Metals and Materials International

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12540-021-01015-5

Assessment of Process, Parameters, Residual Stress Mitigation, Post

Treatments and Finite Element Analysis Simulations of Wire Arc
Additive Manufacturing Technique
M. D. Barath Kumar1 · M. Manikandan1

Received: 14 November 2020 / Accepted: 15 March 2021

© The Korean Institute of Metals and Materials 2021

Abstract
Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) technique became an emerging manufacturing technology because of its cost-
effective in creating large-scale metal parts with moderately high deposition rates. Mainly, WAAM works through the utiliza-
tion of heat source as an electric arc by melting the metal wire to build the three-dimensional metal parts in a layer-by-layer
approach, which may significantly minimize the fabrication costs compared to powder and other additive manufacturing
techniques such as laser and electron beam, similarly. This article reviews WAAM processes and methods and gives an
exhaustive overview of the residual stresses, microstructures, and material properties of the as-fabricated and post-fabrication
treated WAAM components. The typical defects during the fabrication of metal components by the WAAM process are
residual stresses, deformity, porosity, and cracking. And also, methods on controlling residual stresses, improving material
properties, and effects of post-processing treatments to enhance the part quality fabricated by using the WAAM process are
recommended in this review. Finally, the measurement methods of residual stresses in the metal parts and FEA simulations
in the WAAM are discussed. FEA simulations provide better insights on moving heat source model, temperature distribu-
tions, and residual stresses in the WAAM process. This article concludes that selecting process parameters affects the quality
WAAM component during the deposition process. And also, approaches to improving the part quality are proposed. The
materials fabrication issues in the WAAM processes were outlined, and the advanced WAMM processes were suggested to
obtain high quality and defect-free WAAM parts.

Keywords WAAM · Residual stresses · Microstructures and mechanical properties · Post processing treatments · FEA
simulations

1 Introduction Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) classified

among large-scale MAM technologies. WAAM technique
Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) is a primary emerging uses the concept of the arc welding process to develop the
manufacturing technique globally today. MAM help to man- component. The component is fabricated by melting the
ufacture the component in the net near shape. This technique welding filler wire and depositing it layer by layer to obtain
widely used to manufacture parts in aerospace, automotive, the net near shape. While WAAM is another little-known
and biomedical engineering applications [1, 2]. According metal additive manufacturing (AM) technology, it offers a
to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) practical option compared to conventional manufacturing
standard, the MAM technique comes under ASTM F2792. in industries such as aerospace, marine, automotive, and
The various classification of MAM techniques listed in architecture [4].
Fig. 1. Nowadays, WAAM turns into an optimistic manufactur-
ing process for different materials like Titanium, Nickel-based
superalloys, steel, and aluminium. Compared with traditional
* M. Manikandan subtractive manufacturing techniques, the WAAM technique
[email protected] has reduced the 60% of the component's manufacturing time
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute and 20% of the post-manufacturing stage, relying upon the
of Technology, Vellore 632014, India component's geometry [5]. Compared to other metal additive

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Fig. 1  Various metal AM

technologies

manufacturing techniques, the WAAM has a considerable 2 Classification of WAAM Process

build-up rate and lower material price. The dimensional
accuracy of the component manufactured through WAAM WAAM process is classified based on the heat source. The
is ± 1 mm [6]. commonly used WAAM techniques are Tungsten Inert Gas
Although Wire based AM technique has various benefits (TIG) based, Metal Inert Gas (MIG) based, and plasma
over other AM technologies, this technique also faces some arc based. When compared to TIG and Plasma Arc based
challenges during the fabrication. The challenges are residual WAAM process, MIG based has a 2–3 times higher depo-
stress and low surface quality due to high heat input during sition rate. Table 1 listed the various WAAM techniques.
deposition [7]. Figure 2a–c shows the experimental setup of the WAAM
This paper reviews the various types of welding heat techniques.
sources used in the WAAM process. The process parameters
control to obtain the defect-free component, microstructure,
and mechanical properties of different materials such as nickel- 2.1 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Based WAAM
based superalloys, titanium, and aluminium alloys. The defects
obtained in the materials were outlined. The present review Gas metal arc welding is an arc welding process. The arc
also gives an overview of controlling residual stresses, meas- is created among the consumable electrode and the metal.
urement of residual stress, improving the surface's character- The GMAW process consists of the movable and rotat-
istics, and reducing the as-built WAAM metal part's defects able flat work table, and the computer controls the passive
through the post and in-process treatments. Finally, the FEA visons sensor. The passive vision control sensor controls
simulation of the WAAM process gives details about simula- the movement of a nozzle to the top surface distance. This
tion techniques, temperature distributions, heat source models, controller helps to obtain apparent bead deposition [11]. In
and residual stresses.

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Table 1  Comparison of Arc welding in WAAM process intervenes in the power input and manages the filler wire's
withdrawal, which results in spatter-free welding with a low
GTAW-based Non-consumable electrode
heat supply. This method has low heat input and a high depo-
Separate wire feed process
sition rate. The experimental setup of CMT based WAAM
Typical deposition rate: 1-2 kg/hour
equipment, as shown in Fig. 4 (a) and (b). The principle of
Wire and torch rotation are needed
CMT is that while arcing, melted filler moves forwards to
GMAW-based Consumable wire electrode
the weld pool. Arc is extinguished when the filler starts to
Typical deposition rate 3-4 kg/hour
dip inside the weld pool. Then, the filler wire gets backward
Poor arc stability, spatter
motion, and it promotes the droplet disengage. This invet-
Cold metal transfer (CMT) Reciprocating consumable wire elec-
trode erates the mechanical kind of transfer that different from
Typical deposition rate: 2-3 kg/hour the GMAW process [8]. CMT based AM is used in a vari-
Low heat input process with zero spatter ety of applications such as automobile industries, defence
high process tolerance sectors, and power plants [15]. Ge et al. [16] reported that
Tandem GMAW Two consumable wires electrodes the smooth surface was obtained for different layers during
Typical deposition: 6-8 kg/hour deposition due to stable droplet transfer in the CMT method.
Easy mixing to control composition for
intermetallic materials manufacturing 2.3 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Based WAAM
PAW-based Non-consumable electrode
Separate wire feed process GTAW is an arc welding process operated by the TIG torch
Typical deposition rate 2-4 kg/hour using a non-consumable tungsten electrode and a separate
Wire and torch rotation are needed wire feeder used for the deposition. The wire feed orienta-
tion attributes the deposition process and impacts the bead's
material transfer and quality. The filler wire is deposited
externally from the side; the deposition's accuracy is not
GMAW based WAAM technique, through the build-up of good in GTAW. The mathematical model and simulation
metal by layer by layer, the molten pool overflow occurred. development have to develop to improve deposition accuracy
This overflow causes a defect to the component. This over- [17]. Wire's coaxial feeding in TIG technology increases
flow can be controlled by maintaining the optimum travel the deposition rate and improves the layers' surface quality
speed, wire feed, and the inclined angle between the work- [18]. The interpass temperature between layer by layer is
piece and nozzle [12]. In the GMAW process, the deposi- the main process parameter. The difference in the thermal
tion rate can be increased by employing a double electrode gradient affects the mechanical properties and microstruc-
[13]. Optimum process parameters also help to obtain the ture of the component [19]. Hot-wire GTAW with vibration
defect-free good surface finish. Poonguzhali et al. [14] has raised the droplet dispassion size and deposition rate.
studied the novel Spin Arc (SA) GMAW torch used to However, no substantial variance was observed in bead size
produce the weld beads deposited by filler wire. Figure 3 and shape [20]. A GTAW-based double wire feeder addi-
displays the SA-GMAW process. It has higher efficiency tive layer manufacturing system has established to fabricate
and a defect-free arc welding process, and this provides intermetals and functionally graded materials. [21, 22]. Pre-
metallurgical benefits such as microsegregation control, heating and trailing shielding gas are adopted to manipulate
lesser porosity, reduction in hot cracking sensibility and the interlayer temperature and to intercept oxidation sequen-
grain refinement in FZ. In this Spin Arc GMAW process, tially. Wu et al. [9] reported that in automated TIG welding
the electrode rotates in a circular motion faster; this caused wire arc-based technique, the proper weld bead geometry is
a higher wire feed rate which allows higher travel speed as obtained by a higher degree of wire feed angle.
the centrifugal force impels smaller molten droplets angu-
larly and created a stable and perfect weld bead geometry 2.4 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Based WAAM
with fine-grained microstructure.
PAW is a method of arc welding. In PAW, metal is con-
2.2 Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) Based WAAM nected by molten metal wires with an arc as a vent of heat
inside the electrode and ionized shielding gas workpiece.
The CMT is based on an updated GMAW system. Fronius The schematic view of various WAAM techniques shown
developed this technology in the year 2004. It is a modi- in Fig. 5a–c. The components manufactured by the PAW
fied version of the GMAW technique that correlates both process have higher fatigue life than the parts deposited
the droplet detachment and wire movement, regulating the by GMAW based WAAM process; also, the fact is linked
base material's heat. During each short circuit period, it to smaller and broader bead geometry attained by PAW,

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Fig. 2  Experimental setup (a)

of WAAM: a GMAW based
WAAM [8], b GTAW based
WAAM [9], c PAW based
WAAM [10]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier and
Taylor & Francis

(b)

(c)

resulting in a lesser stress initiation [23]. Bai et al. [24] distortion and proper weld beads with higher welding
reported both simulations and experiments to predict the speed [25]. Compared to single wire feed components,
PAW process's deposited weld bead's shape and size. The the double wire feed PAW process can have a finer-grained
deposited bead diameter increases at continuous heat microstructure and superior mechanical properties [10].
input and wire feeding; the layer height decreases with an Pulsed PAW has better forming speed with high density
increase in several layers. The change in the layer's width than different AM techniques, for instance, laser-based
and height reduced by 30% from the first layer to the 2nd and electron beam [26]. Li et al. [27] investigated lami-
layer and decrease by 3% from the second layer to the 21st nar plasma as a heat source used to fabricate the WAAM
layer. Compared to GTAW, the arc energy density shows technique component. The result also shows that in iso-
multiple times higher in PAW and obtains less welding tropic material properties in top due to equiaxed dendrites

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3 Performance and Process Parameters

Control in WAAM

Based on the classification of various WAAM processes,

the process parameters vary for each technique. The bead
trail on different methods needs to be conducted to obtain
a proper process parameter. To manufacture metal compo-
nents, the WAAM process uses filler wires and a heat source.
In the welding field, which can be acquired in the rolled
shape, the filler wires are created. For the WAAM method,
no special wires are needed to be made. WAAM is a depo-
sition of metals using an arc as a heat source with a wire
feeding system. The components are fabricated, and repair
operation is carried out by melting the wire feed system's
filler wire. While depositing the metal part, the interpass
Fig. 3  Image of Spin Arc GMAW torch [14] Reproduced with per- temperature between the layer by layer is increasing. It is
mission from Springer Nature
because of the development of higher heat deposition [29].
During the fabrication of the metal part, the process param-
structure, anisotropic material properties were observed eters are most important in the WAAM technique to obtain
in the bottom and middle due to Columnar dendrites. Fur- defect-free fabricated components. Present, travel speed,
thermore, laminar plasma technology's component fabri- deposition rate, and inter-layer temperature are the primary
cated has a predictable quality without detectable defects process parameters used in the WAAM method to produce
such as porosity and cracks compared with the SLM manu- the parts [30]. The critical process parameters to be pre-
factured parts [28]. served throughout the process of deposition are as follows;

Fig. 4  Experimental setup of

CMT: a robotic CMT WAAM
experimental set-up [15], b
Schematic diagram of robot-
assisted CMT WAAM equip-
ment [16]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier

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Fig. 5  Schematic views of WAAM process: a GMAW [12], b GTAW, c PAW based [10]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier

3.1 Effect of Travel Speed (TS) in WAAM appearance of bead geometry with different TS and power.
Also, the higher TS reduces the height of the deposited bead
Travel speed is one of the significant process parameters [33]. In the GMAW process, increasing TS results in dis-
considering during the metal part's fabrication during the continuous bead geometry and caused insufficient material
WAAM process. Due to heat conduction, the travel speed deposition [34]. An intermittent bead geometry forms with
and power affect the component during fabrication [31]. By a high TS, as shown in Fig. 7. In traditional fusion welding
conducting the bead on trial, the travel speed and power processes, humping formation is a common welding defect,
are optimized. The surface roughness of the metal part mainly where high travel speeds are used [35]. It is neces-
increases the rise in travel speed [32]. Figure 6 shows the sary to use the optimum travel speed to avoid humping free

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Fig. 6  The deposit geometry

[33]. Reproduced with permis-
sion from Elsevier

Fig. 7  Weld bead of thin-walled parts under different TSs while WFS/TS is constant [34]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier

deposition [36]. The travel speed is one of the essential pro- proper process parameters can be obtained suitable bead
cess parameters that are substantial and are intensely related geometry. The wire feed rate is the main input parameter; it
to the defect of less deposition of the material [37]. While is a significant parameter on the weld bead width of depos-
fabricating the metal part, the optimum travel speed should ited layers followed by voltage and weld speed [39]. The
be maintained to obtain the proper bead geometry and defect complicated shapes with the circular and square track were
less deposition. deposited by GTAW based AM process. It shows that the
higher wire feeding angel can obtain a uniform bead deposit
3.2 Influence of Wire Feed Speed (WFS) in WAAM [9]. The circular and triangle weld bead geometry of the
WAAM component at various wire feed speed is shown in
One of the critical process parameters considered in the Fig. 8a–d. It is observed that deposition of height and width
manufacture of the WAAM system is WFS. In the arc-based decrease with arc power for lower wire feed rate, and with
WAAM method controlling the process, parameters are cru- an increase in wire feeding speed, the deposition width and
cial in obtaining the weld bead on the metal part's fabrica- height highly increase with arc power [33].
tion. The primary process parameters for the deposition of The heat composed of the droplet is the arc power. Thus,
metal part consist of current, voltage, shielding gas and gas the wire feed speed can influence both the arc and droplet
inflow rate, torch angle, wire feeding rate, welding torch heat source. The orientation of wire feeding is also influenc-
rate, and nozzle end to work interval [38]. The use of a wire ing a significant role in obtaining defect-free fabrication.
feeder can control the material deposition. The selection of The wire is feeding on the front side during fabrication,

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Fig. 8  Effects of arc power at

three different wire feed speed:
a, b deposit height and deposit
width of circle route c, d deposit
height and deposit width of
triangle route [33]. Reproduced
with permission from Elsevier

Fig. 9  Microstructure of the

linear structure deposited: a
side wire feeding, b front wire
feeding [40]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier

eliminating porosity distribution and minor-cracks when increasing wire feed speed, which was indicated in Fig. 10b,
contrasted with side wire feeding, as shown in Fig. 9a, b c [34]. The wire feed rate during deposition should main-
[40]. Huang et al. [41] stated that wire expansion increases tain in an optimum range to obtain the proper material
when the melting rate is lower than the wire feed speed deposition.
(WFS). Also, when WFS is uniform to the melting rate, the
addition of wire remains constant. Thus, when the melting 3.3 Effect of Torch Angle and Weld Current During
rate is lower than the WFS, the wire expansion decreases; WAAM
this causes the WFS inadequate to obtain a stable arc and
influence the droplet transfer behaviour. In WAAM, the orientation of the torch is kept perpendicular
The wire joins the molten pool as the wire feeding rate to the direction of the wall construction. Due to the different
rises, resulting in low stacking formation, shown in Fig. 10a. force model, if the angle varies, the deposit geometry can
Also, the bead width and height enhance significantly with differ. The experimental findings indicate that the molten
an increase in WFS; also, increased roughness was found by metal sags less in the solidification phase with a smaller

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Fig. 10  Effect of wire feed speed: a geometry appearance of horizontal position thin-walled parts under different WFS, b surface roughness with
WFS, c WFS with bead width and height [34]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier

torch angle—meaning a stronger bead geometry created coulomb's forces), it has a negative impact on penetration
with a small torch angle between 45˚ to 90º [34]. Evange- depth. Because of the depth of penetration and the force
line et al. [42] reported that the width of a bead increases as created on the molten metal pool, as the welding speed
the welding current is increased due to the high magnitude increases, the reinforcement height decreases. The weld cur-
of current exerting more force on the molten metal droplet, rent is also one of the significant process parameters con-
allowing the spattering motion to keep the welding cur- sidered during the fabrication of metal parts in the WAAM
rent steady as the welding speed increases. As a result, less process. Many factors, however, influence the melting rate of
metal is deposited on the substrate, and the molten weld pool the filler wire, such as wire extension, current flows through
requires the less driving force to generate bonding strength the extension of the wire, and primary current [43]. Com-
on the base metal. Since the heat input is proportional to the pared to the average current, the hot-wire current enhances
current (due to a combination of increased centrifugal and the samples' surface morphologies and improves surface

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quality [44]. Current and wire-speed are the significant to be maintained during the deposition process to obtain the
process parameters to obtain suitable bead geometry due proper bead geometry and higher surface quality.
to increased flexibility [37]. Typically, the process param-
eters such as the arc discharge current and voltage distort the
bead structure, and material behaviour of the WAAM built 4 Microstructure and Material Properties
thin-walled component [45]. The layer's diameter increases of WAAM Processed Materials
with the higher arc distribution current, but no change in
layer geometry was observed, as shown in Fig. 11. It shows The process parameters play a significant role in the micro-
that the voltage arc distributes E has a lesser impact on the structure and material properties of the fabricated compo-
layer structure. The discharge arc current I affect only the nent. The optimum process parameters to be maintained
layer diameter, and the arc distribute time Ton attributes while depositing the material in various WAAM techniques
both the layer height and diameter [46]. Zhang et al. [47] to obtain better material property and reduce the defects.
studied Al alloys' weld bead profile during the CMT pro- WAAM process uses a metal wire to fabricate the three-
cess by adopting the longitudinally varying magnetic field dimensional metal component. The metal wires produced for
(MF). Figure 12a–f shows the weld bead geometry deposited welding industries are used for the WAAM technique. Wire
by various exposure of parameters. The bead geometry was with different grades is used in the WAAM process. Some
uniform with the increase in excitation parameter, but when of the materials fabricated through this process are nickel-
this parameter is larger than 6 A, the arc become irregular based superalloys, titanium, and aluminium alloys. The
and scattering evolved. Due to extreme centrifugal force, materials' microstructure and mechanical properties play
the droplet and rotation speed's deformation increases with a significant role during the fabrication of the defect-free
a larger excitation current. Also, by applying MF, the weld part. Manufacturing of quality and the defect less compo-
depth, wetting angle and weld reinforcement were decreased, nent provides insight into the process parameters, feedstock
but an increase in weld width and porosity was observed materials, process stability technique, and controlling the
with an increase in coil current, shown in Fig. 13a–c. The defects by refining the process. This segment reviews the
torch angle and the weld current are the essential parameters microstructure and material properties of the different alloys
deposited by the WAAM technique.

