THE PROPOSITIONS A proposition can either be necessary or contingent

(Dolhenty: 2003). On the one hand, necessary

A proposition is another essential part of an argument or
propositions are those propositions having predicate
a syllogism. It is a kind of declarative sentence that
terms whose attributes are essentially predicated to the
makes an assertion about facts as either true or false.
subject term. In other words, the attributes indicated in
THE NATURE OF JUDGEMENT the predicate term cannot be excluded (necessary) from
the subject. On the other hand, contingent propositions
A proposition is interchangeably known as judgment. are those propositions having predicate terms whose
Judgment is a mental activity that requires two subject attributes are not essentially predicated to the subject
matters to be compared. In the same manner, logical term. In other words, the attributes indicated in the
judgment deals with the correlation of concepts and predicate term may or may not be excluded (contingent)
finds their agreement or disagreement (McCall: 1967). from the subject.
This judgment, once verbally expressed, becomes a
proposition. THE TYPES OF PROPOSITIONS

BUAZON (1994) REITERATES THESE 3 The two types of proposition are the categorical and the
NECESSARY THINGS FOR MAKING A hypothetical. Categorical propositions come in single
JUDGMENT propositions while hypothetical propositions come in
multiple propositions.
1. The mind must consider and comprehend the two
concepts about which a judgment has to be made. THE SINGLE PROPOSITIONS

2. The mind should proceed to compare these two  Single proposition can easily be determined
concepts. because it consists of only one subject term and
one predicate term.
3. The mind must express mentally the agreement or
disagreement between the two concepts. This is the most THE MULTIPLE PROPOSITIONS
essential in making a judgment.
 The multiple propositions are those that contain
THE NATURE OF PROPOSITIONS two or more propositions united as one, as in the
example, "John is handsome and a good
Proposition makes a claim as either true or false. It takes student." There are two main classifications of
the form of a declarative sentence. Other sentences like multiple propositions, namely, the overtly
exclamatory, interrogative, and imperative do not make multiple proposition and the covertly multiple
any claim of true or false and therefore, they do not proposition. If there is a clear appearance of
express any proposition at all. Thus, it is right to say that several propositions, the proposition is called
all propositions are sentences, but not all sentences are overtly multiple proposition.
propositions.
THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
TRUTH AND FALSITY OF PROPOSITIONS
 Propositions not compounded with other
There is no truth or falsity when we speak of ideas, propositions are called " categorical" , It
concepts or terms. It is because in terms the act of contains two categories, namely: the subject
judgment is not involved. Since agreement or term and the predicate term, and asserts that
disagreement is a characteristic of a proposition, it is some or all of the referents of the subject term
deemed proper to attribute truth and falsity to a are included in or excluded from the as
proposition. We must take note always that there is no examples: class designated by the predicate
truth or falsity until such time that we take two or more term.
concepts, compare them, and express an agreement or
disagreement between them.
THE HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS
 A hypothetical proposition is one which does not
directly attribute a predicate to its subject, but
CONTINGENT AND NECESSARY asserts the dependence of one proposition on
PROPOSITIONS another proposition.
THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF CATEGORICAL A standard form categorical proposition consists of a
PROPOSITIONS quantifier (all, some, no), subject term, copula (is or is
not), and predicate term. Any categorical proposition that
The subject term is the term designating the concept
does not contain these four elements is known as non-
about which the pronouncement is made. The predicate
standard or an ordinary proposition.
term is the term designating the concept which is
affirmed or denied of the subject. The copula (or the In lesson three of this chapter, we will be studying how
linking verb) is the word expressing the mental act to translate ordinary statements into their standard form
which pronounces the agreement or disagreement using some guidelines. There, we are free to change the
between the subject and the predicate terms. The copula wording of the proposition as long as its original
is usually expressed by these words: "is " or " are " for meaning remains unaltered.
affirmative propositions, and "is not" or " are not" for
THE 4 STANDARD FOR CATEGORICAL
negative propositions.
PROPOSITIONS
THE QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF
When we combine the quantity and quality of
PROPOSITIONS
propositions we will have four combinations known as
THE QUALITY PROPOSITIONS "The Four Standard Form Categorical Propositions" and
each kind is represented by a letter symbol A,E,I,and O.
Aristotelian Logic, as cited by Robin Smith (2003)
These letters are all taken from the vowels of the Latin
presents two qualities of the propositions: the affirmative
words "affirmo" and "nego." From the word "affirmo,"
and the negative. The copula plays an important role in
which means "I affirm," are taken the vowels A and I;
determining the quality of the proposition. If the copula
while from the word "nego," which means "I negate," are
is "is " or " are " then the proposition is affirmative, but
taken the vowels E and O.
if the copula is "is not" or " are not" , then the
proposition is negative.
THE QUANTITY PROPOSITIONS
There are also two quantities of the propositions: the
universal and the particular (Ibid). A proposition is
universal when the subject term is also universal. In an
affirmative proposition, the quantifier "All" coming
before the subject indicates the universality of the The succeeding discussion presents the features of each
proposition. In a negative proposition, the article "No " kind of standard form categorical propositions with
before the subject signifies the universality of the diagram illustrations from the mathematician, Leonard
proposition. The article "No " is an indicator of the Euler(Jayme:2001).
quality and quantity of the proposition as negative and
universal respectively. THE A PROPOSITION

