Module 2

PHYSICS

1
 M2.2 – Mechanics
GOALS
In this chapter, students are expected to acquire knowledge
on the following topics:
- Static (Newton's laws, forces, moments, center of
gravity, effort and elasticity).
- Kinematics (linear, angular and periodic movement,
general theory of harmonic vibration, advantage and
mechanical efficiency).
- Dynamics (mass, force, inertia, energy and work,
momentum, gyroscopes).
- Fluids (pressure and hydrostatic impulsion, fluid
dynamics).
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 Mechanics
It is the branch of physics that comprises the study and analysis
of the movement and rest of bodies, their evolution in time, their
displacements under the action of forces and their effects on the
environment.

3
 Static
Statics is the field of mechanics that studies forces and their
equilibrium in a material system.

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 Newton's Laws
Newton's First Law – Law of Inertia

A resting body tends to remain at rest and a moving body tends

to remain in motion.

That is, if the resultant force is zero the body tends to remain in
the same state of motion.
The state of motion of a body is altered by the action of forces
that may be friction, air resistance, gravity or other forces.

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 Newton's Laws
Newton's Second Law of motion

The force is always directly proportional to the product of the

acceleration of a body by its mass.

FR is the resultant of all forces acting on the body [N];

m is the mass of the body on which the forces act [kg];
a is the acceleration acquired by the body [m/s2].

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 Newton's Laws
Newton's Third Law – Action and Reaction

The forces always act in pairs, for every force of action, there is
a force of reaction with equal magnitude and direction and
opposite orientation.

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 Static
Static

Static is the part of physics that studies systems under the action
of forces that balance each other (resulting null force).

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 Static
Static of particles

A force is a vector quantity and as such can be characterized by:

- Magnitude;
- Direction;
- Orientation;
- Point of application (optional).
The vectors can be classified as Position Vector, Line Vector, Free
Vector, Unit Vector.

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 Forces
Principle of transmissibility

The effect of an external force on a rigid body remains

unchanged if the force is moved along its line of action. They are
considered equivalent forces if they act in the same line of action
as long as they have the same magnitude and orientation.

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 Forces
Resultant force from a system of two concurrent forces

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 Forces
Resultant force from a coplanar forces system

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 Forces
Particular cases of decomposition of a force into components

The lines of action of the componentes are known.

One of the components is known.

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 Forces
Vectors in cartesian coordinates

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 Forces
The concept force is related to the changes in the amount of
movement.
Linear momentum: The amount of motion of a system is the
product of its mass by the speed at which it travels.

- The moment unit in the SI is the kilogram-meter per second

[kg m s-1];
- Linear momentum is a vector quantity that has the direction
and orientation of the velocity.

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 Moment of a force
Moment of a force, torque, is a physical quantity associated with
the rotational motion of a body about an axis, which results from
the application of a force to that body. The momentum is defined
as the product of the intensity F of the force applied by the
distance d of the point O (axis of rotation) to the line of action of
the force.
- The moment is positive if the rotation is counter-clockwise
and vice-versa;
- SI Unit: [N.m].

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 Moment of a force
Torque

It is a system composed of two force of the same magnitude,

direction and opposite orientation, whose lines of action are at a
certain distance. That distance is called lever arm.

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 Moment of a force
Moment of torque

It is the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces that

constitute the torque. The figure's torque is counterclockwise,
the resulting moment is positive.
Conclusion: if we apply a torque to a body, it does not acquire a
translation movement (the resultant of the forces is zero) but it
acquires a non-uniform rotation motion (since the momentum is
not zero).

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 Center of gravity
Centre of gravity, in physics, an imaginary point in a body of
matter where, for convenience in certain calculations, the
total weight of the body may be thought to be concentrated.
These particles are drawn to the center of the Earth, each with its
weight. Center of gravity, therefore, is the point where all these
forces of attraction are balanced.

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 Center of gravity
Weight and balancing

Objective: Ensure flight safety and efficiency.

Incorrect loading reduces efficiency in the following aspects:
operating ceiling, maneuverability, climbing, speed and fuel
consumption.

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 Stress and Strain
For most metals, tension and The elastic deformations are
deformation are proportional: not permanent, that is, when
the load is removed the body
returns to its initial shape as if it
were an elastic.

This is Hooke's law and the

proportionality constant, E, is
the modulus of Young's The SI unit of stress is the
elasticity. Pascal [Pa] which is a force per
unit area [N m-2].

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Stress and Strain

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 Stress and Strain
Stress-strain curve

1. Ultimate Strength;
2. Yield Strength;
3. Rupture;
4. Strain hardening region;
5. Necking region.

Stress-Strain curve, obtained by a

tensile test.

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 Stress and Strain
Curve analysis

The elastic deformation is the linear zone of the curve.

Above a certain stress (yield limit or yield stress) the materials
begin to deform permanently (plastic deformation).
During plastic deformation, the tension needed to continue
deforming a metal increases to the limit of tensile strength - the
greater tension that the body resists before fracturing.
The tension that corresponds to the fracture is the rupture
tension/limit.

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 Stress and Strain
Curve analysis
- Other examples of stress-strain curves (depending on the
material analyzed).

Stress-strain diagram of a ductile

material (aluminum):
1. Ultimate Strength;
2. Yield Strength.
3. Proportionality limit;
4. Rupture;
5. Offset yield point (the stress
at which 0.2% plastic
deformation). Typical curve of a ductile material

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 Stress and Strain
Curve analysis

Stress-strain diagram for a

fragile (ceramic) material:
1. Ultimate Strength;
2. Rupture.

Typical curve of a fragile material

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Stress and Strain

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 Stress and Strain
Tensile force

A pulling tension (tensile force) is being applied when the applied

axial force is acting in the direction directed towards the outside
of the body.
In a tensile test, a specimen is subjected to a tension that tends
to elongate or stretch it to breakage.

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 Stress and Strain
Compression

Compression has the same characteristics of a tensile force

except the direction of the applied forces are directed into the
body.

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 Stress and Strain
Shear force

Shear force is a type of tension generated by forces applied in

equal or opposite orientation, in similar directions, but with
different magnitudes in the material analyzed.
An example of this is the application of parallel forces but in
opposite orientation, or the typical tension generated by scissors.

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 Stress and Strain
Torsion

Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. In

sections perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear
stress in this section is perpendicular to the radius.

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 Kinematic
Kinematics is the branch of physics that deals with the description
of the movements of bodies, without worrying about the analysis
of their causes (dynamics). It studies the set of relations between
the positions, velocity and acceleration of bodies.
Let's describe the movements:
- Linear.
- Angular.
- Periodic.

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 Linear motion
Linear motion

The linear or rectilinear motion may be uniform, non-uniform

accelerated or decelerated.

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 Angular movement
The angular movement in which the objects are in rotation. The
displacement in this movement is not measured in meters but in
radians, degrees or rotations.

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 Angular movement
Angular movement

If we make some substitutions in the equations of linear motion,

we obtain the equations of angular motion.

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 Angular movement
Tangential velocity

In addition to the angular velocity, it is also possible to identify

the tangential velocity which is the velocity tangent to the
rotating object at a given instant.

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 Angular movement
Centrifugal acceleration

If there is tangential velocity, there is also a related acceleration.

Centrifugal acceleration is the acceleration or change in velocity
produced by the body moving in a circular path with respect to
time, which keeps the body moving in a circular path without
falling in to the center.
Centrifugal and centripetal acceleration (m/s2) are given by the
following equations:

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 Periodic motion
Periodic motion

A pendulum is an object with a

certain mass hanging by a cable
of despicable mass.
It is a resonant system with a
simple resonant frequency. For
small amplitudes the pendulum
movement is:

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 Periodic motion
Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

If we only consider the

horizontal movement of the
pendulum and neglect vertical
movement (as if the wire were
infinitely large) then the
frequency and period are
related as follows:

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 General theory of harmonic wave progt.
Mass/spring system - pure sinusoidal movement (SHM). The
natural frequency can be calculated by:

Where k is the spring constant and m is the mass of the oscillating

body.

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 General theory of harmonic wave progt.
Properties

Period – Time it takes to complete a full cycle (in seconds [s]);

Frequency - Number of cycles per unit of time (Hertz [Hz]);
Amplitude - Maximum displacement from the point of
equilibrium.
If this movement propagates in the form of a wave we also have:
- Speed of a wave - Ratio between wavelength and period;
- Wavelength – The distance over which the wave´s shape
repeats (distance between two crests or valleys).

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 General theory of harmonic wave progt.
Properties

The speed of the body is always varying: it is maximum in the

middle position and zero in the extremities.
The acceleration is always varied: it is maximum at the ends and
zero at the central point of oscillation.

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 Mechanical advantage and efficiency
Work

A force applied on a body accomplishes a work when it produces a

displacement in the body. When a force has opposite direction to
the movement, the work done is negative.

