University of Mysore

BSc 6 Semester Physics Syllabus

th

Paper – 7: PHY C14-T: Elements of Condensed Matter & Nuclear Physics

UNIT – 1
Crystal systems and X-rays: Crystal structure: Space Lattice, Lattice translational vectors, Basis of crystal
structure (Definition only), Types of unit cells: primitive, non-primitive cells (Definition). Seven crystal system
(Mention), Coordination numbers (Definition), Miller Indices (procedure), Expression for inter planner spacing.
X Rays: Properties of X rays, production by Coolidge tube, Continuous and characteristic X-ray spectra;
Moseley's law (Statement & significance). X-Ray diffraction, Bragg's law (Statement & proof).
Crystal diffraction: Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer (construction & working).
Free electron theory of metals: Classical free electron model (Drude-Lorentz model- qualitative), expression
for electrical and thermal conductivity, Weidman-Franz law, Failure of classical free electron theory; Quantum
free electron theory (assumptions), Fermi level and Fermi energy (definitions only), Fermi-Dirac distribution
function (expression for probability distribution F(E), statement only); expression for Fermi energy at absolute
zero temperature. Density of states for free electrons (statement only, no derivation). Qualitative discussion of
lattice vibration and concept of Phonons. Specific heats of solids: classical theory (Dulong & Petit’s law -
limitations) Einstein’s and Debye’s theory of specific heats (derivations). Hall Effect in metals (statement only).
12 Hours
UNIT – 2
Magnetic Properties of Matter, Dielectrics and Superconductivity
Magnetic Properties of Matter: Review of basic formulae: Magnetic intensity, magnetic induction,
permeability, magnetic susceptibility, magnetization (M) (definitions only), Classification of Dia, Para, and ferro
magnetic materials; Langevin Classical Theory of dia – and Paramagnetism. Curie’s law (statement only),
Ferromagnetism and Ferromagnetic Domains (qualitative). Discussion of B-H Curve, Hysteresis and Energy
Loss, Hard and Soft magnetic materials (definition and examples)
Dielectrics: Static dielectric constant, polarizability (electronic, ionic and orientation - qualitative), calculation of
Lorentz field (derivation), Clausius-Mosotti equation (derivation), dielectric loss. Piezo electric effect (Defn,
examples and applications).
Superconductivity: Definition, Experimental results – Zero resistivity and Critical temperature– The critical
magnetic field – Meissner effect, Type I and type II superconductors. 12 Hours
UNIT – 3
General Properties of Nuclei: Constituents of nucleus, Properties of nucleus (mass, radii, charge, density),
binding energy, main features of binding energy versus mass number curve, angular momentum, parity, magnetic
moment, electric moments (w.r.t. nucleus).
Radioactivity decay: Radioactivity: definition of radioactivity, half-life (defn), mean life(defn), theory of
radioactivity, equilibrium (secular & transient equilibrium).
(a) Alpha decay: basics of α-decay processes, theory of α emission (brief), Gamow factor, Geiger-Nuttall law.
(b) β-decay: basics of β-decay (β- & β+), energy kinematics for β-decay (β ray spectra), positron emission, electron
capture, neutrino hypothesis. (c) Gamma decay: Gamma rays’ emission & kinematics, internal conversion
(Definition). 12 Hours
UNIT – 4
Interaction of Nuclear Radiation with matter: Gamma ray interaction through matter, photoelectric effect,
Compton scattering, pair production, Energy loss due to ionization (quantitative description of Bethe Block
formula), energy loss of electron, introduction of Cerenkov radiation
Detector for Nuclear Radiations: Gas detectors: GM Counter (Construction, working and characteristics). Basic
principle of Scintillation Detectors and construction of photo-multiplier tube (PMT). Semiconductor Detectors
qualitative only, Accelerators: Cyclotrons (construction, working and theory) and Synchrotrons (Principle).
12 Hours
 Paper – 8: PHY C16-T: Electronic Instrumentation & Sensors

UNIT – 1
Power supply : AC power and its characteristics, Single phase and three phase, Need for DC power supply and
its characteristics, line voltage and frequency, Rectifier bridge, Filters: Capacitor and inductor filers, L-section
and π-section filters, ripple factor, electronic voltage regulators, stabilization factor, voltage regulation using ICs.
Basic electrical measuring instruments
Cathode ray oscilloscope- Block diagram, basic principle, electron beam, CRT features, signal display. Basic
elements of digital storage oscilloscopes.
Basic DC voltmeter for measuring potential difference, Extending Voltmeter range, AC voltmeter using rectifiers,
Basic DC ammeter, requirement of a shunt, Extending of ammeter ranges. 12 Hours
ACTIVITIES: 03 Hours

UNIT – 2
Wave form generators and Filters
Basic principle of standard AF signal generator: Fixed frequency and variable frequency, AF sine and square
wave generator, basic Wein-bridge network and oscillator configuration, Triangular and saw tooth wave
generators, circuitry and waveforms.
Passive and active filters. Fundamental theorem of filters, Proof of the theorem by considering a symmetrical T-
network. Types of filters, Circuitry and Cut-off frequency and frequency response of Passive (RC) and Active
(op-amp based) filters: Low pass, high pass and band pass. 12 Hours
ACTIVITIES: 03 Hours

UNIT – 3
Data Conversion and display
Digital to Analog (D/A) and Analog to Digital (A/D) converters – A/D converter with pre-amplification and
filtering. D/A converter - Variable resistor network, Ladder type (R-2R) D/A converter, Op-amp based D/A
converter.
Digital display systems and Indicators- Classification of displays, Light Emitting Diodes (LED) and Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) – Structure and working.
Data Transmission systems – Advantages and disadvantages of digital transmission over analog transmission,
Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), Pulse time modulation (PTM) and Pulse width modulation (PWM)- General
principles. Principle of Phase Sensitive Detection (PSD). 12 Hours
ACTIVITIES: 03 Hours

UNIT – 4
Transducers and sensors
Definition and types of transducers. Basic characteristics of an electrical transducer, factors governing the
selection of a transducer, Resistive transducer-potentiometer, Strain gauge and types (general description),
Resistance thermometer-platinum resistance thermometer.
Thermistor. Inductive Transducer-general principles, Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LDVT)- principle
and construction, Capacitive Transducer, Piezo-electric transducer, Photoelectric transducer, Photovoltaic cell,
photo diode and phototransistor – principle and working. 12 Hours
ACTIVITIES: 03 Hours

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 Paper – 7: PHY C14-T: Elements of Condensed Matter & Nuclear Physics

UNIT – 1
Crystal: A crystal is a three-dimensional periodic array of atoms or molecules. An ideal crystal is
constructed by the infinite repetition of identical units in space.
Space Lattice: A space lattice is three-dimensional geometrical representations of crystal structure
in terms of lattice points, which has the property that, the distribution of atoms or placement of
lattice points that surrounds the given lattice point, remain same throughout the crystal.
Lattice translational vectors: These are the fundamental vectors that outline the repeating pattern
in a crystalline structure, thereby describing the periodicity of structures.
It is represented by,
R = n1a1 + n2a2 + n3a3,
where a1, a2, and a3 are primitive vectors defining the lattice and n1, n2, and n3 are any integers.
Basis of crystal structure: The crystal structure is formed only when a group of identical atoms
are attached to each lattice points. These groups of atoms which are associated with every lattice
point is called Basis or Motif.
Thus a crystal strcture is a resultant of two quantities; namely lattice and Basis. i.e.
LATTICE + MOTIF (OR BASIS) Crystal Structure

MOTIF OR BASIS

LATTICE

Crystal structure

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Unit Cell: The unit cell is the basic building block of the crystal lattice. By repeated translation of
the building blocks along the crystal axes, we can construct the entire lattice.

