4

Instructor:
Dr. Najmur Rahman,
Taibah University
Fluid kinematics 1-22

§ Fluid kinematics deals with describing the motion of fluids without necessarily considering the
forces and moments that cause the motion.

§ Kinematics concerns the study of motion.

§ Fluid kinematics is the study of how fluids flow and how to describe fluid motion.

§ Two distinct ways to describe motion:

§ Lagrangian description of fluid motion: to follow the path of individual objects, to track the
position and velocity of each individual fluid parcel.

§ Eulerian description of fluid motion: Instead of tracking individual fluid particles, we define
field variables, functions of space and time, within the control volume.
Langrangian description 1-22

§ To follow the path of individual objects and track the position and velocity of each individual fluid parcel.

§ Newton’s laws are used to describe the motion of such objects, and we can accurately predict where they go
and how momentum and kinetic energy are exchanged from one object to another.

§ The kinematics of such experiments involves keeping track of the position vector of each object, and the
velocity vector of each object, as functions of time.

§ Lagrangian analysis is analogous to the (closed) system analysis.

§ Practical applications of the Lagrangian description:

§ tracking of passive scalars in a flow to model contaminant transport,

§ rarefied gas dynamics calculations concerning re-entry of a spaceship

into the earth’s atmosphere,

§ the development of flow visualization and measurement systems

based on particle tracking.
 Eulerian description
1-22

§ A finite volume called a flow domain or control volume is defined, through

which fluid flows in and out.
§ Instead of tracking individual fluid particles, we define field variables, functions
of space and time, within the control volume.
Pressure field and the velocity field,
§ The field variable at a particular location at a particular time is the value of the at any location and instant in time
variable for whichever fluid particle happens to occupy that location at that
time.
§ For example, the pressure field is a scalar field variable; for general unsteady
three-dimensional fluid flow in Cartesian coordinates,

!"#$$%"# &'#() ! = !(,, ., /, 0)

§ In the Eulerian description we don’t care what happens to individual fluid
particles; rather we are concerned with the pressure, velocity, acceleration,
etc., of whichever fluid particle happens to be at the location of interest at the Air speed probe mounted under the wing
time of interest. of an airplane measures the air speed at
that location.
Eulerian description 1-22

§ Eulerian description is often more convenient for fluid mechanics applications.

§ Experimental measurements are generally more suited to the Eulerian description.

§ The equations of motion in the Lagrangian description following individual fluid particles are
well known (e.g., Newton’s second law),

§ The equations of motion of fluid flow are not so readily apparent in the Eulerian description
and must be carefully derived.
 Example 4-1

§ A steady, incompressible, two-

dimensional velocity field is given by
2 = %, 3 = 0.5 + 0.8x ;⃗ + (1.5 − 0.8.)⃗>

§ where the x- and y-coordinates are in

meters and the magnitude of velocity is in
m/s. A stagnation point is defined as a
point in the flow field where the velocity
is zero.
§ (a) Determine if there are any stagnation
points in this flow field and, if so, where?
§ (b) Sketch velocity vectors at several
locations in the domain between , =
− 2 m to 2 m and . = 0 m to 5 m;
qualitatively describe the flow field.
Acceleration field
1-22

§ The equations of motion for fluid flow are written for a fluid particle, which we
also call a material particle.
§ We define the particle’s location in space in terms of a material position vector
(,@ABCDEFG 0 , .@ABCDEFG 0 , /@ABCDEFG (0)).

§ Newton’s second law applied to the fluid particle: H⃗@ABCDEFG = I@ABCDEFG J⃗@ABCDEFG

KLMNOPQRST
§ Acceleration of the particle: J⃗@ABCDEFG =
KU

§ At any instant in time t, the velocity of the particle is the same as the local value of the velocity field at
the location of the particle: 2@ABCDEFG 0 ≡ 2(,@ABCDEFG 0 , .@ABCDEFG 0 , /@ABCDEFG (0), 0)
Acceleration field 1-22

§ At any instant in time 0, the acceleration field must equal the acceleration of the fluid particle that happens to
occupy the location (,, ., /) at that time 0.
§ Hence, we may replace J⃗WXYUZ[\] with J(,,
⃗ ., /, 0) to transform from the Lagrangian to the Eulerian frame of
reference:
)2 e2
^__#(#"J0'`a `& J &(%') bJ"0'_(# #,b"#$$#) J$ J &'#() 3J"'Jc(#: J⃗ ,, ., /, 0 = = + (2 ⋅ g)2
)0 e0
§ where g is the gradient operator or del operator:
Acceleration field 1-22

)2 e2
J⃗ ,, ., /, 0 = = + (2 ⋅ g)2
)0 e0
§ e2/e0 is called the local acceleration and is nonzero only for unsteady flows.

§ (2 ⋅ g)2 is called the advective acceleration (sometimes the convective acceleration); this term can be
nonzero even for steady flows. It accounts for the effect of the fluid particle moving (advecting or
convecting) to a new location in the flow, where the velocity field is different.
§ Flow of water through the nozzle of a garden hose illustrates that fluid particles may accelerate, even in a
steady flow.

§ In this example, the exit speed of the water is much higher than the
water speed in the hose, implying that fluid particles have accelerated
even though the flow is steady.
§ While the flow is steady from the point of view of a fixed observer in
the Eulerian reference frame, it is not steady from the Lagrangian
reference frame moving with a fluid particle that enters the nozzle and
accelerates as it passes through the nozzle.
Example 4-2

§ Nadeen is washing her car, using a nozzle similar to

the one shown. The nozzle is 9.91 cm long, with an
inlet diameter of 1.07 cm and an outlet diameter of
0.460 cm.

§ The volume flow rate through the garden hose (and

through the nozzle) is 0.0530 L/s, and the flow is
steady.

§ Estimate the magnitude of the acceleration of a fluid

particle moving down the centerline of the nozzle.
Example 4-3
§ A steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field is given by 2 = %, 3 = 0.5 + 0.8x ;⃗ + (1.5 − 0.8.)⃗>

§ (a) Calculate the material acceleration at the point (, = 2 m, . = 3 m).

§ (b) Sketch the material acceleration vectors at the same array of x- and y-values as in Example 4–1
 Material derivative 1-22

§ The total derivative operator )/)0 is given a special name, the

material derivative and is assigned a special notation, j/j0, in order
to emphasize that it is formed by following a fluid particle as it moves
through the flow field.
j ) e
= = + (2 ⋅ g)
j0 )0 e0
§ When we apply the material derivative to the velocity field, the result
is the acceleration field, sometimes called the material acceleration:
j2 )2 e2
J⃗ ,, ., /, 0 = = = + (2 ⋅ g)2
j0 )0 e0
§ For example, the material derivative of pressure is written as:
j! )! e!
= = + 2⋅g !
j0 )0 e0
Flow patterns and flow visualization
1-22

§ The human mind is designed to rapidly process an

incredible amount of visual information.
§ A lot can be learned from flow visualization—the
visual examination of flow field features.
§ Flow visualization is useful in physical experiments
as well as in numerical solutions [Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD)].
§ There are many types of flow patterns that can be
visualized, both physically (experimentally) and/or
computationally. A spinning baseball
Streamlines 1-22

§ A streamline is a curve that is everywhere tangent to the

instantaneous local velocity vector.
§ Streamlines are useful as indicators of the instantaneous
direction of fluid motion throughout the flow field.
§ For example, regions of recirculating flow and separation
of a fluid off of a solid wall are easily identified by the
streamline pattern.
§ Streamlines cannot be directly observed experimentally
except in steady flow fields, in which they are coincident with
pathlines and streaklines.
§ Mathematically, however, we can write a simple expression
for a streamline based on its definition.
 Streamlines 1-22

§ An infinitesimal arc length )"⃗ = ),⃗; + ).⃗> + )/k along a

streamline; must be parallel to the local velocity vector 2 = %⃗; +
3⃗> + lk by definition of the streamline.
§ By simple geometric arguments using similar triangles, we know
that the components of )"⃗ must be proportional to those of 2:

)" ), ). )/
= = =
2 % 3 l
§ In two dimensions, integrating the above we obtain:

). 3
=
), X\mno X pUY]Xq\Zn] %
§ The family of curves that satisfies the above represents streamlines
of the flow field.
Streamtubes 1-22

§ A streamtube consists of a bundle of streamlines.

§ Since streamlines are everywhere parallel to the local velocity, fluid
cannot cross a streamline by definition.
§ Fluid within a streamtube must remain there and cannot cross the
boundary of the streamtube.
§ Both streamlines and streamtubes are instantaneous quantities,
defined at a particular instant in time according to the velocity field at
that instant.
§ In an unsteady flow, the streamline pattern may change significantly
with time. Nevertheless, at any instant in time, the mass flow rate
passing through any cross-sectional slice of a given streamtube must
remain the same.
§ For example, in a converging portion of an incompressible flow field,
the diameter of the streamtube must decrease as the velocity
increases in order to conserve mass. Likewise, the streamtube diameter
increases in diverging portions of an incompressible flow .
Pathlines 1-22

§ A pathline is the actual path travelled by an individual fluid particle

over some time period.
§ The easiest of the flow patterns to understand.
§ A pathline is a Lagrangian concept in that we simply follow the path
of an individual fluid particle as it moves around in the flow field.
§ Thus, a pathline is the same as the fluid particle’s material position
vector (,@ABCDEFG 0 , .@ABCDEFG 0 , /@ABCDEFG (0)), traced out over some
finite time interval.

Pathlines produced by white tracer particles

suspended in water and captured by time-
exposure photography.

As waves pass horizontally, each particle

moves in an elliptical path during one wave
period.
Streaklines 1-22

§ A streakline is the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially

through a prescribed point in the flow.
§ Streaklines are the most common flow pattern generated in a physical
experiment.
§ Inserting a small tube into a flow and introducing a continuous stream
of tracer fluid (dye in a water flow or smoke in an airflow), the
observed pattern is a streakline.
§ The location of an individual tracer particle is determined by the
surrounding velocity field from the moment of its injection into the
flow until the present time.
§ If the flow is unsteady, the surrounding velocity field changes, and we
cannot expect the resulting streakline to resemble a streamline or
pathline at any given instant in time. A streakline is formed by continuous
introduction of dye or smoke from a point
§ However, if the flow is steady, streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines in the flow. Labeled tracer particles (1
are identical. through 8) were introduced sequentially.
Streamlines, pathlines,
1-22
and streaklines

§ While the three flow patterns are identical in steady

flow, they can be quite different in unsteady flow.
§ The main difference is that a streamline represents an
instantaneous flow pattern at a given instant in time,
while a streakline and a pathline are flow patterns that
have some age and thus a time history associated with
them.
§ A streakline is an instantaneous snapshot of a time-
integrated flow pattern.
§ A pathline, on the other hand, is the time-exposed flow
path of an individual particle over some time period.
Streaklines produced by colored fluid introduced
upstream; since the flow is steady, these streaklines
are the same as streamlines and pathlines.
Timelines 1-22

§ A timeline is a set of adjacent fluid particles that were marked at

the same (earlier) instant in time.
§ In a channel flow between two parallel walls, because of friction
at the walls, the fluid velocity there is zero (the no-slip
condition), and the top and bottom of the timeline are anchored
at their starting locations.
§ In regions of the flow away from the walls, the marked fluid
particles move at the local fluid velocity, deforming the timeline.
§ The speed near the centre of the channel is fairly uniform, but
small deviations tend to amplify with time as the timeline
stretches.
Timelines 1-22

§ Timelines can be generated experimentally in a water channel through use of a hydrogen bubble wire.
§ When a short burst of electric current is sent through the cathode wire, electrolysis of the water occurs and
tiny hydrogen gas bubbles form at the wire. Since the bubbles are so small, their buoyancy is nearly
negligible, and the bubbles follow the water flow nicely.

Timelines produced by a hydrogen bubble wire are used

to visualize the boundary layer velocity profile shape
along a flat plate.

Flow is from left to right, and the hydrogen bubble wire is

located to the left of the field of view.

Bubbles near the wall reveal a flow instability that leads

to turbulence.
Refractive flow visualization techniques
1-22

§ The speed of light through one material differs somewhat from that in another material, or even in the same
material if its density changes.
§ Refraction: as light travels through one fluid into a fluid with a different index of refraction, the light rays bend.
§ Two flow visualization techniques that utilize the fact that the index of refraction in air (or other gases) varies
with density: shadowgraph technique and schlieren technique.
§ These techniques are useful for flow visualization in flow fields where density changes from one location in the
flow to another:
§ natural convection flows (temperature differences cause the density variations),
§ mixing flows (fluid species cause the density variations),
§ supersonic flows (shock waves and expansion waves cause the density variations).
§ Unlike flow visualizations involving streaklines, pathlines, and timelines, these methods do not require injection
of a visible tracer (smoke or dye).
§ Density differences and the refractive property of light provide the necessary means for visualizing regions of
activity in the flow field, allowing us to “see the invisible.”
 Shadowgraph technique 1-22

§ The image (a shadowgram) produced by the

shadowgraph method is formed when the refracted rays
of light rearrange the shadow cast onto a viewing screen
or camera focal plane, causing bright or dark patterns to
appear in the shadow.
§ The dark patterns indicate the location where the
refracted rays originate, while the bright patterns mark
where these rays end up, and can be misleading.
§ As a result, the dark regions are less distorted than the
bright regions and are more useful in the interpretation
of the shadowgram.
§ A shadowgram is not a true optical image; it is merely a
shadow. Shadowgram of a sphere in free flight through
air at Ma = 3.0. A shock wave is clearly visible
in the shadow as a dark band that curves
around the sphere and is called a bow wave
Schlieren technique 1-22

§ A schlieren image, involves lenses (or mirrors) and a knife edge to block
the refracted light and is a true focused optical image.
§ Is more complicated to set up than is shadowgraphy.
§ A schlieren image does not suffer from optical distortion by the refracted
light rays.
§ Is also more sensitive to weak density gradients such as those caused by
natural convection or by gradual phenomena like expansion fans in
supersonic flow.
§ Color schlieren imaging techniques have also been developed.
§ One can adjust more components in a schlieren setup, such as the
location, orientation, and type of the cutoff device, in order to produce
an image that is most useful for the problem at hand.

Schlieren image of natural convection

due to a barbeque grill.
Surface flow visualization
1-22 techniques
§ The direction of fluid flow immediately above a solid surface can be visualized with:
§ Tufts: short, flexible strings glued to the surface at one end that point in the flow direction. Especially
useful for locating regions of flow separation, where the flow direction reverses.
§ Surface oil visualization: oil placed on the surface forms streaks called friction lines that indicate the
direction of flow. (Similar to the streaks along the hood and sides of the car, or even on the windshield
when it rains lightly when a car is dirty)

§ Pressure-sensitive and temperature-sensitive paints: enable researchers to observe the pressure or

temperature distribution along solid surfaces.
Profile plots 1-22

§ A profile plot indicates how the value of a scalar property

varies along some desired direction in the flow field.
§ We plot how one variable y varies as a function of a second
variable ,.
§ Profile plots of any scalar variable (pressure, temperature,
density, etc.) can be created.
§ Most common: the velocity profile plot.
§ Since velocity is a vector quantity, we usually plot either the
magnitude of velocity or one of the components of the
velocity vector as a function of distance in some desired
direction.
§ It is more physically meaningful to plot u on the abscissa
rather than on the ordinate even though it is the dependent (a) standard profile plot
variable, since position y is then in its proper orientation (b) profile plot with arrows
(up) rather than across.
Vector plots 1-22

§ A vector plot is an array of arrows indicating the magnitude and direction of

a vector property at an instant in time.
§ A two-dimensional flow field consisting of free-stream flow impinging on a
block of rectangular cross section is turbulent and unsteady. Long-time
averaged results are calculated through CFD and displayed in the figures
below:

Results of CFD calculations of flow

impinging on a block;
(a) streamlines,
(b) velocity vector plot of the upper
half of the flow,
(c) velocity vector plot, close-up view
revealing more details in the
separated flow region.
Contour plots 1-22

§ A contour plot shows curves of constant values of a scalar

property (or magnitude of a vector property) at an instant in
time.
§ Contour plots (also called isocontour plots) are generated of
pressure, temperature, velocity magnitude, species
concentration, properties of turbulence, etc.
§ A contour plot can quickly reveal regions of high (or low) values
of the flow property being studied.
§ A contour plot may consist simply of curves indicating various
levels of the property; this is called a contour line plot.
§ The contours can be filled in with either colors or shades of gray;
this is called a filled contour plot.
Types of motion or deformation of fluid elements
1-22

§ An element may undergo four fundamental types of motion or deformation: (a)

translation, (b) rotation, (c) linear strain (sometimes called extensional strain),
and (d) shear strain.
§ All four types of motion or deformation usually occur simultaneously.
§ Because fluid elements may be in constant motion, it is preferable in fluid
dynamics to describe the motion and deformation of fluid elements in terms of
rates:
§ Velocity (rate of translation),
§ angular velocity (rate of rotation),
§ linear strain rate (rate of linear strain),
§ shear strain rate (rate of shear strain).
§ The rate of translation vector is described mathematically as the velocity vector.

§ In Cartesian coordinates: 2 = %⃗; + 3⃗> + lk

Types of motion or deformation of fluid elements
1-22

§ Rate of rotation (angular velocity) at a point is defined

as the average rotation rate of two initially
perpendicular lines that intersect at that point.
§ Rate of rotation of fluid element about point P in figure:

§ In three dimensions, we must define a vector for the

rate of rotation at a point in the flow since its magnitude
may differ in each of the three dimensions.
§ The rate of rotation vector is equal to the angular
velocity vector and is expressed in Cartesian coordinates
as:
Types of motion or1-22
deformation of fluid elements
Types of motion or deformation of fluid elements
1-22

§ Linear strain rate is defined as the rate of increase in length per

unit length.
§ Mathematically, the linear strain rate of a fluid element depends
on the initial orientation or direction of the line segment upon
which we measure the linear strain.
§ we define linear strain rate in some arbitrary direction, which we
denote as the ,r -direction:
Types of motion or deformation of fluid elements
1-22

§ If the flow is incompressible, the net volume of the fluid element must
remain constant; thus if the element stretches in one direction, it must
shrink by an appropriate amount in other direction(s) to compensate.
§ The volume of a compressible fluid element, however, may increase or
decrease as its density decreases or increases, respectively.
§ The rate of increase of volume of a fluid element per unit volume is
called its volumetric strain rate or bulk strain rate or volumetric
dilatation.
§ This kinematic property is defined as positive when the volume
increases.
§ It turns out that the volumetric strain rate is the sum of the linear strain
rates in three mutually orthogonal directions:
Types of motion or deformation of fluid elements
1-22

§ Shear strain rate at a point is defined as half of the rate of

decrease of the angle between two initially perpendicular lines
that intersect at the point.
§ A full mathematical description of shear strain rate requires its
specification in any two mutually perpendicular directions.
§ The shear strain rate at point P for initially perpendicular lines in
the x- and y-directions is given by:
Types of motion or 1-22
deformation of fluid elements

§ We can mathematically combine linear strain rate

and shear strain rate into one symmetric second-
order tensor called the strain rate tensor:

A fluid element illustrating

translation, rotation, linear strain,
shear strain, and volumetric strain.
Example 4-6
A steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field is given by 2 = %, 3 =
0.5 + 0.8x ;⃗ + (1.5 − 0.8.)⃗> where lengths are in units of m, time in s, and
velocities in m/s. There is a stagnation point at (- 0.625, 1.875). Calculate the
various kinematic properties, namely, the rate of translation, rate of rotation, linear
strain rate, shear strain rate, and volumetric strain rate. Verify that this flow is
incompressible.

2 = %⃗; + 3⃗> + lk
Vorticity and rotationality
1-22

§ A kinematic property of great importance to the analysis of fluid flows is

the vorticity vector, defined mathematically as the curl of the velocity
vector 2:
s⃗ = g×2 = _%"((2)
§ The direction of the vorticity vector is found by using the right-hand rule
for cross product.
§ the rate of rotation vector is equal to half of the vorticity vector:
1 1 s
u = g×2 = _%"( 2 =
2 2 2
§ Vorticity is a measure of rotation of a fluid particle.
§ Vorticityis equal to twice the angular velocity of a fluid particle.
Vorticity and rotationality
1-22

§ If the vorticity at a point in a flow field is nonzero, the fluid

particle that happens to occupy that point in space is rotating;
the flow in that region is called rotational.
§ Likewise, if the vorticity in a region of the flow is zero (or
negligibly small), fluid particles there are not rotating; the flow
in that region is called irrotational.
§ Fluid particles in a rotational region of flow rotate end over end
as they move along in the flow.

§ Fluid particles within the viscous boundary layer near a solid wall are rotational while fluid particles outside the
boundary layer are irrotational.
§ Rotation of fluid elements is associated with wakes, boundary layers, flow through turbomachinery (fans, turbines,
compressors, etc.), and flow with heat transfer.
§ The vorticity of a fluid element cannot change except through the action of viscosity, nonuniform heating
(temperature gradients), or other nonuniform phenomena. Thus if a flow originates in an irrotational region, it
remains irrotational until some nonuniform process alters it.
Vorticity and rotationality
1-22

§ In Cartesian coordinates,

§ If the flow is two-dimensional in the xy-plane, the z-component

of velocity (w) is zero and neither % nor 3 varies with /. Thus the
vorticity reduces to:
Example 4-6

Consider the following steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field:

2 = %, 3 = , v ;⃗ + (−2,. − 1)⃗>

Is this flow rotational or irrotational? Sketch some streamlines in the first quadrant and discuss.
Vorticity and rotationality
1-22

(a) Rotational circular flow is analogous to a roundabout, while (b) irrotational circular flow is analogous to a Ferris wheel.
 The Reynolds transport theorem
1-22

§ In thermodynamics and solid mechanics we often work with a system (also called a
closed system), defined as a quantity of matter of fixed identity.
§ In fluid dynamics, it is more common to work with a control volume (also called an
open system), defined as a region in space chosen for study.
§ The size and shape of a system may change during a process, but no mass crosses its
boundaries. A control volume, on the other hand, allows mass to flow in or out
across its boundaries, which are called the control surface.
§ Most principles of fluid mechanics are adopted from solid mechanics, where the
physical laws dealing with the time rates of change of extensive properties are
expressed for systems.
§ In fluid mechanics, it is more convenient to work with control volumes, and thus
there is a need to relate the changes in a control volume to the changes in a system.
§ The relationship between the time rates of change of an extensive property for a
system and for a control volume is expressed by the Reynolds transport theorem
(RTT),which provides the link between the system and control volume approaches
The Reynolds transport theorem
1-22

§ Fluid flows from left to right through a diverging (expanding) portion of a flow
field as shown.
§ The upper and lower bounds of the fluid under consideration are streamlines of
the flow, and we assume uniform flow through any cross section between these
two streamlines.
§ We choose the control volume to be fixed between sections (1) and (2) of the
flow field. Both (1) and (2) are normal to the direction of flow.
§ At some initial time 0, the system coincides with the control volume, and thus
the system and control volume are identical (the greenish-shaded region).
§ During time interval ∆0, the system moves in the flow direction at uniform
speeds 2x at section (1) and 2v at section (2) (the hatched region).
§ The region uncovered by the system during this motion is section I (part of the
CV), and the new region covered by the system is section II (not part of the CV).
§ At time 0 + ∆0, the system consists of the same fluid, but it occupies the region
CV − I + II. The control volume remains as the shaded region marked CV at all
times.
The Reynolds transport theorem
1-22
§ Let | represent any extensive property (such as mass, energy, or momentum), and
let c = |/I represent the corresponding intensive property.
§ The extensive property | of the system at times 0 and 0 + ∆0 is expressed as:
|}~},U = |•Ä,U
|}~},UÅ∆U = |•Ä,UÅ∆U − |Ç,UÅ∆U + |ÇÇ,UÅ∆U

|}~},UÅ∆U − |}~},U |•Ä,UÅ∆U − |•Ä,U |Ç,UÅ∆U |ÇÇ,UÅ∆U

= − +
∆0 ∆0 ∆0 ∆0
§ Taking the limit as ∆0 → 0, and using the definition of derivative,
)|pÑp )|ÖL
= − |̇ Zn + |̇ máU
)0 )0
)|pÑp )|ÖL
= − cx àx 2x ^x + cv àv 2v ^v
)0 )0
§ The time rate of change of the property B of the system is equal to the time rate of
change of B of the control volume plus the net flux of B out of the control volume by
mass crossing the control surface.
 The Reynolds transport theorem
1-22

)|pÑp )|ÖL
= − |̇ Zn + |̇ máU
)0 )0
§ In general, we may have several inlet and outlet ports, and the velocity may not
be normal to the control surface. Also, the velocity may not be uniform.
§ To generalize the process, we consider a differential surface area )^ on the
control surface and denote its unit outer normal by a. Then the net rate of
outflow through the entire control surface is determined by integration to be:

|̇ n]U = |̇ máU − |̇ Zn = â àc2 ⋅ a)^

•ä

§ The differential quantity àc2 ⋅ a)^ is positive for mass flowing out of the control
volume, and negative for mass flowing into the control volume, and its integral
over the entire control surface gives the rate of net outflow of the property | by
mass.
§ The properties within the control volume may vary with position. Therefore, RTT
for fixed CV:
)|pÑp )
= â àc )2 + â àc2 ⋅ a)^
)0 )0 •Ä •ä
The Reynolds transport theorem
1-22

§ Alternate RTT for fixed CV:

)|pÑp e
=â (àc) )2 + â àc2 ⋅ a)^
)0 •Ä e0 •ä

§ For moving and/or deforming control volumes, RTT for non

fixed CV:
)|pÑp )
= â àc )2 + â àc2Y ⋅ a)^
)0 )0 •Ä •ä

§ During steady flow, the amount of the property | within

the control volume remains constant in time, and thus RTT
for steady flow:
)|pÑp
= â àc2Y ⋅ a)^
)0 •ä
The Reynolds transport theorem
1-22

§ In most practical engineering applications of the RTT, fluid crosses the

boundary of the control volume at a finite number of well-defined inlets
and outlets.
§ In such cases, it is convenient to cut the control surface directly across
each inlet and outlet and replace the surface integral with approximate
algebraic expressions at each inlet and outlet based on the average
values of fluid properties crossing the boundary:

â àc2Y ⋅ a)^ = cXåo â à2Y ⋅ a)^ = cXåo İ Y

ã ã

§ The approximation in this equation is exact when property c is uniform

over cross-sectional area ^.

§ Approximate RTT for well defined inlets and outlets:

Relationship between material derivative and RTT
1-22

§ Both analyses represent methods to transform from fundamentally

Lagrangian concepts to Eulerian interpretations of those concepts.
§ While the Reynolds transport theorem deals with finite-size control
volumes and the material derivative deals with infinitesimal fluid
particles, the same fundamental physical interpretation applies to both.
§ In fact, the Reynolds transport theorem can be thought of as the integral
counterpart of the material derivative.

§ The total rate of change of some property following an identified portion of fluid consists of two parts:
§ There is a local or unsteady part that accounts for changes in the flow field with time.
§ There is also an advective part that accounts for the movement of fluid from one region of the flow
to another.
§ Just as the material derivative can be applied to any fluid property, scalar or vector, the Reynolds
transport theorem can be applied to any scalar or vector property as well.