Q2 (s) 1
=
Q1(s) c c R R s 2 + (c R + c R + c R )s + 1
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2

Signal Flow Graphs: The block diagram is useful for graphically

representing control systems. For a very complicated system, however
the block diagrams reduction process becomes quite time consuming. An
alternate approach for finding the relationships among the system
variables of a complicated control system is the signal flow graph
approach.

A signal flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected

by directed braches. Each node represents a system variable, and each
branch connected between two nodes acts as a signal multiplier. Note
that the signal flows in only one direction. The direction of signal flow is
indicated by an arrow placed on the branch , and the multiplication factor
 35

is indicated along the branch. The signal flow graph depicts the flow of
signals from one point of a system to another and gives the relationships
among the signals.

Definitions:

Node : A node is a point representing a variable or signal.

Transmittance: The transmittance is a gain between two nodes. The gain
of a branch is a transmittance.
Branch: A branch is a directed line segment joining two nodes . the gain
of a branch is a transmittance.
Input node or source: An input node or source is a node which has only
outgoing branches. This corresponds to a dependent variable.
Output node or sink: An output node or sink is anode which has only
incoming branches. This corresponds to a dependent variable.
Mixed node: A mixed node is anode which has both incoming and
outgoing braches.
Path: A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of the
branch arrow.
Loop: A loop is a closed path.
Loop gain: The loop gain is the product of the branch transmittances of a
loop.
Nontouching loops: Loops are nontouching if they do not posses any
common nodes.
Forward path: A forward path is a path from an input node (source) to
an output node (sink) which does not cross any nodes more that once.
Forward path gain: A forward path gain is the product of the branch
transmittances of a forward path.

Properties of signal flow graph:

1) A branch indicates the functional dependence of one signal upon

another. A signal passes through only in the direction specified by
the arrow of the branch.
2) A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits this
sum to all outgoing branches.
 36

3) A mixed node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches,

may be treated as an output node (sink) by adding an outgoing
branch of unity transmittance. (See figure below. Notice that
branches with unity transmittance is directed from X 3 to another
node, also denoted by X 3 ) Note, however, that we cannot change a
mixed to a source by this method.
4) For a given system, a signal flow graph is not unique. Many
different signal flow graphs can be drawn for a given system by
writing the system equations differently.

X 4 Input node
Mixed nodes (source)

a b X3 1 X3
X1
Input node X2 output node
(source) (sink)
c

Rules of Signal flow graph:

1) The value of a node with one incoming branch, as shown below is

X 2 = aX1 .
a
X1 X2

2) The total transmittance of cascaded branches is equal to the product of

all the branch transmittances.Cascaded braches can thus be combined
into a single branch by multiplying the transmittances, as shown below.
a b ab
X1 X3 = X1 X3
X2
3) Parallel branches may be combined by adding the transmittances , as
shown below.
 a 37
a+b
X1 X2 = X1 X2

4) A mixed node may be eliminated, as shown below.

X1 a X1 ac
c
X4 = X4
X3
X2 b X2 bc

5) A loop may be eliminated, as shown below.

ab
a X2 b ab 1 − bc
X1 X3 = X1 X3 = X1 X3

c
bc
Hence,
X 3 = bX 2
X 2 = aX1 + cX 3

X 3 = abX1 + bcX 3....................(*)

ab
X3 = X1.........................(**)
1 − bc
Equation (*) corresponds to a diagram having a self-loop of transmittance
bc. Elimination of the self-loop yields Equation (** ) ,which clearly shows
that the overall transmittance is ab/(1-bc).
 38

Ex. Consider a system defined by the following set of equations:

x1 = a11x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + b1u1 ………….....(1)
x2 = a21x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + b2u2 …………..(2)
x3 = a31x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 …………………(3)
where, u1 and u2 are input variables; x1 , x2 ,and x3 are output variables. A
signal flow graph for this system, a graphical representation of these
three simultaneous equations, indicating the interdependence of the
variables, can be obtained as follows;
First locate the nodes x1 , x2 , and x3 , as shown in below.

a11
x2 x3
b1
u1
x1 a12

a13
Note that aij is the transmittance between x j and xi . Equation (1) state
that x1 is equal to the sum of the four signals, a11x1, a12 x2 , a13 x3 , and b1u1 .
The signal flow graph representing Eq(1) is shown above. Eq(2) states
that x2 is equal to the sum of a21x1, a22 x2 , a23 x3 , and b2u2 . The
corresponding signal flow graph is shown below.

a 22

x1 x2 x3
a 21
b2
a 23

u
The signal flow graph representing
2 Eq(3) is shown below.
 39

a31

a33

x2 a32
x1
x3

The signal flow graph representing Eq(1),Eq(2), and Eq(3) is then

obtained by combining the above three figures. Finally the complete
signal flow graph for the given simultaneous equations is shown below.

x1
a 31
a11 a 33
1 a 22 x 2

b1 a 21 1
x2 1
u1 x3
a 32 x3
x1 a12 a 23
b2
u2
a13
 40

Control Theory
Second Class Control and System Engineering Department
By M. J. Mohamed