Unit Cell Crystal structure

The unit cell can be formally defined as " a geometrical structure that forms the smallest unit of
the space lattice that when repeated along the direction of the crystallographic axis generates
the space lattice".

Types of unit cells: There are two types of unit cells they are primitive and non-primitive unit
cells.

Primitive Non-primitive

A primitive cell is one where there are lattice A non-primitive cell is one that has, in
points only at the corners. addition to the lattice points at the corners,
other lattice points at the center of the cell
faces or in the interior.

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Seven crystal system: Depending on the basic symmetry requirements, crystals can be grouped
into the following seven crystal systems. Table shows the relative lengths and angles each system.

System Relation Relation between , Examples

between a, b  and 
and c
Cubic a=b=c  = =  = 90 NaCl, CaF2

Tetragonal a=bc  = =  = 90 NiSO4, SnO2

Orthorhombic abc  = =  = 90 KNO3, BaSO4

Hexagonal a=bc  = = 90,  = 120 SiO2, AgI

Rhombohedral a=b=c  = =   90 CaCO3, CaSO4

Monoclinic abc  =  = 90,   90 FeSO4, Na2SO4

Triclinic abc      90 K2Cr2O7, CuSO4.5H2O

Co –ordination number: It is the number of nearest neighbor atoms directly surrounding a atom
well within the crystal structure. It signifies the tightness of packing of atoms in the crystal.

In simple cubic structure there will be one atom

at each corner of unit cell. If we consider one
corner atom marked X, it has 6 nearest neighbors
as shown; 4 nearest atoms in horizontal plane
X
and 2 more one directly above and one directly
below. Except these 6 atoms lie at greater
distance from X.
Therefore coordination number = 6

Miller indices: These are the set of three integers used to specify the position and orientation of a
crystal plane in a crystal. These integer h,k,l are enclosed in a parenthesis to represent set of parallel
planes as (h k l).

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Indexing procedure to find Miller indices of plane:

Consider a place ABC is intercepting X axis at A Y axis at B and Z axis at C as shown in fig
1. Find the intercept of the plane on the crystallographic axes in terms of magnitude of the
basis vectors a, b and c respectively. i.e.
OA = ua, OB = vb and OC =wc
2. Divide the intercept by basis vectors a, b and c respectively
OA /a = u, OB/b = v and OC /c = w
3. Take the reciprocal of these intercepts
1/u: 1/v: 1/w
4. Reduce the reciprocal to three smallest integer h k l by multiplying with LCM factor. Then
the integer hkl are the Miller indices of the plane ABC and it is designated as (h k l)

Some examples:

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Inter planar Spacing: Inter planar spacing (d) is the perpendicular distance between two
consecutive planes. The value of d depends on the Miller indices of plane and on the crystal system.
Expression inter planar Spacing interms of Miller indices:

Let ABC be one of the parallel planes represented by Miller indices (h k l). Let ON be the normal
drawn to the plane from the origin. Then normal distance ON = d between the origin and the plane
ABC represents the interplanar spacing.
The intercept of the plane ABC on X, Y and Z axes interms of the magnitude of basis vector a, b
and c are
OA = ua, OB = vb and OC = wc
Where u, v and w are integer
Therefore, u = OA/a, v = OB/b and w = OC/c
But Miller indices
h = 1/u, k = 1/v, l =1/w
h= a/OA, k = b/OB, l= c/OC
therefore intercepts in terms of Miller indices are
OA=a/h, OB = b/k, OC= c/l
Let the normal ON make angles 1, 2 and 3 with respect to the a, b and c-axes. Then Cos(1),
Cos(2) and Cos(3) represents the direction cosines of the line ON.
Considering the triangle ONA Cos(1) = ON/OA = dh/a
Similarly considering triangles ONB and ONC we get
Cos(2) = ON/OB = dk/b and Cos(3) = ON/OC.= dl/c
but direction cosines satisfy a well known property Cos2(1) + Cos2(2) + Cos2(3) = 1.

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Therefore we get

 h 2 k 2 l2 
d 2  2  2  2   1
a b c 

Since the system is cubic a = b = c

 h 2  k 2  l2 
d 2    1
a2
Therefore  

a
d
h  k 2  l2
2
This is the expression for interplanar spacing.

X-RAYS
X-rays were first discovered by Wilhelm Konard Roentgen in Bavaria in 1895. X-rays were
accidentally discovered while conducting an experiment on discharge of electricity through
rarefied gases. Since the nature of these rays were unknown, they were called X-rays.
X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons hit a suitable target after being accelerated under
high potential difference.
Properties of X-rays:
1. X-rays are electromagnetic in nature which are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
2. X-rays travel with velocity of light and in straight lines like light rays.
3. They have high penetrating power and they can pass through thin sheets of wood, card board,
metal ctc.
4. Wavelengths range from 1 to 100 Å
5. Lower wavelength X-rays are more penetrative they are called as hard X - rays.
6. Higher wavelength X-rays are less penetrative and they are called as soft X - rays.
7. X-rays affect photographic plates.
8. X rays exhibit the phenomenon like reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
polarization.
9. They produce fluorescence and phosphorescence on the substance.
10. They destroy living tissues and produce biological effects.
11. They produce photoelectric effect and there by exhibit a corpuscular nature also.

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Production of X – rays by Coolidge tube:
The modern type of X- ray tube designed by Coolidge in the year 1913.

The modem Coolidge tube consists of a highly evacuated spherical glass bulb which containing
anode and cathode. Let 'F' be the cathode filament and 'T' is a target material which acts as anode.
The filament 'F' is heated by using a low tension battery. Due to the thermionic emission the
electron beam will be produced from the cathode filament. This electron beam is accelerated
towards the target material at a very high potential difference of the order of 30-50kV. When these
electron beam strikes the target material they give up their kinetic energy and there by produce X
rays. Only the small amount of electron energy is converted as X rays and other is appears as heat
energy.
In this tube the quality and quantity of X - rays can be independently controlled. The quantity of
X - rays which depend on the number of electrons can be controlled by adjusting the filament
current and the quality by adjusting the accelerating potential.

X-ray spectrum:
X-ray spectrum is a plot of intensity of X – rays versus wavelength of X - ray beam.
There are 2 types of X – ray spectrum,
1. Continuous X – ray spectrum.
2. Characteristic X – ray spectrum.

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Origin of Continuous X – ray spectrum:
In an X - ray tube, electrons are incident on the target material. In these electrons some of the high
velocity electrons are penetrate to the interior part of the target i.e., to wards nucleus. When these
electrons were nearing to the nucleus, since the nucleus is positively charged and the electrons are
negatively charged they are attracted towards the nucleus. As a result these electrons will deflected
(deviated) from its path and there will be a loss of energy. The energy lost during this deceleration
is given in the form of X-rays of continuously varying wavelength.