4.1 Ni‑Based Superalloys

Nickel-based superalloys are the most common material

investigated by the AM research group subsequent to tita-
nium materials. It is majorly due to the excellent strengths
at higher temperatures and used in various applications
[5]. Due to higher strength and resistance at temperatures
above 600 °C, Ni-based superalloys are generally used in
aerospace, petrochemical, marine, and chemical sectors.
Nickel-based superalloys are highly corrosive resistant and
capable of having high strength and toughness. 50% of the
Fig. 11  Influence of process parameters on layer geometry [46]. aircraft engine parts are fabricated by nickel-based superal-
Reproduced with permission from Elsevier loys [7]. The different grades of superalloys manufactured

Fig. 12  Deposited weld beads with various coil current: a 0 A, b 2 A, c 4 A, d 5 A, e 6 A, f 8 A [47]. Reproduced with permission from
Springer Nature

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Fig. 13  The porosity and size of the weld bead: a Weld bead schematic b Porosity and area c Width, height and wetting angle [47]. Reproduced
with permission from Springer Nature

using WAAM techniques are discussed in this review. The Also, Fig. 15b shows the condensed laves phase in the rolled
WAAM processed microstructure and Ni-based super alloys' sample.
material properties are listed in Tables 2 and 3. The Inconel 718 component developed by PPAAM shows
the columnar dendrites, cellular dendrites, and equiaxial
dendrites [51]. The significant phases observed in WAAM
4.1.1 WAAM Processed Inconel 718 processed Inconel 718 are shown in Figs. 16a–e and 17a–c.
The formation of different grains structure in the components
Inconel 718 alloy is widely used in aircraft, gas turbines, tur- is due to a more complex heat history during the manufac-
bocharger rotors, nuclear reactors, liquid-fuelled rockets, air- turing process. The microstructure exhibits the occurrence
craft engine components. This alloy shows good mechanical of Laves phases, MC particles in the interdendritic regions.
strength at high temperatures up to 650 ºC [7]. The micro- The ultra-high frequency pulsed (UHFP) GTAW process
structure of the WAAM processed Inconel 718 indicates shows the microstructure's refinement with reduced laves
the columnar dendrite. The segregation of Nb and Mo in phase [52]. Soew et al. [54] reported that the Laves phase
the dendritic region leads to the accumulation of the Laves formation had been dissolved by post fabricated heat treat-
phase and MC-type carbide phases. The microstructure of ment processes such as homogenized and aging treatments.
the plasma arc CMT based process shows the strengthening The primary phase observed in Inconel 718 as fabricated
phases such as γ″, γ′ and δ phase precipitates, which displays and post-heat-treated conditions is exhibited in Figs. 18a,
in Fig. 14a–c. The formation of these phases due to the aging b and 19a–c. The WAAM Inconel 718 as-deposited micro-
effect [49]. An intermetallic phase is a tetrahedrally closed- structure attributed with large columnar grains and enhanced
packed (TCP) phase with an appearance of (Ni, Fe, Cr)2 Laves phase in the interdendritic regions, as contrasted to the
(Nb, Ti, Mo), which indicates more Cr and Nb than the γ refined grains of wrought and laser-based powder bed IN718
matrix. The microstructure shows the columnar grains deco- component was reported by Xu et al. [53]. The columnar
rated with Laves and δ phases, and some spherical/square- grains observed in the WAAM deposited Inconel 718 com-
shaped particles are identified as (Nb, Ti) C carbides [48]. ponent are due to higher heat flow. Nb and Mo's segregation
The larger number of Laves phases was observed in the as is also unavoidable during the fusion process due to inbuild
deposited sample. Figure 15a exhibits the unrolled sample. thermal diffusion and non-uniform thermal cycle during the
However, the reduced laves phase and dendritic growth with deposition process. This causes the development of numer-
higher strength have been observed in the rolled sample [50]. ous Laves phases.

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Table 2  Microstructure of the WAAM processed Nickel based super alloys

Materials Process Conditions Microstructure Reported by

Inconel 718 GTAW​ AD Columnar Grains Zhang et al.[48]

HT δ + Laves phase + (Nb, Ti) C carbides
Wrought HT Equiaxed Grains + No laves phase
CMT AD columnar dendrite + Laves phase + δ phase + γ″, γ′ phase Van et al. [49]
PAW AD—unrolled Dendritic structure + Laves phase Xu et al. [50]
SA—unrolled Dendritic structure + less Laves phase + acicular δ phase
AD—rolled Less Dendritic structure + less Laves phase
SA—rolled Residual laves phase + δ phase + Nb
Wrought HT Laves phase + δ phase
PPAW AD Columnar dendritic + cellular dendritic + γ + Laves phase + MC carbides Wang et al. [51]
HT γ″ and δ phases
GTAW​ UHFP Laves phase Jia et al. [52]
HT UHFP δ phase + γ″ lenticular phase + small size granular γ′ phase + MC carbide + Laves
CP Laves phase
HT CP Laves phase + δ phases
GMAW AD Laves phase + columnar grain Xu et al. [53]
AD + HT Laves phase + δ phases
Wrought Equiaxed grains
PAW AD Laves phase + Ti- and Nb-rich inclusions Seow et al. [54]
Aging only Laves phase + TiN
Standard HSA δ phases + NbC
Modified HA TiN and No laves phase
Inconel 625 CMT AD—Top columnar dendrites Wang et al. [55]
AD—Middle cellular dendritic
AD—Bottom fine cellular structure
PTA AD Laves phases + dendrites + Ni based solid solution Cardozo et al. [56]
DLD AD solidification structure + dendrites
PTA PDHT δ phase + Nb + Mo phases
DLD PDHT δ phase + NbC phase
PPAW AD-ICS columnar dendrites + Laves + NbC carbides Xu et al. [57]
AD-CDS Laves Phase + MC carbides + δ-Ni3Nb
STA-ICS Smaller amount δ-Ni3Nb + γ″, γ′ phase
STA-CDS δ-Ni3Nb + reduced Laves phase
GTAW​ AD columnar dendrites + Laves phase + Nb precipitates Wang et al. [58]
CMT AD Laves phase + Nb and Mo carbides Tanvir et al. [59]
980 ºC HT-30 min δ phase + Ni, Cr carbides
HT-1 h δ phase + Ni–Cr matrix + MC, Nb/Ti carbides
HT- 2 h δ phase + MC carbides
PPAW AD columnar dendrites + Laves phase + δ-Ni3Nb + MC carbides Xu et al. [60]
Inconel C-276 GMAW AD Randomly orientated parallel dendrites + continuous epitaxial growth Rajesh et al. [61]
ATI 718Plus GTAW​ AD Dendritic structures + Laves phase + MC carbides Asala et al. [62, 63]
STA lamellar η-phase particles + MC carbides
Inconel 825 GMAW AD Dendritic structures Bharath et al. [39]

AD – As Deposited, S – Solution treated, SA—Solution plus aging treated, RT – Room Temperature, ET—Elevated temperature (650 ºC),
Standard HAS—Homogenised and Solution-Aged, Modified HA—modified homogenised and aged, HT – Heat Treated, UHFP – ultra high
frequency pulsed, CP – conventional pulsed, PDHT- Post deposition heat treatment, ICS- Interpass cooling strategy, CDS-Continuous deposition
strategy, STA- Solution treatment + direct aging

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Table 3  Material Properties of WAAM processed Nickel based super alloys

Materials Process Conditions UTS [MPa] YS [MPa] EL [%] Reported By

Inconel 718 PAW AD Unrolled 818 ± 13 525 ± 7 33.3 ± 2.5 Xu et al. [50]
75 kN rolled 1082 ± 13 763 ± 8 26.2 ± 2.2
S Unrolled 763 ± 32 384 ± 8 24.4 ± 3.7
75 kN rolled 967 ± 8 540 ± 13 37.0 ± 2.1
SA Unrolled 1102 ± 78 790 ± 9 14.7 ± 1.3
75 kN rolled 1348 ± 10 1057 ± 19 15.1 ± 3.3
Wrought AMS5662 1276 1034 12
PAW RT AD 756 ± 47 431 ± 39 21.3 ± 7 Seow et al. [54]
Aging only 1072 951 2.0
Standard HSA 1116 1065 0.9
Modified HA 1044 ± 14 856 ± 6 19.9 ± 1
ET AD 628 ± 39 395 ± 38 9.0 ± 3
Modified HA 821 ± 2 734 ± 18 6.7 ± 3
GMAW—CMT AD -Wire A Non-grinding 776 ± 10 466 ± 10 36.3 ± 2.1 Xu et al. [53]
Grinding 779 ± 7 429 ± 31 34.6 ± 3.4
Wire B Non-grinding 824 ± 15 514 ± 17 34.0 ± 0
Wire B SA-Non-grinding 1110 ± 3 807 ± 1 15.5 ± 0.3
Casting AMS5383 862 758 5
Wrought AMS5662 1276 1034 12
PPAW AD 872 ± 31 563 ± 14 34 ± 3 Wang et al.
[51]
HT 1152 ± 28 864 ± 21 23 ± 2
Inconel 625
CMT AD TS -8 mm/s 647.9 376.9 46.5 Wang et al.
[55]
TS -9 mm/s 675.6 391.4 44.45
TS—10 mm/s 687.7 400.8 43
Casting – 710 350 40
PPAW AD ICS 771 480 50 Xu et al. [57]
AD CDS 726 449 43
STA ICS 851 535 44
STA CDS 802 469 42
Casting – 710 350 48
Wrought – 855 490 50
GTAW​ AD Y-Travel direction 722 ± 17 – 42.27 ± 2.4 Wang et al. [58]
Z-Build direction 684 ± 17 – 40.13 ± 3.7
PPAW AD 721 438 49 Xu et al. [60]
Cast 710 350 48

AD – As Deposited, S – Solution treated, SA—Solution plus aging treated, RT – Room Temperature, ET—Elevated temperature (650 ºC),
Standard HAS—Homogenised and Solution-Aged, Modified HA—modified homogenised and aged, HT – Heat Treated, TS – Travel Speed,
STA- Solution treatment + direct aging, ICS-Interpass cooling, CDS-Conventional deposition

4.1.2 WAAM Processed Inconel 625 and marine sectors. Highly complex shape parts are chal-
lenging to manufacture by using conventional methods com-
Inconel 625 alloy is a nickel-based superalloy. The alloy pared to the WAAM method. The WAAM fabricated Inconel
has outstanding hot corrosion, fatigue, and wears behaviour. 625 alloy fits all the ASTM standards due to its excellent
Inconel 625 having superior weldability with higher strength material properties. Wang et al. [55] reported that WAAM
at elevated temperatures. This alloy combination is utilized Inconel 625 consist of columnar dendrites, cellular dendritic,
in different domains such as aerospace, chemical, nuclear and fine cellular structure in three different regions of the

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 Metals and Materials International

Fig. 14  Plasma arc CMT based

Inconel 718 deposit sample
(interpass time 30 s): a bottom
region b Top region c Interface
region [49]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier

Fig. 15  WAAM Inconel 718 as

deposited: a unrolled b rolled
[50]. Reproduced with permis-
sion from Elsevier

Fig. 16  SEM analysis of as-fabricated Inconel 718 samples: a low magnified structure b high magnified structure c Bottom surface d Middle
surface and e Top surface [51]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier

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Fig. 17  TEM images of Inconel 718: a laves phase and its SADP b MC carbide and its SADP c Dislocations in the as-built sample [51]. Repro-
duced with permission from Elsevier

Fig. 18  As-Dep WAAM Inconel 718 material: a backscatter electron images and b corresponding EDX spectra of spot analysis [54]. Repro-
duced with permission from Elsevier

Fig. 19  Backscatter electron analysis of WAAM IN718 after: a standard HAS, b modified HA and c Aging only heat treatments [54]. Repro-
duced with permission from Elsevier

as-deposited component. The microstructure changes were increased by increasing travel speed [64]. Cheppu et al. [65]
observed in the top, bottom, and middle regions due to the investigated the Inconel 625 part deposited by the TIG-based
difference in thermal gradients within the metal wire deposi- WAAM technique. The component's microstructure shows
tion. The microstructure variation in the various areas relies the columnar dendritic structure in the build direction (Z)
on the cooling rate and heat consumption during the fabrica- from the bottom to the top of the deposit. This is due to
tion process. The tensile and yield strength of the component the previous layers' remelting; also, the deposition with

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multi-passes in a zig-zag manner minimizes the columnar [57] investigated the PPAW based interpass cooled (ISC)
grain growth length. Lou et al. [66] reported the microstruc- and continuous deposition (CDS) IN 625 components. ISC
ture of a single bead of alloy 625 deposited on a low carbon shows columnar dendritic in the deposition direction and
steel base plate by the GTAW technique. The microstructure laves phases, and NbC particles are observed due to the
varies with the location: the cellular dendritic structure was Mo and Nb segregation in the non-equilibrium solidifica-
observed in the middle region, and the refined cellular struc- tion. The δ-Ni3Nb needle-like phase was observed in the
ture was observed in the top region. This indicates variation CDS component. The lower content of (Ni3Nb) δ phase
in the thermal gradients as well as chemistry variations such was observed in the ISC component. This leads to the for-
as Fe, Cr, and Ni contents in the various locations of the mation of the γ″ phase after STA treatment in the ISC sam-
bead during the deposition process. Juric et al. [67] reported ple, which also obtains better mechanical properties than
that compared with other shielding gases using a mixture the CDS sample. Wang et al. [58] reported that more laves
of 97.5% Argon and 2.5%, Carbon dioxide shielding gas phases were found in the top segment than in the bottom
improves the tensile strength and hardness of the Inconel and middle regions. Due to a lesser cooling rate of melt
625 component deposited by MAG based WAAM process. pool from the beside base plate to the top surface region,
Cardozo et al. [56] investigated the different processing some regions obtain near to Laves (Ni, Fe, Cr)2 (Nb,
techniques such as Plasma Transferred Arc (PTA) and direct Mo, Ti) phase, this brittle Laves phases affects the mate-
laser deposition (DLD), with the use of IN 625 wire. The rial properties. The brittle Laves phases were eliminated
microstructure of the as-deposited components shows the after heat treatment. The size of MC carbide and δ phase
dendritic structure. The occurrence of the acicular δ phase increase when the heat treatment time increases [59]. The
was observed in both techniques. Acicular δ phases improve δ needles which create from NbC carbides by respond-
the hardness after post-deposition heat treatment (PDHT). ing with the Ni-based γ-phase. The significant phases
PTA-AM processed components creating higher dilu- were observed in Inconel 625, as shown in Fig. 20a–c.
tion, unfavourable microstructures, and lower hardness The pulsed plasma arc deposition combined with plasma
compared to DLD. The higher hardness was found in wire cladding shows the Laves phases' formation, MC carbides
arc deposited compared to powder arc. While after PDHT, (NbC, TiC) hastened in the interdendritic region needle-
the reduction in hardness was found in wire deposited due like δ-Ni3Nb phase was observed in the as-deposited
to induction and tempering of the δ phase [68]. Xu et al.