Signal flow graph of control system: some signal flow graphs of

simple control system are shown below. For such simple graphs, the
closed loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) can be obtained easily by
inspection. For more complicated signal flow graphs, Mason’s gain
formula is quite useful.
G(s)
R(s) G(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)

E(s) 1 G(s)
+
R(s) G(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)
- E(s)

H(s) - H(s)
N(s)
N(s)
E(s) 1
+ + 1 G1(s) G 2 (s)
R(s) G1(s) G 2 (s) C(s) R(s) C
- + E(s)

H(s)
- H(s)
N(s)
N(s)
E(s) 1
+ + 1 G(s) 1
R(s) G(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)
- + E(s) C(s)

H(s) - H(s)

+ G11(s)
R1(s) G11(s) C1(s) R1(s) C1(s)
+

G 21(s) G 21(s) G12(s)

G12(s) G22(s)
R 2 (s) C2 (s)
+
R 2 (s) G22(s) C2 (s)
+
 41

Mason’s gain formula for signal flow graphs: In many practical cases
we wish to determine the relationship between an input variable and an
output variable of the signal flow graph. The transmittance between an
input node and an output node is the overall gain, or overall
transmittance, between these two nodes. Mason’s gain formula, which is
applicable to the overall gain, is given by;

P = 1 ∑ Pk Δ k
Δk
where, Pk = path gain or transmittance of the kth forward path.
Δ k =cofactor of the kth forward path determinant for the graph
with the loops touching the kth forward path removed.
Δ = determinant of graph.

Δ = 1 − (sum of all different loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of two nontouching loops) - (sum of gain products of all possible
combination of three nontouching loops) + ........

Δ = 1 − ∑ La + ∑ Lb Lc − ∑ L d L e L f + .............
a b, c d, e, f

∑ La = sum of all different loop gains

a

∑ LbLc = sum of gain products of all possible combinations of two non-

b,c
touching loops.

∑ Ld LeLf =sum of gain products of all possible combinations of three

d,e,f
non-touching loops.
 42

Ex. Consider the system shown below. a signal flow graph for this
system is also shown. Let us obtain the closed-loop transfer function
C(s)/R(s) by use of Mason’s gain formula.

H2
_
+ +
R G1 G2 G3 C
_ + +

H1

- H2

1 1 G1 G2 G3 1
R(s) C(s)
C(s)

H1

-1

In the system there is only one forward path between the input R(s) and
the output C(s). The forward path gain is,

P1 = G1G 2G3
From the signal flow graph, we see that there are three individual loops.
The gains of these loops are;

L1 = G1G 2H1
L2 = −G 2G3H 2
L3 = −G1G 2 G3
Note that since all three loops have a common branch, there are no non-
touching loops; hence, the determinant Δ is given by;
 43
Δ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 )
= 1 − G1G 2H1 + G 2G 3H 2 + G1G 2G3

The factor Δ1 of the determinant along the forward path connecting the
input node and output node is obtained by removing the loops that touch
this path. Since path P1 touches all three loops, we obtain;
Δ1 = 1
Therefore, the overall gain between the input R(s) and the output C(s), or
the closed-loop transfer function, is given by,

C(s) = P1Δ1
R(s) Δ
C(s) = G 1G 2 G 3
R(s) 1 − G G H + G G H + G G G
1 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 3
which is the same as the closed-loop transfer function obtained by block
diagram reduction. Mason’s gain formula thus gives the overall gain
C(s)/R(s) without a reduction of the graph.
H.w. Find T.f using B.D reduction operations?

Ex. Consider the system shown in the following figure. Obtain the
closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) by use of Mason’s gain formula.
G 7 (s)
G 6 (s)

G1(s) G 2 (s) G 3 (s) G 4 (s) G 5 (s)

R(s) C(s)

- H1(s)

- H 2 (s)
 44

In this system, there are three forward paths between the inputs R(s) and
the output C(s). The forward path gains are;

P1 = G1G 2 G 3G 4G5
P2 = G1G 6 G 4G5
P3 = G1G 2 G 7
There are four individual loops; the gains of these loops are,

L1 = -G 4H1
L2 = -G 2G 7H 2
L3 = -G6G 4G5H 2
L4 = -G 2G 3G 4G5H 2
Loop L1 does not touch loop L2 . Hence, the determinant Δ is given by,
Δ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 ) + L1L2 ……………………..(*)
The factor Δ1 is obtained from Δ by removing the loops that touch
path P1 . Therefore, by removing L1 , L2 , L3 , L4 and L1 L2 from equation(*),
we obtain.
Δ1 = 1
Similarly, the factor Δ 2 is,
Δ2 = 1
The factor Δ3 is obtain by removing L2 , L3 , L4 and L1 L2 from equation
(*), giving.