A graph of intensity of continuous X – rays and their wavelength is as shown in the figure. It is a
smooth curve and it has a sharply defined wavelength limit λmin. It is given by the equation
ℎ𝐶
𝜆 =
𝑒𝑉
This equation shows that the cutoff wavelength is independent of target material but inversely
proportional to the anode voltage.

Origin of characteristic X – ray spectrum:

When the accelerating electrons incident on the target material some of the electrons penetrates
through the nucleus and they leads to continuous spectrum.

When the incident electrons undergo multiple collisions with atomic electrons and there by slow
down by loosing energy. Which is in the form of heat at the target material. When the incident
electron collide with the one of the electron which is in the interior orbit it looses some energy.

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This energy is enough to knock the atomic electron from out its path. In this way vacancy is created
at the interior orbit. Under this condition the electron from the higher orbit jumps to this lower
orbit to fulfill the vacancy. During this jump energy photons will emit. The energy of these photons
is the energy difference between the two states of which transition takes place. These X-rays are
having definite wavelength. These wavelengths constitute a line spectrum which is a characteristic
of the target material hence it is called characteristic spectrum. It consists of scries of spectral lines
like K-series, L-series etc.
If the incident electron knocks the electron from the K-shell a vacancy is filled by electron from L
- shell. During this jump the X-rays of particular wavelength releases. These lines are called Kα
lines.

K-series are more energetic and have very high penetrative and known as hard X-rays. L and M
series are less energetic and have less penetrative power known as soft X – rays.

Moseley’s law:
It states that the frequency of a line in the characteristic x-ray spectrum varies directly as the square
of the atomic number of the element emitting it.
𝜗𝛼𝑍

√𝜗 = 𝑎 (𝑍 − 𝑏)
Where a and b are constants.
A graph of frequency vs atomic number is obtained as,
Significance of Moseley’s law:
1. Any discrepancy in the order of the elements in the periodic table can be removed by Moseley's
law by arranging the elements according to the atomic numbers and not according to the atomic
weights.

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2. Moseley's law has led to the discovery of new elements like hafnium (72), technetium (43),
rhenium (75) etc.
3. This law has been helpful in determining the atomic number of rare earths, thereby fixing their
position in the periodic table.

Bragg’s law:
Statement: Bragg’s law states that “When a beam of x-ray is incident on a crystal at an angle θ, the
reflected beam of x-ray also has the same angle of scattering θ. Constructive interference will occur
when path difference ‘d’ is equal to the whole number ‘n’ of the wavelength.”
Mathematically, Bragg’s law equation can be represented as, nλ = 2d sinθ
Proof:
Consider a crystal planes as shown in fig. Let a monochromatic parallel beam of X – rays of
wavelength  be incident upon the crystals at an angle  as shown. The ray along AB, which is
part of the incident beam, is scattered by the atom B in the first plane. Another ray along DE which
is part of the same incident beam is scattered by the atom E in the next adjacent parallel plane.
Each of the atoms in the crystal, scatters the incident rays in all directions. Among the rays
scattered from B and E, those which are parallel to each other, and have a path difference of n,
give rise to constructive interference.

A
C

D F
 B 
  d
P Q
E

X – ray scattering by crystal

Consider the rays BC and EF, scattered from B and E. Let BP and BQ be drawn perpendicular to
the rays DE and EF respectively. Now, we can say that, up to BP, the path covered is same during
incidence. From BQ onwards, the parallel rays BC and QF will travel keeping step with each other.

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Hence the excess path  traveled by the ray along DEF over that along ABC can be written as,
 = PE + EQ,
= BE sin + BE sin,
= 2BE sin.
But BE = d = the interplanar spacing
 = 2d sin
Constructive interference takes place if  = n, where n = 1, 2, 3, …
i.e., 2d sin = n
The above equation is called Bragg’s law

Bragg’s X – ray spectrometer:

X – rays produced from an X – ray tube are passed through two lead slits S1 and S2. This fine beam
is made to fall on the crystal C fixed on the top of a thin wire mounted exactly at the center of a
circular table. The position of the table can be read by means of a vernier scale V1. The X – ray
beam after reflection, enters an ionization chamber D filled with a gas. The ionization chamber is
mounted on a mechanical arm which can turn coaxially with the turn table. But the mechanical
arm is so coupled to the turn table, for every rotation by an angle  of the turn table, the mechanical
arm turns to an angle 2. This is required because, as per the laws of reflection, whenever a
reflecting surface turns through an angle , the reflected ray turns through an angle 2. Hence the
X – rays after reflection from the crystal, are always made to enter the ionization chamber D, and
they are again made in to a narrow beam by means of slits S3 and S4. The position of the arm
carrying the chamber can be read by means of the vernier V2. The X – rays produce ionization of
the gas in the chamber D. The ionization current is measured by the electrometer E. If more X –
rays enter the chamber, there will be an increase in the ionization current.

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 When the reflected rays from the crystal reinforce, the intensity of X – rays entering the
ionization chamber increases causing a rise in the ionization current. Reinforcement occurs when
Bragg’s law is obeyed. While the experiment is carried out, the turn table is rotated till the crystal
receives the X – ray beam at an angle of incidence satisfying the Bragg’s law. This is indicated by
a sudden rise in ionization current. The rise in current occurs more than once as  is varied, because
the law is satisfied for various values of n, i.e., 2d sin =, or 2, or 3, and like wise. If the
ionization current is plotted against the incident (glancing) angle , then a graph as shown in the
following figure obtained. The peaks P1, P2, P3, etc., are observed at 1, 2, 3, etc.,
Using Bragg’s law, we can write,
2d sin 1 : 2d sin 2 : 2d sin 3 =  : 2 : 3,

sin 1 : sin 2 : sin 3 = 1 : 2 : 3.

This helps in assessing the accuracy of measurements of 1, 2, and 3.

One can measure the important crystal parameter the interplanar spacing d, through the relation
2d sin = n, by using the measured value of , provided, n the order and  the wavelength of the
incident X – ray are known.

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 Free electron theory of metals:

Classical free electron model (Drude-Lorentz model):

The first theory to explain the electrical conductivity of metals is Classical free electron theory and
it was proposed by Drude in the year1900 and later developed and refined by Lorentz. Hence
classical free electron theory is known as Drude-Lorentz theory.

Assumptions of classical free electron theory:

1. All metals contain large number of free electrons which move freely through the positive ionic
core of the metals. Since these free electrons causes conduction in metal under the application of
electrical field, they are called as conduction electrons.
2. The free electrons are treated as equivalent to gas molecules; the laws of classical kinetic theory
of gases can be applied to them. Therefore these electrons have mean free path (λ), mean collision
time (T), average speed (v).
3. In the absence of the electric field, the kinetic energy associated with an electron at a temperature
T is given by ½ mvth2 = 3/2 kT Where vth is the thermal velocity of the electron.
4. Since the motion of the electrons is random, the net current is zero in the absence of electric
field. But when an electric field is applied, current is produced due to the drift velocity of the
electrons.
5. The electric field (or Potential) due to positive ionic cores is considered to be uniform
throughout the metal and hence neglected. But the force of attraction between the electrons &
lattice ions and the force of repulsion between the electrons themselves are considered to be
negligible.

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Failure of classical free electron theory:

1) It fails to explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators.