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 Mechanical advantage and efficiency
In this chapter we will only address forces parallel to the
displacement, that is, the angle will be null.

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 Mechanical advantage and efficiency
General theory of all machines

Efficiency is a measure of how much work or energy is conserved

in a process. In many processes, work or energy is lost, for
example as waste heat or vibration.
Thus, the efficiency of a machine can be defined as the output
work and the input work:

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 Mechanical advantage and efficiency
Simple machine
- Lever.

The lever is a rigid object that is

used with an appropriate fixed
point to multiply the mechanical
force that can be applied to
another object.
Ideal Mechanical Advantage:

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 Mechanical advantage and efficiency
Simple machine
- Class of levers.

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 Mechanical advantage and efficiency
Pulley

It is a mechanical part very common to several machines, used to

transfer force and kinetic energy. The fixed pulley has an axle
attached to a structure.
A fixed pulley changes the direction of the force on a rope or belt
that moves along its circumference.
A movable pulley has an axle in a movable block. A movable
pulley is supported by two parts of the same rope.

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 Mechanical advantage and efficiency
Inclined plane

When moving an object on an inclined plane instead of moving it

over a completely vertical plane, the total force F to be applied is
reduced.
Ideal Mechanical Advantage:

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 Mechanical advantage and efficiency
Screw jack

Each time the lever (R)

completes one turn the load
rises a height equal to the pitch
of the thread (p).
Ideal Mechanical Advantage :

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 Dynamics & Mass
Dynamics
In physics, dynamics is a branch of mechanics that studies the
movement of a body and the causes of that movement: forces.
Mass
Knowing the volume (v) and the density (or density, D) of a body
we can calculate its mass (M).

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 Dynamics & Mass
Unit of mass

SI unit is kg but it is important to know other units to do the

conversion when necessary.

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 Force
Force characteristics - Orientation, direction and magnitude (in
Newton [N]).
Weight
It is the result of the gravitational attraction exerted by the Earth on
the objects.
The weight force always points to the center of the Earth.

Where g is the acceleration of gravity corresponding to 9.8 [m s-2]

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 Force
Force
- Normal Force (N or FN).

It is a reaction force that the

surface does on a body that is in
contact with it (contact force).
This force is normal to the
surface.
Any other body coming into
contact with the surface of
another and compressing it will
apply a force to that surface and
according to Newton's 3rd Law
there will be a reaction that is
exactly the normal force.

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 Force
Force
- Friction forces (A or FA).

Like the normal force, also the

frictional force is a force of
contact.
It results from the interaction
force between the atoms. This
force is opposed to motion and
depends on the nature and
roughness of the surface
(coefficient of friction, μ). It is
proportional to the normal force
of each body:

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 Force
Force
- Types of frictional forces.

Static - It is the one that acts when there is no movement of

bodies. The maximum static friction force is equal to the minimum
force required to initiate the movement of a body.
Kinetic - It is the one that acts when there is a movement of
bodies. When the force of static friction is exceeded by the force
applied to the body, it will enter into motion, and we shall now
consider its dynamic frictional.

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 Force
Force
- Friction coefficients.

Rolling or sliding Friction

It is the friction of a solid
surface, exerted on another
equally solid that rolls or slides
on it.

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 Force
Force
- Types of frictional forces.

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 Force
Force
- Centrifugal force.

Direction - is perpendicular to the

curve at the point where the object
is.
Orientation - out of the
circumference.

Magnitude -

Where v is the scalar velocity of the

body at point P, R is the radius of the
circumference tangent at point P and
m is the mass of the body.

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 Inertia
Inertia is a general property of
matter, it is the resistance that all
material bodies oppose to the
modification of their state of
motion (or lack of movement).
In other words, it is the natural
tendency of everything to remain as
it is.
The mass of a body represents the
difficulty it imposes to rest or
movement, therefore it is
considered as the quantitative
measure of inertia.

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 Energy and work

Conservation of energy
Energy is not created or destroyed, but transformed, and its total
quantity remains constant.

Kinetic energy: it is the energy that a

body acquires when it is in motion.

Potential energy: is the stored energy

of position possessed by an object.

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 Energy and work
Mechanical energy: it is the sum of kinetic energy and potential
energy.
Mechanical energy conservation
In the absence of dissipative forces such as friction, the total
mechanical energy of the system is conserved, transforming
potential energy into kinetics and vice versa.

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 Energy and work
Thermal energy: it is a form of energy that is directly associated
with the absolute temperature of a system, and corresponds
classically to the sum of the microscopic kinetic energies that its
constituent particles possess by virtue of their movements of
translation, vibration or rotation.
The internal energy is the product between the average kinetic
energy and the number of molecules N:

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 Energy and work
Work

To put an object in motion requires the application of a force and

simultaneously a transformation of energy. When there is
application of a force and a displacement of the point of
application of that force, it can be said that there was work done.
The working SI unit is the joule (J).

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 Energy and work
Power
Power is the rate at which work is done. It is the work/time ratio
and The standard metric unit of power is the Watt (W).
Mathematically, it is computed using the following equation:

Efficiency
Efficiency is a measure of how much work or energy is conserved
in a process. In many processes, work or energy is lost, for
example as waste heat or vibration. The efficiency is the energy
output, divided by the energy input, and expressed as a
percentage.
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 Energy and work
The amount of motion, or linear momentum, is the product of
the velocity of a particle by its mass.
Conservation of the amount of movement
Like mechanical energy, the amount of movement is also
maintained when there are no dissipative forces, that is, the
system is conservative, closed or mechanically isolated.
Thus, we can say that forces are responsible for the variation of
the amount of movement.
Impulse
Impulse is a term that quantifies the overall effect of a force
acting over time. It is conventionally given the symbol J and
expressed in Newton-seconds.
J = F.̅ Δt
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 Gyroscopes
Gyroscope is a device consisting of a rotor suspended by a
support formed by two articulated circles. Its operation is based
on the principle of inertia.
The gyro consists essentially of a free wheel, or several wheels, to
rotate in any direction and with a property: it opposes any
attempt to change its original direction ⟶ inertia.

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 Gyroscopes
Properties of gyroscopes:
- Rigidity in space - tendency to remain fixed to space even
though it varies the angle of the platform that supports it.
- Precession - acts on the perpendicular of the applied force, in
the direction of rotation of the rotor.

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 Gyroscopes
Applications

Artificial horizon - An artificial horizon shows the attitude changes

of an aircraft around the transverse and longitudinal axis and is
achieved through the mechanical connection of a gyro with the
attitude scale. The horizon benefits from the property of rigidity in
space.
Turn & Bank Indicator - Shows the aircraft's ratio of return by
aligning its pointer with the marks placed on its inner face -
precession property.

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 Fluids
A fluid is a substance that can flow easily, has no shape of its own
and has the ability to change shape when subjected to the action
of small forces.
The movement of fluids is studied from its speed and density.

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 Hydrostatic forces
Hydrostatic is the branch of physics that studies the force exerted
by and on resting liquids.
- Buoyant force – is the force exerted on an object that is
wholly or partly immersed in a fluid. Buoyant force is
represented FB.

Where:
- ρ is the density of the fluid;
- V is the volume of the displaced fluid;
- g is the acceleration of gravity.
Buoyancy is caused by differences in pressure acting on opposite
sides of an object immersed in a static fluid.

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 Hydrostatic forces
Hydrostatic pressure – The pressure exerted by a fluid at
equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of
gravity. Hydrostatic pressure increases in proportion to depth
measured from the surface because of the increasing weight of
fluid exerting downward force from above.
Hydrostatic pressure in a liquid can be calculated as:
P = ρ.g.h
Where:
- P = pressure in liquid (N/m2, Pa, lbf/ft2, psf);
- ρ = density of liquid (kg/m3, slugs/ft3);
- g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2, 32.17405 ft/s2);
- h = height of fluid column - or depth in the fluid where
pressure is measured (m, ft).

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 Hydrostatic forces
Hydrostatic pressure

73
 Hydrostatic forces
Reynolds number

It is a dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to calculate

the flow rate of a given fluid on its surface. It is the quotient
between the forces of inertia and the forces of viscosity.

Where:
- V is the flow velocity in meter-per-second (m/s);
- D is the diameter of the pipe in meters (m);
- ρ fluid density in kilograms-per-cubic-meter (kg/m3);
- μ is the viscosity of the fluid in pascal-seconds (Pa.s).

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 Hydrostatic forces
Laminar, Transitional or Turbulent Flow

The are in general three types of fluid flow:

- Laminar flow;
- Transient flow;
- Turbulent flow.