Δ3 = 1 − L1

The close-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) is then,

C(s) 1
= (P Δ + P Δ + P Δ )
R(s) Δ 1 1 2 2 3 3
C(s) = G 1G 2 G 3 G 4 G 5 +G 1G 6 G 4 G 5 + G 1G 2 G 7 (1 + G 4 H1 )
R(s) 1 + G H + G G H + G G G H + G H G G H +G G G G H
4 1 2 7 2 6 4 5 2 4 1 2 7 2 2 3 4 5 2
 45

Ex. Consider the system shown in the following figure. Obtain the
closed-loop transfer function H(s)/Q(s).
−1

1 1 1
1 c1s R1 1 c 2s
Q(s) H(s)

1
−
R2
−1

Sol: in the given system, there is only one forward path that connects
the input Q(s) and the output H(s). thus,

P1 = 1 1 1
c1s R1 c2s

There are three individual loops, thus,

L1 = − 1 1
c1s R1

L2 = − 1 1
c2s R 2

L3 = − 1 1
R1 c2s
Loop L1 does not touch loop L2 . ( loop L1 touches loop L3 , and loop L2
touches loop L3 ). Hence the determinant Δ is given by.

Δ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 ) + L1L2
 46
1 1 1 1
Δ = 1+ + + +
R 1c1s R 2 c 2 s R 1c 2 s R c R c s 2
1 1 2 2
Since all three loops touch the forward path P1 , we remove L1 , L2 , and L3
from Δ and evaluate the cofactor Δ1 as follows,

Δ1 = 1

Thus, we obtain the closed-loop transfer function as shown.

H(s) 1
= PΔ
Q(s) Δ 1 1
1
2
H(s) = R c c
1 1 2
s
Q(s) 1 1 1 1
1+ + + +
R 1c1s R 2 c 2 s R 1c 2 s R c R c s 2
1 1 2 2
H(s) = R2
Q(s) R c R c s 2 + (R c + R c + R c )s + 1
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1

State Space Representation of Systems:

Modern control theory adopts what is known as state space
representation for mathematical representation of systems. Among its
different advantages: it makes it possible to deal with:
1) Nonlinear systems.
2) Time variant systems.
3) Multi i/p multi o/p systems.

State: The state of dynamic system is the smallest set of variables (called
state variables) such that the knowledge of these variables at t = to
together with the i/p for t > to completely determines the behavior of the
system for any time t ≥ to .
 47

State space: the n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes consist of

x1 axis, x2 axis, x3 axis,…., xn axis, is called a state space (where
x1 , x2 , x3 ,…., xn represents state variables). Any state can be represented
by a point in the state space.

State space representation of nth order linear systems in which the

forcing i/p function does not involve derivative terms:

Consider the following nth order system.

yn + a1yn −1 + an−1y& + an y = u
Let us define the state variables;

x1 = y x&1 = x2
x2 = y& x&2 = x3
x3 = &y& x&3 = x4
M M
M x&n−1 = xn
xn = yn − 1 x&n = −an x1 − an − 1x2 ...... − a1xn + u

Our
r aim is the following form:
r r r
& = A X+Bu
X
r
where, X
r is state vector.
r is state matrix.
A
B is the input vector.

⎡ x& ⎤ ⎡0 1 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x&2 ⎥ ⎢0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x&3 ⎥ = ⎢⎢0 0 0 1 0 ⎥
⎥ ⎢ x3 ⎥ + ⎢0⎥ u
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢M ⎥ 0 0 0 1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢M ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣- an - an −1 - a3 - a2 - a1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ xn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
⎣⎢ xn ⎦⎥
&
r r
A B
 48

The output equation is;

r r
Y=CX
⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ x2 ⎥
Y= [ 1 0 0 0 0] ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢M ⎥
⎢⎣ xn ⎥⎦

Ex. Consider the system defined by;

&y&& + 6&y& + 11y& + 6y = 6u

Obtain the state space representation of the system.

x1 = y x&1 = x2
x2 = y& x&2 = x3
x3 = &y& x&3 = −6 x1 − 11x2 − 6 x3 + 6u
r r r r
& = A X+Bu
X

⎡ x& ⎤ ⎡0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x& ⎥ = ⎢0 0 1⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ + ⎢0⎥ u
⎢ 2⎥
⎢⎣ x&3 ⎥⎦
⎢
⎢⎣- 6 -11 - 6⎥⎥⎦ ⎢⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎥⎦ ⎢⎢⎣6⎥⎥⎦

The output equation is,

r r
Y=CX

⎡x ⎤
⎢ 1⎥
Y= [ 1 0 0 ] ⎢ x2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ x3 ⎦⎥
 49

+ x3 x2 x1
u 6 1 1 1 y
s s s
+

+ −6
+

+ −11
+

−6

Ex. Consider the system defined by T.F;

G(s) = 2 1
s + 2s + 2
Find the state space representation.

y(s)
G(s) = = 2 1
U(s) s + 2s + 2

&y& + 2y& + 2y = u

x1 = y x&1 = x2
x2 = y& x&2 = −2 x1 − 2 x2 + u
r r r r
& = A X+Bu
X

⎡ x& ⎤ ⎡0 1⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ 1⎥ =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥u
⎢⎣ x&2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢- 2 - 2⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ x2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢1 ⎦⎥