2) It fails to explain the temperature variation of electrical conductivity at low temperature.
3) It fails to explain the concept of specific heat of metals.
4) It fails to explain the mean free path of the electrons.
5) The phenomenon like photo electric effect, Compton effect and black body radiation could not
be explained by classical free electron theory.

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Quantum free electron theory:
Quantum free electron theory overcomes many of the drawbacks of classical theory. Sommerfeld
explained them by choosing Fermi-Dirac statistics instead of Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. He
developed this theory by applying the principles of quantum mechanics.

Assumptions of quantum free electron theory:

The main assumptions of quantum free electron theory are.
1. The energy values of free electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values are realized
in terms of a set of energy levels.
2. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels, follows Pauli’s Exclusion
Principle.
3. Distribution of electrons in energy states obey Fermi-Dirac statistics.
4. The free electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined within
its boundaries.
5. The attraction between the free electrons and lattice ions, the repulsion between the
electrons themselves are ignored.

Fermi level and Fermi energy:

The highest occupied level in metals at zero Kelvin is called as the Fermi level and the
corresponding energy value of that level is called as the Fermi energy, it is denoted by EF. The
energy of the highest occupied level at zero degree absolute is called Fermi energy.
Thus, at 0K all levels up to the Fermi level are occupied while the levels above it are vacant.

EF

E0
Energy band
The dotted level is the Fermi level. Levels from Eo up to EF are occupied while levels above EF are
empty.

Fermi-Dirac distribution function:

The distribution of electrons among the different energy levels as a function of temperature is
known as Fermi-Dirac distribution function. The Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) is used to
calculate the probability of an electron occupying a certain energy level.
Fermi-Dirac distribution function is given by,
1
f (E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp 
 kT 

Where k is the Boltzmann’s constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin, E is the energy and EF is the
Fermi energy.

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Expression for Fermi energy at absolute zero temperature:

The total number of free electrons in a metal is given by

18
Density of states g (E):
It is defined as, the number of available states per unit volume per unit energy interval E and E+dE.

The number of states lying in the range of energies between E and E+dE is given by
4
g ( E )dE  3 ( 2m) 3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE
h .
Where E is the kinetic energy of the electron in the energy level E.

Lattice: Any solid crystal consists of atoms bound into a specific repeating three-dimensional
spatial pattern called a lattice.

Lattice vibration: Lattice Vibration is the oscillations of atoms in a solid about the equilibrium
position.

Concept of Phonon
A unit of vibrational energy that arises from oscillating atoms within the crystal is called phonon.
Because the atoms behave as if they are connected by tiny springs, their own thermal energy or
external forces make the lattice vibrate. A packet of these waves can travel throughout the crystal
with a definite energy and momentum, so in quantum mechanical terms the waves can be treated
as a particle, called a phonon. A phonon is a definite unit or quantum of vibrational mechanical
energy, just as a photon is a quantum of electromagnetic or light energy.

Specific heat of solids

The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a unit mass of a solid by 1o C is called
specific heat. Its SI unit is J kg-1 K-1.

Dulong & Petit’s law:

Statement: Average molar specific heat of all metals at room temperature is constant and is equal
to 3R.
where R is the universal gas constant and the value of R = 8.31 J/mol/K.
Limitations of the Dulong-Petit law:
1. The Dulong–Petit law is applicable to elements which are in solid states.
2. This law fails at room temperatures for light atoms bonded
strongly to each other
3. This law is applicable only to heavier elements.
4. This law gives only approximate atomic mass.

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Hall effect in metals:
When a current-carrying conductor is introduced to a perpendicular magnetic field, a voltage is
developed perpendicular to the directions of current and magnetic field. This effect is known as
the Hall Effect. The voltage developed is known as Hall voltage (VH).

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 UNIT – 3

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Introduction: Matter is made of atoms which contain charged particles called

electrons revolving round the nucleus. These moving electrons produce magnetic
field. Also, a current carrying conductor produces magnetic field. All materials are
affected in some way or the other by a magnetic field. However, not all materials
react the same way.
A magnetic material is a material which can attract or repel other substances
under the influence of its magnetic field. The action of attracting or repelling a
substance depends on the alignment of atomic magnetic moments in the substance
in the presence of external magnetic field.

Magnetic Intensity (H)

It is the ratio of magnetic induction to the permeability of the material placed in the
magnetizing field.
( )
Magnetic intensity(H) =
( )
Magnetic permeability (μ)
It is the ratio of magnetic induction to the magnetic intensity.
Permeability of a material =
Magnetic susceptibility (𝜒)
It is the ratio of magnetization to the magnetic intensity.
Susceptibility =

Magnetization (M)
It is the magnetic moment developed in the material per unit volume when
placed in the magnetizing field.
Magnetization =

Classification of magnetic materials Depending on the way the magnetic

moments of the electrons in the atoms of a material react to an applied magnetic
field, materials can be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
materials

Page 1
Diamagnetic material: Those substances which are weakly magnetized in a
direction opposite to the applied magnetic field are called diamagnetic substances.
Examples: Gold, silver lead, copper, antimony, bismuth, silicon, mercury, water,
air, hydrogen, nitrogen etc..
Properties of Diamagnetic materials

1 Diamagnetic materials are weakly repelled by the magnets.

2 They do not obey Curie's law.
3 Magnetization is low and negative.
4 Their susceptibility is low and negative
5 Their relative permeability is less than 1.
6 They move or tend to move from stronger magnetic field region to weaker
magnetic field region.
7 When a diamagnetic material is placed in the magnetic field, field lines do
not prefer to pass through the material rather than through air as shown in
the figure-1,
8 When a rod of diamagnetic material is freely suspended in a magnetic field,
it slowly points perpendicular to the direction of applied field as shown in
the figure-2.
Paramagnetic materials: Those substances which are weakly magnetized in the
same direction as the applied magnetic field are called paramagnetic substances

Examples: Aluminum, platinum, manganese, chromium, sodium, calcium,

lithium, tungsten, niobium, oxygen etc..

Properties of paramagnetic materials

1) Paramagnetic materials are weakly attracted by the magnets.

Page 2
2) They obey Curie's law.
3) Their magnetization is low and positive.
4) Their susceptibility is low and positive.
5) Their relative permeability is slightly more than 1.
6) They move or tend to move from weaker magnetic field region to stronger
magnetic field region.
7) When a paramagnetic is placed in the magnetic field, the most of the field lines
prefer to pass through the material rather than through air as shown in the figure-1,
8) When a rod of paramagnetic material is freely suspended in a magnetic
field, it slowly points in the direction of applied field as shown in the figure-2.

Ferromagnetic materials: Those substances which are strongly magnetized in the

same direction as that of applied magnetic field and retains its magnetic moment
even after the removal of the applied field are called ferromagnetic materials.
Examples: Iron, cobalt, nickel

Properties of ferromagnetic materials

1 Ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted by the magnets.

2 They obey Curie's law above Curie temperature.
3 Their magnetization is large and positive.
4 Their susceptibility is high and positive.
5 Their relative permeability is much more than 1
6 They move or tend to move from weaker magnetic field region to stronger
magnetic field region.
7 When a ferromagnetic material is placed in the magnetic field, the magnetic
field lines prefer to pass through the material rather than through air as
shown in the figure-1
8 When a rod of ferromagnetic material is freely suspended in a magnetic
field, it quickly points in the direction of applied field as shown in the
figure-2.

