UNIT-5

BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

5.1 Block diagram description of a dc power supply:

Today almost every electronic device needs a DC supply for its smooth operation and they
need to be operated within certain power supply limits. This required DC voltage or DC
supply is derived from single phase ac mains.

A regulated power supply can convert unregulated an AC (alternating current or voltage) to

a constant DC (direct current or voltage). A regulated power supply is used to ensure that
the output remains constant even if the input changes. A regulated DC power supply is also
called as a linear power supply, it is an embedded circuit and consists of various blocks.

The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:

1. A step down transformer
2. A rectifier
3. A DC filter
4. A regulator
A step down transformer:
A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains to the required
voltage level. The turn‟s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the
required voltage value. The output of the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier
circuit.
Rectification:
Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification
process. Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into
corresponding direct (DC) quantity. The input to a rectifier is ac whereas its output is
unidirectional pulsating DC. Usually a full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to
rectify both the half cycles of the ac supply (full wave rectification). Figure below shows a
full wave bridge rectifier.'
DC Filtration:
The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high ripple
content. But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC
Regulation:
This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The output voltage or current will
change or fluctuate when there is change in the input from ac mains or due to change in
load current at the output of the regulated power supply or due to other factors like
temperature changes. This problem can be eliminated by using a regulator. A regulator will
maintain the output constant even when changes at the input or any other changes occur.

Full Wave Rectifier Theory

In this circuit, we use two diodes, one for each half of the wave. A multiple winding
transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into two halves with a
common center-tapped connection. Configuration results in each diode conducting in
turn when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer center point C
produces an output during both half-cycles. The advantages of this rectifier are
flexible compared to that of a half-wave rectifier.

This circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance (RL)
with each diode taking it, in turn, to supply current to the load resistor. When point A
of the transformer is positive with respect to point A, diode D1 conducts in the
forward direction as indicated by the arrows. When point B is positive in the negative
half of the cycle with respect to C point, the diode D2 conducts in the forward
direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the same direction for both
half-cycles of the wave.
he Zener Diode Regulator
Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under
varying load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a
voltage source, via a suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will
conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout.

Zener Diode Regulator

Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow
through the diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the
combination. The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode.
The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail
of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown
condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the
circuit.
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all
the circuit current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its
maximum power.
The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is
always the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ).
The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in
series with the input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the
load RL in this reverse biased condition. The stabilised output voltage is always
selected to be the same as the breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.
Working of Filter Capacitor
The working of this capacitor mainly depends on the capacitive reactance principle. It is
nothing but how the impedance of a capacitor alters with a signal frequency that is flowing
through it. A nonreactive component like a resistor offers similar resistance to a signal apart
from the frequency of the signal. This means 1Hz & 100KHZ signals flow throughout a
resistor with equal resistance.
But, a capacitor is different because its impedance or resistance will change based on the
signal frequency which is flowing through. These are reactive devices that offer high
resistance to low-frequency signals and low-resistance to high-frequency signals using the
formula like XC= 1/2πfc. A capacitor gives dissimilar impedance values for dissimilar
frequency signal. In a circuit, it can operate as a resistor.
Filter Capacitor Formula
In power supply circuits, this capacitor can be calculated to ensure the least ripple at the
output. The formula is C = I / 2f Vpp
From the equation above, „I‟ is load current, „f‟ is i/p frequency of AC and „Vpp‟ is the
minimum ripple that may be acceptable because almost it‟s never possible to make this „0‟
Filter Capacitor Circuit
The circuit diagram of the filter capacitor is shown below. In this circuit, the capacitor works
like a high pass filter that allows high frequencies and blocks direct current. Similarly, they
can also work as a low pass filter to allow DC and block AC.
Here the capacitor is connected in parallel with the component instead of connecting in
series. This circuit is a high-frequency capacitive filter. Here, the flow of current will be in
the least resistance direction.
 Because a capacitor gives extremely low resistance for high-frequency signals, so
these signals will supply through the capacitor. Like this, the circuit in this arrangement, it is
a high-frequency filter. The signals like low-frequency current will not supply throughout
the capacitor, as it gives high resistance for low-frequency signals.

. Filter Capacitor Applications

The applications of this include the following.

 The line filter capacitor is applicable in several industrial loads as well as appliances
in order to defend the appliance from the noise of line voltage noise and to defend
other devices on a similar line from the generated noise within the circuit.
 These capacitors can be used in all types of filters which are used in signal
processing. The best example of this application is like an audio equalizer. It uses
different frequency bands to permit amplification for low, high, and midrange
frequency tones.
 It is used for glitch removal on DC power rails
 It is used for RFI removal (radio frequency interference) for power or signal lines to
come in or exit equipment.
 This capacitor can be connected after the voltage regulator to get a smooth DC
power supply.
 This capacitor is used in audio, IF or RF filters

5.2 Basics of Instrumentation Systems

Basics of Instrumentation Systems Scope and necessity of instruments :

Instruments is a collective term for measuring instruments used for indicating, measuring
and recording physical quantities, and has its origins in the art and science scientific
instrument-making. Nature of work of an instrumentation engineer ranges from designing,
developing, installing, managing equipment‟s that are used to monitor and control
machinery.
Measurement is a technique in which properties of an object are determined by comparing
them to a standard. Significance in Measurement Measurements always involve a
comparison When you say that a table is 6 feet long, you're really eying that the table is six
times longer than an object that is 1 foot long. The foot is a unit; you measure the length of
the table by comparing it with an object like a yardstick or a tape measure that is a known
number of feet long. Types of measurement There are two methods of measurement:

1) Direct Comparison with the Standard In the direct comparison method of measurement,
we compare the quantity directly with the primary or secondary standard. Say for instance,
if we have to measure the length of the bar, we will measure it with the help of the
measuring tape or scale that acts as the secondary standard. Here we are comparing the
quantity to be measured directly with the standard.
2) Indirect method There are number of quantities that cannot be measure directly by using
some instrument. In the indirect method of measurements Some transducing devise, called
transducer, is used, which is Coupled to a chain of the connecting apparatus that forms the
part of the measuring system. Block diagram of any instrumentation system
Instrumentation and control Measurements through an instrument and it is a specific limit is
called instruments and control. Instrument An instrument may be defined as a device or a
system which is designed to maintain functional relationship between physical variable and
means of communication to human observer.

The main building blocks of any measuring system are Blocks diagram of instrumentation
system

1. Primary sensing element Primary sensing element is also known as sensor. Basically
transducers are used as a primary stag element. Here, the physical quantity (such as
temperature, pressure etc.) are sensed and then converted into analogues signal.

2. Variable conversion element It converts the input of primary sensing element into
suitable form without changing information. Basically these secondary transducers.

3. Variable manipulation element The output of transducer may be electrical signal i.e.
voltage, current or other electrical parameter Here manipulation means change in
numerical value of signal. This element is used to convert the Signals into suitable range.
4. Data transmission element Sometimes it is not possible to give direct read out of the
quality at a particular place (Example Measurement aperture in the furnace). in scan case,
the data should transfer from one place to another place channel which is known as data
transmission element. Typically transmission path are punemetric pipe, electrical cable and
radio links. When radio link is used, the electronic instrumentation system is called as
telemetry system.

5. Data presentation or controlling element Finally the output is recorded or given to the
controller to perform action. It performs different functions like indicating, recording or
controlling.