Fig. 20  Inconel 625 major

phases: a as-deposited micro-
structure, b and c bright field
(BF) image of precipitated
phases and diffraction (SAD)
pattern of Laves phase; NbC
and its corresponding (SAD)
pattern [60]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier

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sample [60]. The appearance of such phases affects the process. The increasing travel speed improves the material
properties of the fabricated components. properties, and θ phase formation was observed [70]. Fig-
ure 22a, b shows the material properties of fabricated and
4.1.3 WAAM Processed Other Ni‑Based Superalloys post-fabrication treated conditions. Generally, the as-depos-
ited aluminium alloy component has anisotropic mechani-
Other metals have been investigated by the WAAM process, cal properties contrasted with those machined from billet
such as Inconel C-276, Inconel 825, ATI 718Plus alloys. material. Especially for obtaining greater strength in the as-
Rajesh et al. [61] investigated the C-276 alloy fabricated by fabricated alloy, the post-processing treatments are made.
the GMAW process. The microstructure shows the randomly In the as-fabricated 2024 aluminium alloy, the α phase—Al
orientated parallel dendrites in the as-deposited sample. The phase, θ—phase, and Synthesis phase were obtained in all
continuous epitaxial growth is obtained in the adjacent lay- the regions. And after post-treatment, the more extensive
ers. Figure 21a–c shows the microstructure of the WAAM Al–Cu mixture and enhanced hardness were found [71]. Liu
processed superalloys. Asala et al. [62, 63] investigated ATI et al. [72] investigated the development of WAAM using AA
718Plus alloy fabricated by the GTAW process. The micro- 2219. The authors observed the increasing bypass current
structure shows the coarse columnar grains with the pres- increases the columnar grains resulted in improved tensile
ence of the Laves phase, MC-carbide. After heat treatment, strength. In ER2319 aluminium alloy, the microstructure
the η-phase and strengthening precipitates were observed shows equiaxed grains with uniform distribution, and α (Al)
in the interdendritic regions. Inconel 825 alloy shows the and the strengthened phase θ (CuAl2) was concentrated in
structure of the dendrite in the fabricated component. The the grain boundary [73]. Li et al. [74] investigated various
optimized process parameters and heat input employed dur- shielding gas such as Ar and N2. The hardness is uniform
ing WAAM recesses the deposited regions' porosity and and higher in Ar. The N ­ 2 shielding gas resulted in a reduc-
cracks in different layers [39]. tion in strength and plasticity. Zhao et al. [75] stated that the
laser MIG hybrid welding technique specifies higher pro-
4.2 WAAM Processed Aluminium Alloys duction over the conventional fusion welding process for
joining the medium and thick aluminium alloys. The crystal-
Aluminium alloy has been fabricated in different series for line size of equiaxed dendrite grains in the MIG based laser
lightweight applications. Wire arc additive manufacturing hybrid zone is more refined than the laser dominated area.
of aluminium alloys are widely used in aerospace and auto- Due to the degree of cooling in the laser MIG hybrid domi-
mobile industries [69] The columnar and equiaxed grains nated zone is much larger than the laser-dominated zone.
are observed in the as-deposited 2219 alloy by the GTAW Zuo et al. [76] studied the novel TIG-MIG hybrid additive

Fig. 21  Microstructure of as
deposited: a Alloy C-276 [61],
b Inconel 825 [39], c ATI
718Plus [63]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier

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manufacturing method for depositing 5356 aluminium alloy.

The microstructure of the component deposited by hybrid
arc mode has larger significant supercooling than that depos-
ited by TIG or MIG arc mode, as a result, a large number of
equiaxed grains are produced. Also, the grain size in vari-
ous deposited regions shows that the top region has smaller
equiaxed grain than the bottom and middle regions. The top
region's temperature is lesser than the middle and bottom
regions' temperature because of its exceptional heat dissi-
pation state and less thermal cycles in the top region. The
smaller grain size results in higher hardness. However, the
hybrid arc mode shows higher tensile properties and elonga-
tion than the alloy fabricated by the general casting process.
The industries like aerospace and transportation have
attentive to titanium, aluminium, and steel alloys fabri-
cated by the WAAM process. Aluminium alloys have lower
strength to weight ratio. However, the WAAM process is
sustainable for manufacturing complex and large-scale alu-
minium parts because of lesser fabrication costs. Cranfield
University has established large scale aluminium ribs and
cones. The material properties of aluminium alloys depos-
ited by various WAAM processes are shown in Table 4.
Wang et al. [82] proposed a new metal fused coating addi-
tive manufacturing composite variable polarity TIG process
to fabricate the large-scale aluminium alloy component.
This technique is a cost-effective and productive method
for manufacturing metal components. Wire based additive
manufacturing of large thin-walled aluminium structures in
the aerospace application has substantial benefits over con-
Fig. 22  Mechanical properties of WAAM-processed: a 2219 alu- ventional subtractive methods [83]. Miao et al. [77] reported
minum alloy [70], b 2024 aluminium alloy, T4, T5 Heat treatment that 4043 Al-Si alloy deposited by laser arc hybrid additive
[71]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier
manufacturing (LAHAW) and WAAM. The higher strength
and hardness were observed in the LAHAW compared
to WAAM. Due to the more refined grains, the enhanced

Table 4  Material properties of Aluminium alloys

Materials Process Conditions UTS [MPa] YS [MPa] EL [%] Reported By

4043 Al-Si Alloy LAHAM AD 163.39 ± 1.68 75.60 ± 4.91 17.38 ± 5.44 Miao et al. [77]
WAAM AD 151.91 ± 1.28 69.71 ± 4.01 16.80 ± 0.61
5356 aluminium GMAW AD - Ar 280 127 29.5 Sen et al. [78]
AD - ­N2 231 146 5.5
2024 aluminium GTAW-HWAAM H-0 350 ± 13 255 ± 12 5.2 ± 1.4 Fu et al. [79]
H-10 388 ± 11 260 ± 8 7.1 ± 1.4
H-100 399 ± 8 259 ± 7 12.0 ± 2.0
H-120 293 ± 12 238 ± 11 4.5 ± 1.0
2219 Al alloy GTAW​ AD 273 ± 7 183 ± 4 2.7 ± 1 Zhou et al. [80]
T6- 540 ºC 397 ± 4 303 ± 5 5.3 ± 1
NAB GMAW AD 685 ± 10 388 ± 12 26 ± 1 Dharmendra et al. [81]
Cast 670 ± 8 300 ± 15 16 ± 2

LAHAM – laser arc hybrid additive manufacturing, Ar – Argon, N ­ 2 – Nitrogen, HWAAM-Hot wire arc additive manufacturing, H-0,10,100,120
-Hot wire current, T6—Solution + artificial aging (T6) treatment, NAB-Nickel Aluminium bronze

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material properties in the LAHAM specimen decreased Si performance. After solution and aging (T6) treatment, these
segregation and the crack deviation. The Mechanical Prop- phases dissolve into a matrix and improve the material prop-
erties of the WAAM parts are found to be inferior to the erties due to θ “phase during aging.
laser arc hybrid AM process. It is due to non-uniformity Shakil et al. and Dharmendra et al. [85, 81] reported nickel
in microstructure and heat accumulation. Li et al. [78] aluminium bronze (NAB) alloy fabricated by WAAM and
reported that 5356 aluminium alloy fabricated by GMAW cast processes. This alloy is used in marine application for
based WAAM process and attribution of shielding gases the fabrication of large-scale components. NAB alloy manu-
nitrogen ­(N2) and argon (Ar) as the shielding gases in the factured by WAAM shows higher strength than the casting
weld beads. The higher number of flaky nitrides attributes process. Due to large thermal gradients and a larger density of
a significant reduction in the strength and plasticity but an geometrical dislocations in the WAAM process. Dharmendra
increase in microhardness due to non-uniformity in the sam- et al. [86] analyzed the hybrid component of nickel aluminium
ple deposited by N ­ 2 as shielding gas. Ramachandran et al. bronze and 316L stainless steel fabricated by GMAW based
[84] investigated the microstructure and corrosion properties WAAM process, shown in Fig. 23a. The layers, apparently
of AA 5083 alloy with different Mg contents in the welding intermetallic, which was exhibited in Fig. 23b. The micro-
wire using the GMAW process. When the amount of Mg structure of the WAAM deposited NAB component consists
contents increasing in the filler wire, the amount of the Mg of adequately fine, equiaxed α—dendrites with globular κII
increases in the fusion zone. The formation of the β-phase, and lamellar κIII phase in the interdendritic regions. These
even in fusion zones, is caused by the high Mg content, phases precipitate in the interdendritic regions while cool-
which has a negative impact on corrosion activity. Fu et al. ing earlier after finishing the solidification process at simi-
[79] reported that aluminium alloy is fabricated by the hot larly higher temperatures. Also, some intermetallic induc-
wire arc AM process. which obtains the equiaxed structure tion along the HAZ cracks is displayed in Fig. 23c. These
due to larger melt pool size and reduction in cooling rate. cracks appeared to be penetrated by liquid NAB. Li et al.
Also, improved mechanical properties and reduced porosity [87] reported Al-6.2Zn–2.2 Mg aluminium alloy deposited
were observed with an increase in hot wire current from 0 to by the GMAW process. The more considerable amount of
100A. Zhou et al. [80] reported 2219 Al alloy fabricated by dissolved Zn and Mg atoms into the Al matrix after T6 heat
GTAW based WAAM process. However, in the as-deposited treatment, the effect of solid solution strengthening, causes
specimen θ′ and θ phases were observed, this reduces alloys' an increase in tensile strength and plasticity reduction. Liu

Fig. 23  a WAAM-NAB deposit

on 316L SS substrate, b SEM
micrographs of the NAB/316
L sample showing a thin inter-
metallic layer all along with the
interface, c the penetration of
NAB into intermetallic forma-
tion along the HAZ cracks [86].
Reproduced with permission
from Elsevier

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et al. [88] analysed the microstructure and material properties Wang et al. [94] investigated that with increasing
of 2219 aluminium alloy deposited by double electrode gas the interlayer dwell time to 120 s, the equiaxed β grains
metal arc (DE-GMA) based AM process. The columnar and (EBGs) were obtained. Whereas the interlayer dwell
equiaxed structures were observed in various deposited com- time is less than 24 s, the columnar β grains (CBGs) was
ponents due to variation in heating and cooling cycles during observed in the deposited wall. The prior-β grain growth
the deposition process. Also, the increase in tensile properties develops rapidly during the deposition of the first few lay-
was observed in DE -GMA-AM process. ers when interlayer dwell time is increased. Also, the hard-
Ren et al. [89] studied the Al–Mg–Sc alloy deposited with ness and material strength improve with the interlayer time
various Sc contents by the use of the CMT based WAAM from 0 to 120 s.
process. Adding less than 0.15% of Sc (Scandium) contents The hexagonal close-packed α phase is higher than
the Al matrix is fully diffused without grain refinement and the bcc β phase due to variation in thermal history; the
improves the material properties. However, by adding 0.3% microstructure affects the as-deposited components' mate-
of the Sc content Al3Sc phase initiated on the as depos- rial properties. The various microstructures, like lathlike
ited alloy causing a rapid variation in the grain refinement matrix, lamellar, basketweave, and colony α structure, were
and enhanced material properties. Hence, the ideal 0.3% seen along with the deposition height [95]. Table 5 shows
of Sc content was considered based on cost-effective and the material properties of Ti6Al4V alloys. In WAAM, the
magnificent material properties; Al–Mg–Sc alloys depos- deposited Ti6Al4V component shows the coarsening char-
ited by the WAAM process are used in various applications acteristics with inferior strength and more elongation in the
in aerospace aviation. Yu et al. and Dong et al. [90, 91] build (Z) direction than the deposited (X) direction. This
reported Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy mainly consists of a columnar property occurs due to α lamellae elongated before β grains.
structure. The more extensive heat distribution and upper The microstructure under different processing conditions
region exhibit an equiaxed structure since the heat dissipa- such as convex, concave, and parallel regions obtain near-
tion is no longer single in the final stage of solidification. equiaxed β grains, lamellar α. Interlaced with a coarse Wid-
The melt pool cools down the temperature decreases in the manstätten structure in similar areas and acicular α entwined
top region. Also, this alloy is successfully fabricated by with a basketweave structure got in the arched surfaces due
CMT based WAAM process without the instance of any hot to the temperature gradient variation [96].
cracks [92]. Finally, the applicability and processability of Jun Yi et al. [97] studied the effect of cooling rate on the
the alloy were proven by the fabrication of a motorcycle pis- Ti–6Al–4 V alloy deposit altered by interpass temperature
ton. The detailed and depth discussions of the microstructure control. Figure 24 exhibits the interpass temperature control
and mechanical properties of WAAM deposited aluminium in the WAAM technique. While depositing the component
alloys are illustrated in this literature [93]. during the WAAM process, the temperature is maintained
constant overheat exchange among the coolant and the sub-
4.3 WAAM Processed Ti6Al4V Alloys strate. With the use of a cooling pump, the water is continu-
ously provided to the fixture so that the water-cooling tem-
Titanium alloys have been utilized in different applications perature is maintained at 15º C. The hardness and strength
such as biomedical and aerospace sectors. It is because of of the as-deposited component are lesser than the cooled
the higher strength to weight ratio. The material properties component; however, the elongation of the as-deposited
and microstructure of the material are based on the tempera- specimen without cooling is larger than the cooled sample.
ture variation at the time of deposition of the metal parts. Due to a higher cooling rate and low interpass temperature

Table 5  Material properties of Materials Process Conditions UTS [MPa] YS [MPa] EL [%] Reported By
Ti6Al4V alloys
Ti6Al4V GTAW​ AD Wall A 811 700 10.29 Wang et al. [94]
Wall B 825 720 15.51
Wall C 853 757 12.3
GTAW​ IPT 100 ºC 897 ± 50 – 18.3 Wu et al. [95]
200 ºC 852 ± 52 – 18
300 ºC 847 ± 35 – 17.8
Gas Cooled 913 ± 17 – 18.4
GTAW​ AD 995 ± 29 884 ± 27 18.6 Wu et al. [96]

AD-As Deposited, Wall A- Bidirectional travel direction, Dwell time 0 s, Wall B- Unidirectional travel
direction, Dwell time 24 s, Wall C- Unidirectional travel direction, time 120 s, IPT- Interpass Temperature

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Fig. 24  Schematic of the

WAAM process with an inter-
pass temperature control system
using a water-cooling channel
[97]. Reproduced with permis-
sion from Springer Nature

Fig. 25  Macro- and microstruc-

ture of TiAl alloys deposited by
WAAM: a cross-section (x–z
plane) morphology, b macro-
and c microstructure in the top
region, d macro- and e micro-
structure in the middle region,
f macro-and g microstructure
in the bottom region [98].
Reproduced with permission
from Elsevier

in cooled specimens, the quantity of plastic strain increases, specimen developed by WAAM and feeding ER5356 wires
whereas it has a higher dislocation density. and adding titanium powder. By obtaining Ti powder during
Cai et al. [98] reported TiAl alloys fabricated using two- WAAM, columnar grains' efficient transformation into equi-
wire TOP-TIG-based AM processes. The microstructure in axed grains between the layers and increased tensile strength
the various top to bottom regions consists of equiaxed den- and grain size refinement was observed. The suitable het-
drites α2 grains with γ laths and significant layer bends in erogeneous nucleation core of α-Al in ­Al3Ti promotes the
the middle part. The structures observed in different zones refined grains and improved material properties. The alu-
are displayed in Fig. 25a–g. This is due steep wire feeding minium alloys deposited by GTAW based process shows
direction of the TOP-TIG torch and high melting tempera- the optimization and selection of alloy elements and process
ture. Wang et al. [99] investigated Al–Mg alloy thin wall parameters of the low-frequency pulse arc (base current,

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peak current, and pulse frequency, etc.). It can obtain grain Manikandan et al. [103] reported that the weldments were
morphology influence and mechanical properties enhance- made by continuous current GTAW and PCGTAW using
ment [100]. However, as forged and cast component has ERNiCrMo-4 filler wire. The alloying element of alloy
minimal specification from ASTM standards. The tensile C-276 is Ni, Cr, Mo, W, and Fe. The segregation of these
properties of Ti6Al4V alloys are nearer to that of wrought elements leads to the formation of P and µ phases at the end
parts and higher than cast Ti6Al4V as indicated by ASTM of the solidification. By adopting the PCGTAW technique, P
standards [5]. Hence, the WAAM deposited Ti6Al4V alloy and µ phases are suppressed with enhanced material proper-
has anisotropic material properties. This is due to the grain ties compared to GTAW.
size of α lamellae and the direction of the elongated prior Manikandan et al. [104] reported activated flux tungsten
β grains. inert gas (ATIG) welding of alloy C-276. The development
of secondary phases enhanced in Mo and W and destitute in
Ni in the subgrain boundary compared to matrix. The micro-
5 Microsegregation of Nickel‑Based segregation of alloying elements Mo and W are responsible
Superalloys for P and µ phases in the subgrain boundaries. This causes
hot cracking. Surve et al. [105] reported that secondary steps
In the microsegregation of alloying elements, process (P and µ) are mostly due to larger heat supply during multi-
parameters, microstructure, and material properties play a pass welding. Also, the alloy C-276 fabricated by continuous
significant role in defining alloys' metallurgical and material current TIG welding shows a higher amount of segregation.
behaviour. Microsegregation can be controlled by obtain- However, by the Activated TIG welding process, the micro-
ing proper process parameters and heat input during the segregation can be controlled by reducing heat supply. Also,
deposition process. In the solidification of Nickel-based lesser current and lower heat supply decreased the intent of
superalloys, microsegregation plays an important role. The microsegregation.
microsegregation at the end of solidification is the main rea- Manikandan et al. [103] investigated the alloy C-276
son for hot cracking in the Nickel-based superalloys. This fabricated by continuous neodymium yttrium aluminium
segment reviews the various welding techniques and micro- garnet (Nd: YAG) laser welding process. In this process,
segregation of different nickel-based superalloys and their the observed microsegregation is lesser than the arc welding
applications. process. This is because of the faster cooling rate in the laser
welding technique. A more acceptable dendritic structure
5.1 Alloy C‑276 was also observed in the fusion zone due to the larger cool-
ing rate. Subramani et al. [106] studied the microsegregation
Alloy C-276 is a nickel-based single-phase superalloy. The of alloy C-276 by the PAW technique. The results show the
significant alloying elements are Cr, Mo, Fe, and W. Because occurrence of secondary phases in the fusion zone. The gen-
of its outstanding resistance from a broad range of corrosive eration of these phases is generally due to Mo's segregation
conditions and excellent mechanical properties, the alloy in the subgrain boundaries during solidification.
identifies the application in various industries such as the Nithin Joseph et al. [107] reported that laser shock peen-
nuclear sector, chemical processing, aerospace, marine engi- ing (LSP) on alloy C-276 by PCGTAW. The PCGTAW
neering, etc. Arivarasu et al. [101] examined the effect of shows reduced microsegregation. Weldment over the LSP
post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) on C-276 alloy by pulsed improves the strength of the weld joints. It is due to the
current gas tungsten arc welding (PCGTAW). The Microseg- induced compressive residual stress on the surface of the
regation of alloying elements Ni, Cr, Mo, W, and Fe induces weldment.
the accumulation of P and µ phases in the GTAW. These
phases are responsible for hot cracking. After PWHT, the 5.2 Superalloy 686
fine equiaxed microstructure enhanced the tensile strength
of the weldment. The alloying elements such as Fe, Cr are Alloy 686 is an extremely corrosion-resistant Nickel-based
fully dissolved in the matrix, while Mo is not fully dissolved. superalloy. It is a strong construction material for pollution
Mo is segregated because of lesser diffusivity compared to control (Flue Gas Desulfurization), chemical processing,
other alloying elements in the nickel matrix. Subramani et al. paper and pulp manufacturing, waste management, and
[102] investigated the effect of pulsed frequency variation on marine/naval applications. Arulmurugan et al. [108, 109]
alloy C-276 by the PCGTAW technique. The microsegrega- investigated the superalloy 686 welds by electron beam
tion is entirely suppressed by varying the pulse frequency welding method in as-welded and PWHT conditions. The
from 1 to 10 Hz. It is due to lesser heat input with the higher segregation of Mo and W could prompt the formation of
cooling rate in the PCGTAW. secondary phases. The major secondary phases observed