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 Hydrostatic forces
Density
Is defined as mass per unit volume. Mass is a property and SI unit
for density is (kg/m3).
𝒎
𝝆=
𝑽
Specific Gravity (Relative Density) SG
Is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of water.
𝝆𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑺𝑮 =
𝝆𝑯𝟐𝟎
Specific weight
Is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force and the SI
unit for specific weight is (N/m3).
𝜸 = 𝝆. 𝒈

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 Hydrostatic forces
The pressure difference between two points of the mass of a
liquid in equilibrium is equal to the difference in depth multiplied
by the specific weight of the liquid.
It is concluded that the pressure increases with depth.

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 Hydrostatic forces
Communicating vessels

Communicating vessels is a name given to a set of containers

containing a homogeneous fluid. When the liquid settles, it
balances out to the same level in all of the containers regardless
of the shape and volume of the containers.
If additional liquid is added to one vessel, the liquid will again find
a new equal level in all the connected vessels. This process is part
of Stevin's Law and occurs because gravity and pressure are
constant in each vessel (hydrostatic pressure).

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 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics studies the macroscopic physical behavior of
fluids.
- Actual flows are complex to describe due to factors such as
viscosity, turbulence, friction, compressibility, etc.
- Thus we consider the study of the ideal fluid that is
incompressible.

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 Fluid Mechanics
Viscosity

Informally, viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid's

resistance to flow. Fluids resist the relative motion of immersed
objects through them as well as to the motion of layers with
differing velocities within them. The SI unit is the (Pa.s).
Kinematic viscosity
Is the measure of a fluid’s inherent resistance to flow when no
external force, except gravity, is acting on it and its SI unit is the
(m2/s).

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 Fluid Mechanics
Types of fluids

Ideals Fluids – The fluids which no resistance in between their

molecules, particles or layers are known as ideal fluids. The fluids
having zero viscosity are known as ideal fluids.
Real Fluids – The fluids which have some resistance in between
their molecules, particles or layers are known as real fluids. The
fluids which have some viscosity are known as real fluids. The real
fluids can still be divided into Newtonian fluids and non-
Newtonian fluids.

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 Fluid Mechanics
Compressibility

In fluid mechanics, compressibility is a measure of the relative

change in volume of a fluid as a response to a pressure.
- Liquids are only slightly compressible and are incompressible
in most situations.
- Gases are very compressible.

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 Fluid Mechanics
Drag

Due to viscosity, liquids resist to instantaneous changes in

velocity. Gases have very low viscosity.

Where:
- FD = Drag force;
- 𝝆 = Density of the fluid;
- v = Speed of the object relative to the fluid.
- A = Cross sectional area;
- CD = Drag coefficient (dimensionless number).

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 Fluid Mechanics
Laminar and turbulent flow

Laminar flow - In laminar flow of a fluid, which is synonymous to

streamlined flow, the various layers of the fluid slide parallel to
each other, without any disturbance, interference, or intermixing
of any sort. The particles of the fluid move in an orderly manner,
in straight lines that are parallel to the walls of the pipe
containing it.
Turbulent flow - As the name suggests, turbulent flow is agitated,
chaotic, or rough in nature, and is not associated with the orderly
sliding of layers over each other. The adjacent layers of the fluid
get mixed with each another, and there is a large amount of
friction between the boundaries of these layers.

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 Fluid Mechanics
Steady flow

Steady flow means constant pattern of flow velocity everywhere

in the fluid. The velocity of the fluid particles at any point is
constant as time passes.

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 Fluid Mechanics
Continuity equation

It relates the flow velocity of a fluid and the area available for
such flow. From the image, it is verified that the path made by
the fluid has two different areas: A1 < A2.
The smaller the flow area available for a fluid, the greater its
velocity and vice versa.

86
 Fluid Mechanics
Bernoulli equation

The Bernoulli principle states that for a non-viscosity flow, an

increase in fluid velocity occurs simultaneously with a decrease in
pressure or a decrease in the potential energy of the fluid.

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 Fluid Mechanics
Applications - Venturi Tube

The Venturi tube is used to measure the velocity of the flow and
the flow rate of an incompressible liquid by varying the pressure
during the passage of this liquid through a tube of wider section
and then of a narrower section. If the flow of a fluid is constant
but its flow area decreases then necessarily the velocity
increases.

88
 Fluid Mechanics
Applications - Venturi Tube

The Pitot tube is a measuring

instrument that measures fluid
velocity in physical models in
hydraulic laboratories,
aerodynamics laboratories and also
in hydrology for indirect
measurement of flow rates in
canals and rivers, in water supply
networks, in pipelines, and the
speed of airplanes by measuring
the rate of air flow.

89
Questions ?
90