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Ferromagnetic domains
Weiss explained the ferromagnetism on the basis of his domain theory. A domain
is part of ferromagnetic material in which the dipoles aligns in particular direction.
Each domain has net magnetic moment. The size of the each domain is about l mm
and each domain contains about 1011 atoms.

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In the absence of external magnetic field, these domains arranged in random
orientations as shown in the figure-1. Therefore, the net magnetization in the
material is zero. In the presence of external magnetic field, the domains are aligned
in the direction of applied field and simultaneously domain size increases at the
cost of other domains as shown in the figure-2. When sufficient field is applied, a
'giant' domain is formed as shown in the figure-3, therefore, net magnetization
develops in the materials in the direction of applied field and strongly attracted by
the magnets.

Curie law: The susceptibility of paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to

its absolute temperature

𝜒=

Where 𝜇 the permeability of free space and C is is the Curie constant

Page 5
Page 6
Page 7
B – H Curve - Magnetic Hysteresis
The B-H curve is the curve showing the variation of magnetic flux density 𝑩 with
the magnetizing field 𝑯 for a material. It is characteristic of the magnetic
properties of a material or element or alloy. It talks about how the material
responds to an external magnetic field.

Page 8
Consider a ferromagnetic rod is subjected to cycle of magnetization. Let H be
the magnetic intensity and B be the magnetic induction.
1) When H is zero, B is also zero. This state is represented by the origin O
2) When H is increased from zero to Hm, B also increases and takes The the path
Oa. curve Oa is called initial magnetization curve. If H is increased further, B
remains constant. Then the rod is said to be saturated.
3) When H is decreased from Hm to zero, B takes the path ab instead of retracing
its original path.
4) When H is increased in the reverse direction from zero to – Hm to +Hm, B
takes the path bcd.
5) When H is changed fromn - Hm to Hm, B takes the path defa.
This completes one cycle of magnetization or hysteresis cycle. If this operation is
repeated, It ake the path abcdefa and will not come to the origin O. The closed loop
abcdefa is called hysteresis loop.

Retentivity: It is the amount of magnetic induction left in the ferromagnetic

material when magnetic intensity is reduced to zero.
Coercivity: It is the amount of reverse magnetic intensity required to remove the
residual magnetism.

Page 9
Hysteresis loss: Magnetic Hysteresis results in the dissipation of energy in the
form of heat. The loss of heat is proportional to the area under the magnetic
hysteresis loop. It is called Hysteresis loss. It is due to the reversal of
magnetization of core whenever it is subjected to alternating magnetizing force.
Whenever the core is subjected to an alternating magnetic field, the domain present
in the material will change their orientation after every half cycle.

Hard and Soft Magnetic materials: Materials which retain their magnetism and
are difficult to demagnetize are called hard magnetic materials.
Ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetic field can be easily reversed are
said to be magnetically soft. Soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetize and
demagnetize

Sl no Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials

1 They have very high residual They have very low residual
magnetism and high Coercivity. magnetism and small Coercivity
2 It retains a strong magnetic field It does not retain a strong magnetic
(makes a good permanent field (does not make a good permanent
magnet), and is difficult to magnet), and is easy to demagnetize
demagnetize
3 The area enclosed by the B-H The area enclosed by the B-H curve is
curve is large, so it has high small, so it has low hysteresis losses
hysteresis losses or core losses. or core losses
4 Susceptibility and permeability Susceptibility and permeability are
are low. high.
5 Magnetic energy stored is high Magnetic energy stored is low
6 The eddy current loss is high. The eddy current loss is less because
of high resistivity.
7 They are used as permanent They are used for transformer and
magnets and DC magnets. inductance core to minimise energy
dissipation. They are also used as
electromagnets.
8 Alloys composed of iron, cobalt Iron-silicon alloys, nickel-iron alloy
and aluminium, Chromium and iron, Ferrites etc..
steel, Carbon steel etc…

Page 10
 DIELECTRICS

Dielectric: It is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric

field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow
through the material as they do in an electrical conductor but only slightly shift
from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization.
Example: Glass, mica, paraffin, papers, Bakelite etc.

Polar dielectrics Non – polar dielectrics

If the effective centers of positive and If the effective centers of the negative
negative charges in the molecules do not charge distribution coincide with the
coincide with each other (i.e. the effective center of the positive charges
effective centers of positive and then the effect is to neutralize each
negative charges are separated by a other. Such materials are called non –
small distance) even in the absence of polar dielectrics.
any external field, then, such materials
are called polar dielectrics.

They possess a permanent dipole They do not possess permanent dipole

moment. moment.
Example: 𝐻 O, 𝑁 𝑂 Example: 𝐻 , 𝑁 , 𝑂

Static dielectric constant 𝜺𝒓 or denoted by k is the ratio of the permittivity of the

𝜺
material medium to the permittivity of free space. 𝜺𝒓 =
𝜺𝒐
1. It is independent of shape or dimensions of the material and it is characteristic of
the dielectric medium.
2. Dielectric constant of a material is a macroscopic quantity that measures how
effective electric field is, in polarizing the material.

Types of Electric polarization

There are four different mechanisms through which electrical polarization can
occur in dielectric materials when they are subjected to an external electric field.
They are
1 Electronic polarization
2 Ionic polarization
3 Orientation polarization
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1. Electronic polarization
The electronic polarization occurs due to the displacement of the positive and
negative charges in a dielectric material due to the application of an external
electric field as shown.
The development of dipole moment occurs throughout the material, so
whole material will be polarized

2. Ionic polarization
This occurs only in materials which are ionic. An applied field acts to
displace positive charges in one direction (cation) which gives rise to a net dipole
moment.

When an Electric field is applied to the molecule, the positive ions are
displaced by X1 to the negative side of electric field and negative ions are
displaced by X2 to the positive side of field. The resultant dipole moment μ = q
( X1 + X2).. This polarization occurs at frequency 1013 Hz (IR). It is a slower
process compared to electronic polarization. It is independent of temperature. The
ionic polarization is given by 𝑷i=𝑵𝜶i𝑬 where 𝛼i is the ionic polarisability.
This type of polarization typically occurs in ionic crystal elements such as
NaCl and KCl. This mechanism contributes to relative permittivity. Inside these
materials, there is no net polarization in the absence of electric field. This is
because dipole moments of the negative ions are cancelled out by the positive ions.

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When an external field is applied, the ions are displaced; this leads to an induced
polarization

3. Orientation polarization
This is found only in substances that possess permanent dipole moments.
Polarization results from a rotation of the permanent dipoles in the direction of the
applied field. It is strongly temperature dependent and decreases with increase of
temperature.

It is also called dipolar or molecular polarization. The molecules such as H2,

N2, O2, CH4, CCl4 etc., does not carry any dipole because centre of positive charge
and centre of negative charge coincides. On the other hand molecules like CH3Cl,
H2O, HCl, ethyl acetate (polar molecules) carries dipoles even in the absence of
electric field.

Derive an equation for Lorentz field

The electric field experienced by an atom in the dielectric medium is the
local electric field. To evaluate the field, a dipole inside the dielectric medium in
an applied external electric field is considered. An imaginary hollow cavity called
the Lorentz cavity is considered around this dipole whose radius is greater than
radius of the atom. The internal field at the atom is given by
𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 + 𝐸 + 𝐸 … . (1)

Page 13
 where 𝐸 is the applied external electric field, 𝐸 is the depolarizing field
i.e. field produced due to surface charges on the dielectric, 𝐸 is the electric field
due to charges on the surface of Lorentz cavity and 𝐸 is the electric field due to
charge distribution inside the cavity which is dependent on structure of the material

(a) To find 𝐸 : The electric displacement D due to the applied field is given by
𝐷= ε 𝐸+𝑃
𝒒 𝒒′
Where 𝐷= and P = called electric polarization
𝑨 𝑨

Also 𝐷 = 𝜀 𝐸 . E in the above equation is the average electric field due to both
applied field and field due to polarization.
𝑷
The above equation becomes 𝜺𝟎 𝑬= 𝜺𝟎 𝐸+𝑃 or 𝑬𝟎 = 𝑬+ …… (2)
𝜺𝟎
(b) To find 𝑬𝟏 : The application of field 𝐸 will polarize the medium producing
another field which acts in the opposite direction called the depolarizing field.
Considering only this field, equation (2) can be written as 𝐸 = − …..(3)
Where E is taken as zero.
(In general for an infinite slab of dielectric medium, this depolarizing field is
𝐸 = − , where N is the depolarizing factor)
𝜺𝟎
(b) To find 𝐸 : This field is due to surface charges on the Lorentz cavity or
Lorentz sphere.
If dS is the area of a ring on the sphere of radius 𝑎 lying between θ and dθ,
then its surface area 𝑑𝑆=2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
From the diagram, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = or 𝑥=𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and d𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑑𝜃
Hence 𝑑𝑆=2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥= 2𝜋 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃

Page 14
If dq is the charge on this area, then it is given by the product of normal component
of polarization and the surface area i.e.
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑆
𝑜𝑟
𝑑𝑞 =𝑃 2𝜋 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
The electric field at the centre of the Lorentz cavity due to this ring is given by
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Substituting for dq in this equation we get
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑃 2𝜋 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
or
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
The total electric field is 𝐸 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ sinθ dθ
Let 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=𝑧, then 𝑑𝑧 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 Also cos 0 = +1 and cos π = -1.
Thus the above equation is 𝐸 = − ∫ 𝑍 dz = − =− (−1 − 1)
𝑃
𝐸 =
3𝜀
Thus the electric field is 𝐸 = ……… (4)
(d) To find 𝐸 : This field is due to electric dipoles present within the cavity which
depends on crystal structure.
For cubic structure this field is zero, i.e. 𝐸 = 0……… (5)
The total electric field at the site of the atom inside the dielectric medium is
obtained by adding all these fields. Substituting for the field expressions from (2),
(3), (4) and (5) in (1) i.e.
𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 + 𝐸 +𝐸 we get

𝐏 𝐏 𝐏 𝐏
𝐄𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐥 = 𝐄 + + − + +𝟎 =𝐄+
𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐨 𝟑𝛆𝐨 𝟑𝛆𝐨

𝐏
Thus the local or the internal electric field is 𝐄𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐥 = 𝐄 +
𝛆𝐨

Dielectric Loss
Dielectric Loss refers to the Loss of energy that goes into heating a
Dielectric material in a varying, electric field. It tends to depend mainly on the
Dielectric material and the frequency.

Page 15
Dielectric Loss is measured using the Loss of tangent which is also commonly
referred to as tan delta (tan δ). The higher the value of tan delta is, the more the
Dielectric Loss is likely to be.

Piezoelectricity

It is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials (such as

crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and various
proteins) in response to applied mechanical stress.
The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure and
latent heat.
A material that develops voltage due to application of a stress and develops
strain when an electric field is applied is called Piezoelectricity. Diagram (a)
indicates the development of voltage due to stress and (b) indicates the strain or
deformation due to voltage.
The process of creating electric polarization by mechanical stress is called as piezo
electric effect.
This process is used in conversion of mechanical energy into electrical
energy and also electrical energy into mechanical energy. According to inverse
piezo electric effect, when an electric stress is applied, the material becomes
strained. This strain is directly proportional to the applied field.
Examples: quartz crystal, Rochelle salt etc.,
Applications:
1 Piezo electric materials or peizo electric semiconductors such as Gas, Zno
and CdS are finding applications in ultrasonic amplifiers.
2 Piezoelectric materials are used in quartz watches.
3 They are also used as oscillators. They are used as transducers to measure
pressure very accurately.
4 Piezoelectricity is used in the production and detection of sound,
piezoelectric inkjet printing, generation of high voltages, electronic

Page 16
 frequency generation; It forms the basis for a number of scientific
instrumental techniques with atomic resolution, the scanning probe
microscopies, such as STM, AFM, etc…
5 It also finds everyday uses such as acting as the ignition source for cigarette
lighters, push-start propane barbecues etc…

Page 17
 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconductivity was first observed in 1911 by Dutch physicist H.K. Onnes and
he got the Nobel Prize for this in 1913

“When the temperature of the conductor decreases, its resistance also

decreases and at a particular temperature the resistance becomes Zero. At this
temperature, the conductor conducts heavily. This phenomenon is known as super
conductivity.”

“The conductor which offers zero resistance for conduction is known as

superconductors.”
Example: Mercury becomes superconductor at 4.15k, Tin at 3.72k,
Aluminum at 1.2k

The temperature at which a substance loses all the resistances and becomes
superconductor is known as Critical temperature. The critical temperature is
different for different materials for
Example: The critical temperature of Mercury is 4.15k; Tin is 3.72k and of
Aluminum is 1.2k

Page 18
Experimental facts about Super conductivity

1. Effect on impurity: When impurities are added to superconductivity elements,

the superconductivity property is not lost but the critical temperature is lowered
2. Isotope effect: The critical temperature of super conductors varies with the
isotopic mass. The superconductivity is due to an interaction between electrons and
lattice vibrations heavier isotopic mass lowers the lattice vibrations. The critical
temperature Tc varies inversely with the square root of the atomic weights. If Tc is
the critical temperature and M is the atomic mass then
M1/2 Tc=constant.
Example: The critical temperature Tc for mercury varies from 4.185 to 4.146 as the
isotopic mass M varies from 199.5 to 203.4
4. Effect on Magnetic field: If a magnetic field is applied to a superconductor, the
critical temperature Tc is lowered. If the magnetic field exceeds a certain critical
value Bc, depending upon the material and its temperature, the super conducting
state disappear
5. Critical Magnetic field: The magnetic field that causes a transition from the
superconductivity to the normal state at a given temperature is called the critical
field.
For a given substance, value of Bc decreases as the temperature increases from
T=0k to T=Tc
𝑻 𝟐
Bc = Bo 𝟏 −
𝑻𝒄
Or
𝑻 𝟐
Hc = Ho 𝟏 −
𝑻𝒄
Where Bo is the critical field at 0k.Thus the field has its maximum value, Bo at
T=0k.

6. The Meissner effect: Meissner in 1933 found that if a superconductor is placed

in a magnetic field weaker than the critical field and if the temperature is below the
critical temperature Tc, the field is expelled from the interior of the sample.

