POWER GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION  Distribution line voltages are initially too high for

typical use, so distribution transformers further

 Electricity is primarily produced at utility-owned reduce the voltage.
power stations.  Voltage levels are adjusted to safe and usable
 A power station is an industrial facility housing levels for residential, commercial, and industrial
equipment for generating electrical energy. applications.
 A generator converts mechanical energy into  Common voltage levels in the US and Canada
electrical energy. include 120/240 V single-phase and 120/208 V
 A generator rotates an armature (shaft with or 480 Y/277 V three-phase.
conductor windings) through a stationary  In Europe, voltages like 400 Y/230 V are
magnetic field to produce current flow. standard for both residential and industrial
 A turbine, connected to the generator, drives the loads.
rotation of the armature shaft.  Power utilities typically generate, transmit, and
 Steam is produced by heating water by burning distribute three-phase AC power.
coal, oil, or natural gas, or with heat created by  Single-phase AC power is derived from one
a nuclear reaction. phase of a three-phase system.
 In a hydroelectric plant, falling water strikes  Utilities opt for the highest transmission and
turbine blades, causing rotation of the turbine distribution voltages that are safe and
shaft. economical.
 Fossil-fuel plants have about 40% efficiency in  High voltage transmission is cost-effective due
converting heat to mechanical energy, while to smaller conductors required, but safety
nuclear plants have about 30%. clearance issues restrict its use in populated
 Large power stations produce over 1000 areas.
megawatts (MW) of electrical power.  Higher voltages result in lower current
 1 megawatt equals 1,000,000 watts. (amperage), reducing the need for larger power
 A city with a population of 1,000,000 requires lines.
about 3000 to 4000 MW of power in the United  Table 18.1 illustrates the relationship between
States. generated and transmitted voltages and
 Electricity travels through overhead metal associated current for a 2000 kVA load,
cables supported by tall towers in a highlighting the benefits of higher voltages in
transmission system. reducing current and thus the size of power
 Public utility companies and many small power lines needed.
producers are part of a power grid. BUILDING ELECTRICAL SERVICE EQUIPMENT
 Companies within the grid buy and sell
electricity from each other and from small Service Entrance Conductors
producers.
 Service entrance conductors, whether
 The most cost-effective power stations in the
underground or overhead, carry power from the
grid usually generate power consistently, except
transformer to the building's service
for maintenance or repairs.
disconnects.
 During times of high demand, less-efficient
power stations are activated.  Overhead wires from pole-mounted
 If one power station goes offline or transformers to buildings are called the service
malfunctions, another is activated to handle the drop; underground conductors are called the
load. service lateral.
 Electricity is generated at power stations  Overhead service entrance conductors are
typically between 2.4 kV to 13.2 kV. insulated except for the neutral wire, which may
 For efficient transmission over long distances, a be bare.
step-up transformer boosts the voltage to above  Single-phase service drops have 2 or 3 wires,
39 kV, usually between 115 kV to 765 kV. while three-phase service drops have 3 or 4
 Ultrahigh-voltage transmission, up to 1100 kV, is wires.
being explored.  Utility companies usually provide service
 High-voltage transmission requires lower entrance conductors and adhere to standards
amperage, reducing power losses in the lines. regarding wire size and minimum clearances.
 Power substations near populated areas step
down transmission voltages for safety. Service Entrance
 Substations contain transformers, switches, and
other equipment to reduce voltages to safer  The service entrance connects utility-supplied
distribution levels. wiring to the service disconnect, excluding the
 Distribution line voltages are typically 4160 V, utility's metering equipment.
4800 V, 6900 V, or 13,200 V, though higher  Service entrance equipment includes metering
voltages are available for large loads. equipment, a main disconnect or switch gear,
 Overhead, underground, and underwater and overcurrent protection devices.
distribution lines transport electrical power from  Overcurrent protection devices, like circuit
substations to transformers near buildings. breakers or fuses, safeguard the service
entrance conductors.
 The electric meter measures and records  Termination buses are provided for neutral and
electrical energy consumed by a building. grounding connections for the branch circuits.
 For services up to about 400 A, a feed-through
Building Transformers
meter is used, which operates like a small
electric motor.  Transformers transmit and distribute power
 Current-transformer (C/T) devices are used for from power plants to substations.
services above 400 A, measuring amperage  Large commercial installations depend on
through each hot conductor. power distribution, which relies on transformers
 C/T metering devices are housed in a C/T to adjust voltage, current, and phase.
cabinet as part of the service entrance  Building transformers are rated in kVA (kilovolt-
equipment. amperes) and come in various sizes.
 A service disconnect is a required component  Each transformer has a nameplate specifying
allowing the utility company to switch off rated kVA, primary and secondary voltage,
electrical service to the building. impedance (if 25 kVA or larger), and required
 It consists of fuses or a circuit breaker to protect clearances.
the service entrance conductors.  Step-down transformers lower voltage, while
step-up transformers increase it.
Switchboards  Step-down transformers are commonly used in
buildings to reduce voltages to usable levels.
 A switchboard is a large cabinet or assembly of  Transformers can deteriorate prematurely from
metal cabinets. excessive heat, caused by loading, high
 It houses disconnecting switches, overcurrent ambient temperature, and solar radiation.
protection devices (like fuses or circuit  Small transformers are air-cooled, while larger
breakers), other protective devices, and ones are liquid-cooled.
instruments.  Dry-type transformers have core and coils in a
 Switchboards divide large amounts of electrical dry compound and are typically found indoors in
current into smaller amounts for electrical commercial/industrial facilities.
equipment.  Liquid-immersion transformers have core and
 They have devices for manual and automatic coils submerged in insulating liquid.
circuit disconnection from the power source.  Transformers in buildings can be single-phase