The output equation is,

r r
Y=CX
 50
x
Y= [ 1 0 ] ⎡⎢ x1 ⎤⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

x2 x1
u + 1 1 y
s s
+

+ −2
+

+ −2

State space representation of nth order linear systems in which the

forcing i/p function does involve derivative terms:

Consider the following nth order system.

yn + a1yn −1 + an −1y& + an y = bou n + b1u n −1 + bn −1u& + bnu

Let us define the state variable:-

x1 = y - Bo u
x2 = y& - Bo u& − B1u = x&1 − B1u
x3 = &y& - Bo u&& − B1u& − B2u = x&2 − B2u

M
xn = yn - 1 - Bo u n − 1 − B1u n − 2........ − Bn - 2 u& − Bn - 1 u = x&n −1 − Bn - 1 u
where,
Bo = bo
B1 = b1 − a1Bo
B2 = b2 − a1B1 − a2Bo
B3 = b3 − a1B2 − a2B1 − a3Bo
M
Bn = bn − a1Bn - 1.............. − an - 1B1 − anBo
 51

The state equation x&n

n
x&n = ∑ − a(n +1−i ) xi + Bn u
i =1

r r r r
& = A X+Bu
X

⎡ ⎤
⎡ x& ⎤
⎢ 1⎥
⎡0 1 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎢B1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ x&2 ⎥ ⎢0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ ⎢⎢B2 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ x&3 ⎥ = ⎢⎢0 0 0 1 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x3 ⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢B3 ⎥⎥ u
⎢ ⎥
⎢M ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢M ⎥ ⎢B ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ n − 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣- an - an −1 - an-2 - a2 - a1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ xn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎢
⎢⎣ x&n ⎥⎦ B ⎥
⎣⎢ n ⎦⎥

r r r
Y = C X + Du
⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ x2 ⎥
Y= [ 1 0 0 0 0] ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x3 ⎥ + Bo u
⎢ ⎥
⎢M ⎥
⎢⎣ xn ⎥⎦

Ex. Obtain a state space representation for the following system:-

G1 G2
Y (s) = G1G2 + 4(s + 4) 40 y
u
U (s) 1 + G1G2 s +16 s(s + 2)
-

Y (s) 160(s + 4)
= 3
U (s) s + 18s2 + 192s + 640

&y&& + 18&y& + 192y& + 640y = 160u& + 640u

a1 a2 a3 b2 b3

Let us define :-
 52
x1 = y - Bo u
x2 = x&1 − B1u
x3 = x&2 − B2u
Bo = bo =0
B1 = b1 − a1Bo =0-18(0)=0
B2 = b2 − a1B1 − a2Bo =160-18(0)-192(0)=160
B3 = b3 − a1B2 − a2B1 − a3Bo =640-18(160)-192(0)-640(0)=-2240
Then
r the state equation becomes:-
r r r
X& = A X+Bu
⎡ x& ⎤ ⎡0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x&2 ⎥ = ⎢0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ + ⎢ 160 ⎥ u
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ x&3 ⎥⎦
⎢
⎣⎢- 640 -192 -18⎥⎦⎥ ⎢⎣⎢ x3 ⎥⎦⎥ ⎢⎣⎢− 2240⎥⎦⎥

The output
r r equation is,
Y=CX
⎡x ⎤
⎢ 1⎥
Y= [ 1 0 0 ] ⎢ x2 ⎥ + Bo u
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ x3 ⎦⎥
Ex. Find the state space representation for the following system
F = ky + mD2 y + BDy
F = mD2 y + BDy + ky
1 k
&y& = − B y& − k y + f
Spring
m m m F
M
x1 = y , x&1 = x2 mass
y
x2 = y& k x −Bx + 1 f
, x&2 = − m B
1 m 2 m Dashpot

⎡0 1⎤ x ⎡ 0⎤
⎡ x& ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 1⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1⎥ =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥ f
⎢⎣ x&2 ⎥⎦ ⎢- k B x
⎣ m
- ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
m m
x
The output equation is, Y= [ 1 0 ] ⎡⎢ x1 ⎤⎥
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥
 53

Design Principles of Automatic Control System:

Steps for the analysis and design of systems:-

Step i: define the objective of the problem including specifications.

Step ii: decide a scheme for the above problem using existing hardware
and new components required.
Step iii: write down the mathematical equations of all the components
/subsystems by making suitable simplifying assumptions e.g regarding
linearity.

Output

Input

Note that these mathematical equations may be:

i) Algebraic equations x=ky

dy
ii) Differential equation = ky
dt
iii) Difference equation

Step iv: combine the equations obtained above so that the system is
represented as:-

+ compensator G
-

H
 54

Step v: test the system behaviour by using impulse, step, or ramp inputs.
Testing may be done by;
1) direct calculations
2) computer simulation
Step vi: if the response is unsatisfactory. A compensation is designed by
following the techniques available in control theory.

Ex. A feedback voltage regulator to produce 15 volt D.C output is

required. The available components are;
i) An amplifier of gain 1000.
ii) A comparator (error detector).
iii) A constant voltage reference of 6 volt D.C.
iv) A potentiometer of 10k Ω .
a) Propose a scheme for the C.L voltage regulator.
b) Calculate the potentiometer setting.
c) If the amplifier gain decreases by 10% what will be its effect on the
output, if the potentiometer is not readjusted.
Error detector
+ 15 mv Amp 15 v
6v eo
1000
-
5.985 v

15 v

R1 = 6.01k
5.985 v
R2 = 3.99k

Let eo is the output

( 6 − eo 3.99 )900 = 0
10

eo = 14.9958
 55

Ex. Consider a feedback control system as shown.

ei + ee eo
A
-

e2
B
eoB

1) Show that the ratio of output to input for C.L system is given by.
eo = A
ei 1 + AB
2) Show that if A changes by ± x% , the percentage change in eo is
ei
given by ± x %.
1 + AB(1± 0.01x)
3) Show that if B changes by ± y% , the percentage change in eo is
ei
given by ± AB y
%.
1 + AB(1± 0.01x)

Comment on the above results?

ei − eoB = ee ………..(1)
ee * A = eo …………..(2)
e
ei − eoB = o
A
Aei − ABeo = eo
Aei = eo (1 + AB)
eo = A
ei 1 + AB
…………………………………………………………………………….
Changed x
A (A ± A) = A (1 ± 0.01x) = αA
100
where, α = (1 ± 0.01x)
 56
(A ± 0.01xA)
( eeo )new =
i 1 + (A ± 0.01xA)B

e e αA ) − ( A )
( e )new − ( e )original
o o (
1 + αAB 1 + AB
i i 100% = 100%
( eeo )original ( A )
i 1 + AB

αA(1+ AB) - A(1+ αAB)

(1 + αAB)(1+ AB) 100% = α + αAB − 1 − αAB = α −1
( A ) 1 + αAB 1 + αAB
1 + AB

= (1 ± 0.01x) −1 = ± 0.01x = ±x %
1 + αAB 1 + AB(1± 0.01x) 1 + AB(1± 0.01x)
…………………………………………………………………………….
Changed y
B (B ± B) = B (1 ± 0.01y) = ΘB
100
where, Θ = (1± 0.01y)

A
( A )−( ) A(1+ AB) - A(1+ ΘAB)
1 + ΘAB 1 + AB
100% = (1 + ΘAB)(1+ AB) 100%
( A ) ( A )
1 + AB 1 + AB

= 1 + AB −1 − ΘAB = AB(1- Θ) = AB(1-1 ± 0.01y)

1 + ΘAB 1 + ΘAB 1 + ΘAB

= ± 0.01yAB = ± AB y %
1 + AB(1± 0.01y) 1 + AB(1± 0.01y)

Ex. The output voltage of a D.C generator is directly proportional to its

field current and speed. A D.C generator develops 220 volt at 1500
r.p.m with a field current of 2.2 Amp. It is required to regulate the output
voltage by a close loop feedback control.
 57

a) Develop a suitable scheme. Given that the generator filed resistance is

100 ohm, a 12 volt car battery is available as reference, and an amplifier
of gain 1000, capable of supplying the necessary filed current.
b) Calculate the potentiometer setting to give the correct output voltage
of 220 volts (speed=1500 r.p.m).
c) How would you set 110 volt out put in this system?
R
If
ed.c

External
a)
Generator voltage = k . If .speed
220 = k *2.2 * 1500
k=0.06667
A constant speed of 1500 r.p.m
eo = k * If *1500 = 100 * If
G

12 v 1000 e 0.01 100

eo
1 If
+ Amp Field Gen
_ circuit

Potentiometer

b) eo ≡ G 220 ≡ 1000 β = 0.0535

12 1 + Gβ 12 1 + 1000 β

c) 110 ≡ 1000 β = 0.108

12 1 + 1000 β
 58

d) If the generator speed drops to 1400 r.p.m , what would be changed

output voltage ? (system was originally set for 220 volt ).

eo = k * If * speed
eo = 0.06667 * If *1400
eo = 93.333 * If
eo = 93.333 , the gain of the last block
If
eo = ei G
1 + GH
eo = 12 * 933.33
1 + 933.33 * 0.0535
eo = 219.895

e) If the generator has an armature resistance of 1 Ω and it is supplying a

load of 20 Ω . What will be the output voltage of the regulated system?.
(speed=1500 r.p.m and the system set for 220 volt at no load)
1Ω
20
eo = * 220 = 209.5
21
e1 20 Ω eo