Page 19
 The expulsion of magnetic field from the interior of a piece of a
superconductor material as the material undergoes the transitions to the
superconducting phase is known as meissner effect.
As the temperature is lowered to Tc, the magnetic flux is suddenly and completely
expelled as the specimen becomes superconductor

Classification of Superconductors
The superconductors can be classified into two distinct groups according to
their behavior in external magnetic field
1.Type-1 Superconductors: The superconductors, in which the magnetic field is
totally excluded from the interior of superconductors below a certain magnetizing
field Hc ,and at Hc the material loses superconductivity and the magnetic field
penetrates fully are termed as type-1 or soft superconductors.
Examples: Tin, Lead, Aluminium, Mercury, Zinc, Magnesium etc

1 They exhibit complete Meissner effect.

Page 20
 2 The critical values of magnetic field Hc at which magnetization
drops very low. The maximum known critical field for type-I
superconductors is of the order of 0.1 T. The low value of Hc
makes these materials unsuitable for use in high field
superconducting magnets.
3 The magnetization curve shows that transition at Hc is
reversible. This means that if the magnetic field is reduced
below Hc, the material again quires superconducting property
and the field is expelled.
4 Below Hc the material is superconductor and above Hc it
becomes a conductor.

2. Type-2 Superconductors: The superconductors in which the material loses

magnetization gradually rather than suddenly is termed as type-2 or hard
superconductors

The important characteristics of type-2 superconductors are

1. They don’t show complete Meissner effect
2. These superconductors have two critical field Hc1(lower critical field) and
Hc2 (upper critical field).The specimen is diamagnetic below Hc1 that is the
magnetic field is completely excluded below Hc1. At Hc1 the flux begins to
penetrate the specimen, and the penetration of flux increases until upper critical
field Hc2 is reached. At Hc2 the magnetization vanishes and specimen returns to
normal conducting state. The value Hc2 is greater than Hc. The value of critical

Page 21
field for type-2 materials may be hundred times or more higher the value of Hc for
type-1 superconductors. Critical fields Hc2 upto 30T have been observed.

Applications of super conductors

 Super conducting cables can be used to transmit electric power over long
distances without resistive losses
 They are used for amplifying very small currents and voltages
 They are used in switching devices
 Since super conductors are diamagnetic they can be used to shield out
unwanted magnetic flux in an electron microscope
 They are used in the making of large electromagnets.
 They are used for storing energy.
 Super conducting magnets are used in MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
 SQUIDS (Super conducting quantum interference devices) used as a
computer element.

Page 22
Geiger-Muller counter
A Geiger-Muller counter is a device used for the detection and measurement of ionizing radiation.
Construction:
GM Counter consists of inner copper tube 'c' and a outer glass tube 'G’ filled with argon. A fine
tungsten, wire 'T' is stretched along the axis a copper tube. The copper tube and tungsten wire are
insulated from one another by means of ebonite plug 'P'. A strong potential difference is applied
between tungsten wire and copper tube through a load resistance 'R’.

Working
A suitable voltage called operating voltage is applied to the tube. When an ionizing particle like α,
β or γ enters the tube through the window it produces ionization in the gas molecules. This is called
primary ionisation. The ions produced in primary ionization acquires energy and hence produce
further ionization in the gay molecules. This is called secondary ionisation. The process of
secondary ionization continues till all the molecules in the gas are completely ionized. This results
in an avalanche of electrons near tungsten wire constitute the pulsatory ionic current. This
pulsatory current while flowing through resistor converted into voltage. The amplifier, amplify the
voltage, the amplified voltage makes the counter C to register the incoming radiation. But in GM
counter the nature the radiation cannot be identified.

GM tube characteristics
The graph showing the variation of the count rate with applied voltage is called GM characteristics.
To obtain G.M characteristics a radioactive sample is kept in front of the window at a particular
distance. The number of counts registered per second is plotted along the y-axis and the applied
voltage along the x-axis. The characteristics of a GM tube is shown in the fig.
 The increase in applied voltage from O to A there is no Count rate. This shows that there
no secondary emission. From A to B with small increase in Count rate with increase in Voltage.
This is called proportional counter region because in this region the Count rate is directly
proportional to applied voltage. From B to C even with the increase of applied voltage the count
rate remains constant. This shows that secondary is independent of applied voltage and is called
Geiger platue. Beyond C for small increase in voltage there will be large increase in count rate.
Geiger Platue: The flat portion of the GM tube characteristics in which the count rate is
independent on the applied voltage is called Geiger platue.
Threshold voltage (V1): The voltage applied to the GM tube at which Geiger platue starts is called
threshold voltage.
Breakdown voltage (V2): The voltage applied to the GM tube at which Geiger platue ends is
called breakdown voltage.
Operating voltage: The middle region of the Geiger platue is called operating voltage. It is the
average of threshold voltage and breakdown voltage.

Scintillation detector
A scintillation detector is a device used to detect and measure ionizing radiation by converting the
energy of incoming radiation into light.
Principle: The scintillation process involves the interaction of ionizing radiation with a scintillator
material, which emits photons of light in response to the radiation. When ionizing radiation, such
as gamma rays or charged particles, interacts with the scintillator material, it deposits energy,
causing the atoms or molecules in the material to become excited. As these excited states return to
their ground state, they emit photons of light. The intensity of the emitted light is proportional to
the energy deposited by the incoming radiation. The emitted light is then detected by a photosensor,
such as a photomultiplier tube (PMT) or a photodiode, which converts the light into an electrical
signal that can be measured and analyzed.

Photomultiplier tube (PMT):

A photomultiplier tube (PMT) is a highly sensitive device used to detect light photons and convert
them into an electrical signal. Here's how it works:
Construction:
PMTs consist of several key components: a photocathode, a series of dynodes, and an anode.

The photocathode, typically made of materials like cesium, rubidium, or antimony compounds, is
a thin layer that emits electrons when struck by photons. Dynodes are metal electrodes arranged
in a cascade configuration near the photocathode. Each dynode is at a progressively higher voltage
than the previous one. An anode, placed at the end of the dynode chain, collects the electrons
emitted by the photocathode.
Working: When a photon strikes the photocathode, it liberates an electron via the photoelectric
effect. This primary electron is accelerated towards the first dynode by an applied voltage. Upon
impact, it releases several secondary electrons due to electron multiplication. These secondary
electrons are then accelerated towards the next dynode, where the process repeats, resulting in an
exponential increase in the number of electrons. This cascade effect continues through multiple
dynodes, resulting in a significant amplification of the initial signal. Finally, the electrons reach
the anode, where they are collected and form an output current proportional to the intensity of the
incident light.
Principle of semiconductor detector

Semiconductor detector consists of a p-n junction. At the vicinity [space] of the p-n junction there
is a small region which is free from mobile charge carriers called depletion layer. When a radiation
falls on the depletion layer electron-holes are formed. They are moving towards, respective
electrodes. These charge carriers develop voltage pulse across the resistor, pulse is amplified and
recorded. Height of the pulse gives the energy of the outcoming radiation. In this way semi-
conductor detector detect large no of radiation.