THE CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS The "A” proposition has four features:

A categorical proposition is a type of proposition that 1. The logical structure is "All S is P."
constitutes a categorical syllogism. It has four types 2. The quality of the proposition is affirmative.
presented in a standard form. The use of its standard
form would make it easy and simple in evaluating a 3. The quantity of the subject term and the proposition is
syllogism according to its required rules. universal.

This lesson discusses the distinction between standard 4. The quantity of the predicate term is particular.
and non-standard categorical propositions, the basic
Examples:
elements of a standard categorical proposition, and the
four types of standard categorical propositions. 1. All island are components of the national territory.
THE STANDARD AND NON- STANDARD 2. All flags are symbols of country.
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
3. All cultures are patterned behaviors.
4. All artwork are creation of man. 2. No Christmas season is a Lenten season.
3. No metropolis is a rural area.
4. No Waste Management Program is a well-funded
project.

THE I PROPOSITION
The “I” proposition has four features:
1. The logical structure is “Some S is P."
[The Standard for E Propositions]
2. The quality of the proposition is affirmative.
The standard for E proposition is "No S is P”, and not
3. The quantity of the subject term and the proposition is
“All S is not P.” A categorical proposition of the form
particular.
“All S is not P” is ambiguous because it may be
4. The quantity of the predicate term is particular. translated into either an E form or an O form. For
example, “All mangoes are not green fruits” would mean
Examples: “No mangoes are green fruits" (E) and “Some mangoes
1. Some graduates are honor students. are not green fruits (O). The truth-value of the first
interpretation is false while the truth-value of the second
2. Some benevolent persons are healers. interpretation is true and most sound to be used.
3. Some Catholic rites are non-scriptural. THE O PROPOSITION
4. Some values are political. The “O” proposition has four features:
1. The logical structure is “Some S is not P."
2. The quality of the proposition is negative.
3. The quantity of the subject term and the proposition is
particular.
4. The quantity of the predicate term is universal.
Examples:
THE E PROPOSITIONS
1. Some springs are not tourist spots.
The "E" proposition has four features:
2. Some contractors are not scrupulous people.
1. Logical structure is “No S is P”
3. Some meetings are not formal gatherings.
2. The quality of the proposition is negative.
4. Some preachers are not money-oriented individuals.
3. The quantity of the subject term and the proposition is
universal.
4. The quantity of the predicate term is universal.
Examples:
1. No bar passers are bar flunkers.
 THE ORDINARY PROPOSITIONS
 Ordinary propositions are also known as non-
standard propositions. Non-standard
propositions are those that do not possess the
Based on Euler's diagrams, we classify the four standard required elements of logical structure.
categorical propositions into inclusive propositions and
 This lesson focuses on how to reduce or
exclusive propositions. A and I are inclusive because the
translate ordinary propositions into standard
subject class either whole or portion is included in the
form categorical propositions. In reduction, we
predicate class. E and O propositions are exclusive
do some modifications on ordinary propositions
because the subject class either whole or portion is
with the help of some guidelines.
excluded from the predicate class.
 Standard form categorical propositions are very
The diagram below may help each learner in
useful for the next lessons: logical opposition,
determining the quantity of the subject term and the
restating propositions, and argumentation.
proposition, and the quantity of the predicate term.
The Singular Propositions
Singular propositions have subject terms that are
explicitly singular (e.g. proper names) but are treated
universal (Kemerling: 2002). Hence, they must be
classified either A or E propositions.
 The examples, "Pres. Estrada is the proponent of
CONCORD," and
"This man is not a perfect guy," are all singular
propositions and must have the logical form "All S is P"
and "No S is P" respectively.

The Indefinite Propositions

Indefinite propositions are those propositions that have
no definite sign of quantity attached to the subject. in
instances wherein no explicit quantifier is used, one must
determine, the quantity from the context or from the
sense of the statements and provide the correct quantifier
(Bowser: 2004).
examples:
SUMMARY OF MAIN POINTS  Lions are carnivorous animals. - All - A
Proposition
1) The four elements of a standard form categorical
 Lions are circus animals. - Some - I Proposition
proposition include the quantifier, the subject
 Lions are not vegetarian animals.- No - E
term, the copula and the predicate term.
Proposition
2) The four standard form categorical propositions
are represented by the letter symbols A, E, I, and
O.
3) Each kind has a logical structure, a quality, and a
quantity (proposition, subject term, and The Propositions with Adjectives
predicate term).
There are many categorical propositions having the  "Every student is a learner" and "Any student is
grammatical predicate in adjectives instead of nouns. We a learner" can be translated into an A proposition
must take note that terms used in the proposition must and become, "All students are learners."
denote a class of objects to be properly quantified as
But when the word "not" is attached to the pronoun
universal or particular. But adjectives are only attributes
"every," that is "not every," the statement becomes a
and they do not have any corresponding extension. Thus,
particular negative proposition. Thus, "Not every
it would be proper to couple adjectives with nouns to
students participate in the symposium" is transposed into
make the predicate term more explicit and quantifiable
the standard proposition “Spme students are not
(Dolhenty: 2003). For example, consider the following
participants of the symposium.”
propositions:
The Pronouns “whoever,” wherever.” and “whatever.”
 Some roses are red. - SOME ROSES ARE
can have their equivalent “All” which should be coupled
RED FLOWERS
words “persons,” “places,” and “ objects” respectively
 Lucy is beautiful. - LUCY IS A BEAUTIFUL
(Browser, 2004). So, the propositions:
LADY
 “Whoever is handsome is my husband, “
The Propositions with Non-standard Verbs
becomes “all persons like this handsome man is
The structure of a standard form categorical proposition my husband.”
requires that there should be a standard qualifier or what  “Whatever is material will decay,” becomes “All
we know as “copula”. As a review, we have only two material things are things that would decay.”
copulas. Namely, “is” and “is not”. These are  “Whatever there is peace, there is love,”
the ;egitimate ones and the rest of the verbs unsound to vecomes “All places where there is peace are
be used in a standard from categorical proposition. places where there is love.
Consider these propositions:
The article “a,” and “the” can also be usesd to indicate
 APO members sang the song “Magka-isa.” - the quantity of the propositions (Dolhenty, 2003). With
“APO members were the singers of the song these articles written before the subject terms, the
Magka-Isa” propositions may be considered as either universal or
 The Philippines Participated in the Atlanta particular depending upon the contextual meaning
Olympic games. – asserted in the sentences, Consider these propositions:
 The Philippines was a participant in the Atlanta
 A Filipino is an Asian
Olympic Games.”
 A Filipino is a hospitable person.
The Affirmative Propositions with Non-Standard
The first proposition speaks in a universal sense, and
Quantifiers
becomes "All Filipinos are Asians." While the second
Quantifiers refer to the term signifying the quantity or proposition speaks in a particular sense, and becomes
number of objects represented by a subject term. In a "Some. Filipinos are hospitable persons."
standard affirmative categorical proposition, there are
Other examples:
only two quantifiers: "all" and "some." The quantifier
"all" is used for universal affirmative Propositions and  A mother is a woman.
the quantifier "some" is used for particular affirmative  A mother is a good cook.
propositions.
It is true of "all" mothers that they are women, thus it is
There are ordinary propositions that do have quantifiers appropriate to reduce this proposition into a universal
classified as "non-standard" and which should be "A" proposition,
replaced by standard quantifiers. The English indefinite
pronouns such as "every," "any," "everything," "All mothers are women." It is false to say that "all"
"anything," "everyone,"everybody.", "anybody," mothers are good cooks, but it is true to say that "some"
"everywhere," "anyone," and "anywhere" are considered mothers are good cooks. This proposition shall be
as non-standard quantifiers and should be transposed properly reduced into a particular "I" proposition,
into a quantifier "all" (Dolhenty: 2003). The sentences,  "Some mothers are good cook."
The article "the" may be used to indicate either a The Exclusive Propositions
particular individual or all members of a class. These
Some propositions have the subject term preceded by the
propositions, "The gentleman is the winner" and "The
words “only” and “none but,” like, “Only men are
snake is a dangerous creature," can be both reduced to
priests.” One must understand the meaning of the
universal propositions,
proposition first before translating them into standard
 “All persons like this gentleman are the form categorical proposition. If we translate the
winners”, and the statement into “all men are priest” the meaning is
 “All snakes are dangerous creatures.” destroyed. Surely it doesnt mean “All men are priests,
rather it means, “All priests are men.” Thus, to transfirm
The indefinite pronouns “several,” “few,” “many,”
exclusive propositions, we should drop the words “only”
“most,” and the numerical quantifiers “two,” “three,”
or “none but” and interchange the subject and the
and the like are translated under the I proposition and
predicate (Dolhenty, 2003)
take the particular quantifier “some” (Ibid). The
propositions, “Several candidates protested the election”
into “Some candidates were protestors of the election,”
The Exceptive Propositions
and “Some students are latecomers.”
The exceptive propositions are known as multiple
The pronoun “there” makes the proposition particular, as
propositions for they make two assertions raised than
for instance, “There are goods researches,” becomes
one. For instance, “All except woman will be vaccinated
“Some researches are goos studies.”
“ mean something which is expressed by the following
The Negative Propositions without Standard two sentences.
Quantifiers
1. All persons are subject for vaccination
The indefinite pronouns "nothing." "none," or "no one"
2. No woman are subjects for vaccination.
non-standard quantifiers and should be replaced by the
standard quantifier "no" under the negative universal It affirms that “all person” should be included in the
propositions. vaccination.
Thus, a sentence If an exceptive proposition is used as a premise in a
categorical syllogism, we need to choose one of its two
 "None of the damned is happy," is to be reduced
consecutitutive propositions and not both.
to a standard sentence as:
 "No person who is damned is a happy person." There are also what we call quasi-numerical quantifiers
 sentence as "Nothing beautiful is ugly," is to be which should be translated under exceptive propositions
 reduced to "No beautiful things are ugly things." because they would mean two things. These quasi-
numerical quantifiers include “almost all,” “not quite
The Conditional Statements
all,” “all but few,” and the like. The statements for
Conditional statements are not categorical propositions example, “Almost all students attended the convention,”
but they can be translated into a categorical one. and “All but few students attended the convention,” and
Conditional statements are those that have two deny that “All students are the persons who attended the
propositions: the antecedent and the consequent. To convention.
translate, the antecedent proposition becomes the subject
in the standard form categorical proposition and the
consequent becomes the predicate (Hurley: 1998). THE OPPOSITE PREPOSITIONS
Consider these propositions:
The Requisites of Opposition
 "If an animal has four legs, then it is not a bird."
 "If it is a mouse, then it is a mammal." Logical opposition presupposes two propositions
opposed to each other, and considers these three
The first conditional statement once reduced into its requisites:
standard categorical form becomes "No four-legged
animals is a bird." And the second conditional statement 1. that the position of the subject and predicate terms of
becomes "All mice are mammals." the given must be retained in the opposite proposition;
2. that there is a change in either quantity, or quality, or quantity. We have two sets of oppositions under sub-
both in the opposite proposition: alteration: A and I, and E and O. Both propositions, the
universal and the particular, are called sub-alters. The
3. that a truth-value is assigned to the opposite
universal is the sub-alternant, while the particular is the
proposition in relation to the truth-value of the given
sub- alternate.
proposition.
Examples:
THE FOUR OPPOSITIONAL RELATIONS
A- All movie stars are well-paid professionals.
CONTRADICTION, CONTRARIETY, SUB-
CONTRARIETY, AND SUB-ALTERATION 1- Some movie stars are well-paid professionals.
Contradiction E- No winners are losers.
Contradiction is the opposition between two O- Some winners are not losers.
propositions that differ both in quantity and quality. We
THE LAWS OF LOGICAL OPPOSITION
have two sets of opposition. under contradiction: A and
O, and E and I. The Laws on Contradiction
Examples: There are two laws applicable under contradiction. One
proceeds from the truth of the proposition and the other
A- All carabaos are national animals.
proceeds from the falsity of the preposition. The first
O- Some carabaos are not national animals. rule states that "Contradictories cannot be true together
(Bittle: 1950). In other word, if one proposition is true,
E- No senators are mayors.
the opposite proposition is false. Applied to each of the
1- Some senators are mayors. two pairs of contradictions, this rule can be broken down
into these sub-rules:
1. If A is true, O is false.
2. if O is true A is false
Contrariety
3. E is true, I is false
Contrariety is the opposition between two universal
potions that differ as to their quality. We have only one 4. M is true, E is false
set of opposition under contrariety, that is, A and E
Example in In an affirmative universal (A) proposition
Example:
"All Catholics am Christians." If this A proposition is
A- All mangoes are fruits. true, then it must be false to deny the truth of this
statement to some of the individual Catholics. Therefore,
E- No mangoes are fruits. the statement that "Some Catholics are not Christians (0)
Sub-contrariety cannot be true.

Sub-contrariety is the opposition between two particular Example In a negative universal (E) proposition
propositions that differ as to their quality. We have only "No atheists are believers of God." If this statement is
one set of proposition under sub-contrariety, that is, I and true, then it must be false to say that "Some atheists are
O. believers of God"
Example: The law works also in reverse: if O is true, A is false;
1- Some cars are imported vehicles. and if I is true, E is false. If it is true that "Some people
are not Filipinos," (O), it is certainly false to assert that
0- Some cars are not imported vehicles. "All people are Filipinos" (A); and if it is true that
"Some people are Filipinos," (1), it must be false to
Sub-alteration
The second rule of the law of contradiction is nothing
Sub-alteration is the opposition between two
more than a variation pf the first rule and should pose no
propositions having the same quality but different
difficulty. The rule states that: "contradictories cannot be
false together" (Ibid., 142) Hence, if one proposition is 3. If A is false, I need not be false or undetermined.
false, the other proposition is true.
4. If E is false, O need not be false or undetermined.
1. If A is false, O is true.
Example:
2. If E is false, I is true.
Some horses are not animals" (O) and is false, then its
3. If O is false, A is true. sub-alternant "No horses are animals" (E) is also false. If
we have the sub-alternate "Some men are angels" (I) and
4. If I is false, E is true.
is false, then its sub- alternant "All men are angels" (A)
The Laws on Sub-alternation is also false.

There are two phases in the laws on sub-alternation. In The Laws on Contrariety
the first phase, the rule is stated from the truth of one of
There are two rules on contrariety. The first rule states
the sub-altern propositions, and in the second phase, the
that: "contraries cannot be true together" (Ibid., 144). In
rule is stated from the falsity of one of the sub-altern
other words, "if one of the contraries is true, the other
propositions.
contrary must be false." In the perspective of the
The first rule states that: "the truth of the universal appropriate contrariety patterns, this single rule can be
involves the truth of the particular, but the truth of the divided into the following sub-rules:
particular does not necessarily involve the truth of the
1. If A is true, E is false.
universal" (Ibid., 135).
2. If E is true, A is false.
In other words, "if the universal is true, then, the
particular must also be true, but, if the particular is true, Example:
then, the universal is undetermined or doubtful." If we
All men are finite beings" (a universal affirmative
apply this rule on the two sub-alternate patterns, namely:
proposition - A) is taken as true, then "No men are must
A-l, and E-O, we can deduce some sub-rules as follows:
be are finite beings," (a universal negative proposition-
1. If A is true, I must also be true. E).
2. If E is true, O must also be true. "No men are infinite beings" (a universal negative
proposition - E) is true, then "All men are infinite
3. If I is true. A need not be true, but is undetermined.
beings" (a universal affirmative proposition - A) must be
4. If O is true, E need not be true, but is undetermined. false.

Example: The second rule states that: "contraries may be false

together" (Ibid., 144). If one contrary is false, the other
"all" individuals of a class or group must also be true to contrary may also be false or it may be true. In other
"some" individuals of a class or a group. What is true to words, "if one is false, then the other is undetermined or
the "whole" must also be true to every "part." If "All doubtful." Thus,
voters are citizens" is true, then, obviously, "Some voters
are citizens must also be true. If "No saints are sinners" 1. If A is false, E is undetermined.
is true, then "Some saints are not sinners
2. If E is false, A is undetermined
The second rule in sub-alternation states that: "the falsity
The Laws on Sub-contrariety
of the particular involves the falsity of the universal; but
the falsity of the universal does not necessarily involve There are two rules governing sub-contrariety. The first
the falsity of the particular" (Ibid., 137). In other words, is "both sub-contraries cannot be false together" and the
"if the particular is false, then the universal is also false, second is "both sub-contraries may be true together"
but, if the universal is false, then the particular is (Ibid., 147).
undetermined or doubtful. The sub-rules for I-A, and O-
The first rule can be restated in this manner, "If one is
E sub- alternation patterns are stated as follow:
false, the other is true," Applied to the 1-O, O-1 patterns,
1. If I is false, A is also false. we have the sub-rules:
2. If O is false, E is also false. 1. If I is false, then O is true.
2. If O is false, then I is true. 3. Illustrate through examples the different main forms
of eduction or equivalent propositions
"Some cats are snakes" and is false, then its opposite, the
O-statement "Some cats are not snakes," must be true. The Two General Types of Inference
Recalling contradiction, the contradictory of an I
- Inference is derived from the Latin word “in-
statement is an E statement; thus, making the given "No
ferre”, which means “to bear or to produce”.
cats are snakes" true. Within the context of sub-
This etymology suggests that the mental process
alternation, if a universal proposition is true, then its
of inference involves the production of a new
opposite particular proposition must also be true. So,
proposition directly related with the preceding
since "No cats are snakes" (E) is true, then the
propositions. The truth-value of this new
proposition "Some cats are not snakes" must also be true.
emerging proposition implies the truth of the
This explains the I-false / O-true scheme or the first rule
previous propositions.
under sub- contrariety.
There are two general types of inference. They are
The second rule states that: "If one true, the other is
mediate inference and immediate inference. Each of
undermined or doubtful"
these two types has its own characteristics and these
1. If I is true, O is undetermined or doubtful. characteristics are differentiated as follow:
2. If O is true, I is undetermined or doubtful. 1. The mediate inference involves three or more
propositions whole the immediate inference
Example:
involves only two propositions
Let us suppose that I is true: "Some politicians are
2. The mediate inference has a middle proposition
women." The contradictory of this must be false: "No
that links the premise and the conclusion, while
politicians are women."
the immediate inference has no middle
proposition

The equivalent propositions 3. The third proposition under the mediate

inference is called the conclusion, while the
- Is a proposition that has the same meaning or second proposition under the immediate
truth-value with the proposition from which it is inference is called the equivalent proposition
restated.
4. In the mediate inference, the conclusion has a
- It is also known as immediate inference, new truth that implies the truth of the previous
eduction, or restated propositions. propositions, while in the immediate inference
- There are some arguments that use equivalent the equivalent proposition retains the truth of the
propositions which are sometimes misconstrued given proposition.
as propositions with equivocal terms. The The following examples will further explain these
purpose of this lesson is to acquaint us to the distinctions:
different types of equivalent propositions in
order to help us evaluate arguments with clarify. 1. All Filipinos are Asians

- This lesson discusses the two types of 2. All Boholanos are Filipinos
inferences, the process of eduction and the three 3. Therefore, all Boholanos are Asians
main forms of eduction or equivalent The preceding example on mediate inference
propositions clearly presents three propositions with one serving
Objectives: as the middle propositions. The last proposition “All
Boholanos are Asians” is the conclusion and is
The students are expected to: directly connected with the first two constituent
1. discuss the importance of equivalent propositions in propositions. The conclusion results in a new truth,
the formulation of an argument but this new truth implies the truth of the previous
propositions.
2. differentiate the two general types of inference
The next example is an illustration of immediate proposition and in the status of the predicate term
inference: (Barker: 1989)/
Original proposition: Some students are scholars The change in the quality of the proposition is done
by making an affirmative proposition negative, and
Equivalent proposition: Some scholars are students
a negative proposition affirmative. From this
The preceding example clearly presents only two process two rules on obversion are formulated:
equivalent propositions. This process shows that
1. Retain the subject and the quantity of the
the truth of the given is still retained in the
proposition. A universal proposition remains a
equivalent proposition. So that if “some students
universal proposition and a particular proposition
are scholars” is true, then, “some scholars are
remains a particular proposition.
students” must also be true
2. Change the quality of the proposition. An
It is reiterated that in the logic of immediate
affirmative
inference, we are not making an argument or a
syllogism because the process of reasoning is not proposition will be changed into a negative
yet involved here. It is simply re-states or re- proposition, and a negative proposition into an
expresses one proposition into its equivalent affirmative proposition.
proposition.
The change in the status of the predicate term is
Distinction between mediate and immediate done by substituting the predicate term of the given
inference by its contradictory its contradictory complementary
term. Thus, the third rule on obversion says:
Mediate Inference Immediate Inference
3. Substitute the predicate by its contradictory or
1. There are three or 1. There are only two complementary term
more propositions propositions
Contradictory term substitutes the predicate term.
2, There is a middle 2. There is no middle There are some words in English language which
proposition proposition have a corresponding contradictory term, i.e.,
3. The third proposition 3. The second is the invisible for visible, ineligible for eligible,
is the conclusion equivalent proposition illegible for legible, etc.
4. The conclusion has 4. The equivalent Complementary term is a contradictory term that
new meaning or truth proposition has the uses the appropriate prefix "non". The
same truth or meaning complementary for the term "black," for example, is
as the given "non-black." We must take note that there are terms
which may appear to negate but do not negate at
all. For instance, "large" is not the negation of
The 3 equivalent propositions (eduction) "small." With the use of the prefix "non" the proper
negation of the term "rich" is not "poor," but "non-
Education is a process of immediate
rich."
inference whereby, from any proposition takes as
true, we derive other propositions implied in it, In obversion, the original proposition is called the
though differing from the first in subject, predicate obvertend and the equivalent proposition is called
or both. The three main forms of eduction or the the obverse. The four categorical propositions are
three equivalent propositions are obversion, all legitimate propositions for obversion. The A, E, I,
conversion, and contraposition. O propositions (obvertend) can be obverted to E, A,
O, I, respectively (obverse). Both obvertend and
Obversion
obverse should have the same truth-value. If the
Obversion (Latin, ob, before, toward, and vertere, obvertend is true, the obverse should also be true.
to turn) is a process of eduction involving two If the obvertend is false, the obverse should also be
changes. These changes occur in the quality of the false.
A Propositions
We shall apply the three rules of obversion in an A- Notice that the word "not" and the prefix "non"
proposition. The obverse of an A-proposition is perform different roles in logic. The "not" is part of
always an E- proposition. Take the following the copula or the qualifier and it determines the
proposition as an example: quality of the proposition whereas the "non" is part
of the predicate term and it helps identify the
"All senators are elected officials."
predicate class. The obverse of an I proposition is
Applying the first rule, we retain the subject term always an O proposition.
and the quantity of the proposition. Thus, we have:
O propositions
[Senators] + [Are - Universal]
The obverse of "Some cars are not Honda Civics,"
is "Some cars are non-Honda Civics." Again,
consider its truth-value and do
Applying the second rule, we add the word "No" to
the words not be confused with the words "not" and "non."
The obverse of an O proposition is always an I
Senators + are" signifying the change of the quality opposition
of the proposition
To sum up, there are four possible schemes under
and making it: obversion, namely, A to E, E to A, I to O, and O to I.
[No - Negative] + [Senators] + [Are - Universal] A to A, E to E, I to I and O to O are not possible
under obversion for they suggest retention of the
To complete the set of words and make it the same propositional quality and thus violate the
equivalent proposition, the last rule is applied by prescribed rules of obversion, more specifically, the
changing the original predicate term to its second rule.
complementary term "non-elected officials."
Table of Legitimate Obversions
A new elicited obverse of "All senators are elected
Obvertend Obverse
officials," is:
A All trees are plants No trees are non-plants
"No senators are non-elected officials" E No trees are plants All trees are non-plants
I Some trees are plants Some trees are not non-plants
Total compliance with the three rules in obversion O Some trees are not plants Some trees are non-plants
results in a proposition having the same truth-value
as the given. Thus, if the obvertend "All senators
are elected officials," is true, then, the obverse "No Conversion
senators are non-elected officials," is also true.
Conversion (Latin, convertere, to turn) is another
The same procedure has to be observed when form of eduction. The original proposition is a
making the obversion under E, I, and O convertend and the equivalent proposition is a
propositions. converse. Conversion involves a single change that
is, switching the subject term and the predicate
E Propositions term. In other words, the subject of the convertend
The obverse of an E proposition is always an A becomes the predicate of the converse, and the
proposition. Take the E proposition, "No Catholics predicate of the convertend becomes the subject of
are non-believers" as the obvertend; the obverse of the converse. So, the proposition, "Some new
which is "All Catholics are believers." Both graduates are unemployed professionals" becomes
propositions are true. "Some unemployed professionals are new
graduates." This process leads us to the first rule
| Propositions under conversion, that is:
The obverse of "Some Filipino women are 1. Interchange the subject and the predicate terms.
hardworking individuals" is "Some Filipino women
are not non-hardworking individuals." If the given The application of this rule implies some matters to
proposition is true, so is the obverse; and, if the be unchanged like the quality of the proposition and
given proposition is false, so is the obverse. the quantity of the terms and the proposition. Thus,
the second and the third rules of conversion are as As stated before, A propositions cannot be
follow: converted under simple conversion but rather under
partial conversion because it involves reduction of
2. Retain the quality of the proposition.
one of the terms. Failure to reduce the quantity of
If the convertend is affirmative, then the converse the term will result to a violation of the third rule of
must also be affirmative. If the convertend is conversion and a change of the truth-value in the
negative, then the converse must also be negative. converse. Let us take this statement,

3. Do not extend any term. "All gold jewelries are expensive objects," is true.

The quantity of the terms in the propositions must If we convert this statement under simple
not be affected in the process of conversion. In conversion, it
other words, terms must not be extended or
results in:
increased in their quantity or extension of objects.
"All expensive objects are gold jewelries," which is
If a term in the convertend is universal, it must still
false.
be universal in the converse; and if a term is
particular in the convertend, it must still be It is evident that the term "expensive objects" which
particular in the converse. However, there are is particular in the convertend becomes universal in
instances under conversion where we allow the converse. This is a flagrant violation of the third
universal terms in the convertend to become rule. More so, the truth-value is altered. In the
particular in the converse. We call this "conversion convertend, the truth-value is true, whereas, in the
by become particular in the converse. limitation" or converse, the truth-value is changed to false.
"partial conversion."
Conversion is very different from obversion. In
To remedy this violation, we need to apply strictly
obversion, practically all the four form of
these two rules:
propositions can be obverted without being
cautious of some limitations. But in conversion, only 1. Sub-altern the given convertend. The sub-
E and I propositions are legitimate for simple or alternant is the A and the sub-alternate is the I.
absolute conversions. A proposition may
sometimes be converted however, under "partial 2. Convert the product sub-alternate I to the
conversions." converse I.

The last important idea we should take cognizance Let us take again the true proposition "All gold
of under conversion is that the truth or falsity of the jewelries are expensive objects." When we sub-
convertend must be retained in the converse. altern this A statement into an I proposition, it
becomes:
E Propositions
"Some gold jewelries are expensive objects."
The converse of the true proposition, "No apples
are mangoes" is also the true statement, "No The preceding statement is said to be true under
mangoes are apples." The converse of the false the rules of sub-alternation that states, "if the
proposition, "No dogs are animals" is also the false universal is true, then the particular is also true.
statement "No animals are dogs." Conversion is By applying the second rule, the product sub-
legitimate for E propositions. alternate I proposition, "Some gold jewelries are
I Propositions expensive objects" becomes a new I categorical
proposition, that is: "Some expensive objects are
The converse of the true proposition, "Some gold jewelries." which is true.
snakes are poisonous animals" is also the true
statement "Some poisonous animals are snakes." Notice that through this procedure, we sustain the
The converse of the false proposition, "Some fruits third rule of conversion by not extending the
are stones" is also the false statement "Some quantity of the terms, and we as well retain the
stones are fruits." Conversion is legitimate for I truth-value of the convertend in the converse.
propositions.
A Propositions - Definitions Contraposition
"A" propositions with predicate terms as definitions  Contraposition is the process of education which
can be conversion legitimately converted by simple combines conversion and obversion. It is formed
conversion (A to A) or partial conversion (A to I). by two steps:
Example: 1. Switching the subject term and predicate term as in
conversion
All mothers are women who gave birth.
2. Substituting both the subject term and the predicate
The predicate "women who gave birth" is a
term with contradictory or complementary terms as in
definition of the subject "mothers", thus if "mothers"
obversion. The original proposition is the contraponend
is universal, "women who gave birth" is also
while the equivalent proposition is the contrapositive.
universal. proposition is converted into:
Contraposition is legitimate for A and O propositions
Under simple conversion, the preceding
(simple). E (partial) but not for I. To check this
All women who gave birth are mothers. legitimacy, we may perform these three operations:

Partial conversion also works in this kind of 1. Obvert the original proposition.
propositions. If "All mothers are women who gave
2. Convert the resulting proposition in step 1.
birth (convertend)" is true then "Some women who
who gave birth are mothers (converse)" is also true 3. Obvert the resulting proposition in step 2. The
by virtue of subalternation. resulting proposition in step 3 is the contrapositive.
A Propositions - False A&O Propositions
There is no partial conversion of false A  The process of contraposition can validly be
propositions (Bittle: The rules of 1950). This will done under A and O propositions under simple
result in a change of the truth-value. The rules of contraposition. Let us take "All men are mortal
sub-alternation say that: "if the universal is false, beings" as our example. This is A proposition,
the particular is undetermined or doubtful." So, if true and our contraponend. To restate this
"All cats are dogs" is false, then its sub-alternate proposition into its new proposition we apply the
"Some cats are dogs" is undetermined or doubtful. two changes in the terms: placement and
contradiction. Thus, we have the contrapositive,
O Propositions
still an A proposition, "All immortal beings are
Generally speaking, conversion does not hold for O non-men" which is also true.
propositions. This violates the rule on non-
To re-check this resulting contrapositive, we need to pass
extension of terms and changes the truth-value
through the three steps of obversion, conversion, and
entirely. For example: "Some females are not
then obversion.
mothers" is true. Once converted, it becomes
"Some mothers are not females" which is false. Contraponend: "All men are mortal beings."
Aside from being false, the quantity of the term
Obverse: No men are immortal beings. Converse: No
"females" is increased. In the convertend, the
immortal beings are men.
subject term females is "particular" while in the
converse, the predicate term females is "universal." Obverse: All immortal beings are non-men.
[Contrapositive]
Mnemonics-Conversion
1. sImplE conversion – I and E propositions The same procedure is applicable to O propositions, as
2. pArtIal conversion – A proposition becomes an I proposition
for
Table of Legitimate Conversions
instance:

Proposition Convertend Converse Contraponend: Some birds are not flying animals.
E (simple) No men are mortal No mortals are men
Contrapositive: Some non-flying animals are not non-
I (simple) Some men are mortal Some mortals are men
A (partial) All men are mortal Some mortals are men birds.
Re-checking order: Summary of Main Points
Obverse: Some birds are non-flying animals. 1. Inference is a process of producing new proposition
directly related with the preceding proposition. There are
Converse: Some non-flying animals are birds.
two types of inference. They are the immediate inference
Obverse: Some non-flying animals are not non-birds. and the mediate
[Contrapositive]
inference.
2. Immediate inference is also known as eduction which
I Propositions involves two propositions that have equivalent meaning.

 This procedure is not available for I propositions 3. There are three forms of eduction or equivalent
for it may cause the disruption of the re- propositions.
checking order. For example:
They are obversion, conversion, and contraposition.
Contraponend: Some computers are Y2K compliant.
4. The rules for obversion are:
Contrapositive: Some non-Y2K compliant are non-
4.1. Retain the subject and its quantity,
computers.
4.2. Change the quality of the proposition, and
To recheck:
4.3. Substitute the predicate with a contradictory or
Obverse: Some computers are not non-Y2K compliant.
complementary term.
Converse: (No Converse for O Propositions).
5. The rules for conversion are:
Here comes the illegitimacy of I propositions under
contraposition. 5.1. Interchange the subject and the predicate.
E Propositions 5.2. Retain the quality of the proposition.
 An E proposition can be contraposed not into an 5.3. Do not extend any of the terms.
E proposition but into an O proposition under
6. Contraposition is a combination of both conversion
partial contraposition. "No angels are mortal
and obversion.
beings" is an E proposition, true and our
contraponend. Applying the rules of -CHUCHAY
contraposition, we have its contrapositive,
"Some immortal beings are not non-angels"
which is also true.

To re-check:
Contraponend: No angels are mortal beings.
Obverse: All angels are immortal beings.
Converse: Some immortal beings are angels.
Obverse: Some immortal beings are not non-angels
[Contrapositive]
Once again, only A to A and O to O (simple), and E to O
(partial) are valid forms of contraposition and no other.

Mnemonics-Contraposition
ContrApositiOn-legitimate in general for A
and O propositions.