f) The inductance of the filed winding is given as 50H. Develop the

dynamic equation of the complete system.
dI f
e1 = 50 + 100 * If
dt

If 1
=
e1 50D + 100
 59
100000
G= , H = 0.0535
50D + 100
100000
50D + 100 100000
eo = *12 , eo = *12
100000 50D + 100 + 5350
1+ * 0.0535
50D + 100
100000 100000 24000
eo = *12 , eo = *12 , eo =
50D + 5450 50 * (D + 109) (D + 109)
deo + 109e = 24000
o
dt
g) What is the time constant of the close loop system for an amplifier
gain of (i) 1000 (ii) 200?
dx(t ) + ax(t ) = u(t )
dt
For gain =1000 , T = 1 = 9.17 msec
109
For gain =200 ,
20000
eo = 50D + 100
*12
20000 *
1+ 0.0535
50D + 100
20000
eo = *12
50D + 100 + 20000 * 0.0535
20000
eo = *12
50D + 1170
4800
eo =
D + 23.4
deo + 23.4 e = 4800
o
dt

T = 1 = 42.73 msec
23.4
 60

Control Theory
Second Class Control and System Engineering Department
By M. J. Mohamed

Analysis of Typical Control System:

Consider a first order differential equation.

dx(t ) + ax(t ) = u(t ) This may be the equation of a physical system with
dt
input u(t) and output x(t).
Solution:
i) Transient part (Tr) (complementary function) is that part of the
response which occurs near t=0 and then decays. This part of the
response is due to the characteristics of the system only.
ii) Steady state part (S.S) (particular integral) is that part of the response
which is present through out the period t=0 to t= ∞ . But at t → ∞ this is
the complete solution because the transient part is absent.
The nature of the steady state response depends on external input only.

Complete solution = Tr part + S.S part

i) Auxiliary equation ( characteristic equation)

m+a=0 m=-a

Transient part = Ae−at

ii) S.S part

let, u(t) = U (constant)
dx = 0 at S.S
dt
a xss =U xss = U
a
x(t ) = Ae−at + U
a
 61

If we know x(t) = 0 at t=0.

x(t ) = U (1 − e−at )
a
U
at t = 0 , x(t) = 0 a
at t = ∞ , x(t) = U 0.632 U
a a
1 U
at t = , x(t) = 0.632
a a
1
T = ≡ Time constant
a t
0 1
t= =T
a

Examples of systems showing the exponential time response.

i) R-C , R-L circuit with constant voltage input.

i Voltage
R

u(t) x(t)
C
voltage
d.c voltage

t
0
i
R
Current
u(t) x(t)
L current
d.c voltage

t
0
 62
ii) A sudden voltage applied an electric oven.
o
C Temp

Source oven

t
0

iii) Constant supply voltage switched on to motor.

Speed

speed
Supply motor

t
0

All these system may be represented by differential equation of first

order.

SUCH SYSTEMS ARE CALLED FIRST ORDER SYSTEM

Consider a D.C motor operating with a constant field current i f . If the

input to the motor is taken as e1 (armature voltage) and the output is
taken as speed ω . The differential equation of the motor may be written
as:-

dω(t ) + aω(t ) = e (t ) if constant

dt 1 e1

Using ‘D’ operator Dω(t ) + aω(t ) = e1(t )

ω(t )
= 1
e1(t ) D + a
If we define θ as the output variable, e1 ω
Motor
ω = dθ
dt
 63
d 2θ (t ) + dθ (t ) = e (t )
a
dt 2 dt 1 e1 1 ω 1 θ
D2θ + aDθ = e1(t ) D+a D
θ (t ) = 1
e1(t ) D(D + a)

Analysis of a position control system:

ee = k (θi −θo )
es e1
Amp
θi θo

Mechanical
coupling

θo θm
Gears Motor
ee = k (θi − θo )
k = ee
(θi − θo )
k = es
θ Max

Block diagram:
1 1
(θi −θo ) D(D + a) n
θi ee e1 θm θo
+
k A Motor Gears
-
θo
 64
Simplified block diagram:
+
θi G θo
-

G≡(k A 1 1 )= K where K= system gain

D(D + a) n D(D + a)
K
θo = G = D(D + a) = K
θi 1 + GH 1 + K D2 + aD + K
D(D + a) θi 1 θo
D + aD + K
2
d 2θo (t ) dθo (t )
+a + Kθo (t ) = kθi (t )
dt 2 dt
a is parameter of the motor
K = k.A 1 where A is amplifier gain and 1 is gear ratio.
n n

TEST INPUTS:

i) STEP FUNCTION: A step is a sudden change in the value of the

physical quantity x(t) from one level (usually zero) to another level, in
zero time.
x(t)
x(t)= x t > t1 Ideal
=0 t ≤ t1 x

UNIT STEP: Practical

u(t)= 1 t > t1
=0 t ≤ t1
0 t1 t

Step function at t1
 65
ii) RAMP FUNCTION: Ramp is a signal which starts from a zero level
and increase linearly with respect to time.

x(t)= k t t >0 x(t)