 Switchboards are the highest capacity or three-phase.
components in building distribution and
protection. Single-Phase Transformer
 They are typically floor-mounted and rated for  A single-phase transformer has one primary
current levels of 1200 to 6000 amperes (A) and winding and one secondary winding.
voltages below 600 volts (V).  The 7200/240/120 V AC, single-phase, three-
 Access to a switchboard is usually from the wire transformer is common in residential and
front and rear of the cabinet. small commercial applications.
Panelboards  It transforms 7200 V, two-wire power to a
120/240 V AC, three-wire system.
 A panelboard is a metal cabinet or cabinets  This transformer provides both 120 V and 240 V
serving as a single unit. outputs, necessary for various applications in
 It includes buses (conductors), automatic homes and small businesses.
overcurrent protection devices (like fuses or
circuit breakers), and switches for controlling Three-Phase Transformers
circuits.  A three-phase transformer has three primary
 Panelboards can be equipped with or without and three secondary windings.
switches for controlling light, heat, and power  In the US and Canada, the main types of three-
circuits. phase transformers are delta and wye.
 They are placed in or against a wall or partition  Delta-connected power is not commonly used in
and are accessible from the front. Europe; wye-connected power is preferred.
 Panelboards may also be called power panels,  A delta-connected transformer has windings
load centers, distribution centers, or main power connected in a triangle (Δ), with no single
panels. common point to all phases.
 A load center specifically refers to a panelboard  It provides only phase-to-phase voltages, with
containing a preassembled setup. other voltages obtained via step-up or step-
 A panelboard comprises a sheet metal box down transformers.
(cabinet) and a cover.  A wye-connected transformer (Y) has windings
 The cover conceals the interior to limit access connected at a common point called a neutral
to power distribution components. or star point.
 Inside, there are vertical buses for distributing  The angular displacement between windings is
power. 120°, forming a Y configuration.
 Overcurrent protection devices (like circuit  Wye-connected systems provide voltages like
breakers or fuses) safeguard and feed branch 480 Y/277 V, indicating a wye (Y) winding
circuits to outlets. configuration.
 A delta-wye (Δ-Y) transformer converts three-  Standard ratings for alternating current include
phase power without a neutral wire into three- 120 V, 120/240 V, 277 V, 277/480 V, 480 V, and
phase power with a neutral wire. 600 V.
 Other transformer combinations include wye-  Direct current ratings include 125 V, 250 V, and
wye (Y-Y), delta-delta (Δ-Δ), and wye-delta (Y- 600 V.
Δ).
Protection and Configuration
 Historically, standardized voltages for delta
transformers were multiples of 120 V, while  Protects ungrounded conductors in a circuit.
voltages with 1.732 as a multiplier are wye  Identified as single pole (SP), two pole (2P), or
connections. three pole (3P) depending on the number of
 New distribution transformers are highly ungrounded conductors protected.
efficient, with losses of less than 0.25% in large
units and efficiencies of 98% or above in Fuses
smaller units. Fuse Functionality:
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION: FUSES AND  Consists of a metal strip with a low melting
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
temperature.
 An overcurrent protection (OCP) device guards  Allows electricity flow under normal conditions.
against excessive current flows in a building  Melts and opens the circuit when current
service or circuit. It prevents circuit components exceeds its rating, interrupting current flow (fuse
from overheating by opening the circuit when "blows").
current reaches a dangerous level.  Blown fuse must be replaced with one of the
 Fuses and circuit breakers are automatic OCP same rating.
devices designed to open a circuit if current
Types:
exceeds their rating.
 Most OCP devices respond to short-circuit,  Plug Fuses: Screw into sockets, rated from 5 A
ground-fault, and overload conditions. to 30 A.
 Types of overcurrent protection devices are  Edison-base plug fuses are unsafe due to
further discussed in subsequent sections. interchangeability.
 Type S plug fuses match base size to rating for
Circuit Breakers
safety.
Circuit Breaker Functionality  Cartridge Fuses: Cylindrical shape, available in
ferrule-contact and knifeblade types, rated up to
 Acts as a switch operable both manually and 60 A.
automatically.
 Time Delay Fuses: Can handle overload for
 Automatically trips off when current exceeds fraction of a second without blowing, suitable for
circuit rating, interrupting current flow circuits serving electric motors.
instantaneously.
 Can be reset and allows electricity flow if Comparison with Circuit Breakers:
current remains within rating.
 Circuit breakers are more convenient as they
Types of Circuit Breakers can be reset rather than replaced.
 However, they deteriorate with age and may
 Thermal-Magnetic Circuit Breaker: Most popular lose sensitivity after tripping.
type.
 Contains a bimetallic strip that bends when Installation and Safety:
heated by power loss.
 Overcurrent protection typically installed in
 Trips release to open contacts and interrupt
enclosures like switchboards, panelboards, or
current flow when excessive current flows.
motor control centers.
 Magnetic device can also trip release instantly
 Essential for safeguarding conductors and
in case of short circuits.
equipment from overheating and fire.
Characteristics  Does not protect against electrical shock,
making additional safety measures necessary.
 Can carry load above rating for short intervals
without tripping. OCP Device Ratings
 Current-limiting feature trips instantly at its
Overcurrent Rating:
rating.
 100% rated feature limits continuous load to  Highest amperage an OCP device can carry
80% after 3 hours. continuously without overheating.
 Exceeded current setting causes the device to
Classification:
open, listed in amperes (e.g., 15 A, 20 A, 30 A).
 Classified by voltage rating (V) and current-  Circuit or system current must not surpass the
carrying capacity (A). maximum current rating of the OCP device.
 Higher voltage rating requires larger clearance
Interrupting Rating:
to prevent arcing.
 OCP devices must handle maximum possible
fault current (short-circuit).
 Insufficient interrupting rating can lead to  Male connecting device with two or more
explosion or serious damage to downstream prongs inserted into a receptacle to connect
equipment. to an electrical circuit.
 Circuit breakers have an amperes interruption  Typically attached to a flexible cord
current (AIC) rating of 5000 A, and fuses have connected to a portable appliance, light, or
10,000 A. equipment.
Safety Concerns: Functionality:

 Inadequate interrupting rating poses hazards to  Receptacles and plugs facilitate easy
occupants and property. attachment or detachment of appliances or
 Ensuring OCP devices are rated to handle fault equipment to/from electrical outlets.
current prevents potential explosions and NEMA Designation:
equipment damage.  Different receptacles and plugs identified by
specific NEMA designations tied to voltage,
UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES
amperage, and slot configuration.
Utilization Equipment:  Example: 5-15R (receptacle) and 5-15P
(plug) are rated at 15 amperes and 125 V,
 Broad category of electrical or electronic with equipment-grounding capability.
machines or instruments utilizing electrical
energy. Applications:
 Perform various functions like mechanical,
 Specific receptacle/plug combinations tied
chemical, heating, or lighting.
to particular applications (e.g., 5-15R for
 Includes electric motors, air conditioning portable lights and small appliances, 14-
units, refrigeration units, industrial 50R for kitchen ranges).
machinery, signs, cranes, hoists, elevators,
and escalators. Screw Terminal Coding:

Appliances:  Brass-colored screws: Connection to

ungrounded conductor.
 End-use utilization equipment designed for
 Silver-colored screws: Connection to
specific functions like cooking, cleaning,
grounded or neutral conductor.
cooling, or heating.
 Green-colored screws: Connection to
 Examples include electric ranges,
equipment grounding conductor.
refrigerators, clothes washers and dryers,
 Receptacle Markings:
freezers, blenders, toasters, and hair dryers.
 "CO/ALR": Connectable to copper,
 Classified as fixed, stationary, or portable
aluminum, or copper-clad aluminum
based on attachment and mobility.
conductors.
Fixed Appliances:  "CU/AL": Formerly for copper or aluminum
conductors, now only for copper conductors,
 Permanently attached installations like built- not suitable for aluminum conductors.
in electric cooktops or ovens.
Stationary Appliances:

 Situated at a specific location but movable

to another outlet.
 Examples include refrigerators, clothes
washers, and clothes dryers.
Portable Appliances:

 Easily carried or moved, such as hair dryers

or toasters.
Electrical Devices:

 Components in electrical systems designed

to carry electricity but not consume it.
 Examples include switches, receptacles,
and relays.
Outlets, Receptacles, and Plugs

 Outlet: Location in a branch circuit where

electricity is utilized (e.g., lighting outlet).
 Receptacle: Female connecting device with
slotted contacts installed at an outlet or on
equipment.
Plug Description: