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com

Contents
Potential divider ............................................................................................................................ 2
Conversion of a millimeter to an ammeter ................................................................................. 7
Conversion of a millimeter to a voltmeter .................................................................................. 7
Ohm’s law ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Ohmic & non-ohmic conductors.................................................................................................. 9
Resistivity (𝝆) .............................................................................................................................. 11
Conductivity ( .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Temperature co-efficient of resistance ( ................................................................................ 13
Electrical power & heat .............................................................................................................. 16
Electromotive force, e.m.f (E) and internal resistance (r) of the cell ................................... 16
Power output and efficiency ....................................................................................................... 20
Variation of efficiency and power against load resistance ...................................................... 21
Maximum power output theorem.............................................................................................. 22
Kirchoff’s laws of circuit networks ........................................................................................... 26
Wheatstone bridge ...................................................................................................................... 31
Simple metre bridge .................................................................................................................... 32
End errors or end corrections .................................................................................................... 35
Measurement of resistivity of a wire using a metre bridge ..................................................... 36
Experiment to determine temperature coefficient of resistance using the metre bridge ..... 38
Potentiometers ............................................................................................................................. 40
Principle of a potentiometer ....................................................................................................... 40
Calibration/ standardization of a potentiometer ..................................................................... 41
Measuring e.m.f / comparing e.m.f using a potentiometer...................................................... 41
Measuring internal resistance using potentiometer................................................................. 44
Comparison of resistance using a potentiometer ..................................................................... 51
Calibration of ammeter using potentiometer (measurement of current) .............................. 53
Calibration of voltmeter (measurement of voltage) ................................................................. 58
Measurement of small e.m.f (e.g. E.m.f of a thermocouple) ................................................... 60
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Potential divider

Potential dividers can be used to vary the output p. d of a circuit. They can be used to produce a
small p. d from a larger one.
The larger voltage VO (or V) is connected across two resistors in series as shown below.

Total resistance is R = R1 + R2
𝑉0
The current I flowing in the circuit is given by; 𝐼 =
𝑅1 +𝑅2

𝑅1
pd across R1 is 𝑉1 = ( )𝑉0
𝑅1 +𝑅2

Hence a fraction of VO is obtained by use of resistors. This is a convenient way of controlling

the voltage applied to a load such as a lamp.
The resistance of the load is in parallel with R1.

Examples

1.In the circuit below, the voltmeter V has resistance of 100Ω.

(i) Find the reading of the voltmeter

(ii) What voltage would be obtained if the voltmeter was replaced by a C. R. O?
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(iii) Explain the difference in (i) and (ii) above.

Solution

(i) Let R1 = 400Ω and R2 = 100Ω

Effective resistance in parallel,

Total resistance in the circuit, R = 80 + 310 + 10 = 400Ω

Total current in the circuit,
Voltmeter reading V

(ii) A C.R.O is an ideal voltmeter and has an infinitely high resistance. It doesn‟t
therefore take away any current from the circuit.
Effective resistance, R = 10 + 310 + 100 = 420Ω
Total current,

Voltmeter
reading,

2. A 12V battery is connected across a potential divider of resistance 600 as shown

below. If the load of 100 is connected across the terminals A and C when the slider is half
way up the divider, find:
(i) P. d across the load
(ii) P.d across A and C when the load is removed.

Solution
(i)

600Ω
12V C

100 Ω

A
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Since the slider is half way up the divider, RAC = RCB = 600/2 = 300Ω

Effective resistance in parallel,

Ω
Total resistance in the circuit, R = 75 + 300 = 375Ω
V 12
Current supplied by the battery, I    0.032A
R 375
P.d across the parallel combination of resistors,
Hence the p.d across the load is 2.4V.

(ii) when the load is removed I   0.02A

Hence p.d across AC = 0.02300  6V

3. In the figure below, wire AB is of length 1.00m and has resistance of 10Ω. If point C is the
mid-point of AB, and the voltmeter reading is 2.0V, find the value of R. (6 mks)

Solution
VAC = VR = 2V

Combined resistance in parallel,

But VAC
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Exercise

Find;
(i ) the current supplied by the dc
20V
50Ω source.
75Ω
323

1. 100 20

50
(ii) power dissipated in the 20
resistor.
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2.
6Ω 6Ω

6Ω 6Ω

6Ω

Given that the internal resistance of the 50 V battery in the circuit is 0.4 Ω, find

(i) the effective resistance in the circuit

(ii) power dissipated in the battery.

6
3. A resistor of 500 Ω and one of 200 Ω are placed in series with a 6V supply. What will be the
reading on a voltmeter of internal resistance 2000 Ω when placed across
(i) the 500 Ω resistor
(ii) 200 Ω resistor.

4. A 12V battery is connected across a potential divider of resistance 60 as shown below.

12 V 60Ω
C

100 Ω

A
If a load of 100 Ω is connected across the terminals A and B when the slider is half way up the
divider, find:
(i) the p. d across the load
(ii) the p. d across A and C when the load is removed.
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Conversion of a millimeter to an ammeter

A moving coil meter/galvanometer measures small amount of current. Thus it can only withstand
small electric current when it is connected to an electric circuit.
To allow safe flow of large current in a circuit with a galvanometer, a small resistor called shunt
(resistance Rs) is connected in parallel with the galvanometer as shown below.

The p.d across the galvanometer = p.d across the shunt

Vg = Vs
IgRg = IsRs

Conversion of a millimeter to a voltmeter

To convert a millimeter to a voltmeter, a large resistor called the multiplier (resistance Rm) is
connected in series with the millimeter as shown below.

Total voltage V is equal to the sum of the p.d across the millimeter and the p.d across the
multiplier
i.e V = Vg + Vm
= IgRg +IgRm

Example
A millimeter of resistance 5Ω and full scale deflection of 50mA is to be used to measure a p.d of
50V. What should be the resistance of the multiplier?

Solution

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V = Vg + Vm
= IgRg +IgRm

50 = 50 x 10-3(5 + Rm)
Rm = 995Ω
The resistance of the multiplier is 995Ω

Ohm’s law

It states that “Under constant physical conditions, the current flowing through an (ohmic)
conductor is proportional to the potential difference across the ends.

𝑉
V ∝ I , hence = constant
𝐼

Verification

- The circuit is connected as shown above

- A suitable variable resistor or rheostat P of the same order as resistor Q used as the conductor are
connected in series with an ammeter A
- By adjusting the rheostat P, current I through the circuit is varied and at each value of I, the p. d
across Q is measured and noted.
- Several values of I & V are obtained and the results tabulated.
- A graph of V against I is plotted and is a straight line through the origin.
- This shows that the p. d V across the resistor Q is proportional to the current I through it, hence
Ohm’s law verified.
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Ohmic & non-ohmic conductors

Ohm’s law is obeyed by most metals (conductors), and these are called ohmic conductors.
If a conducting current I is reversed in direction, the p. d is also reversed but the magnitude
of current is unchanged.
The characteristic (I – V) graph is therefore a straight line passing through the origin as shown
below.

NB: An electrolyte such as CuSO4 with Cu electrodes also obeys ohm‟s law

Graphs of I against V for non- Ohmic conductors

Non-ohmic conductors are those which don’t obey Ohm’s law.
A non-ohmic characteristic graph may be a curve instead of a line or may not pass through the
origin as in the ohmic graphs.

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Qn: Describe the current versus voltage characteristics of non-ohmic conductors.

Resistivity (
𝝆)
The resistance, R of a metal wire is directly proportional to its length, l and inversely
proportional to its cross sectional area, A
1
That is 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ∝
𝐴

𝑙 𝐴
Hence 𝑅 = 𝜌 , and 𝜌 = 𝑅
𝐴 𝑙

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where ρ is the resistivity of the material of wire
Consider a cube of the material of side 1m. Hence the area, A = 1m2.

𝑙
From 𝑅 = 𝜌
𝐴
Substitute l =1m, A = 1m2
𝑅=𝜌
Def’n : Resistivity of a material is the resistance across opposite faces of a cube of a material
of side 1 m.
OR: Is the resistance of a sample of the material of length one metre and cross-sectional area of
one metre squared at a constant temperature.
The unit of ρ is ohm metre (Ω m)

Example
A steady uniform current of 5mA flows along a metal cylinder of cross sectional area of 0.2mm2,
length 5m and resistivity 3x10-5 Ω m. Find the p.d across the ends of the cylinder.

Question
A p.d of 4.5V is applied to the ends of a 0.69 m length of a wire of cross sectional area
6.6x10-7m2. Calculate the drift velocity of electrons across the wire. ( ρ of wire is 4.3x10-7 Ω m,
number of electrons per m3 is 1028 and electronic charge is 1.6x10-19C)

NB:
• Resistivity of a material is increased by small amount of impurities and alloys; e. g
constantan has greater resistivity than its constituents like copper and nickel.
• For pure metals, resistivity increases with temperature while for semi-conductors,
resistivity decreases with temperature increase.

Qns;
1. Explain why the resistance of a thermistor reduces when current is passed through it.
Solution
When current is passed through a thermistor, heat is generated. As the temperature increases, the
loosely bound electrons are released for conduction. Hence current increases implying that the
resistance reduces.

2. Explain why the resistance of a metal increases when the temperature of the metal is
increased. (2 mks) Solution
As the temperature of a metal increases the amplitude of vibration of its atoms in its metallic
lattice increases which reduces the mean free path for the conducting electrons. Therefore the
number of electrons flowing per second through the metal reduces causing an increase in the
resistance.
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𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝝈)
This is the reciprocal of resistivity.
1
That is;𝛿 = .
𝜌
Its SI unit is per ohm per meter (Ω-1m-1)

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE

Temperature co-efficient of resistance (

The resistance of a material varies with temperature and the variation can be expressed by the
temperature co-efficient of resistance, .
If a material has a resistance RO at 0oC and its resistance increases by due to a temperature
change , then α of the material is defined by the equation;

Def’n : Temperature co-efficient of a material is the fractional change in the resistance of a

material / conductor at 0oC for every degree Celsius rise of temperature.
The unit of α is K-1 or 0C-1.
If a specimen has a resistance 𝑅𝜃 and RO at and 0oC respectively,

Then Rearranging gives;

A graph of against is a straight line with an intercept of RO on the axis and as its
slope.
is the resistance of the material at 0oC and shows that the material actually exists.

If R1 and R2 are the resistances at , then:

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……………(i)
……………(ii)
Dividing eqn (i) by (i), we get;

NB: Also the expression in terms of resistivities is correct, i.e. 𝝆𝜽 = 𝝆𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜶𝜽)

NB: Materials whose resistance vanishes when they are cooled to temperatures near – 2730C are
called super conductors.

Qn;
(a) Explain why semi-conductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
(b) Explain why metals have positive temperature coefficient of resistance.

Examples
1. The resistance of a coil of copper wire at the beginning of a heating test is 180Ω, the
temperature being 200C. At the end of the test, the resistance is 220Ω. Calculate the
temperature rise of the coil. (Assume the temp. co-efficient of resistance of copper to be
0.00426K-1 at 00C)

Solution
Let R1 = 180Ω , = 200C
R2 = 220Ω , =?
Using the equation;

………….(i)
……………..(ii)

Increase in temperature = 76.6 – 20

= 56.60C

2. A nichrome wire of length 1.0m and diameter 0.72mm at 250C, is made into a coil. The
coil is immersed in 200cm3 of water at the same temperature and a current of 5.0A is
passed through the coil for 8 minutes until when the water starts to boil at 1000C. find;
(i) The resistance of the coil at 250C,
(ii) The electrical energy expended assuming all of it goes into heating the water.
(iii) The mean temperature coefficient of nichrome, between 00C and 1000C.
( , density of water is 1 gcm-3)
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Solution
(i) From ,

And l = 1m

(ii) Electrical energy = heat gained by the water

= mc
= 200 x 10-3 x 4.2 x 103 (100 – 25) = 6.3 x 104J

(iii) Suppose the mean resistance is

But

From
On simplifying,

3. The temperature coefficient of resistance of two wires A & B of diameters 1.20mm and
0.80mm are 0.0004K-1 and 0.0003K-1 respectively. If the ratio of their resistances at
00C is 1.5, calculate;
(i) Ratio of resistances at 1000C,
(ii) The ratio of electrical resistivities at 1000C given that they have the same length.
Solution
(i) From ,
…….(i) and
…………………….(ii)

(ii) From

Also
From (i) and (ii),

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Electrical power & heat

Mechanism of heating (Joule’s effect)

The heat produced per second in a wire by current is the measure of the energy which it liberates
in a second as it flows through a wire.
The heat is produced by free electrons as they move through the metal.
On their way, they collide frequently with their atoms and at each collision, they lose some of
their K. E & give to the atoms they collide.
Thus as current flows through the wire, it increases the amplitude of vibration of the metal atoms,
generating heat in the wire

The energy liberated per second in any electrical device is defined as its electrical power (P).
Electrical energy, W = VIt,
Where I is the current through the device, V is the p. d across it and t is the time taken for the
current I to pass in it.
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Electrical Power
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

P
Thus P = VI

Power is measured in watts (W) when I is in ampere and V in volts.

Other units of power are kW and MW.
From P = VI, since V = IR,
P = I2R, and

If R is the total resistance of the cable (wire) or resistor and I is the current through the cable or
resistor, then:
Power wasted as heat is P = I2R, and
Power delivered to the destination is P = VI.

Electromotive force, e.m.f (E) and internal resistance (r) of the cell

If a high resistance voltmeter is connected across the terminals of a dry cell, the meter may read
about 1.5V, since practically no current flows from the cell and we say the cell is on open circuit
since no current is drawn from it.
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The p. d across the terminals of a cell or battery in an open circuit is equal to its electromotive
force.

Internal resistance behaves as if it is a resistor in series with the battery.

When the cell is connected to an external resistor R, a steady current I flows in the circuit.

V is referred to as the terminal p.d of the battery and it is also the p.d across R.
Def’n: Terminal p.d is the p.d across any resistor or an external load connected to a cell or
battery in a closed circuit.
P. d across R is given by V =IR and p.d across r is Ir.
But E.m.f, E = p.d across R + p.d across r
E = IR + Ir……..(i)
E = I(R + r)

Hence
But V = IR
E = V + Ir
Thus ………………….(ii)
Define the following
- Electromotive force
- Internal resistance
- Terminal potential difference

Example
A battery 1.5V has a terminal p.d of 1.25V when a resistor of 25Ω is joined to it. Calculate the:
(i) Current flowing in the circuit,
(ii) Internal resistance of the cell and

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(iii) The terminal p. d when a resistor of 10Ω replaces the 25Ω resistor.

Solution
(i)

From V = IR
I = V/R
= 1.25/25

(ii) E = V + Ir

(iii) Replacing the 25Ω by a 10Ω resistor,

Current
Thus, V = IR = 0.1 x 10

Qn;
Describe an experiment to determine e.m.f and internal resistance of a cell using an ammeter, a
resistance box and a voltmeter.
Solution

- The circuit is connected as shown above.

- Switch K is closed and the rheostat, R is adjusted to give a suitable value of I.
- The values of I and V are recorded.
- The procedure is repeated for different for various settings of R.
- A graph of V against I is plotted and its intercept on the V-axis is noted.
- This value of V gives the e.m.f of the cell.
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- The slope, s is obtained and the internal resistance, r of the cell is got from r = - s.

TERMINAL P.D WITH CURRENT IN OPPOSITION TO e.m.f

Suppose a current is passed through a battery in opposition to its e.m.f.

A supply (S) sends current a current I through the battery (T) in opposition to its e.m.f.
Net e.m.f, E = E1 – E2
Total resistance = r1 + r2

Thus, current
Hence, VAB = E1 - Ir1 or VAB = E2 + Ir2

EXAMPLE
A circuit below shows two batteries in opposition to each other. One has an e.m.f E1 = 6V and
internal resistance r1 = 2Ω. And the other has an e.m.f E2 = 4V and internal resistance r2 = 8Ω.
Calculate the current in the circuit and the p.d across the pointsxy.

Net e.m.f E = E1 – E2
=6–4
= 2V
Total resistance = r1 + r2=8 + 2
= 10Ω

Current

Considering a cell of e.m.f E2

Vxy= E2 + Ir2
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= 4 + 0.2 x 8
= 5.6V
OR

Considering a cell of e.m.f E1

Vxy= E1 - Ir1
= 6 - 0.2 x 2
= 5.6V

Power output and efficiency

Consider the following diagram

R is the load resistance.

Total power supplied/generated by the source also called power input is given by;
Pinput = EI
The power delivered to the external resistance is called the output power.
Poutput = VABI
But VAB = IR
R
Power lost to the internal resistance r is .
Total power input = power output + power lost
EI = +
E = I(R + r)

NB: power input = power supplied = power generated.

EFICIENCY
The percentage ratio of power output to power input is called the efficiency, denoted by .

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= IR =
The efficiency tends to unity or 100% as the load resistance R tends to infinity. For high
efficiency, the load resistance must several times the internal resistance of the source.
When R = r, .

Variation of efficiency and power against load resistance

Variation terminal p. d and current against load resistance.

Question
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1. A battery of e.m.f 18.0V and internal resistance 3.0Ω is connected to a resistor of
resistance 8Ω. Calculate the;
(i) Power generated
(ii) Efficiency
(iii) If the 8Ωresistor is replaced by a variable resistor, sketch graphs to show the
variation of power and efficiency with the load.

Solution
(i) Power generated Pgen = EI
But E = IR + Ir.

But V = IR = , since
Equation (i) becomes;

(iii) See notes.

2. Derive the expression for the electrical energy dissipated in a resistor of resistance, R
ohms carrying a current I amperes for t seconds.

Solution
I R

Suppose a current I flows through a resistor for time t,

The total charge supplied, Q = It………………..(i)
If the p.d is V, then work done W to transfer charge Q is given by W = QV……..(*)
But V = IR……….(ii)
Putting (i) and (ii) in eqn *, we get; W = It x IR
dissipated in a resistor of resistance RΩ, W = I2Rt

Maximum power output theorem

Qn: A battery of e.m.f E and internal resistance r is connected to a resistor of variable resistance
R. Obtain the expression for maximum power dissipated in the resistor. (5 mks)
Solution

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𝐸
From 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 and 𝐼 =
𝑅+𝑟

Maximum power output (Pmax) occurs when R = r.

TASK, Show by differential approach that maximum power output occurs when
R= r
(Hint use quotient rule and differentiate the expression for power output with respect to
external resistance i.e
𝒅(𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕) 𝒅𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒅𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒚 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝟎)
𝒅(𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒆) 𝒅𝑹 𝒅𝑹

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If E and r are constant and a graph of power output P against load resistance R is plotted, it is
found to have a maximum value when R = r.
P

Pmax

r R

As R tends to zero, P tends to zero

As R tends to infinity, P tends to
zero.

Qn: A battery of e.m.f 12V and internal resistance 0.5 is connected across a 60 load.
Calculate:
(i) The rate of energy conversion in the battery,
(ii) The rate of dispersion of electrical energy in a resistor,
(iii) Comment on the difference between (i) and (ii),
(iv) Sketch a graph showing variation of power output from the circuit and load resistance.
Solution.
(i)

P = EI
= I(R + r)

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(iii) The power output is less than the power input because a lot of energy is wasted in
overcoming the internal resistance of the battery.
(iv) See notes

Qn:
(a) (i) State ohm’s law. (1 mk)
(ii) Describe an experiment which verifies ohm’s law. (4 mks)
(b) (i) What is meant by e.m.f and internal resistance of a battery? (2 mks)
(ii) A wire of diameter d, length l and resistivity forms a circular loop.
A current enters and leaves the loop at points P and Q respectively as shown
in the figure below.

Show that the resistance R of the wire is given by the expression:

(4 mks)

(c)

In the circuit diagram above;

(i) Find the values of the current through the 10Ω, 3Ω and 4Ω
resistors. (7 mks)
(ii) Calculate the power dissipated in the 5Ω resistor. (2 mks)

Exercise
1. When a 10Ω resistor is connected across the terminals of the cell of e.m.f E and internal
resistance, r, a current of 0.1A flows through the resistor. If the 10 Ω is replaced with a

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3 Ω resistor, the current increases to 0.24A. Find E and r.

2. A voltmeter with resistance 20 𝑘 Ω is connected across the power supply and gives a
reading of 44V. Another voltmeter with a resistance of 50 k Ω connected across the same
supply gives a reading of 50V. Find the e.m.f of the power supply.

Kirchoff’s laws of circuit networks

Law I
The sum of current entering any junction of a point is equal to the sum of current leaving
that junction. Or
The algebraic sum of currents at any junction or point is equal to zero (0). That is . Here,
I is +ve when entering any junction and – ve when leaving the junction.

I1 I1 I3
B
A I2
I I2 I4
At junction B, I1 +I2 = I3 +I4
I3
Also, I1 +I2 -I3 -I4 = 0

At point A, I = I1 + I2 + I3 Or
Law II
In any closed loop the algebraic sum of potential drops is equal to the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.
, .

Sign allocation
E is +ve if the loop moves from the –ve terminal of the cell to the +ve terminal.

E is –ve if the loop moves from the +ve terminal to the –ve terminal.

The p. d V is +ve if the current flows in the direction of the loop and –ve if the p. d is in the
reverse direction.
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Examples
1.Use Kirchhoff’s laws to find currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit below.

Solution

At the junction, I1 = I2 + I3 ………….(i)

Considering;
Loop 1,
2I1 + 4I3 = -5…………….(ii)
Loop 2,
4I3 – 2I2 = -2
2I3 – I2 = -1…………...(iii)
From eqn (ii), 2I1 + 4I3 = -5
……………(iv)
From (iii), 2I3 – I2 = -1
I2 = 2I3 + 1………………..(v)

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Sub eqn (iv) & (v) in (i), we get;
I1 = I2 + I3

+ 1 + I3
-5 – 4I3 = 2(2I3 + 1 + I3)
= 4I3 + 2 + 2I3
-10I3 = 7

I2 = 2I3 + 1
I2 = 2(-0.7) + 1
I2 = - 0.4A

Thus, , I2 = - 0.4A and

2.from the diagram above, find the

(i) Current through BC,
(ii) Value of R,
(iii) P. d between A & C.

Solution
(i)

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I1 + I2 = 5…………….(i)
Considering;
Loop 1
4I1 + 10 – 6I2 = 0
4I1 – 6I2 = -10……..(ii)
Loop 2,
-10 – R(I2 + 1) + 18(I1 – 1) = 0
18I1 – I2R – R = 28 ………….(iii)

On solving the equations gives;

I1 = 2A and
I2 = 3A
Thus, current through BC is I1 – 1
=2–1
= 1A

(ii) Value of R.
From eqn (iii),
18I1 – I2R – R = 28
36 – 3R – R = 28
4R = 8
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(iii) P. d across A & C,

V AC = VAB + VBC
= 4I1 + 18I3
= (4 x 2) + (18 x 1)
= 8 + 18
= 26V

Alternatively, VAC = VAD + VDC or VAB + VBD + VDC.

NB: When a negative value of current is obtained, it indicates that current is flowing in a
direction opposite to that shown in the diagram. I.e. it is flowing against the e.m.f of the battery.

Trial questions
1. Find the value of currents I, I1& I2 as show in the figure below.

2. (a) State ohm’s law.

(b) Sketch the current – voltage characteristics (graphs) for very small
voltage ranges of;
(i) a piece of metallic wire,
(ii) two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte
(c) Give two devices to which ohm’s law doesn’t apply and sketch their
current – voltage graphs.
(d) Draw a circuit diagram to show how the value of a high resistance can be
determined using a low resistance meter and a high voltmeter.
Justify your connection of the meter and voltmeter.
(e)

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In the circuit diagram above, find;

(i) the values of current through 10Ω, 3Ω and 4Ω resistors.(7 mks)
(ii) the power dissipated in the 5Ω resistor. (4 mks)
3.

Wheatstone bridge

A Wheatstone bridge circuit provides a more accurate method of measure an unknown resistance
accurately.
The circuit is as shown below.

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- Four resistors are joined as shown above, one of them being an unknown resistor whose
resistance has to be measured.
- A sensitive galvanometer is connected between B & D so as to show balance and a cell
which provides a steady current is also included in the circuit.
- If R1is the unknown resistor, R2&R4 known, then R3 is adjustable adjusted until no current
flows through the galvanometer G, i.e G shows no deflection. The bridge circuit is then
said to be balanced.

In this condition it can be shown that

PROOF OF BALANCE CONDITION.

At balance no current flows through G, therefore the p.d across BD is zero.
p.d across AB =p.d across AD,
Current through R1 = current through R3
Hence, I1R1 = I2R2 ……(i)
Similarly, p.d across BC =p.d across DC and the same current I2 flows through R4.
Thus I1R3 = I2R4………………(ii)
Dividing the two equations, we get;

The above equation is the condition for a Wheatstone bridge to balance.

The relationship is true even when the resistors are interchanged.

Questions
1. Derive the condition for a Wheatstone bridge to be balanced. (4 mks)
2. In a Wheatstone bridge, the ratio arms R1 and R2 are approximately equal. When R3 =
500Ω , the bridge is balanced. On interchanging R1 and R2, the value of R3 for balancing
is 505 Ω. Find the value of R4 and the ratio R1 : R2. (502.5 Ω, 1:1.005)

Simple metre bridge

It is a form of a Wheatstone bridge with a resistance wire of uniform cross section area mounted
on a metre rule. It is used to measure resistance, resistivity and temperature coefficient of
resistance. It is a practical form of a Wheatstone bridge

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R1 R2
I1
B Thick copper strip
 D T   E 
G
A l1 l2 C
 I2 D 
R3 R4

- The resistors R3& R4 constitute of a wire AC of uniform cross section usually 1m long
made of an alloy such as constantan.
- The ratio of R3 to R4 is altered by changing the position on the wire of the movable
contact or jockey D.
- The other arm of the bridge contains the unknown resistor R1 and a standard resistor
R2.
- Thick copper strips of low resistance connect the various parts. The position of D is
adjusted until there is null or zero deflection on G.
The connections are checked by placing D at A and then at C. deflections must be opposite. By
trial and error, the balance point can be obtained and the balance length l1& l2 are measured.

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Proof for balance condition.

Suppose at balance current I1 flows through R1& R2 and current I2 flows through AC
P. d across R1= P.d across AD
I1R1 = I2R3……..(i)
P.d across R2 =P.d across DC
I1R2 = I2R4………(ii)
Dividing the two equations, we get;

𝑙
From 𝑅 = 𝜌
𝐴

𝑙1 𝑙2
𝑅3 = 𝜌 and 𝑅4 = 𝜌
𝐴 𝐴

𝑅3 𝑙1
Substituting back gives =
𝑅4 𝑙2

Where A is the cross sectional area of the uniform wire of the metre bridge, ρ is the
resistivity of the material of wire, l1 is the balance length of the metre bridge from the left
hand side. Where l2 is the balance length of the metre bridge from the right hand side.

Hence
The above equation is the condition for a metre bridge to balance.
If the length of the wire is 100cm then l2 = (100 – l1)cm

NB: The balance point should be close to the middle because:

 If it is at the end such that l1 or l2 is small, then the resistance of the end connections
AD and EC will not be negligible vis-à-vis the resistance of the lengths l1 and l2.

Hence the relation will be invalid.

 The percentage error in reading l1& l2 is high if their values are small. So by setting
R1so that the balance point is near the middle, the degree of accuracy is improved.
 The bridge is more sensitive near the middle since the unbalanced current is larger
per mm change in position.

Qn: (a) Draw a labeled diagram of a metre bridge and derive the condition for the balance.
(5 mks)
(b) Explain why the balance point should be close to the middle of the wire. (2 mks)
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End errors or end corrections

R1 R2

B
 T   
G
A l1 L2 C
 D 

-Owing to imperfect electrical contacts at A and C, contacts have small resistance which
affect the accuracy of the results.
- But the effect on the accuracy becomes less significant if the balance point is near the
50cm mark.
- For accuracy, the contact resistances have to be considered. The contact resistances at A
and C are equivalent to extra lengths e1 and e2 of the slide wire. e1 and e2 are called end
corrections or end errors.
- Hence end errors have to be added to the balance lengths to account for the
resistances at the contacts at the ends of the slide wire.
𝑅1 𝑙 +𝑒
- At balance, = 1 1...............(i)
𝑅2 𝑙2 +𝑒2
When R1 and R2 are interchanged

𝑅2 𝑙′1 + 𝑒1
=
𝑅1 𝑙′2 + 𝑒2
Where 𝑙′1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙′2 are new balance lengths from the left hand side and right hand side
respectively.
Solve equations (i) and (ii) simultaneously to obtain e1 and e2.

Example
When resistors of 3Ω and 5 Ω are connected in the LHG and RHG of a metre bridge
respectively, a balance point is obtained at 37.4cm from LHS. When the resistors are
interchanged, the balance point is 62.8cm from the LHS. The resistance of the slide wire is
10 Ω. Calculate the end corrections and resistance of the contacts at LHS and RHS.

Solution

3 37.4+𝑒1
= ……………………………...(i)
5 62.6+𝑒2
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After interchanging them

5 62.8+𝑒1
= ………………………………..(ii)
3 37.2+𝑒2
Solving equations (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we obtain e1= 0.7cm and e2= 0.9cm.
Resistances from zero end r1=0.07 Ω, on the right end r2 = 0.09 Ω.

Measurement of resistivity of a wire using a metre bridge

Qn: Describe an experiment to determine the electrical resistivity of a material in the

form of a wire using a metre bridge. (7 mks)
Rs
x
R B
 T   
G
A lcm (100- l)cm C
 D 

- The circuit is connected as shown above

- A specimen wire of known length say x is connected in the left hand gap of a metre
bridge with a standard resistor, Rs in the right hand gap of the bridge.
- The slider is moved along AC until the galvanometer indicates zero deflection.
- At this point the metre bridge is balanced. The balance length l from the left hand side of
the metre bridge is measured.
- The experiment is repeated for different values of x and the corresponding balance
lengths l are measured and recorded. Suppose Rx is the resistance of the wire of length
x,

At balance, .

- A graph of against x is plotted and its slope S

determined.
- The resistivity of the wire, is then obtained from; , Where A is the area of the
specimen wire.

Theory of experiment (not necessary in the exam, but no penalty)

At balance, .

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But
Thus a graph of against lx is plotted
Rx(Ω)

x(m)
The slope of the graph is determined and is equal to S =

But , where ,d is the diameter of the wire, measured by a micrometer screw gauge.

When a graph of Rx is plotted against x, a straight line passing through the origin is obtained.
This means that , i.e the resistance is proportional to the length of a wire.

NB: The above experiment can be used to describe an experiment to determine the
relationship between the resistance and the length of a wire:

Temperature coefficient ( ) of a metal wire

The mean temperature coefficient of a material can be defined as the fractional increase in
resistance at 0°C for every °C increase in temperature.

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Experiment to determine temperature coefficient of resistance using the

metre bridge

 A specimen wire is made into a coil, and its ends connected to the left hand gap of the bridge.
 The coil is immersed/lowered in a water bath and heated. The water is stirred so as to
uniformly distribute the heat. The temperature 𝜃 is then measured and recorded.
 With the switch closed, a jockey is tapped on the slide wire until a point when the
galvanometer shows no deflection.
 The resistance, 𝑅𝜃 corresponding to the temperature,

The temperature coefficient of resistance, is then calculated from ,

Where is the intercept on the 𝑅𝜃 axis

Rθ(Ω)

Slope, s

R0

θ (0C)
Examples
2.(i) Define temperature coefficient of resistance. (1 mk)
(ii) When a coil X is connected across the Left hand gap of a metre bridge and
heated to a temperature of 30°C, the balance point is found to be 51.5°C from
the left hand side of the slide wire. When the temperature is raised to 100°C, the
balance point is 54.6cm from the left hand side. Find the temperature coefficient
of resistance of X.

Solution
(i)See notes
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(ii)

For
At balance point

At ,

From (i) and (ii)

From , and

From (iii) and (iv),

Note:
 The Wheatstone bridge can measure accurately resistances from 1Ω to 106Ω .
 It cannot be used to measure resistances less than 1Ω because the contact resistances
(resistance of the connecting wires) become comparable to the test resistances.
 The bridge cannot be used to measure accurately the resistance above 106Ω because the
galvanometer becomes insensitive. Very high resistances may allow very small currents or
none to pass through.

Exercise
1. Two resistance coils P and Q are placed in the gaps of a metre bridge. A balance point is
found when the movable contact touches the bridge wire at a distance of 35.5cm from the
end joined to end P. When the coil Q is shunted with a resistance of 10Ω, the balance point
is moved through a distance of 15.5cm. Find the values of the resistances P and Q.

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2. In a metre bridge when a resistance in left gap is 2Ω and unknown resistance in right gap,
the balance point is obtained from the zero end at 40cm on the bridge wire. On shunting
the unknown resistance with 2Ω, find the shift of the balance point on the bridge wire.
(22.5cm)

3. With a certain resistance in the left gap of a slide wire, the balancing point is obtained
when a resistance of 10Ω is taken out from the resistance box. On increasing the resistance
from the resistance box by 12.5Ω, the balancing point shifts by 20cm. Find the value of
unknown resistance. (15Ω)

Potentiometers

A potentiometer is an arrangement which measures p.d accurately. It can be adopted to measure

current and resistance.

Principle of a potentiometer

A Potentiometer consists of a uniform resistance wire AB of definite length (usually 1m long)

mounted on a metre rule. A driver cell (usually called an accumulator) is used to maintain a steady
current through the wire.

Since the wire is uniform, its resistance per centimeter is also constant. Thus the p. d between
end A of the wire and any point C on it is proportional to the length l of the wire between A & C.
The unknown p.d is compared with the p.d across the slide wire of the potentiometer.
N.B
The principle of the potentiometer is that: For a wire having uniform area of cross section and
uniform composition, the potential drop is directly proportional to the length of wire. The above
principle is valid when potentiometer is used in comparing the EMF of two cells.
(This is simply because the cross-section area is considered the same, and also the resistance per
unit length is considered to be the same)

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Calibration/ standardization of a potentiometer

- With a standard cell of e.m.f, 𝐸𝑠 in the circuit, the jockey (sliding contact) is moved along AB
to find the balance length 𝑙𝑠 when the galvanometer shows no deflection.
- At balance, the p.d across AC = the e.m.f, 𝐸𝑠 ,
- But the p.d across AC,𝑉𝐴𝐶 ∝ 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑙𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑘𝑙𝑠

ES = k𝑙𝑠 .
𝐸𝑠
Thus, the calibration constant 𝑘 = from which any potential difference across the slide wire
𝑙𝑠
can be obtained

Measuring e.m.f / comparing e.m.f using a potentiometer.

- Switch K1 is connected to position 1 and the sliding contact (jockey) is moved along the
wire AB until the galvanometer indicates zero deflection.
- The corresponding balance length l is measured.
- At balance, E = kl............ (i)
- K1 is then connected to position 2, the jockey is moved along the slide wire AB until
the galvanometer indicates zero deflection, and the corresponding balance length l1
is measured.
- At balance, E1 = kl1............ (ii)
𝐸 𝑙
- Dividing the two equations, gives =
𝐸1 𝑙1

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- If one of the cells is a standard cell whose e.m.f is known, then the e.m.f of the other cell
can be calculated accurately.

Qn:
1. Describe with the aid of a circuit diagram, how a slide wire potentiometer can be used to
measure e.m.f of a cell. (4 mks)
2. An accumulator of e.m.f 2.0V is connected across a uniform wire of length 1.0m and
resistance 8.0Ω. A cell of e.m.f 1.5V is connected in series with a galvanometer and
connected across a length, l of the slide wire. The galvanometer shows no deflection when
l is 90.0cm. Find the internal resistance of the accumulator. (4 mks)
Solution

From E = IR + Ir
2 = I(r + 8)………….(i)
But VAB = IRAB = 1.5V
7.2I = 1.5
I = 0.208A……(ii)
Putting (ii) into (i), we get;

3. A cell of e.m.f X is balanced on the potentiometer as shown in the circuit below.

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When the switch K is closed, cell X is balanced at 60.0cm mark from end A. When K is
open, the new balance length l is 90.0cm. If the resistance of the potentiometer wire AB
is 8Ω, find;
(i) The e.m.f of cell X
(ii) The value of the unknown resistor R
(i) When K is closed, l = 60.0cm Potentiometer
Solution
20
Current, I = A
8
8
Resistance per cm = Ωcm-1
100

P.d per cm, k =

E.m.f of X = p.d across AJ
= kl
= 0.2 x 60
= 12V
(ii) When K is open, l = 90.0cm
Total resistance = RAB + R
= (8 + R)Ω
Current I =

p.d per cm =
At balance point when K is open,
e.m.f of X = p.d across AJ
12 = kl

12(8 + R) = 8x18
8+R=
R = 4Ω

Qn;
In a potentiometer, a cell of e.m.f x gave a balance length of a cm and another cell of e.m.f
y gave a balance length of b cm. when the cells are connected in series, a balance length of
𝑥 𝑐−𝑏
c cm was obtained. It was also discovered that a +b≠ 𝒄. Show that the true ratio =
𝑦 𝑐−𝑎
(04 marks)

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Measuring internal resistance using potentiometer

With K open, a jockey is moved along wire AB until the galvanometer shows zero deflection. The
balance length ls is measured and recorded.
E = kls…………………………………….. (i)
Switch K is then closed with a known resistor R connected to the cell as shown above. The
balance point where the galvanometer indicates zero deflection is again obtained. The
corresponding balance length l is measured and recorded.
At balance, p.d across R, V = kl ……………… (ii)
Equation (i) divided by (ii),

But E = I(R + r) and V = IR

Thus,
R+r=

r=

Hence r can be calculated.

NB: A better way is to obtain several values of l using different values of R.

𝑙𝑠 1
A graph of against is then plotted and a straight line whose gradient is equal to r.
𝑙 𝑅

Examples
1.

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In the above figure, AB is a uniform resistance wire of resistance 4Ω and length 100cm. E is a
cell of e.m.f 1.5V, D is a driver cell of negligible internal resistance. When switch k2 is closed
and k1 opened, the balance length AP is 60cm. when both k1 and k2 are closed, the balance length
is 35cm. find;
(i) The internal resistance of E,
(ii) The balance length when k1 is closed and k2 is open.
(iii) Explain what happens when the e.m.f of cell E is greater than that of D and k2 is closed
while k1 is open.
Solution
(i)

E = k.60, where k is the p.d per cm

1.5 = 60k

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p.d across the 2Ω resistor, V = kl

= 0.875V
From V = IR,
Using E = I(R + r),
𝐸
r= −𝑅
𝐼

(ii)

E.m.f of D = p.d per cm x length of the wire

Considering the upper circuit,

I(4 + 1) = 2.5
Current I = 0.5A
p.d across the resistance wire, VAB = I.RAB = 0.5 x 4 = 2V
2 1
New p. per cm, k = = Vcm-1
100 50

But p.d across the 2Ω resistor = 0.875V

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(iii) There will be no balance point because the e.m.f of the cell E will be greater than the
p.d across the length AB of the wire. So at any point you place the jockey along AB,
current will flow in the direction of the e.m.f of E.

2. A dry cell gives a balance length of 84.8cm on a potentiometer wire. When a resistor of
resistance 15Ω is connected across the terminals of the cell, a balance length of 75.0cm is
obtained. Find the internal resistance of the cell.
Solution
Let l = 84.8cm,
E = kl and V = k .

Thus,
From and V = IR,

3.

The circuit above shows a uniform slide wire AB of length 100cm and resistance of 15Ω. The
wire is connected in series with a resistor of resistance 5Ω across a 3V battery of negligible
internal resistance. A cell of e.m.f E, and internal resistance r is connected as shown. With
switches K1 and K2 open, the galvanometer G shows no deflection when AD is 75.0cm. With K1
open and K2 closed, the galvanometer shows no deflection when AD is 65.0cm. Find the;
(i) value of e.m.f, E,
(ii) internal resistance, r,
(iii) balance length when K1 is closed and K2 is open
Solution
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(i) the p.d across slide wire AB =

p.d per cm of the wire =

When K1& K2 are open, we are balancing the e.m.f, E, of the cell
E = p.d per cm x AD = 0.0225 x 75

(ii) For K1 open & K2 closed, we are measuring the p.d across the 10Ω resistor.
p.d, V = p.d per cm x 65 = 0.0225 x 65 = 1.4625V
But V = IR…….(i)

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And E = I(r + R)………...(ii) where r is the internal resistance of the cell.

From (i) and (ii)

(iii) For K1 closed and K2 open, p.d per cm = 3/100

So since E = 1.6875V
From p.d = p.d per cm x length l

4. AB is a uniform wire of length 1m and resistance 4Ω. X is battery of e.m.f 2V

and negligible internal resistance. Y has e.m.f 1.5V.
(i) Find the balance length of AD when the switch S is open.
(ii) If the balance length is 75cm, when the switch S is closed, find the internal resistance
of Y.
(iii)

2V 1Ω

A B

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(i)

Hence,

(ii) When S is closed

But

EXERCISES
1.
S1
2V

10Ω X
J
A B

Y G

S2 5Ω

In the circuit above, X has negligible internal resistance, length AB is 100cm and resistance of
AB is 50Ω. When S1 and S2are open, the balance length AJ = 90cm. When S2 is closed and S1
open, the balance length AJ = 75cm. Find
(i) the e.m.f of cell y (1.5V)
(ii) Internal resistance of cell Y. (1Ω)
(iii) the balance length when S1 and S are both closed

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2. In the figure below, a uniform wire of length 1.2m, diameter 0.24mm and resistance 8Ω.

When K1 is closed and K2 open, the galvanometer shows no deflection when AJ = 62.5cm.
When
K1 is open and K2 closed, G shows no deflection when AJ = 83.3cm. Find;
(i) resistivity of the potentiometer wire,
(ii) e.m.f of the cell X,
(iii) internal resistance of cell X,
(iv) balance length when both K1 and K2 are closed
(v) balance length when both K1& K2 are open

Comparison of resistance using a potentiometer

- The two resistors to be compared are connected in series so that the same current flows
through them.
- With the galvanometer at a andb, the balance length AJ = l1 is measured and recorded.
- Hence IR1 = kl1............. (i)
- Connections at a andb are removed and replaced by those at b and c(dotted lines).
- The new balance length, l2, is measured and recorded.
- Hence IR2 =kl2.............(ii)
- Equation (i) divided by (ii)

𝑅1 𝑙1
=
𝑅2 𝑙2

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- Thus if one of the resistances is standard, the other one can be calculated using the above
ratio/expression.

Example
In the figure below X is an accumulator of e.m.f 3V and negligible internal resistance connected
in series with a 2Ω resistor and a slide wire AB of length 1m and resistance 8Ω. A cell Y of
e.m.f 2.5V and internal resistance of 1Ω is connected in series with the resistances R1& R2.
Balance lengths of 42.8 cm and 75.0cm are obtained when the galvanometer is connected at e
and f respectively.

Find;
(i) The current flowing throughR1,
(ii) The resistances R1 and R2.
Solution
(i) Potentiometer current, I =
Resistance per cm =
p.d / cm, k =
When G is at e, l = 42.8cm
p.d across R1 = p.d across AJ
I1R1 = kl

I1R1
When G is at f, l = 75cm
p.d across R1 and R2 = p.d across AJ
I
Let R1 + R2 = h hI1
= 1.8……….(ii)
Also, p.d across R1& R2 = I1(R1 + R2 + 1) = 2.5
I1(h + 1) = 2.5

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I …….(iii)
Putting eqn (iii) in (ii),

On simplifying, h = 2.57Ω
Putting the value of h in eqn (iii),
I

(i) From eqn (i),

I1R1
0.7R1
R1 = 1.0272/0.7

From R1 + R2 = h
1.47+ R2 = 2.57

Calibration of ammeter using potentiometer (measurement of current)

- Switch K is first connected to 1 so as to get the balance length, 𝑙𝑠 .

𝐸𝑠
- So the p.d per cm of the wire, 𝑘 = .
𝑙𝑠
- K is then connected to 2 and the potential divider P is adjusted to give a suitable reading Ir
on the ammeter.
- The balance length 𝑙on AB is found and recorded.

- The procedure is repeated for different values of Ir which are got by adjusting P.
𝐸𝑠 𝑙
- The results are tabulated including values of current through ammeter, 𝐼𝐴 = × .
𝑙𝑠 𝑅

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- A graph of IA against Ir is plotted and this gives the calibration curve for the ammeters.

Alternatively;
The potentiometer wire is first calibrated using a standard cell so that the p.d per cm is known.
Fig. 1

𝐸0
- The balance length of the e.m.f EO is obtained & the p.d per cm, 𝑘 = ……… (i)
𝑙0
- The circuit is then connected as in Fig. (ii) where a suitable standard resistor R is in series
with the ammeter A to be calibrated.
- The rheostat S is adjusted until the required ammeter reading is obtained & this current I
recorded as the observed current (𝐼𝑜𝑏𝑠 ).
- The p.d V across the terminals of R is balanced on the potentiometer wire.
Suppose it gives a balance length, 𝑙.
𝐸0
- From the calibration using a standard cell, V = 𝑘𝑙 = 𝑙
𝑙0

- The true current 𝐼𝑚 that flows through R is then calculated from;

- 𝐼𝑚 is compared with the observed value 𝐼𝑜𝑏𝑠 & the difference in error is corrected by adding
or subtracting from Iobs.

NB: The resistances of the wires connecting the potential terminals at the points & through the
potential circuit don’t affect the result because at the balance point, the current through them is
zero.

Example
1.

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In the above figure, AB = 1.0m long and has resistance of 4Ω.

(i) When S is open, the balance length AC = 88.5cm. Find the e.m.f of the cell.
(ii) When S is closed, the balance length AC = 82.5cm. Calculate the internal resistance
of the cell.

Solution
(i) When S is open, total resistance = 1 + 4 = 5Ω
Current the potentiometer wire, I = 2/5A

Resistance per cm =
P. d per cm, k = resistance per cm x current

E.m.f of the cell equals p.d across AC

E = 𝑘𝑙𝐴𝐶

Thus e.m.f of the cell E = 1.42V

(ii) When S is closed,

P.d across the 8Ω resistor, V, equals p.d across AC
2
V = 𝑘𝑙𝐴𝐶 = × 82.5 = 1.32 𝑉
125
𝑉 1.32
From V = IR, I = = = 0.165A
𝑅 8
Also, E = I(R + r), where r is the internal resistance of the cell.
1.42= 0.165(8 + r)

2.

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When K1 is closed & K2 open balance point = 30.2cm.

When K1 is open & K2 closed, balance point = 26.8cm and the ammeter A reads 0.4A. Calculate
the percentage in error in the ammeter reading.

Solution
When K1 is closed & K2 open,

E=kl
Vcm-1

When K1 is open & K2 closed,

P.d across the 2Ω resistor, V, equals to p.d across the balance length (l = 26.8cm)
V=
But V = IR
1.065 = 2Im
True current, 𝐼𝑚 = 0.532A
Observed current, 𝐼𝑜𝑏𝑠 = 0.4A
Error = 0.532 – 0.4 = 0.132A
Percentage error =

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= 24.81%

3.In the circuit below, when K1 is connected to position 1, the balance length AC =30.2cm.
When K1 is connected to position 2, the balance length AC = 26.8cm and the ammeter
reading is 0.4A. Find the percentage error in the ammeter reading.

C
A B

1.2V 1 G
K1

2
3
A

When K1is in position 1, 1.2 =30.2k...........(i)

When K1 is in position 2, V =26.8k...........(ii)
1.2
V= ×26.8 = 1.065V
30.2
But V = IR =3I
1.065
Hence I = =0.355A
3

Error = 0.4 – 0.355 = 0.045A

0.045
%error = ×100 =12.7%
0.355
Qn; A 1Ω resistor is in series with an ammeter m in a circuit. The p.d across the resistor is
balanced by a length of 60cm on a potentiometer wire. A standard cell of e.m.f 1.02V is
balanced by a length of 50cm. If m reads 1.1A, what is the error in the reading? (0.124A)

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Calibration of voltmeter (measurement of voltage)

- A standard cell 𝐸𝑠 is first used to find the p.d per cm of the wire by connecting switch K to 1.
- The jockey is tapped along AB until a balance length 𝑙𝑠 is got.
𝐸𝑠
- P.d per cm, k = .
𝑙𝑠
- The switch K is connected to 2 and different voltages V are applied to the voltmeter by
adjusting the rheostat R. the corresponding balance length l is obtained.
𝐸𝑠
- Then 𝑉𝑚 = × 100. Where 𝑉𝑚 is the true value of the p.d across the terminals of the voltmeter.
𝑙𝑠
- The reading 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑠 of the voltmeter is got.
- The procedure is repeated for other values of 𝑉𝑚 and the results are tabulated including
values of 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑠 − 𝑉𝑚
A graph of 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑠 − 𝑉𝑚 against 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑠 is plotted and constitutes the correction curve or calibration
curve when the meter is being used.

Qn: In the figure below, AB is a uniform resistance wire of length 1m and resistance 4Ω. X is a
driver cell of e.m.f 3V and internal resistance 1Ω and Es is a standard cell. Rs is a standard
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resistor of resistance 10Ω which is connected in series with cell Y of e.m.f 1.2V and internal
resistance 0.5Ω.

With switch K1 closed and K2 open, the balance length, AC is 60cm while the voltmeter reading
is 1.14V. With switch K1 open and K2 closed, the balance length is 80cm. calculate the;
(i) e.m.f 𝐸𝑠 of the standard cell
(ii) Percentage error in the voltmeter reading.

Solution
(i) Current I through AB
P.d across AB, VAB = IRAB = 0.6 x 4 = 2.4V
2.4
Hence p.d per cm of AB, K = Vcm-1
100
Thus e.m.f, 𝐸𝑠 = p.d per cm x balance length

(ii) NB: voltmeter reading is the p.d across 𝑅𝑠

Observed reading, 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑠 = 1.14V
2.4
The true reading across the voltmeter terminals, 𝑉𝑚 = × 80 = 1.92 𝑉
100
𝑉𝑚 −𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑠
Percentage error in reading = ( × 100)%
𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑠

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Measurement of small e.m.f (e.g. E.m.f of a thermocouple)

The circuit is connected as shown above. An approximately high resistance R is connected in

series with the potentiometer wire so that an appreciable length is obtained, since the e.m.f of
thermocouple is of the order of few millivolts.
The p.d per cm of the wire is obtained using a standard cell 𝐸𝑠 by connecting switch S to 1. The
jockey is tapped along AB until a balance length 𝑙𝑠 is got.
At balance point, 𝐸𝑠 = p.d across R + p.d across AJ
𝐸𝑠 = IR + k𝑙𝑠 , where k is the p.d per cm.
Switch S is now connected to 2 and the new balance length 𝑙 measured & recorded.
The e.m.f of the thermocouple is calculated from 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑙 .

Examples
1.

R 2V


999Ω
D
B

G
ES=1. 00V

The slide wire has length 100cm and resistance 10Ω. The galvanometer shows no deflection
when AD = 10cm. Find
(i) the current flowing in the driver cell

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(ii) the value of R.

(iii) the e.m.f of thermocouple which balanced by a length of 60cm of the slide AB.
Solution
(i)

But

(ii) e.m.f of the driver cell, 2 = I(999 + 10 + R)

2000 = 1009 + R

(iii) e.m.f of the thermocouple,

2.In the figure below, AB is a uniform wire of length 1.0m and resistance of 2.00Ω.

When switch S is connected to 1, the balance length is 90.0cm. With S connected to 2,

the balance length is 45cm.
(i) Find the e.m.f of the thermocouple.
(ii) What is the value of R if the driver cell has negligible internal resistance?

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Solution
(i) When S connected to 1,
l = 90.0cm AB = 100cm
RAB=2.0Ω

At balance, Es = p.d across R + p.d across AJ

Es = I(R + RAJ)

From VAB = IRAB

VAB =
p.d per cm, k =
When S is connected to 2, l = 45cm
e.m.f of the thermocouple,
=
=

(ii) Considering the upper circuit,

Total resistance RT = R + 100 + RAB
I(RT = R + 100 + RAB) = 2

On simplifying, R = 101.7Ω

3.

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In the circuit above X is an accumulator of negligible internal resistance. AB is a

uniform wire of length 1.0m, diameter 4 x 10-4mm and resistivity 1.26 x 10-6Ωm. G is
a galvanometer connected to a sliding contact D. when switch S is thrown to position
1, G shows no deflection when AJ = 80.0cm. When S is thrown to position 2, G shows
no deflection when AJ = 40cm. find;
(i) The resistance of wire AB,
(ii) The e.m.f of cell X, Ex
(iii) The e.m.f of the thermocouple.

Solution
(i) Length of AB, l = 1m,
Diameter, D = 4 x 10-4 mm = 4 x 10-7m
Resistivity, = 1.26 x 10-6Ωm

From , where

(ii) When S is connected to position 1, l = 80cm

1.5= 748I + kl, where k = p.d per cm k

=
k=
1.5 = 748I +

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15 = 7480I + 80I

But Ex = I(748 + 1248 + 10)

(iii) When S is connected to position 2, l = 40cm

E.m.f of the thermocouple, = p.d across AJ
= k x 40

Qn;
A potentiometer wire of length 1m and resistance 1Ω is used to measure an e.m.f of the
order mV. A battery of e.m.f 2V and negligible internal resistance is used as a driver cell.
Calculate the resistance to be in series with potentiometer so as to obtain a potential drop of
5mV across the wire. (399Ω)

Advantages of potentiometer over a moving coil voltmeter

(i) The potentiometer is more accurate because it does not draw current from the circuit
whose p.d it is meant to measure. The potentiometer can be considered to be a
voltmeter with an infinitely high resistance which is an ideal voltmeter.
(ii) The potentiometer method is a null method. The accuracy of the potentiometer does
not depend on the accuracy of the galvanometer but only on its sensitivity. The
accuracy of the result is not affected by the fault accuracy of the galvanometer.
Disadvantages of potentiometer over a moving coil voltmeter
(i) It does not give direct reading since there may be errors.
(ii) It requires a skilled person
(iii) It is slow in operation.

UNEB QUESTIONS
2019, 2018, 2013, 2011, 2010
ROGER MUNCASTER (POTENTIOMETER)
F48, F49, F50, F51, F52, F53, F54, F56, F55, F57
ROGER MUNCASTER (METER BRIDGE AND WHEATSTONE BRIDGE)
F41, F42, F43, F44, F45.

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