=0 t≤0

0 t

Ramp function at t = 0

iii) PULSE FUNCTION: A pulse may be considered as a step function

which is present for limited period.
x(t) x(t)

x
x

0 T t 0 T t
Ideal Practical

x(t) = x 0<t ≤T
=0 elsewhere

iv) IMPULSE FUNCTION: If in the pulse, the width is decreased and

the height is increased such that.
 66
lim x.T = A , the resulting function is impulse A δ(t)
T→0
x→∞
x(t)

δ (t )
Impulse at t=0

0 t
A.δ (t )

Differential Equation of the C.L Position Control System:

d 2θo (t ) dθo (t )
+a + kθo (t ) = kθi (t )
dt 2 dt
For step input, θi (t ) = R , t > 0
d 2θo (t ) dθo (t )
+a + kθo (t ) = kR
dt 2 dt
Solve the differential equation.
i) S.S solution (θ&o (t ) = θ&&o (t ) = 0 )

(θo ) = R
s.s

ii) Transient solution

Auxiliary equation: r 2 + ar + k = 0
(characteristic equation)
r1, r2 = − a ± a − 4k
2

2
 67
Case I : The two roots are distinct. Imaginary

r1, r2 = − α1 , − α 2 ; a 2 > 4k
−α t
(θo )Tr = Coe 1 + C1e− α 2 t
Complex plane
−α t
θo (t ) = R + Coe 1 + C1e− α 2 t

Real
−∞ −α 2 − α1 0
θ o (t )

t
0 T S.S
42r4444444
1444444 3 1444444
424444444
3

Case II: Repeated Roots. Imaginary

axis
r1, r2 = − α , − α ; a 2 = 4k
(θo )Tr = (Co + C1 t ) e− α t
θo (t ) = R + (C + C t ) e− α t
o 1 Complex plane

0
Real axis
−∞ −α
 θ o (t ) 68

Response Faster than case I

t
0
Imaginary
Case III: Complex conjugate Roots. axis

r1, r2 = − α ± jw ; a 2 < 4k − α + jw

(θo )Tr = e− α t (Co cos wt + C1 sinwt )

Complex plane
(θo )Tr = C2 e− α t sin(wt + C3 ) w

θo (t ) = R + C2 e− α t sin(wt + C3 )
−α 0
Real axis
−∞ −α

− α − jw

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

θo (t )
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

t
 69
Response of Position Control System
− α 1t
i) Distinct Roots. θo (t ) = R + Coe + C1e− α 2 t
ii) Repeated Roots. θo (t ) = R + (Co + C1 t ) e− α 1t
iii) Complex Conjugate Roots. θo (t ) = R + C2 e− α t sin(wt + C3 )

1.4

Overshoot
θo (t ) 1.2
Repeated (Critically DAMPED)

R 1

0.8
Complex
(Under DAMPED)
0.6
Distinct (OVER DAMPED)

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Time

Imaginary
Faster Response

Under Damped Over Damped

Decrease the time constant Oscillation

Frequency of
oscillation

Real
 70
1) Response becomes faster and faster as the roots moved along the
–ve real axis. The time constant 1 also decreases progressively.
α
2) Damping increase as the roots moves away in the –ve real dirction.
3) Frequency of oscillation increases as the roots move away from the
real axis (along the imaginary axis dirction).

All control system design methods attempt to shift the roots of the
characteristic equation from an undesirable location to a dersirable
location.

Ex. A field controlled d.c motor is characterized by the following

differential equation.
dw(t )
0.5 + w(t ) = 1.57 if (t )
dt
Where, w(t) is the angular velocity of the motor in radians/second and if
is the field current in mA.

a) if the motor is supplied with a step input of 100mA what is the steady
state speed in r.p.m.
at S.S w& = 0

wss = 1.57 *100 =157 rad/second=157 60 r.p.m =1499.23 r.p.m

2π

b) in (a) how much time would be taken by the motor to reach i) 25% ,
ii) 50 % and iii) 75% of the steady state speed?
Characteristic equation
(0.5m+1)=0
m = -2
wTr = Ae−2t
w(t ) = 157 + Ae−2t
at t=0 , w(0)=0
0=157+A
A=-157
 71
w(t ) = 157 * (1 − e−2 t )
i) w(t1) = 25% of the S.S speed ( 157 rad/second)

25 *157 = 157 (1 − e−2 t1 ) t1 = 0.1438sec

100 *

50 *157 = 157 (1 − e−2 t 2 ) t2 = 0.3466sec

100 *

75 *157 = 157 (1 − e−2 t3 ) t3 = 0.6931sec

100 *

w(t )

157
75%
50%
25%

t
0 t1 t 2 t
3

c) The above motor is used in a speed control scheme as shown in figure

below.
ia constant
if
Electronic
10 v ee Amplifier ef e1 D.C
er Gain=1000 Motor

w
et
Tachogenerator
5 volt/1000 r.p.m

Draw the block diagram of the system and write down the differential
equation of the closed loop system. Given that field resistance =100 Ω ,
inductance 20 H.
 72
1000 14.992
1000 20D + 100 (0.5D + 1)
er ee ef if w(t )
+ Field
Amp Motor
mA r.p.m
-
et
Tacho
volts
dif
ef = Rf if + Lf
dt
ef = 100 * if + 20D if
ef = 100 * if + 20D if

if 1
= = 1000 mA
ef 100 + 20D 100 + 20D
from system equation.
( 0.5 D+1 ) w =1.57 if
w = 1.57 in rad/second = 14.992 in r.p.m
if 0.5 D + 1 0.5 D + 1

d) calculate the setting of the potentiometer to get a steady state speed of

i) 900 r.p.m , ii) 1100 r.p.m.