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as σ (tetragonal), P (orthorhombic), and µ (rhombohedral) [113] studied GTA and PCGATA welding on Hastelloy X
phases in alloy 686. The P, µ, and σ phases occur within the using ERNiCr-3 filler wire. While in GTA weldments, the
temperatures of 950–1050 ºC, 580–780 ºC, and 540–980 ºC. segregation of Mo, Cr, Nb, and Ti were observed along with
Natural aging does not dissolve the topologically close- enhancement of ­Fe3Mo3C ­(M6C), ­Fe2MoC ­(M3C), ­Cr23C6,
packed (TCP) phases due to its lesser aging temperature of ­Cr2Ti, ­Ni8Nb phases. However, in PCGTA weldments, only
480 ºC. The solution treatment at 980 ºC dissolves the TCP Ti and Nb segregation was observed with the development
phases to a certain amount but not entirely. Because the P of ­Ni3Ti, ­Cr2Ti, ­Ni8Nb phases. The higher heat input in
phase appears in the temperature between 950 and 1050 ºC. the GTA weldments causes the carbide phases, whereas,
However, the µ and σ phases are gradually dissolved. in PCGTA weldments, no such phases are observed due
Arulmurugan et al. [110] reported that a higher amount to lesser heat input. Also, the Mo and Nb segregation was
of microsegregation was observed in the GTAW technique not identified in PCGTA weldment due to more significant
than PCGTAW. This is due to the higher heat supply with thermal gradients and a faster cooling rate. Therefore, γ
a slower cooling rate in the GTAW technique. However, prime precipitates (Ni3Ti) increase the tensile strength of
PCGTAW shows a lower amount of microsegregation. It the PCGTA weldments over GTA.
is expected to reduced heat supply through the variation of
pulsed current. In the PGTAW process, the stable austenite 5.4 Alloy 600
matrix is refined with consistent alloying elements and an
increase in corrosion resistance. Alloy 600 is a Ni-based superalloy that is bounded by a
single-phase solid solution. Cr and Fe are the primary alloy-
5.3 Hastelloy X ing elements, with minor alloying additives. This component
is broadly used in high-temperature conditions, for instance,
Hastelloy X is one of the Ni-based superalloys having steam generator tubing, control rod drive, and pressurized
Ni–Cr–Fe–Mo as the alloying elements. Its remarkable prop- nozzles in a nuclear power plant due to superior resistance to
erties at high-temperature conditions are widely utilized in corrosion and oxidation [114]. It's a workhorse material for
the tailpipes and combustion chamber parts, including spray nuclear reactor production. The alloy 600 has a wide variety
bars, combustor cans, transition ducts, and flame holder’s of uses, including cryogenic temperatures of over 1095 ºC.
aircraft components. It is further used in fans and roller Srikanth et al. [115] investigated the joints produced by
hearths in land-based gas turbine engine segments. pulsed and continuous current gas tungsten arc welded alloy
Sathishkumar et al. [111] reported that alloy X is sus- 600. The PCGTA weldments exhibit the equiaxed struc-
ceptible to liquation and solidification cracking in the weld- ture, and the GTA weldments show the cellular structure.
ments due to the formation of TCP phases such as σ, P, ­M6C, The presence of Cr-rich ­M23C6 carbide phases in the inter-
and ­M23C6 carbides during the arc welding process. The face and weld centre interdendritic regions. The improved
microsegregation of Cr and Mo elements leads to the forma- mechanical properties and refined microstructure were also
tion of TCP phases in Alloy X. In the GTAW method, the observed in the PCGTAW technique due to lower heat input
interdendritic region of the weld center (WC) is segregated and a faster cooling rate.
Mo, and the reduction of Fe and Ni is noticed. Figure 26a, b
(i-iv), c, d (i-iv) displays the EDS/SEM analysis of alloy X
by GTA and PCGTA methods. It exhibits Mo's segregation 6 Analysis of Residual Stresses
in the WC, which causes the formation of M ­ 6C35 and M­ 3C
carbides. In GTA welding, the higher heat input and slower The process parameters, microsegregation, microstructure,
cooling rate cause the longer dendritic arm spacing with and material properties influence the nature of the residual
coarser grains in the fusion zone. Also, the space among the stress. The stresses vary from material to material and pro-
dendrites causes the segregation of alloying elements at the cess to process. Residual stress is the study state interior
end of solidification. In PCGTA weldments, a lesser amount structure of stresses induced from irregular mechanical or
of segregation was obtained when compared to GTA. Lower thermal straining beside some plastic flow. In additive manu-
heat supply with higher cooling rate propagated fine equi- factured components, the residual stresses cause deformation
axed dendritic structure and restricted the segregation in in the components, inaccurate shape and size in parts such as
PCGTA weldments. distortion and twisting, material fractures in the layers dur-
Sathishkumar et al. [112] reported that the proper selec- ing fabrication, and poor fatigue performance in the depos-
tion of process parameters and high energy density methods ited layers. Hence, to control and reduction of distortion of
like plasma arc welding could suppress the development of residual stress is a significant area of the research.
hot cracks in Hastelloy X weldments. Sathish Kumar et al.

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Fig. 26  Microsegregation of
GTA & PCGTA weldment
using ERNiCrMo-2: a and c
weld center—(i) dendritic core,
(ii) interdendritic, b and d weld
interface—(iii) dendritic core,
(iv) interdendritic [111]. Repro-
duced with permission from
Springer Nature

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Fig. 27  Residual stresses: a

transversal direction, b longitu-
dinal direction [116]. Repro-
duced with permission from
Elsevier

6.1 Residual Stresses in Wire Arc Additive the tensile stresses were observed. But in the transverse
Manufactured Components and normal direction, a lesser amount of stresses was
observed. After high pressure rolling, the compres-
Residual stress is the major problem causing during the sive residual stress was produced in all the regions and
fabrication of the metal parts. Szost et al. [116] investi- eliminate residual stress. Gordon et al. [118] investigated
gated the residual stress in Ti6Al4V alloy fabricated by GMAW based 304L stainless steel in the as-fabricated
the WAAM process. The maximum residual stresses were and post-heat-treated condition. The compressive residual
obtained near the base plate wall in the longitudinal (Y) stresses were generated.
direction and minimum stress obtained in the transverse Similarly, the improved crack growth rate was found due
(X) direction. The high-temperature gradient, thermal his- to lower stress intensity. Until crack growth may occur, the
tory, and temperature properties of the material cause the applied stress must be greater than the residual compressive
distribution of residual stresses. Due to material tensile stress. The longitudinal stress measured shows that tensile
and yield strength, the stresses were high in the longitu- near the top of the wall and slowly reduced and compres-
dinal direction. Figure 27a, b shows the residual stresses sive stresses were obtained towards the interface also higher
obtained in various directions of WAAM and CLAD build stress were seen in the substrate and bottom [119]. Due to
parts. Honnige et al. [117] reported the residual stress on material shrinkage and bending causes tensile stress in the
WAAM fabricated component. In a longitudinal direction, top and bottom regions of the wall. Ma et al. [120] studied

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Fig. 28  WAAM sample with

residual stress mapping in the
scanned region [120]. Repro-
duced with permission from
Elsevier

the residual stresses by laser Opto ultrasonic method in alu- Residual stresses in the as-deposited components notably
minium alloys fabricated by WAAM process, as shown in change in all directions. It is due to an anisotropy texture in
Fig. 28. The authors observed tensile in the top, bottom, the fabricated part. The post-heat treatment and cutting off
and interface, compressive stresses have been observed in (CO) from the substrate relieve the residual stresses com-
the component due to uneven thermal cooling and heating pared to the as-deposited component [123]. Once the depos-
during fabrication. ited part was removed from the base plate, suppression from
Colegrove et al. [121] reported the as-deposited samples the substrate in the transverse and longitudinal direction is
produced longitudinal residual stress. This is due to distor- completely released. Consequently, the substrate-induced
tion in the sample due to the build-in compressive plastic residual stress in the longitudinal and transverse directions
strain. Both bending and residual stress are reduced after is significantly relieved. Honnige et al. [124] investigated
the rolling process. The slotted roller reduced much greater WAAM deposited components in different conditions as-
residual stresses compared to the profiled roller. Due to deposited (AD), AD + stress relieved, interpass rolled (IR),
insufficient restriction in profiled roller, it was ineffective in IR + stress relieved, as shown in Fig. 30a–c. The results
the reduction of stresses. The additional limitation equipped show that as-deposited and IR specimens are tensile in the
in the slotted roller causes higher deformation due to com- longitudinal orientation. Compressive residual stress in the
pressive rolling loads on the component. normal orientation after thermal stress relief in both sam-
Sun et al. [122] reported that laser shock peening (LSP) ples. Due to thermal shrinkage, the tensile stresses are devel-
converts the compressive residual stress from tensile in oped in the longitudinal direction. However, the compressive
the top layer of the components, as shown in Fig. 29. It is stresses are generated in the normal direction due to stress
because of the effect of severe plastic deformation effect in reliving and deflects improvement of feasible hydrostatic
the LSP. LSP's shock waves cause higher deformation on the tensile stress.
surface, promoting strain hardening and providing residual Liu et al. [125] investigated stress distribution in flat and
stress in the component. curved WAAM specimens. The results of the flat specimen

Fig. 29  Residual stresses

analysis before and after laser
shock peening (LSP) [122].
Reproduced with permission
from Elsevier

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Fig. 31  Comparison of residual stresses between experiment and

numerical prediction [131]. Reproduced with permission from Else-
vier

was applied to the layers compared to the as-deposited

WAAM component. The UIT significantly impacts elimi-
nating the stresses due to substantial plastic deformation
on the component through similar impacts with parallel
shear and compressive modes with higher strain rates.
Also, several post-processing treatments control the resid-
ual stresses and deformation that has been discussed in
chapter 8.

6.2 Residual Stresses in Metal AM Components

The additive manufacturing process includes powder-based,

wire feed, and laser-based caused the generation of residual
Fig. 30  Residual stress in WAAM component after cold working: stresses in metal components. The stresses arise due to ther-
a longitudinal direction, b transverse direction, c normal direction mal history, temperature gradients, and localized plasticity.
[124]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier
Khouzani et al. [128] investigated that the fabricated part
has been observed with tensile stress in the bottom and top
surface and compression in the middle surface. During the
layer deposition adding a new layer on a previously depos-
ited layer reduces the tensile residual stresses due to solidifi-
show compressive, and the curved specimen shows tensile cation of previous layers and produces compressive stresses.
hoop stress. However, the axial stress through-thickness Beevers et al. [129] suggested that vibratory polishing can
obtains tensile in the top and bottom regions and compres- induce compressive residual stresses on the component.
sive in the interior due to material removal in both speci- Also, residual compressive stress can improve the material
mens. The hoop stress might be distributed with various life of metal AM fabrication. Bodner et al. [130] investigated
formations because of the irregular shape of the components. that in Inconel 625 alloy, the zig-zag cracks have occurred
But the axial stress might be distributed the same for curved due to mismatch of coefficient of thermal expansion in the
and flat components. sublayers causes residual stresses. The surface temperature
The influence of process parameters such as preheat altitude during deposition is strongly affected by scanning
temperature, arc power, weld travel speed, and base plate length and energy input [131]. Figure 31 shows the com-
thickness are interrelated to each other to obtain the resid- pared residual stress between numerically and experimen-
ual stress. Also, the thermomechanical behaviour of the tally predicted. This shows the reduction of residual stress in
component depends on the residual stress [126]. the shorter scanning length, leading to a higher temperature
Yang et al. [127] reported that 77.3% of residual stress rise in solid materials surrounding the melt pool. The tem-
was reduced when ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT) perature rise of surrounding materials is likely to reduce

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Fig. 32  a Microstructure of as built specimen [132] Residual stress formation model: b heating-phase, c cooling-phase [133]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier

thermal expansion inconsistency and the cooling rates dur- produced at a heated zone balanced by the compressive
ing the solidification of the melt pool. area. Also, the significant parameters such as laser power,
Tong et al. [132] reported that the as-deposited specimen travel speed during scanning, and temperature is signifi-
produces higher tensile residual stress. The tensile residual cant paraments associated with residual stress and dis-
stress increases with rising laser power. However, residual tortion, which post-processing treatments might control.
stress has been eliminated by the post-heat treatment pro-
cess. The authors also stated that the more extensive and
inhomogeneous stresses in the fabricated metal parts cause 7 Residual Stress Measurement Methods
a crack in the component, which can be seen in Fig. 32a. in Metal Components
Cheng et al. [134] suggested that optimal design sup-
port structure can prevent distortion and reduce residual The precise estimation of residual stresses is essential
stress. since they play a significant part in a component's life and
In metal AM fabrication, the residual stress depends performance. Residual stresses are categories on differ-
on process parameters such as scanning strategies, laser ent scales. i.e., Type I, Type II, and Type III. Where the
power, and dwell time. Li et al. [133] illustrated the new microlevel stresses were obtained in Type, I developed
model for residual stress formation in metal AM which in several grains. The microscale and nanoscale meas-
shows in Fig. 32b, c. The generated heat source is elimi- urements were obtained by Type II and III developed in
nated at the cooling stage, and tensile residual stress is single grains and several atomic distances. The residual

Fig. 33  Various residual stress

measurement technique

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Fig. 34  Digital photographs of residual stress measurement setup: a [137], d laser ultrasonic system [138], e contour measurement after
experimental set-up for XRD stress measurements assisted with uni- the first cut of the flat specimen [139], f experimental arrangement for
axial tensile tester [135], b Neutron diffractometer and samples [136], the Barkhausen Noise evaluation [140]. Reproduced with permission
c typical RS measurement setup on MTS 3000-hole drilling machine from Elsevier

stress measurements are classified into destructive, semi the strain may be determined by utilizing Braggs law,
destructive, and non-destructive, shown in Fig. 33. In and indeed, it is essential to have an exact estimate of the
destructive and semi destructive, the stress was measured stress-free interplanar spacing. It is a unique technique
by extracting the coupons from the developed component. to measure micro stresses. If the stress is obtained in the
This method includes cylindrical end mill drilling, deep material, the d spacing will vary from the non-stressed
hole drilling, contour, and sectioning methods used in state. The various diffraction techniques are as applies.
various applications such as manufacturing and construc-
tional members. X-ray, neutron diffraction, and ultrasonic 7.1.1 X‑ray Diffraction Method
methods are among the non-destructive measurements.
These techniques are used in aircraft industries, bridges, A non-destructive measuring method of residual stresses
offshore platforms, and inspection for large constructions. on the alloys' surface is the x-ray diffraction (XRD)
This method is effective, cost-minimizing, and also less method. The interplanar atomic spacing can be precisely
measurement time. Figure 34a–f shows the digital photo- measured by this method; this extent of the alloys' total
graphs of various residual stress measurement setup. And stress can be determined [145]. The stress calculation is
Fig. 35a–e exhibits the schematic illustration of various also acceptable for the alloys, which are crystalline, suf-
residual stress measurement principle. The various meas- ficiently fine-grained, and contribute to diffraction for
urement methods of residual stresses are as follows. different component surfaces' location. Chen et al. [135]
investigated residual stress by in situ XRD stress ana-
lyser integrated with tensile tests. Figure 34a exhibits the
7.1 Diffraction Techniques experimental setup of in situ XRD stress analysis. The
stresses in the transverse and longitudinal orientation of
In the Diffraction method, the modification in the d, inter- the specimen under various loading have been predicted by
planar spacing occurs according to significant deforma- the XRD stress analyser (LXRD, Proto, Canada). Angerer
tion elastically since their stress-free rate, ­d0 to d. Also, et al. [146] reported that the equi-penetration grazing