Cyclotron
Cyclotron is a device used to accelerate charged particles to high energies. It was devised by
Lawrence.
Principle
Cyclotron works on the principle that a charged particle moving normal to a magnetic field
experiences magnetic lorentz force due to which the particle moves in a circular path.
Construction
It consists of a hollow metal cylinder divided into two sections D1 and D2 called Dees, enclosed
in an evacuated chamber (Fig). The Dees are kept separated and a source of ions is placed at the
centre in the gap between the Dees. They are placed between the pole pieces of a strong
electromagnet. The magnetic field acts perpendicular to the plane of the Dees. The Dees are
connected to a high frequency oscillator.
Working:
When a positive ion of charge q and mass m is emitted from the source, it is accelerated towards
the Dee having a negative potential at that instant of time. Due to the normal magnetic field, the
ion experiences magnetic lorentz force and moves in a circular path. By the time the ion arrives at
the gap between the Dees, the polarity of the Dees gets reversed. Hence the particle is once again
accelerated and moves into the other Dee with a greater velocity along a circle of greater radius.
Thus the particle moves in a spiral path of increasing radius and when it comes near the edge, it is
taken out with the help of a deflector plate (D.P). The particle with high energy is now allowed to
hit the target T.
Theory:
When the particle moves along a circle of radius r with a velocity v, the magnetic Lorentz force
provides the necessary centripetal force.

Bqv = (mv2 ) / r
v /r = Bq / m = constant ...(1)
The time taken to describe a semi-circle
t=πr/v (2)
Substituting equation (1) in (2),
t = π m/ Bq .. (3)
It is clear from equation (3) that the time taken by the ion to describe a semi-circle is independent
of
(i) the radius (r) of the path and (ii) the velocity (v) of the particle
Hence, period of rotation T = 2t
T = 2 π m / Bq = constant ...(4)
So, in a uniform magnetic field, the ion traverses all the circles in exactly the same time. The
frequency of rotation of the particle,
f = 1 /T = Bq / 2πm .. (5)
If the high frequency oscillator is adjusted to produce oscillations of frequency as given in equation
(5), resonance occurs.
Cyclotron is used to accelerate protons, deutrons and α - particles.
Limitations
a. Maintaining a uniform magnetic field over a large area of the Dees is difficult.
b. At high velocities, relativistic variation of mass of the particle upsets the resonance condition.
c. At high frequencies, relativistic variation of mass of the electron is appreciable and hence
electrons cannot be accelerated by cyclotron.

Synchrotron
A synchrotron is a cyclic particle accelerator in which a charged particle such as an electron or a
proton, or a heavy-ion particle is accelerated to very high energies in the presence of an alternating
electric field and a constant magnetic field.
The Synchrotron that accelerates electrons is called an electron synchrotron and the one that
accelerated a proton is called a proton synchrotron.
 Question Bank
Paper – 7: PHY C14-T: Elements of Condensed Matter & Nuclear Physics
UNIT – 1
1. Explain
i) Space lattice
ii) Lattice translational vectors
iii) Basis of crystal [6]
2. What is unit cell? Explain primitive and non-primitive cells [6]
3. What is coordination number? Mention seven crystal system [5]
4. What are Miller indices? Describe the procedure for finding Miller indices [5]
5. Obtain an expression for inter planar spacing in terms of Miller indices [5]
6. Mention any four properties of X-rays [4]
7. With the help of diagram explain the production of x-rays by Coolidge tube [6]
8. Discuss the origin of continuous X-ray spectrum [4]
9. Discuss the origin of characteristic X-ray spectrum [4]
10. State Mosley’s law and mention its significance [3]
11. State Bragg’s law and derive Bragg’s equation [5]
12. With neat labelled diagram explain construction and working of Braggs spectrometer [6]
13. Mention the assumptions of classical theory of free electrons in metals (Drude-Lorentz
model) [4]
14. Using classical free electron theory, obtain an expression for the electrical conductivity of
a metal. [6]
15. Using classical free electron theory, obtain an expression for the thermal conductivity of a
metal. [6]
16. State and explain Wiedemann – Franz law [3]
17. Mention the failures of classical free electron theory [4]
18. Mention the postulates of quantum free electron theory [4]
19. What is Fermi energy? Obtain an expression for Fermi energy of metal at absolute zero
temperature [6]
20. State and explain
i) Fermi-Dirac distribution function
ii) Density of states [4]
21. What is lattice vibration? Explain the concept of phonon [4]
22. State and explain Dulong and Petits law. What are its limitations? [4]
23. Obtain an expression for specific heat of solid on the basis of Einstein’s theory [8]
24. Obtain an expression for specific heat of solid on the basis of Debye’s theory [8]
25. What is Hall effect in metals? Explain. [2]

Dr Shiva Prasad NG, Dept of Physics, GFGC, Chamarajanagara 1

 UNIT – 2
1. Define
i) Magnetic intensity
ii) Magnetic induction
iii) Permeability of materials
iv) Magnetic susceptibility
v) Magnetization [2 marks each)]
2. Give the classification of dia, para and ferro magnetic materials [6]
3. Give the Langevin classical theory of diamagnetism [6]
4. Give the Langevin classical theory of paramagnetism [6]
5. State Curie’s law [2]
6. What is ferromagnetism? Explain ferromagnetic domains [4]
7. Discuss B-H curve and explain hysteresis loss [6]
8. What are hard and soft magnetic materials? Give examples [4]
9. Define
i) Static dielectric constant
ii) Dielectric Polarizability [4]
10. Briefly discuss electronic, ionic and orientation polarization [6]
11. Derive Lorentz field equation [7]
12. Arrive at Clausius-Mosotti equation [5]
13. What is dielectric loss [2]
14. What is piezo electric effect? Mention its applications [4]
15. What is superconductivity? Explain critical temperature [4]
16. What is Meissner effect? Explain critical magnetic field [4]
17. Discuss type-I and type-II superconductors [4]

UNIT – 3
1. What are nucleons? [2]
2. Explain the following
i) Nuclear charge
ii) Nuclear Mass
iii) Nuclear density [6]
3. What is binding energy? Explain the significance of binding energy curve [5]
4. Write a note on nuclear angular momentum [4]
5. Write a note on nuclear electric moment and nuclear magnetic moment [6]
6. Explain the following
i) Radioactivity
ii) Half life
iii) Mean life [6]
7. Give the theory of successive disintegration and arrive at the condition for secular and
transient equilibrium [8]
Dr Shiva Prasad NG, Dept of Physics, GFGC, Chamarajanagara 2
 8. Explain secular and transient equilibrium [4]
9. Explain qualitatively the theory of α decay [4]
10. State and explain Geiger-Nuttall law [2]
11. Explain β+ and β- decay [4]
12. State and explain Pauli’s neutrino hypothesis. How does it explain β decay? [5]
13. Mention the properties of neutrino [4]
14. What is gamma decay? Explain [2]
15. Explain
i) K-electron capture
ii) Internal conversion [4]

UNIT – 4
1. During interaction of radiation with mater discuss the following
i) Photoelectric effect
ii) Compton scattering
iii) Pair production [3 marks each]
2. Write Bethe Bloch formula and explain the terms [2]
3. What is Cerenkov radiation [2]
4. Explain the construction and working of Geiger-Muller counter (GM counter) [7]
5. Discuss the characteristics of GM counter [5]
6. Discuss the basic principle of scintillation detector and discuss the construction of photo-
multiplier tube [8]
7. Mention the principle of semiconductor detector [3]
8. With necessary theory explain the construction and working of cyclotron [8]
9. Write the principle of synchrotron [3]
*********

Dr Shiva Prasad NG, Dept of Physics, GFGC, Chamarajanagara 3