G = 1000 * 1000 14.992 = 1499200

*
20D + 100 0.5D + 1 (D + 2)(D + 5)
H=0.005 volt/r.p.m
w(t ) = G = 1499200
er (t ) 1 + GH D 2 + 7D + 7506
d 2w(t ) + 7 dw(t ) + 7506w(t ) = 1499200 e (t ) Differential Equation of the
dt 2 dt r
C.L System
i) For w(t ) = 900 r.p.m
t =∞
D = D2 = 0 at steady state
 73
1499200
w(t ) = 900 = er
s.s 7506
er = 4.506 volts
Potentiometer factor = 0.4506
ii) For w(t ) = 1100 r.p.m er = 5.507 volts
s.s
Potentiometer factor = 0.5507
e) if the amplifier gain suddenly decreases by 25% what would be the
range in the motor speed if it was earlier running at 900 r.p.m.
when the motor is running at 900 r.p.m
er = 4.506 volts
Amplifier gain =750
w(t ) = 1124400
er (t ) D 2 + 7D + 5632

At S.S w(t ) = 4.506 *1124400 = 899.6 r.p.m

t =∞ 5632

Ex. A small electric oven is known to have a first order differential

equation as its describing equation. When the rated input of 20 volt is
o
applied to the oven at 25 C, the steady state temperature is found to be
o o
1225 C and a temperature of 625 is reached in 30 seconds.
a) Write down the differential equation of the oven.
General first order differential equation.
dT (t ) + aT (t ) = b e (t )
dt 1

Oven Oven
Temperature Voltage
o
t = 0 , T = 25
o
t = 30 , T = 625
o
t = ∞ , T = 1225
 74

Tss = b e1 ; Ttr = Ae− at

a
Ttotal = Ae− at + b e1
a
Initial condition at t=0 , T(t)=25
25 = A + b e1 , A = 25 − b e1
a a
T (t ) = (25 − b e1) * e− at + b e1
a a
o
At t= ∞ (steady state) ; T (t ) = 1225 C
1225 = b 20
a
At t=30 , T(t)=625
625 = (25 − b 20) * e− 30a + b 20
a a
625 = (25 − 1225) * e − 30 a + 1225
a = 0.0231049
b = 1.4151755
Oven equation is
dT (t ) + 0.023T (t ) = 1.415 e (t )
dt 1

b) It is now required to control the temperature of the oven by a close

loop feedback system as shown in figure below. obtain the differential
equation of the overall system.
Input A
command + Temperature
Amplifier Oven
-
5μv/c
o
200
Transducer Thermo -
Amplifier couple

G ≡ A 1.415 ; H = 5 *10−6 * 200 = 10−3

D + 0.023
 75
T (t )
= G = 1.415 A
e1 1 + GH D + 0.023 + A *1.415 *10−3
c) Calculate the value of ‘A’ such that if ‘A’ increases by 10% the steady
o
state change in the oven temperature does not exceed 0.5 C for
e1 = 1 volts
A →1.1A
e1 =1v T1 ⎯change
⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯→T
2
Temperature
Regulator

T2 − T1 = 0.5
1.415 *1.1* A − 1.415 * A = 0.5
0.023 + 1.415 *1.1*10−3 * A 0.023 *1.415 *10−3 * A
1.10122375 * A2 + 34.172251* A + 264.5 = 3254.5 * A
1.10122375 * A2 − 3220.32775 * A + 264.5 =
3220.3277 ± (3220.3277)2 − 4 *1.10122375 * 264.5
A=
2 *1.10122375
A = 2924.158

d) Calculate the time constant of the close loop system for the value of
‘A’ calculated in part (c).
T (t ) 1.415 A K
= =
e1 D + 0.023 + A *1.415 *10−3 (D + a)

a = 0.023 + 2924.153 *1.415 *10−3 = 4.160676

Time constant= T = 1 = 0.240345 sec

a

e) What is the range of input command in volts required for controlling

o o
the temperature from 100 C to 1000 C .

At S.S T = 1.415 * 2924.153 e = 4137.676496 e

0.023 + 2924.153*1.415 *10−3 1 4.1606764 1
 76

T = 994.472 * e1
at T = 100
100 = 994.472 * e1 , e1 = 0.100555 volt

at T = 1000
1000 = 994.472 * e1 , e1 = 1 .00555 volt
The range of input command is 0.100555 ≤ e1 ≤ 1.00555