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Fig. 35  Schematic illustration of the measurement principle: a method [143], e Crack compliance method [144]. Reproduced with
change in interatomic lattice spacing [141], b cos α method [142], permission from Elsevier
c neutron diffraction geometry [136], d strain gauge hole-drilling

incidence X-ray diffraction (EPGIXD) technique was used rail samples measured and their surfaces. It can be estimated
to measure the residual stress depth profile and combined that the linearity often means that the relative surfaces lack
with rocking curve estimations for the coating absorp- shear stresses and textures. [150]. The macroscopic in-plane
tion. In addition to the number of methods established for stress σ11 and σ22 are adapted from lattice strain data by use
analysis of stresses, XRD methods, specifically the graz- of ­sin2 ψ method [136]. In ­Sin2 Ψ methods, the stress meas-
ing instance set-up, are unique because of their ability to urement was determined by the exclusion of the radiation
evaluate the stresses in very thin layers and analyse the cone and line detectors [151].
depth difference in the stresses [147]. Kohri et al. [148]
investigated that X-ray diffraction techniques such as Cos 7.1.1.2 Cos α Method Sansan et al. [142] analysed the
α and ­Sin2 Ψ methods for stress measurement. residual stress using the Debye ring in the co α method. The
signals could be intended in the area detector, exhibiting as
7.1.1.1 Sin2 ψ Method In ­sin2 ψ method, the XRD model a Debye ring, as displayed in Fig. 35b, by correlating the
reported different ψ angles in which the estimation of peak optimal Debye ring, the stress can be evaluated effectively.
shift. In this technique, the definite diffraction plane is cho- In the cos α method, the strain εα where α – 0 to 360º at the
sen first, and a combined scan at different tilt angles meas- Debye ring and the stress was estimated effectively [152].
ures the lattice parameters. [149]. Using the Bruker D8 If the residual stress exists in the material, the lattice spac-
advance devices with a Cu purpose, the XRD calculation ings of the crystals in various orientation (φ, ψ) and dif-
can be performed. However, the larger 2θ angle intended fraction angle will not be equal. This causes the distortion
larger X-ray diffusion depth, which might enlarge the XRD in the Debye ring, and the stress is estimated. In the Cos α
evaluation area and subsequently influence the stress values' method, the µ-X360 device is used for stress evaluation with
exactness. Ahmed et al. [141] stated that the ­sin2 ψ method the single exposure of X-ray. The stress is generated in the
is sufficient for the state of plane stress and was accordingly Debye ring [153].
used to determine the metal sample's residual stress strength
to a depth of about 20 μm. The change in lattice spacing as
shown in Fig. 35a. Also, this procedure is sufficient for the

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7.1.2 Neutron Diffraction Measurement generated in a component when the material is extracted.

The various methods of destructive techniques are classi-
Neutron diffraction residual stress measurement was per- fied as follows:
formed on the SALSA neutron diffractometer [154]. Air-
craft industries use this technique for stress measurement. 7.2.1 Hole Drilling Technique
This instrument's superior feature is the sample manipula-
tor, allowing for precise scanning of large and heavy (about This technique is one of the most widely used semi-destruc-
500 kg) samples together with some orientation, including tive residual stress assessment methods that can generate the
translations, tilts, and rotations. The angle dispersive neutron measurement of stress propagation in magnitude, direction,
diffraction was adopted to evaluate the strain and analysis of and meaning through-thickness. The stress can be deter-
the stresses in additive manufactured parts [155]. The use mined by drilling a small hole on the material's surface. The
of neutron diffraction in settling engineering-related issues hole typically produces the new stress field—the benefits
has become commonplace over the last two decades. Com- of greater precision, reliability, and sufficient for practical
paring to the X-ray method, the neutron diffraction method application. Swain et al. [137] reported that residual stress
has a larger penetration depth [156]. Also, it can be used to was estimated with the incremental hole-drilling strain gage
estimate the internal residual stresses. The comparative dif- technique utilizing MTS-3000 residual stress measurement
fraction geometry of diffraction vector n! Fig. 35c showed equipment, which can be seen in Fig. 34c. This technique
the neutron direction for the acquisition of triaxial stress. is equivalently small and fast. The hole-drilling method
The strain assessment collection was conducted to show the consists of a standard 45º strain rosette on the surface of
interplanar spacings [136]. The experiment set was shown in the metal part. The hole with indicated depth is drilled at
Fig. 34b. Compared to other diffraction techniques, the cost the strain rosette center. The elimination of material in the
is much higher in this technique due to the higher equipment hole allows latent stress to be released, resulting in new
cost. Muransky et al. [157] investigated neutron diffraction stress fields. [161]. The hole-drilling method is classified
stress measurement done by detecting a neutron beam and as follows;
detector's diffractions. Also, synchrotron diffraction is the
same principle used in X-ray diffraction techniques. 7.2.2 Strain Gauge Hole Drilling Method

7.1.3 Synchrotron Radiation The stain gauge hole drilling method is the traditional
method of surface residual stress measurement. It is the
The synchrotron radiation is used to estimate stresses on most commonly used method for stress measurement. This
the (hkl) plane and larger Bragg angle by supplying X-ray technique has the advantage of high accuracy, less expen-
synchrotron beams. The exciting, high-energy X-ray beams sive equipment, and semi destructive measurement method.
obtainable from synchrotron sources have an unparalleled The three categories of strain gauges used with the same
beam-parallel spatial resolution (1–100 μm) and rapid data limit were displayed in Fig. 35d to calculate the subsequent
acquisition times (1 ms). This enables the methodology to be radial strain measurement. A small shallow hole is drilled on
effectively adapted to the acquisition of two or three-dimen- the sample's surface, and an attached strain gauge measures
sional detailed maps of the strain profile. The phase tran- the deformation during the process [162]. Initial residual
sitions, however, would preferably be slow in neutron dif- stresses can be calculated from the distortions. There are
fraction [158]. However, engineering issues can be assessed two case studies; uniform and nonuniform stresses. The most
and residual stresses at deeper depths can be determined popular method for estimating non-uniform stresses is the
using X-ray synchrotron radiation and neutron diffraction. critical method, which calculates constant stresses within
Umapathi et al. [159] analysed residual stresses through syn- each depth [163]. Peral et al. [164] reported the stress analy-
chrotron radiation beam energy of 20 and 30 keV. This result sis on the hole-drilling strain gauge method. The stresses are
obtains that higher and deeper residual stresses in the alloys. measured using the non-uniform residual stress; this calcu-
The residual stress determined in the substrate surface of the lates the relived stress in the specified depth, which varies
thick plasma-sprayed ­Al2O3 coating by synchrotron X-ray with the hole's total depth. ASTM E837-13 standardized for
radiation was reported by Georgopoulos et al. [160]. the hole-drilling strain gauge method.

7.2 Mechanical Destructive Technique 7.2.3 Ring Core Technique

This method is one of the common methods measuring The ring core's measuring procedure theory is compatible
residual surface stresses. These techniques are known with that of the hole drilling technique. The stress is meas-
stress-relieving techniques that study the reliving of stress ured by preparing a circular grooved in the drilled area. A

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diameter D ring groove is milled by a crown milling cutter 7.2.6 Nano Indentation Technique
in the measured area, reliving the ring core residual stress.
At present, the ring core method's use is limited depending In this technique, the data can be determined, such as the
on the specifications for the equipment and strain gauges, hardness of the material and modulus of elasticity, and the
but its advantages are magnificent. For instance, the stresses residual stress. Ding et al. [169] reported that the nanoin-
in wide depth can be estimated with precise measurement dentation technique was made on titanium alloy to meas-
than the hole drilling technique. The MTS3000 is a ring ure their mechanical properties. The indentation method
core stress measurement system with a sensitivity 3–4 times was obtained by the standard Rockwell hardness test and
greater than that of hole drilling and the potential to measure Vickers hardness test on residual stress assessment. As a
stress to a depth of 5 mm [143]. recently established method for estimating residual stress,
it has the benefits of being non-destructive, quick, and able
7.2.4 Hole‑Drilling Process Based on Electronic Speckle to determine the material properties in a lesser range. The
Pattern Interferometry nanoindentation technique is performed in austenitic steels
to analysis the deformation mechanisms and phase revisions
As previously described, strain gauges are used to calculate [170]. However, the precise estimation and scope of applica-
strain in the traditional hole drilling and ring core methods. tion in the model still need to be evaluated, and a complete
Still, there are difficulties because the measuring precision measurement model must be developed for various factors
is caused by the strain gauge alone. However, laser speckle disturbing residual stress.
interferometry was introduced to improve the measuring
process compared to strain gauges to estimate the strain 7.3 Ultrasonic Measurement Technique
relived using the mechanical process. In this process, the
beam from a solid-state laser source supplied by a diode is The use of ultrasound is a positive way to build up a non-
divided into two beams and absorbed into two monomode destructive method for measuring residual stresses. The
optical fibers and inhabits the light transmitted by the com- stress is calculated in this system according to the acoustic
ponent's optically rough surface. [165]. For each drill addi- elasticity effect. The speed of elastic wave propagation in
tion, the identical speckle pattern was recognized at four solids depends on the mechanical stress. [171]. Also, resid-
various piezoelectric translators' positions. This approach ual stresses can determine in the thick specimens by using
allows the fringe pattern to be produced by encoding the this method. The Nd: YAG laser setup (Dawa-100) Fig. 34d
sample's data about the displacement adept along the sensi- is utilised to produce the ultrasonic waves to measure the
tivity vector [166]. The displacement mapping was used to residual stress in the additive manufacture metal part [138].
determine the stresses. The residual stress ultrasonic evaluation is obtained from
the acoustoelastic principle. This influence contributes to
7.2.5 Deep Hole Method the shift in ultrasonic wave production's velocity, as attested
by the state of material strain [172]. Routine inspection pro-
In this method, the hole is drilled first over the thickness cedures for large parts such as steam turbine discs are also
of the metal part. The hole diameter can be estimated pre- highly recommended for this method because it is com-
cisely, and then a center of alloy throughout the hole is tre- pletely compact and less expensive.
panned out, and reliving the residual stresses in the center.
The hole diameter is remeasured, permitting subsequently, 7.4 Sectioning Method
the residual stress is determined from the difference in hole
diameter. Skouras et al. [167] reported that residual stresses The sectioning technique is a destructive method. This
are measured using the deep hole drilling method. The refer- method will be well suitable for measuring stresses in the
ence hole serves as an internal strain gauge, and the varia- longitudinal and structural members. The strains recovered
tion in the hole diameter before and after trepanning is uti- during the cutting process are usually measured through
lised to estimate the residual stresses. The complex residual electrical and mechanical strain gauges. In general, the sec-
stress produced within the weld was stated by Zheng et al. tioning method's material strips relief will consecutively
[168], and the newly developed novel application of the deep illustrate both curvature and axial deformation, similar to
hole drilling (DHD) technique to estimate residual stresses the membrane and bending residual stresses (through-thick-
was expanded. When determining residual stresses in the ness). This method has been utilised to measure the resid-
specimen, the DHD process, like all mechanical strain relief ual stresses in the structural steel members [173]. Residual
methods, suffers from plastic relaxation throughout material stress analysis of structural carbon steel, aluminium alloys,
removal during the trepanning stage. and stainless-steel parts has been commonly used [158].

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7.5 Internal Residual Stress Measurement The uniformity and controllability of the removed material
are the key factors influencing the stripping process's preci-
7.5.1 Contour Method sion. During stripping, both the formation and mitigation
of the stresses need to be analyzed. Residual stresses typi-
This method offers higher spatial resolution and is a relaxa- cally have complicated propagation to create faults of com-
tion technique recently developed that provides a two-dimen- plex geometry. Sami et al. [176] reported that strip rolling
sional residual stress graph to evaluate a plane of interest. strips are manufactured under tension, which influences the
The contour technique's implementation consists primarily geometry and extent defects that also rise and evolve during
of four stages: sample cutting, estimation of the contour, tensile release. Terry et al. [177] stated that residual stresses
relaxation of data, and stress analysis. The approximate dis- are measured using the bent strip approach in physically
placements are used in the standard contour procedure to isotropic, linear elastic metallic, and polymeric films.
determine the initial residual tension. The residual stresses
originate from the eigenstrain, and the multi-axial contour 7.6 Magnetic Methods
technique theory is based on data analysis from the expected
deformation of the eigenstrain. Ahmad et al. [174] utilised 7.6.1 Magnetic Memory Method
the contour technique to estimate the residual stress in the
build direction of titanium and Inconel 718 components The permanent change in the magnetic field in the region
fabricated through the additive manufacturing process. The of absorption of stress and interruption of the metal parts
biaxial internal stress distributions of the WAAM deposited material. Due to the irreversible shift of magnetization in the
flat and curved samples were estimated by the two-cut con- stress absorption zone and the interruption of the material
tour technique [139]. The experimental setup of this method in the metal sections, a magnetic leakage field can develop
was displayed in Fig. 34e. inside the material, resulting in a magnetic leakage field
that persists after the load has dissipated. The discrepancy
7.5.2 Crack Compliance Method between the measured magnetic signal curve and the cor-
responding magnetic signal's gradient information can be
In this technique, the slot or cut was induced in the mate- used to infer the workpiece's stress extraction area. Zhang
rial. The most commonly used is a slot. Prime et al. [175] et al. [178] stated that the intrinsic similarity of nonlinear
analysed residual stress by the subsequential expansion of a magneto-mechanical coupling for ferromagnetic materials
slotted approach for estimating the resulting deformations. under fatigue loading is generated based on the local equilib-
The slots can be included by milling or electric discharge rium state of magnetization and its relationship stress–strain
machine. The photo elastic coating technique is used in this reaction in the classical theory of fatigue. In the following
process to measure the stress distribution variables at vari- literature, this technique's precision and its location accuracy
ous crack depths and then determine residual stresses [143]. were reviewed [179].
This approach has the benefits of simple operating and less
cost of machinery. It calculates the internal stress distribu- 7.6.2 Magnetic Strain Method
tion in metal with an uncomplicated structure and low-stress
range. The accuracy of this calculation is higher than hole The stress is proportional to the individual magnetic per-
drilling and stripping methods since this approach is sus- meability variance, and the residual stress is calculated by
ceptible. Zhao et al. [144] reported the crack compliance measuring the maximum magnetic resistance variance in the
method is utilised to estimate the residual stresses in the magnetic circuit. The magnetic inferred strain is a signifi-
metal specimen fabricated by electron beam melting and cant vibration source in electromagnetic parts and electric
selective laser melting of titanium and aluminium alloys. machines [180]. To estimate residual strain in low carbon
The measurement technique was shown in Fig. 35e. In the steels, the eddy current magnetic signature (ECMS) process,
crack compliance process, the residual stress is known, the a new magnetic non-destructive test device, is recommended
duration of the crack's duration is known, and the approxi- [181]. If a less frequency substantial magnetic field is envel-
mate strain is used to calculate the residual stress. oped, this technique relies on analyzing eddy current signals
in the impedance plane.
7.5.3 Stripping Method
7.6.3 Barkhausen Noise Method
During milling (stripping), the stripping technique, the con-
version tension originates on the machined surface, influ- This technique is a non-destructive method. In this method,
encing the stain's effects. The stripping process is known as the noise like signals influenced by the ferromagnetic mate-
milling, and there are two primary methods of electrolysis. rials consisting of magnetic fields called magnetic domains

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is appropriate. The force on the domain wall exceeds the one of the most significant ways to deal with stress-relief,
restraining force as greater magnetic flux force values are stabilizing the microstructure and improving the alloys'
used, resulting in pinning positions. In minor hops, there mechanical property [186]. Subtransus heat treatments
is a spike in magnetization, which similarly gives rise to of Ti–6Al–4 V alloy including two annealing treatments
hysteresis. By setting an inductive coil close to the part 600 ºC/4 h, 850 ºC/2 h AC and three solution and aging
being magnetized, this rise can be measured. Owing to treatments 930 ºC/1 h/AC + 550 ºC/4 h/AC, 930 ºC/1 h/
these magnetic properties, the coil is affected by an elec- WQ + 550 ºC/4 h/AC, 930 ºC/1 h/WQ + 800 ºC/2 h/AC. This
trical pulse. Simultaneously, all-electric impulses produced could improve ductility while maintaining strength at a high
by all domain’s motions are combined as a signal-like level. Ahsan et al. [187] investigated that the smooth compo-
noise called Barkhausen noise [182]. Ju et al. [183] stated sitional gradient (i.e., Temperature and volume versus depth)
that to determine the residual stress distribution in an API was not obtained when the WAAM SS 316L component is
X65 pipeline welding, the modified magnetic Barkhausen heat-treated for 950º C for 30 min. However, the smoother
noise approach was adopted. The experimental setup of compositional gradient was obtained when heat-treated at
the Barkhausen noise (BN) can be seen in Fig. 34f of the 850º C for 1 h. This specifies that time is more significant
national instruments (Texas, United States) linked to the NI than the temperature. The compositional gradient is caused
DAQExpress software framework for BN research [140]. by increasing temperature. During the WAAM fabrication of
The data acquired in a sampling frequency of 250 kHz with aluminum alloy, the porosity defect has limited their appli-
16 bits of resolution. This method is also suitable for esti- cations to reach the final application [188]. Qi et al. [71]
mating subsurface stresses without the use of removing the reported that the distinct dendrite morphology was not pre-
surface layer. In the ultrasonic technique, the stress is meas- sented in as fabricated condition after heat treatment. How-
ured by the velocity measurement. The ultrasonic waves ever, the inhomogeneous material properties improve the
and the Barkhausen technique are concerned with noise- hardness after heat treatment. Solution treatment at 1240 K
like signals produced when a magnetic field is directed to a resulted in quenching, and 2 h of ageing at 686 K refined
ferromagnet [184]. the as-built grain size, resulting in a 12 percent improve-
ment in strength but a 30 percent reduction in ductility [189].
The microstructure becomes homogeneous with stress relief
8 Post and in Process Treatments heat treatment compared to the as-deposited part [190]. The
quenching and tempering heat treatment eliminates the addi-
In order to improve the material properties and control the tively manufactured component's anisotropy; also, extensive
residual stresses, post-processing treatments are essentially heat treatment has to be controlled [191]. In WAAM pro-
required for particular application requirements. The post- cessed Inconel 718 alloy dissolves the Laves phases after the
processing treatments are used in metal parts to eliminate post-heat treatments. Consequently, the post-heat-treatment
the residual stresses and improve the deposited metal parts' cycle's use to WAAM part requirements for a particular
material behaviour. Similarly, the various post-fabrication material and its specific applications.
treatments enhance the material properties and strength in
superalloys, Titanium, and aluminium alloys, respectively, 8.2 Work Hardening
are listed in Tables 2 and 3. The post-processing treatments
play a significant part in grain refinement. Hence, post-fabri- This process is used to make the material harder and stronger
cation treatments' capabilities to WAAM parts requirements through plastic deformation. Marenych et al. [192] investi-
to evaluate the particular material also their application. gated the work hardening behaviour of WAAM fabricated
Ni-Cu alloys. The alloy shows higher hardness, tensile and
8.1 Heat Treatments yield strength due to severe plastic deformation.
Han et al. [193] investigated the ultrasonic micro-forg-
Heat treatment is performed by heating and cooling met- ing treatment (UMFT) of Wire deposited alloy. The UMFT
als to refine the material properties without changing the reduced grain size and improved material properties. The
component's geometry. The improved strength and hardness UMFT process performs continuous ultrasonic shock treat-
with reduced porosity were observed due to the formation ment and deformation treatment on every deposited layer's
of a higher amount of Si particles in the Al matrix when top surface. The ultrasonic energy has been directly applied
WAAM fabricated thin-walled A357 aluminium alloy is to the interior of the build layers. Figure 36a indicates the
heated from 25º C to 535º C at 10º C/min at 14 h time. Fur- UMFT process.
ther, water quenching (WQ) and artificial aging were done Gou et al. [195] investigated the ultrasonic peen-
at 165º C for 7 h, followed by furnace cooling [185]. Owing ing treatment (UPT) on the WAAM fabricated compo-
to the AM process's near-net-shape nature, heat treatment is nent. UPT alters the stress distribution from tensile to

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Metals and Materials International

(a)

(c)

Treated
(b) Magneto strictive Transducer Wave Guide Indenter
Surface

Ultrasonic Impact
oscillations Impulse

Fig. 36  Work hardening techniques: a ultrasonic micro-forging treatment [193], b ultrasonic peening treatment [194], c laser shock peening
[122]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier

compressive in the top layers. Also, it reduces the ani- stress and enhanced the material properties. Figure 36c
sotropic percentage. The grains are completely refined exhibits the LSP process [122]. Varian et al. [199]
with improved tensile properties. The UPT on additive reported that LSP-induced compressive stresses and
manufactured components generates compressive residual severe plastic deformation result in refining microstruc-
stress, reduces porosity, and improves corrosion resist- ture with homogeneous material properties. The wrought
ance due to plastic deformation [194]. UPT is used in alloy has a higher work hardening rate when compared to
a broad scope of applications in the fields of pressure WAAM deposited alloy [200]. Zhang et al. [201] inves-
vessels, railway, automobiles, and ships. Figure 36b tigated a 0.99% mixer of nitrogen content in Cr-Mn steel
shows the UPT process. Honnige et al. [196] reported processed by CMT-based WAAM. Due to nitrogen work
novel machine hammer peening (MHP) on WAAM fab- hardening affect the yield and ultimate tensile strength,
ricated alloy. The residual stresses in the peened sam- anisotropy is highly reduced. Various work-hardening
ples exhibit compressive stresses in all the regions due treatments are essentially required to mitigate residual
to plastic deformation. The laser shock peening (LSP), a stress and obtain high strength for particular applications.
novel surface treatment method, modifies tensile to com-
pressive residual stresses of the additive manufactured 8.3 Interpass Rolling
components.
However, LSP generates refined grains and decrease The distortion and residual stress are some of the major
diffraction peak intensity [197, 198]. The uncontrolled problems during the fabrication of the metal parts. In
grain size and tensile residual stress in the as-deposited interpass rolling, the reduced residual stresses have been
WAAM components have limited their application. LSP observed. During WAAM fabrication, the high thermal
treatment helps to refine the microstructure, compressive gradient during the deposition of layers heating and

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cooling causes the anisotropic microstructure and mate- process also controls the residual stress in the metal com-
rial properties. Also, rolling induced higher strength and ponents. The interpass co2 gas cooling reduces the compo-
improved mechanical properties such as microhardness nent deformation by heat removal and minimizes the heat
and tensile strength [202]. Parvaresh et al. [203] reported accumulation during fabrication. It also reduces 80% of fab-
increases in tensile properties and reduced the grain size rication time by activating interpass cooling [205]. Using
in both vertical and horizontal directions of the specimens interpass gas cooling in-process treatment, the component
with the increase of interlayer cold working of WAAM results in inhomogeneous microstructure, reduced surface
components. Honnige et al. [117] investigated two differ- oxidization, higher hardness and isotropic material proper-
ent rolling kinds, such as side rolling and vertical rolling. ties with enhanced strength.
Both techniques effectively eliminate residual stresses
and distortion. Also, it improves microstructure, strength
and reduces porosity. The rolling with profile roller and 9 FEA Simulation in WAAM Process
inverted profile roller reduces the grain size and distribu-
tion with refined microstructure [204]. Finite element analysis (FEA) simulation of the WAAM
process provides significant insights into how temperature
8.4 Interpass Cooling distribution and residual stresses are developed during the
metal component fabrication. During the layer-by-layer
Interpass cooling strategy is created and assessed at the deposition, a material sustains various re-heating and re-
University of Wollongong. In this method, the co2 the cold cooling cycles. This transient thermal behaviour affects the
spray nozzle was combined with the welding torch. Accord- performance of the component. The multiple approaches to
ing to the specification, the nozzle flow is controlled by the numerical modeling are discussed in this study.
cold spray. The cold spray has been activated after the layer
deposition. By using the cold spray, the layer temperature 9.1 Thermo‑Mechanical Analysis
and heat have been reduced. Wu et al. [96] investigated that
forced interpass cooling during the WAAM process. The The general process of thermomechanical analysis for simu-
process shows the desired microstructure and better mate- lating temperature distribution and evaluating residual stress
rial properties and improves manufacturing efficiency. This and distortion using FEM is shown in Figs. 37 and 38. The

Fig. 37  Thermal analysis work

flow

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Fig. 38  Mechanical analysis

work flow

transient thermal analysis was performed to acquire the tem- material properties. Therefore, to anticipate the approximat-
perature fields. This temperature distribution helps to extract ing distortion, and residual stress a mechanical analysis is
the material characteristics of the deposited components. performed. The mechanical analysis workflow was shown
Ge et al. [206] studied the nonlinear thermal model and in Fig. 38.
the thermoelastic-plastic model for temperature and stress The moving heat source model and temperature disper-
simulation of WAAM. The highest transient stress has been sion has been investigated in thermal analysis. The thermal
noted in the top and last layer. From the bottom to the mid- and structural investigation can be uncoupled or coupled.
dle layer, the peak temperature was raised until it reached a In the coupled analysis, the high temperature produced by
stable range in the top layers. While depositing the new layer plastic disfigurement of the material is intended in the cal-
on the top surface the higher magnitude of residual stress culations of the heat source distribution. In the uncoupled
is observed because of the reheating and cooling processes analysis, the interaction between the stress filed has not con-
that occur when a new layer is being deposited on the top sidered. In addition, 3D coupled FE models for temperature
surface. distribution, residual stress, and deformation calculations
The thermal transient analysis's temperature filed profile were developed, as indicated by Cheng et al. [208] and Parry
is applied to the finite element model as an external load and et al. [209], during the deposition process. The FEA calcu-
boundary constraint [207]. The thermal analysis workflow lations can be carried out using commercial software, such
was shown in Fig. 37. as ABAQUS [210], ANSYS [211], Simufact [212], or MSC
The input, such as element type and process parameters to Marc [213]. The thermal and mechanical analysis was per-
calculate the heat source model, are modeling, meshing, and formed to obtain the temperature distribution and residual

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stresses. Apparently, the thermomechanical simulations qualities of mesh, and poor meshing ends up in inaccurate
are time-consuming when a higher volume of materials are numerical results.
deposited.
For the accurate simulation of the AM process, defin- 9.2 Heat Source Model
ing material properties is the basis for predicting accurate
results. Temperature-dependent material properties that This impact of heat supply is the critical problem in perform-
influence AM process assessment include density, basic ing finite analysis of the Gaussian distribution model's torch
heat power, and conductivity. Some of the other proper- deposition. The heat source moving model has followed the
ties are also considered as temperature-dependent, such as heat flux Gaussian distribution, 3D conical Gaussian distri-
modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, coefficient of ther- bution, and Double ellipsoidal heat flux model. The various
mal extension, and yield strength. These material proper- heat source model was shown in Fig. 39a–c. The majority
ties are used for coupled or uncoupled thermomechanical of studies are used the double ellipsoidal heat source model
analysis. Also, this simulation can be performed by using for simulation [217, 218]. The heat source is an important
explicit or implicit methods. For particularly large element contribution to FEA during the layer deposition. The heat
deformation and complex conditions, the explicit analysis is source moves on the elements were the layer was deposited.
suitable [214]. The explicit method is less expensive and a It is significant to create a dissipate heat source model for
lesser time period to run the simulation compared to implicit simulation were the influence of heat source acts as a signifi-
analysis [215]. However, for complex and lengthy calcu- cant role in the melt pool geometry and mechanical execu-
lations, the time increment is more in an explicit method. tion of the part. Zhang et al. [219] investigated the various
The implicit method shows more accurate results; also, this 3D heat source models shown in Fig. 40a–h to estimate the
method is efficient for solving uncomplicated problems and dimensions of melt pool and surface structure on dissimi-
faster than explicit analysis [216]. However, the explicit lar thermal conductivity and laser absorptivity during the
process is time-consuming; again, this method is efficient powder-based AM process. The following Eq. 1 gives the
for solving complicated problems with smoother meshes. gaussian distribution of heat flux the intensity of I(r).
Also, the FEA simulation's integrity is highly plagued by the

Fig. 39  Heat source model: a

Gaussian distribution of heat
flux, b 3D conical Gaussian dis-
tribution heat source, c double-
ellipsoidal heat source model

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Fig. 40  The schematic of the heat source models: a cylindrical shape, method, h exponentially decaying method [219]. Reproduced with
b semi-spherical shape, c semi-ellipsoidal shape, d conical shape, e permission from Elsevier
radiation transfer method, f ray-tracing method, g linearly decaying

( )
2AP 2r2
I(r) = exp − 2 (1)
𝜋𝜔 𝜔

A is power absorptivity, P power of the beam, and ω area

unit radius whereby the e­ 2 factor the magnitude is decreased
at the beam center.
The heat conduction issues associated with the moving
heat source was used in many engineering areas, such as
welding, additive manufacturing, surface hardening, laser
treatments, etc. Heat flux is a form of the heat source. A
significant segment of any additive manufacturing model is
a heat source model. It is a numerical formality. The role of
the heat source is to melt the wire or powder to fabricate the
component. The heat source model's physical attributes are
displayed in Fig. 41. Fig. 41  Physical aspects of heat source

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obtained using the ideal Lagrange multiplier. The increase

in volume by unit division step is equivalent to the droplet
volume provided with the metal wire. Once the computation
step is completed, the welding torch is induced to analyse the
calculation step per quantity of motion. These calculations
are constants until the welding torch moves forward from the
deposition's starting point to the endpoint. The above steps
can simulate the bead geometry of the deposition process.
In the WAAM process, the primary heat source used
is tungsten inert gas (GTA), plasma arc (PA) and inert
metal gas (GMA). The high beam energy used to create a
Fig. 42  Heat transfer mechanism molten pool melted the combined filler wire in this process
and deposited it to build a part in a baseplate with layer-
9.2.1 Analysis of Heat Source by-layer. When melting the filler wire using an arc as a
heat source, a series of physical approaches occur to cre-
In the wire + arc additive manufacturing process, the part is ate multiple deposition WAAM components. This process
manufactured by melting the metal wire. Heat is added to consists of energy absorption by filler material and base
the system to melt the metal wire using a heat source as an plate materials, different heat transfer methods, the crea-
arc. The arc has been inactivated after the deposition of the tion of melted pools, the movement of liquid metal within
metal wire, and no geometry is existing in the underlying the melt pool, and the evaporation of free surface alloying
regions, in that time, cooling will occur. By convection and components, solidification, and solid-state phase transfor-
radiation, heat escapes from the system to encompassing. mation. The modelling of physical approaches focused on
Figure 42 shows the heat transfer mechanism. the occurrence of transition is essential for the metal parts'
The thermal variation profile was analyzed through the methods, structures, and characteristics.
thermal conduction investigation. To determine the metal
geometry during the fabrication process. From the ana- 9.2.2 Models of Heat Sources in WAAM
lyzed results, the molten pool was determined. With that
point, the shape of the melt pool was evaluated in between A numerical representation of heat supply is required to
the molten geometry. The temperature profile was deter- estimate solidification, bead geometry, and properties. The
mined by settling the following heat conduction Eq. 2 in various types of welding heat sources are used in the WAAM
the thermal conduction analysis [220]. process, such as point, line, and distributed (volumetric and
( ) ( ) ( ) surface) heat source. The gaussian and volumetric heat
𝜌
𝜕H
=
𝜕
k
𝜕T
+
𝜕
k
𝜕T
+
𝜕
k
𝜕T
+q (2) sources are mainly used to analyse the fluid flow and heat
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕y 𝜕z 𝜕z transfer in the WAAM process.
where ρ—density (Kg/mm3), H- Enthalpy (J/kg), t—time
9.2.2.1 Point Heat Sources In metal AM the point heat
(s), T is the temperature (K), k- heat conductivity (J/m. s.
source is absorbed in thin spots. The electric arc, elec-
k), q—heat supply by unit volume (J/ (s ­m3)).
tron beams, and lasers generally used as heat sources. The
For the molten pool, arc pressure, gravity, and surface
absorbed arc, laser, and electron beam diameter is 100 µm
tension are intended to be pitiful forces. While arc pres-
and 5 mm accordingly. Although the diameter varies rel-
sure, surface energy, and gravity are negligible due to
evantly based on the application. Elham et al. [221, 222]
surface forces, the melt pool geometry is expected to be
reported that a point heat source could predict the metal
uniform. On this assumption, the resulting equation (Eq. 3)
AM process's temperature distribution. Also, the point heat
is achieved [220].
source is beneficial in the laser-based process compared
� � � � ⎤ to the arc and electron beam. The study state and transient
⎡ 2 2
⎢ 1 + 𝜑y 𝜑xx − 2𝜑x 𝜑y 𝜑xy + 1 + 𝜑x 𝜑yy ⎥ moving point heat source can determine the melt pool geom-
𝜎⎢ � �3∕2 ⎥ = 𝜌g𝜑 + P − 𝜆
⎢ 2 + 𝜑2 ⎥
etry. The lower and medium scanning speeds provide better
1 + 𝜑
⎣ x y ⎦ melt pool geometry than the higher scanning speed of mov-
(3) ing heat source. Because of the function of the rapid change
where σ—surface tension (N/m), φ—surface displacement in the modelling of these heat sources. Dutta et al. [223]
(mm), g—gravity (m/s2), P—arc pressure (N/mm2), and λ reported the temperature distribution model of GTA welded
is a Lagrange multiplier. The melt pool geometry can be thick plate. The thermal conductivity has a significant effect
on the cooling rate, and the deviation has been predicted

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based on the Carslaw-jaegers mathematical model of mov-

ing point heat source. Whereas at the beginning of the arc,
the thermal conductivity is high as the temperature is higher
found after 5 s. The intense drop in thermal conductivity
exhibits the reduction of maximal temperature after 5 s. The
difference shows the transient nature of thermal conductiv-
ity and rapid transform in maximum temperature effects for
less time. The clarification of the heat source for the moving
point eliminates the complexity of energy diffusion at the
time. To predict the temperature distribution in 3D, it gives
a closed-form analytical measurement. Expressly, the ana-
lytical solution for a single heat conduction problem with Fig. 43  Surface heat flux Gaussian profile
point heat source specified in Eq. 4 [224]:
√
q(x) x2 +y2 +x
electric arcs, electron beams, and lasers and usually create
−v
T = T0 + √ e 2D
(4)
4𝜋k x2 + y2 to observe the resulting axisymmetric Gaussian profiles
equation (Eq. 6) [228]:
T is temperature, k is thermal conductivity, T0 is initial ( )
temperature, q is power absorber, and D is thermal diffusiv- f 𝜖P r2
Pd = exp −f (6)
ity. The heat source placed at x = 0 and y = 0 at this point, the 𝜋rb 2 rb 2
temperature is limitless since the heat source range shows in
the above formulation factor. Thus f—power distribution factor, P—gross power,
rb—radius of heat source, r—a radial range of a point of
surface to the heat source axis. The power intensity in
9.2.2.2 Line Heat Sources The thermal transfer behaviour the surface heat source differs as a concern of beam axis
in line heat sources is usually two-dimensional with the radius. It is not necessary to determine these beam radius
right angle on the supply. Suresh kumar et al. [225] reported variations in the sources of line and point heat. Due to the
the laser welding process's temperature fields using line heat WAAM process's heat conduction, the heat supply may be
sources. This heat source enters over the thickness and leads dissipated by a gaussian profile as a length from its centre,
to surface 2D heat flux along with the heat input of large- shown in Fig. 43.
power densities. Such a situation still exists and causes rapid
solidification below the heat source and visible evaporation, 9.2.2.4 Volumetric Heat Source The wire is widely seen
producing a faint and small vapour indentation called the to obtain beneficial thermal properties to attain abso-
keyhole. The keyhole formation is more relevant in line heat lute computational efficiency. The interface between the
source than point source [226]. thermal energy calculated and the potential substance is
A few solutions solved the heat conduction equation with understood as a volumetric heat source used in the mate-
the line heat source, this kind of interface between the heat rial. The filler wire absorbs heat in the GMA technique
sources and materials was measured. The quasi-steady-state similar to that of the consumable electrode. The wire is
temperature fields are defined in the following Eq. 5 [227]. periodically preheated by initial heating, adopting an alter-
native heat supply to increase the heat transfer and melting
q −Vx [ −Vr ]
T − T0 = e 2D k0 (5) rates. The volumetric heat source is utilized to simulate
2𝜋kd 2D the MIG technique [229]. Bag et al. [230] reported the
T—temperature, ­T 0—initial temperature, q—power melt pool size and shape were predicted by the volumet-
absorbed, D—temperature diffusivity, d—thickness of the ric heat source model in the laser welding process. The
plate, ­k0—modified Bessel function, V—scanning speed, model will directly help to understand the influences of
x—a distance of the moving line heat source parallel to the process parameters on the melt pool's geometry and create
travel direction and r is the radial range in heat supply to the an allowable range of process parameters for a desirable
area at which the temperature intended. substance where an inferable solution is fast and repeti-
tive. The volumetric heat source model was also used in
the WAAM process, based on PAW [231] and CMT [232].
9.2.2.3 Surface Heat Sources It is the common heat source Double-Ellipsoidal Heat Source Hussein et al. [233]
model for the simulation of welding numerical analysis. The studied the AM fabrication's temperature distribution by
surface heat flux gaussian distribution can be calculated for applying the Gaussian distribution heat flux model. This

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model is not suitable for deeper penetration. The effect

of laser pressure on the molten pool surface has not been
considered in this model. However, the double-ellipsoidal
heat supply is appropriate for analyzing the deeper pen-
etration. During Gaussian distribution, the moving heat
source model incorporates two distinct elisions, i.e., front
and back quadrant of the heat accumulation. Heat transi-
tion within the front portion of the heat supply and the
back portion of the heat supply is stated as follows Eq. 7.
√
−3z2
6 3ff Q −3x2 −3y2
c2
qf (x, y, z) = √ e a2
⋅ e b 2
⋅ e f

abcf 𝜋 𝜋
√ (7)
6 3fr Q −3x2 −3y2 −3z2

√ e a ⋅e b ⋅e r
2
qr(x,y,z) = 2 2 c

abcr 𝜋 𝜋
Fig. 44  The adaptive double-ellipsoidal heat source model: an exam-
ple of distribution [235]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier
While Q is the energy input rate, ff and fr are the uncom-
plete attributes of the heat accumulation within the front
and back quadrant, and a, b, cf , and cr are parameters of The layer deposit on the substrate was displayed in
the heat source. The double-ellipsoidal heat source model Fig. 45a–d; as an increase in time, the deposited bead's shape
was not applicable for high density, with a large width to and melt pool temperature expand uniformly. The current
depth ratio. Ding et al. [234] investigated heat distribution and travel speed is uniform. The melt pool geometry did not
on WAAM deposition by utilizing a double ellipsoidal heat vary immensely after 2 s; if noticed in the arc coordinate
source model. system, it reaches a quasi-steady condition. The maximum
Bai et al. [235] stated that if keyhole formation cannot be temperature obtains at 3 mm behind the arc centre in a wire
ignored, an integrated double ellipsoidal and conical volu- feeding location. The arc forces are so stable in the keyhole
metric heat source provides better performance. However, PAW system that the stagnation can also disperse and cre-
the deeper keyholes can be prevented by the PA-WAAM ate a thin substrate's keyhole. The keyhole can be prevented
technique to benefit from build-up. Thus, the changed dou- mainly in PAW based WAAM technique due to defects dur-
ble-ellipsoidal volumetric heat source model (Eq. 8) was ing deposition [235].
adopted. The GMAW models for the simulation of the metal
√ � �
⎧ 12 3Qarc exp − 3(x−x0 −VT t ) − 3(y−y0 ) − 3Zs2 (x − x − VT t > 0)
2 2

⎪ (a1 +a2 )bc𝜋 a12

b 2 c2 0
qarc (x, y, z) = ⎨ √ � � (8)
3Zs2 � �
2 2
⎪ 12 3Qarc exp − 3(x−x0 −VT ) 3(y−y0 )
t
− b2 − c2 t
x − x0 − VT ≤ 0
⎩ (a1 +a2 )bc𝜋 a22

The workpiece equation was associated with the base. transfer droplet from the metal wire to the melt pool were
The point (X0 + VTt, Y0, Z0) is the arc bottom point's pre- reported by Ou et al. [237]. Figure 46a, b exhibits the tem-
sent location. Diffusion parameters such as a1, a2, b, and c perature distribution and velocity profile through the fabrica-
were defined using the literature method [236]. The modified tion process. The molten pool elongates through the dissimi-
heat source case uses ­zs, the current to intermediate zone in lar path of the arc motion because of the quick scanning. The
the Z direction, and the exact Z coordinate since the free sur- phase region consists of liquid and solid material, generally
face is largely distorted. The distribution of the volumetric termed as the mushy zone; it is determined by the tempera-
modified double ellipsoidal heat source during the WAAM tures of (1585 k) in solid and (1725 k) in liquid isotherms.
process is shown in Fig. 44. Arc propagation, in which the The aspects of the mushy site play a significant role during
free surface is curved, can be observed. This means the heat solidification. The liquid isotherm region is referred to as
supply stays constant during solidification, although the melt the fusion region. The molten metal velocity fields are indi-
pool's intensively varying surface geometry. This heat source cated by the black arrows shown in Fig. 46b, the magnitude
model has higher stability than the standard double ellipsoi- of which could be determined by evaluating their lengths
dal heat source model for an unusual free surface. through the specified attribution vector.

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Fig. 45  3D views of molten

pool and deposited bead dur-
ing PAW process the 1st layer
deposition at different time: a
t = 2.0 s, b t = 4.0 s, c t = 8.0 s,
d t = 10.0 s [235]. Reproduced
with permission from Elsevier

Fig. 46  Temperature and

velocity profiles of GMAW and
CMT deposition process a and
b GMAW based process [237]
c and d CMT based process
[238]. Reproduced with permis-
sion from Elsevier

Cadiou et al. [238] reported the metal transfer behaviour 9.2.2.5 Conical Heat Source Israr et al. [239] analyzed the
of the WAAM based CMT process. Figure 46c, d exhib- deposition paths' heat flow by activating the heat source on
its the temperature and velocity profiles. Hence, the melt the element obtained by thermomechanical simulation. The
pool's extension occurs in various cycles and propagates 3D conical Gaussian distribution model is used for deeper
the deposits at a different time period. The numerically pre- penetration. The melt pool shapes can be obtained from
dicted results show that the higher velocity flow occurs at the cross-sectional metallurgy data and surface ripple mark-
point of the droplet's impact. And in the front region of the ings, shown in Fig. 39b. In this model, the Conelike dis-
molten pool, the fluid velocities are very much smaller. The tribution of power density distributes the radial direction
velocity vector profile in the metal wire may be observed in and linear distribution in an axial direction. However, the
the direction of wire motion. z cenetr point is unbroken stable. The facility density diffu-

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sion by a part of a plane perpendicular to the z cenetr point that if the temperature rise is uniform throughout welding,
is described in Eq. 9: uniform weld bead geometries such as weld width, depth of
( ) penetration, and weld cross-section area can be achieved.
−3r2 In comparison to the weld width, the thickness has a higher
Qv (r, z) = Qm exp
R2 temperature gradient. As a result, faster solidification occurs
( ) (9)
where, Qm =
3
Q along with the plate's thickness.
𝜋R2 The uneven temperature distribution causes a signifi-
Qv is the net volumetric heat fluxin Wm − 3, Qm is the cant effect on residual stress and distortion. William et al.
largest heat source extent in Wm − 3 and R because the heat [243] have reported that the air jet impingement approach
source radius at ‘z’ and r is the radial range in the center of the can effectively reduce the interlayer temperature without
heat accumulation and stated in Eq. 10: increment an idle time, which was shown in Fig. 47. How-
ever, the graph relevant to the air jet impingement FEA
√
r = x2 + y2 (10) results exhibits a reduction in inclination after air cooling
stimulation. The jet impingement technique is a practi-
Also, the various literature investigated the coupled ther- cal approach to prevent heat accumulation [244]. Xiong
momechanical analysis with a 3D conical Gaussian distribu- et al. [245] studied the thermal behaviour of GMAW by
tion model. The model was to establish the temperature filed the 3D transient thermal model of the circular compo-
and residual stress in the deposition layers [240]. nent. The higher temperature distribution in the deposited
beads increases with preheating temperature. Also, with
9.3 Temperature Distribution an increase in preheating temperature, the higher the tem-
perature gradient in the molten pool reduces. The homo-
The temperature distribution changes with time and area geneous temperature field was observed with a higher pre-
during the deposition process. The nonlinear transient ther- heating temperature, which was shown in Fig. 48a–d. The
mal analysis is adapted to determine the temperature field on residual stress and distortions of metal are components
the build component. During the deposition path, the heat that are relevant to the inhomogeneous temperature distri-
transmitted from the low-temperature to the high-tempera- bution. The FE mesh size and pattern should be depend-
ture region at various metal parts. This causes heat loss in able with a temperature gradient to minimize the errors.
the molten pool due to convection and radiation. Huang et al. Were the accurate temperature values are obtained with
[241] investigated the temperature distribution on different correlation to mesh nodes.
layers during the deposition process. During expansion in Montevecchi et al. [246] suggested that the meshing tech-
deposition height, the temperature region rear to the molten nique is based on separating the substrate in different zones,
pool becomes higher due to a large amount of heat acquired severally degraded, and then joined by a double-sided con-
on deposited layers. A higher amount of heat is observed tact algorithm. This technique shows the accurate prediction
at the end of the arc point compared to the starting point. of the temperature field and reduces simulation time com-
Bharat Singh et al. [242] reported that the finite element pared to the traditional mesh biasing technique. Cadiou et al.
model predicts temperature profile, weld width, depth of [247] investigated the temperature field in the plasma arc
penetration, melting efficiency, and solidification vapori- deposition. The authors observed the temperature is lesser
zation. The double ellipsoidal heat source model is used in the upper part than the lower amount.
to simulate the welding torch. Simulation analysis reveals

Fig. 47  Comparison of the

simulated interlayer tempera-
tures for free convection and air
jet impingement cooling condi-
tions [243]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier

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Fig. 48  Thermal cycles: a at room temperature, b substrate preheating temperature of 200 ºC, c Substrate preheating temperature of 400 ºC, d
substrate preheating temperature of 600 ºC [245]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier

Fig. 49  Temperature distri-

bution of circular part when
the heat source moves to the
midpoint of: a 1st layer, b 5th
layer, c 10th layer, d 20th layer
e 30th layer, f 40th layer [247]
. Reproduced with permission
from Elsevier

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Fig. 50  Transient temperature distribution in various layers during the deposition process: a 1st layer b 05th layer c10th layer, d 15th layer, e
20th layer, f 25th layer [206]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier

When the droplet reaches the subtracts top surface, this interlayer ideal time (IIT), but the tube has zero IIT. It is evi-
induced local melting and forms a larger melt pool width dent that part shape affects the temperature distribution in the
than the droplet. This causes the temperature of the droplet deposition of layers. Abe et al. [251] reported that the depos-
homogeneous. Zhao et al. [248] reported the temperature ited component geometry relies on the base plate's preheat
distribution in various layers of the cylindrical part shown temperature as an increase in preheat temperature; the width
in Fig. 49a–f. The temperature distribution increases with an of deposit increase and height decrease. Therefore, to obtain
increase in the layer numbers due to the heat diffusion state the deposited component size stable, the reduction in welding
becoming lower with the increase in layers. The higher cool- power and voltage can reduce the preheat temperature. In the
ing rate in the first deposited layer induces lower tempera- transient analysis, the temperature field was analysed by com-
tures when the new layer is deposited on the earlier layers to puting the following heat conduction equation (Eq. 11) [252].
result in higher heat accumulation. Lu et al. [249] reported ( ) ( ) ( )
that a higher volume of input leads to the formation of higher 𝛿H δ 𝛿T δ 𝛿T δ 𝛿T
𝜌c = k + k + k + Q (11)
temperatures by increasing the laser power. The temperature 𝛿t 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿y 𝛿y 𝛿z 𝛿z
is also reduced when the increase in deposition height due to
where q is that the density of material (kg/m3), c is that the
the larger distance of the heat source for subtract.
heating capability (J/kg K), T is that the temperature, t is
Hejripour et al. [250] investigated the temperature distribu-
that the interface time, k is a thermal physical phenomenon
tion on WAAM processed wall and tube. The authors noticed
(W/mK), H is enthalpy [J/kg], and Q = (x, y, z, t) is that the
that a higher temperature is observed on the tube compared
meter heat generation (W∕m3 ). The temperature obtained in
to the wall. Also, during deposition, the wall contains no

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the 2Cr13 thin wall part simulation is higher than its liquid element method is 100% accurate over the active element
temperature [206]. The temperature distribution in the thin method. During the WAAM process's disposition, the sub-
wall part, was exhibited in Fig. 50a–f, the peak temperature strate operates as a heat sink due to the upper layer's peak
observed in the melting pool. However, high moving tem- temperature [257]. During the rapid laser scanning beam,
perature produces superior plastic deformation inside the the temperature profiles are expanded to the heat source and
melt pool. Lee et al. [253] reported that the simulated and compressed in front of the laser beam. The high transient
measured temperature results during cooling after deposi- and uneven temperature distribution are reliable for the
tion show a similar profile of 8% error observed only in peak propagation of residual stress and distortion.
temperature. The higher temperature gradients are noticed in
front of the heat source when the heat source travels away; 9.4 Residual Stress and Distortion
the material cools down and solidifies rapidly [207]. Lei
et al. [254] investigate the thermal behaviour of the thin wall A mechanical simulation will be performed using tem-
part fabricated by GMAW. The results show that by increas- perature distribution history recorded in thermal analysis
ing the ideal interlayer time, the temperature decrease was to predict the distortion and residual stress numerically of
observed in fabricated layers and molten pool. This is due the component fabricated through the additive manufactur-
to consistent heat input, and long-time-interval allows more ing process. In the metal AM process, the high-temperature
heat to dissipate. Where the temperature of the deposited gradients and high cooling rate obtain due to significant heat
layers increases with decreases in the ideal time. To obtain a input and higher energy density.
stable interpass temperature, the need for idle time is essen- This causes large thermal strains and residual stress in
tially required since the cooling rate of the component varies the metal part. Liang et al. [207] reported the residual stress
during fabrication [255]. Michaleris el al. [256] investigated and distortion on the thin wall with one end are fixed. The
both the quiet and inactive element activation methods to maximum stress and distortion have occurred in the free
determine the temperature and residual stress levels. end. The modified inherent strain technique was also uti-
The results show that ignoring radiation and surface con- lized to determine the stress distortion; this method pre-
vection on the frequently developing relation between active dicted accurate results faster. Ding et al. [234] reported as
and inactive elements can induce the errors; the inactive while the sample is clamped. The higher longitudinal stress

Fig. 51  Longitudinal residual stress predictions from: a transient cal models after unclamping and d the stress plotted along the lines
thermal and mechanical model, b steady state thermal and mapped shown in of b and c [234]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier
mechanical models, c steady state thermal and mapped mechani-

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 Metals and Materials International

Fig. 52  Comparison between

numerically simulated and
experimentally measured
residual stress profiles: a base
metal, b As-deposited part
[206]. Reproduced with permis-
sion from Elsevier

was observed in the build component. The reduction in lon- stresses observed in the region close to the midpoint. The
gitudinal stress has been observed after unclamping. The stresses are higher in starting and ending points due to the
transient and steady-state thermal analysis of clamped and higher heat accumulation of deposited materials. While
unclamped models shows that the higher magnitude of com- in the midpoint, the heat source, the ambient temperature
pressive residual stress was observed when clamping due to softens the material and makes an excellent plastic region
constraints in the clamped region are shown in Fig. 51a–d. within the melt pool.
Ge et al. [206] simulated and predicted residual stress Wu et al. [260] investigated stress distribution on Tita-
through each layer's deposition paths. Tensile residual stress nium and Inconel 718 parts with various types of deposition
remained in the deposition part, while compressive residual strategies. The lower residual stress in short deposit patterns
stress was found in the baseplate, according to the authors. compared to long and spiral deposition patterns. The stress
The tensile residual stresses are due to the molten metal's distribution along x and y under different scanning patterns,
shrinkage during the solidification process. Figure 52a, b as shown in Fig. 54a (i-vi), b (i-vi). Both alloys show lower
shows the simulated and experimental comparison. The stresses in short deposition pattern because higher hatches
compressive residual stress occurs in the substrate due to during deposition mitigate the stresses due to reheating.
the reaction force, which causes the substrate to deflect Also, after removing the clamp, a higher magnitude of ten-
upwards [257]. The tensile residual stress is generated in sile stresses was found in the base plate because of the sub-
the deposited component due to high heat input. As well strates' upward bending.
as, because of material constriction through solidification Lu et al. [249] reported the mitigation of residual stress
attributes compressive stresses in the substrate. by the various preheating condition. The authors reported
Mukherjee et al. [258] reported that maximum tensile that the longitudinal preheating effectively reduced the ten-
residual stress observed in transverse and longitudinal direc- sile residual stress when compared to spiral and transverse
tions and compressive in (z) thickness direction. Also, 30% preheating. Wu et al. [126] investigated the residual stress
of stress can be reduced by reducing layer thickness and details for various alloys using random forest and neural net-
doubling the heat input. The simulated residual stresses dis- work algorithm. In both algorithms, the residual stress was
tribution observed in the various directions shown in Fig. 53 determined with 97% accuracy. The two algorithms have a
(a-f) in all three residual stress components is highly non- similar impact on WAAM process variables on stresses. The
uniform. The modified stress state was also observed from highly relaxed tensile residual stress was found when the
tensile to compressive at the two successive layers' interfaces substrate preheated. Also, the change in stress distribution
during the deposition in the upper layer. However, this stress was observed in the deposited layers [261]. Preheat tempera-
is relieved partially because of the reheating and cooling ture is the most significant, followed by arc power, the thick-
effects. Israr et al. [239] investigated the residual stress ness of the substrate, and travel speed in mitigating stresses.
distribution in different deposition paths strategies such as Also, the residual stress distribution can be analyzed by the
bidirectional, unidirectional, crosswise, and spiral form. element birth and death technique, were all the elements in
The lower stress observed in the crosswise path compared the deposition path are deactivated for the first step, and then
to other paths. the element was activated by the heat source [262, 263]. The
Li et al. [259] investigated the stress distribution on higher stress values are obtained in the simulations because
WAAM circular thin wall part. The larger residual stress the heating and cooling cycle takes place; this produces the
was observed in arc starting and ending points and smaller high-temperature gradient and residual stresses.

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Fig. 53  Residual stress distribu-

tion for Inconel 718 along: a x,
b y and c z directions and for
Ti-6Al-4 V along d, x e y and
f z directions of the 2nd layers
deposit [258]. Reproduced with
permission from Elsevier

10 Applications of Direct Energy Deposition their benefits compared to conventional manufacturing

(DED) Based Metals methods. Also, metal AM parts are used for non-safety
critical components on military and commercial aircrafts.
WAAM is the DED techniques were the Wire is used as The manufacturing of bores and channels by titanium
the heat source to build the component. The DED tech- alloy using AM technique have been analyzed against the
nique can be used to repair non-repairable metal parts. conditions found in a challenging real-world motorsports
This is a metal AM technique were a heat source such as application [266]. Post surface treatments are essentially
a laser, electron beam, or arc has been used to deposit the required to satisfy its application requirements. Also, the
metal component on the substrate and melt feeding materi- AM components are used in the energy sector for repairing
als such as wire and powder are being used to deposit the gas turbines. Wear and tear on the burner tip need usual
metal component on the substrate [264]. In the AM area, maintenance, involving removing the old tip and weld-
the first pattern was filed in 1926, while this technique has ing a pre-assembled spare. AM technique is significantly
been investigated since the 1990s. Metal additive manu- faster repairs. Metal AM provides significant opportu-
facturing is used in several fields such as aerospace, auto- nities within the biomedical field for specialist surgical
motive, medical, and nuclear. The automotive, medical, instruments and prosthetic implants [267]. Bhardwaj et al.
and aerospace industries alone forecasted to account for [268] investigated the Ti-15 Mo alloys deposited using the
84% of AM acquire by 2025 [265]. Additive manufactured DLD-AM process for potential orthopaedic implant appli-
metal components are utilized in aerospace sectors as per cations. The build sample surfaces exhibit a hydrophilic

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(a) IN 718 Alloy

Ti6Al4V Alloy (i & ii)
(i) (ii)

(iv)

(iii)

(vi) (iii & iv)

(v)

(b) IN 718 Alloy

Ti6Al4V Alloy (ii)

(i)
(v & vi)

(iv)

(iii)

(vi)

(v)

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 Metals and Materials International

◂Fig. 54  Residual stress distribution Ti-6Al-4 V and Inconel 718 deposited by CMT based WAAM process [274]. Figure 56a
alloys with three different deposition patterns: a residual stress along displays a 0.8 m wing designed in collaboration with the
y-direction, b residual stresses along x-direction (i and ii) long depo-
sition pattern (iii and iv) short deposition pattern and (v and vi) spi-
Aircraft Research Association for wind tunnel testing. The
ral deposition pattern [260]. Reproduced with permission from Else- Aircraft Research Association is explicitly aiming to shorten
vier the time between the approval of design surfaces and data
collection in the wind tunnel. Which was deposited using
the CMT method [267].
character dominant to superior bone anchorage during The component deposited through the TIG-based WAAM
bone healing. Because of its lesser thermal gradients of technique is a less costly method for the rapid manufactur-
the build AM components exhibit homogenous and more ing of medium and large-scale metal parts. The large mold
extensive apatite formation due to excellent surface topo- components are generally utilized in ship applications, and
graphic properties and type of surface morphology. The this condition attributes the problems such as design and
DED method has a significant advantage over the SLM fabrication time of tool and mold dimensions and its ele-
and EBM method. It can manufacture functionally graded ments. Therefore, the GTAW based WAAM process will be
and multi-material components and makes it easier to a substitute for the solution of such problems [275]. TIG-
customise the alloy composition in situ and fix worn-out based WAAM process is a useful alternative for repairing
components [269]. The first metal additively manufactured different parts such as Molds and turbine blades. Figure 56b
bridge was constructed [270]. The bridge has 2.5 m width exhibits the WAAM deposited crane hook. This progres-
and 10 m span the bridge was built by WAAM process sively finds in the application of the maritime industry. The
with 6 axis robotic welding arc. Figure 55 shows the FEA carne hook deposited by PAW based WAAM process [271].
simulation and construction of the bridge. Figure 56c displays the mild steel tooling manufactured
using the WAAM process also, when compared to other AM
10.1 Application of WAAM in Different Major techniques, WAAM has a larger build volume and lesser
Industries fabrication cost. [272]. Also, the WAAM process, which is
suitable for feeding various wires, permits the formation of
The WAAM technique has a higher deposition rate, lesser functionally graded materials (FGM). Figure 57a–e exhib-
fabrication cost, and large-scale components are accom- its the FGM adapted by the WAAM process. Figure 57a–d
plished. Also suitable for the wide range of materials and its shows the FGM of SS904L/Hastelloy C-276 deposited by
alloys. The WAAM technique uses GMAW, CMT, GTAW, the GMAW process. This FGM identifies the application
and PAW. This technology is used to fabricate complex in oil and gas industries and nuclear power plants to fabri-
shaped metal components, particularly aerospace, automo- cate steam generators, reformers, etc. [61]. The change from
tive, and biomedical applications. The Table 6 shows the steel to bronze honeycomb structure displays in Fig. 57e.
applications of WAAM with their commonly used alloys. This unique capability allows the designer to develop parts
In the MIG based WAAM process, the part shape, size, and with customized mechanical properties, changing the struc-
deposition positions are not restricted; they are applicable ture and parts to counter temperature variations. Figure 56d
for manufacturing complex-shaped metal parts. This method exhibits the thruster made of steel produced by the WAAM
is used in many applications for various materials, especially process [273].
for low alloy stainless steels, aluminium alloys, and a few
non-ferrous alloys. This method is preferred for multiple
applications from different sectors due to its advantages. 11 Conclusions
Figure 56a–d exhibits the application of the WAAM process.
The CMT-based WAAM process is one of the subsets of A review of new technological development in the WAAM
the MIG-based method. The components fabricated by the process has been discussed in this article. WAAM processes,
CMT process do not show any problem with insufficiency of methods, and an exhaustive overview of the different tech-
fusion and having superior metallurgical properties. WAAM niques, process parameters, microstructures, and residual
successfully fabricated the fan impellers used in electronic stress of the as-fabricated and post-fabrication treated
industries, which are manufactured from highly superior WAAM components. Also, WAAM is less expensive and
materials. However, the casting cannot meet the critical fabricates large scale metal components compared to pow-
material properties, milling the workpiece is highly expen- der-based techniques. The significant challenges faced in
sive, and material usage is higher. By using CMT based WAAM are residual stresses and distortion due to high heat
WAAM process, the repair of the fan impeller blade using input. And also, methods on controlling residual stresses,
Ni-based alloys is one of the examples of the successful improving material properties, effects of post-fabrication
application of WAAM also the 2.5 m aluminium wing rib treatments to increase the part quality fabricated by using

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Fig. 55  WAAM fabricated

bridge: the MX3D bridge and
corresponding Finite element
simulation of the MX3D bridge
[270]. Reproduced with permis-
sion from Elsevier

the WAAM process are proposed to manufacture the defect- During the deposition, the primary process variables
free component. such as arc power, weld speed, wire feed rate, and inter-
layer temperature are essential to obtain the defect-free
component. The processes became more advanced to
Table 6  Metals with their areas of application employing WAAM meet the particular requirement of WAAM; the advanced
Alloys Applications techniques have been investigated, for example, ultra-
high frequency pulsed GTAW, PPAW, CMT, and Twin
Ti-based Automotive, Tools and Molds wire GTAW based WAAM process [21, 49, 52, 57]. The
Al-based Marine, Corrosion, High Temperature, Tools and Molds WAAM processed nickel-based superalloys were widely
Magnesium Automotive, Tools and Molds, Corrosion resistance investigated and compared to conventionally manufactured
Steel-based Aerospace, Corrosion resistance, High Temperature superalloys. The residual stresses produced through the
Ni-based Automotive, Marine, Tools and Molds, Nuclear indus- WAAM process were studied. The various post and in-
tries
process treatments have also been suggested to enhance
Bi-metal Marine, Oil and Gas industries, Nuclear power plants
the material properties, control the residual stresses, refine
the microstructure for the requirement of particular appli-
cations, and improve the part quality and strength.

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Fig. 56  Applications of metals in WAAM: a high strength steel wing manufactured using WAAM. Credit: Lockheed Martin UK [272], d A
model for wind tunnel testing (process: Fronius CMT WAAM) [267], thruster made of steel [273]. Reproduced with permission from Else-
b HUISMAN’S 3D printed WAAM hook [271], c mild steel tooling vier

Fig. 57  Micro-chemistry of
the WAAM processed FGM:
a overall macrograph, b–d
microstructures at various
regions [61], e A functionally
graded component which shows
a transition between steel and
bronze. Note the honeycomb
structure which can be made
only by additive manufacturing
(courtesy Cranfield University)
[273]. Reproduced with permis-
sion from Elsevier

FEA simulation of WAAM processes is reviewed in 12 Future Recommendations

this article. During the deposition process, uneven tem-
perature distribution was observed; this causes higher In order to enhance the part integrity of WAAM, the
residual stress and distortion. Also, the temperature is various post and in processing treatments are essentially
lesser in the upper part than the lower part and reduced required. Also, to obtain the defect-free component and
with deposition height. The process paraments also have a reduce the manufacturing time, advanced techniques such
significant impact on temperature distribution. The higher as pulsed, ultra-high pulsed, and CMT can help improve
tensile residual stresses were noticed in the transverse and product quality.
longitudinal direction and compressive in the thickness The material properties and process parameters are
direction and base plate. The stresses are also higher at influenced to generate the defects in the WAAM fabricated
the starting and ending point of the arc compared to the component. Also, deeper studies were required to influ-
middle region. However, residual stresses are reduced by ence cold and hot wire deposition to investigate the effect
preheating conditions.

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of filler wires on the surface properties of the WAAM 9. Q. Wu, J. Lu, C. Liu, X. Shi, Q. Ma, S. Tang, H. Fan, S. Ma,
deposited sample. Mater. Manuf. Process. 32, 1881 (2017)
10. Y. Feng, B. Zhan, J. He, K. Wang, J. Mater. Process. Tech. 259,
Interpass rolling on the WAAM component has superior 206 (2018)
mechanical properties as the same level of wrought alloy, but 11. J. Xiong, G. Zhang, J. Mater. Process. Tech. 214, 962 (2014)
only a limited number of works has been performed. More 12. J. Xiong, Y. Lei, H. Chen, G. Zhang, J. Mater. Process. Tech. 240,
studies in interpass rolling on WAAM deposited material 397 (2017)
13. D. Yang, C. He, G. Zhang, J. Mater. Process. Tech. 227, 153
would be beneficial. (2016)
Also, the experimental investigations on WAAM inter- 14. V. Poonguzhali, M. Umar, P. Sathiya, Met. Mater. Int. 26, 115
pass rolled component residual stress, and mechanical (2020)
behaviour comparison to wrought component would be 15. J. Ge, J. Lin, Y. Chen, Y. Lei, H. Fu, J. Alloy. Compd. 748, 911
(2018)
beneficial for particular application needs. 16. J. Ge, J. Lin, H. Fu, Y. Lei, R. Xiao, Mater. Design 160, 218
FEA simulation of AM metals shows better insights into (2018)
process paraments and mechanical characteristics of the 17. H. Geng, J. Li, J. Xiong, X. Lin, F. Zhang, J. Mater. Process.
component. Most of the studies focused on depositing a Tech. 243, 40 (2017)
18. I. Tabernero, A. Paskual, P. Álvarez, A. Suárez, Procedia CIRP
single wire deposition FE model the finite element simula- 68, 358 (2018)
tion model for the double wire deposition WAAM process 19. Y. Ma, D. Cuiuri, C. Shen, H. Li, Z. Pan, Addit. Manuf. 8, 71
was not fully investigated. Also, the predicated model shows (2015)
the effect of process paraments during deposition, but more 20. M. Santangelo, B. Silwal, A. Purdy, Mater. Sci. 76, 1548–
1556 (2016).https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/
studies are required to reduce residual stress and preheating mech-eng-facpubs/76
strategies. 21. Y. Ma, D. Cuiuri, N. Hoye, H. Li, Z. Pan, J. Mater. Res. 29,
2066 (2014)
Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank Vellore Institute 22. Y. Ma, D. Cuiuri, N. Hoye, H. Li, Z. Pan, Mater. Sci. Eng.
of Technology to carry out this research work. A 631, 230 (2015)
23. T. Artaza, A. Suárez, M. Murua, J.C. García, I. Tabernero, A.
Funding No financial support is received from any funding agency to Lamikiz, Procedia Manuf. 41, 1071 (2019)
carry this research work. 24. X. Zhou, Y. Wang, Q. Tian, Y. Du, X. Bai, H. Zhang, Y. Yuan,
J. Qin, J.Mater. Heat Treat. 41(08), 148-156 (2020). https://​doi.​
org/​10.​13289/j.​issn.​1009-​6264.​2020-​0076
Availability of Data and Material Not applicable. 25. B. Mannion, J. Heinzman, Tool. Prod. 5, 29 (1999)
26. J.J. Lin, Y.H. Lv, Y.X. Liu, B.S. Xu, Z. Sun, Z.G. Li, Y.X. Wu,
Declaration Mater. Design 102, 30 (2016)
27. M. Li, T. Lu, J. Dai, X. Jia, X. Gu, T. Dai, Mater. Sci. Eng.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of A 770, 138523 (2020)
interest. 28. J. Wang, W.J. Wu, W. Jing, X. Tan, G.J. Bi, S.B. Tor, K.F. Leong,
C.K. Chua, E. Liu, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 746, 300 (2019)
Code Availability Not applicable. 29. B. Wu, D. Ding, Z. Pan, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, J. Han, Z. Fei, J. Mater.
Process. Tech. 250, 304 (2017)
30. T. Abe, H. Sasahara, Precis. Eng. 45, 387 (2016)
31. S. Ríos, P.A. Colegrove, F. Martina, S.W. Williams, Addit.
Manuf. 21, 651 (2018)
32. Y. Yehorov, L.J. da Silva, A. Scotti, J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 3,
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