COLEGIO DE SAN ANTONIO DE PADUA

De La Salle Supervise School

Ramon M. Durano Foundation Compound
Guinsay, Danao City

MODULE III
IN
LANGUAGE
EDUCATION
RESEARCH
This course develops skills in applying principles and
approaches in research to find answers to questions in
language learning and teaching.

ANA MARIE LEONES-MONTE

[email protected]
 Table of Contents

Module Page Date

No.

Module III – RESEARCH DESIGN

Lesson 1 – Common Research Design in Language

Research

Learning Experience/Content 1 Oct. 26-30,2020-

08-10

Lesson 2 – Data Collection and Analysis

Learning Experience/Content 14 Nov. 3-5,2020

Learning Activities 19 Nov. 9-16,2020

 MODULE III: RESEARCH DESIGN
In this module, the different approaches and methods in language research are discussed with
certain examples for deeper understanding as well as the stages in data collection.

 Lesson 1: Common Research Design in Language Research

 illustrate the characteristics of qualitative research

 give sample researches employing different research design
 define descriptive research
 explain the uses and tools of descriptive research
 define experimental research
 discuss the different components and categories of experimental research

Learning Content

Shulman (1981) explained, while qualitative analysis will allow us to study individual
performance closely, it may not represent the behavior of other learners and is therefore of
questionable value for generalization to language acquisition by others…when our interest is in
the normative acquisition behavior of population, quantification represents a reality for that
group.

 Scope of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is heuristic and not deductive, since decisions about research
questions or data are made before the study begins based on observations and not focus on a
hypothesis based on existing theory like ethnographic methodologies. Since research has been
viewed from a synthetic or holistic perspective, the research limits the focus of the coverage as
the investigation progresses.

Qualitative methods were primarily concerned with describing the observable behaviors
and activities and how they occur in certain natural context. Data gathered are presented from the
perspectives of the respondents, so the biases of the researcher do not influence nor distort the
data collection, interpretation and analysis. Researchers avoid describing selected aspects of
behavior, for qualitative methods avoid established hypotheses or prior knowledge, thereby any
variable becomes the focus of the research.

Qualitative research may be utilized in language research when the researcher is

concerned with “discovering and describing language acquisition” in the natural situation where
it cannot be predicted specifically how an activity will affect certain linguistic behavior. The
ultimate goal, therefore, is to discover patterns of language behavior not yet explained such that
that behavior is understood from the perspectives of the language learner.

Researchers engaged in qualitative research are participant-observers themselves. They

participate and record their observations and experiences in diaries while participating in the
very act they are describing. In some cases, the study involves non-participant observation. The
researcher records his observations of the linguistic events, but without the use of a questionnaire
or other research tools (Long, 1983). It aims to “reconstruct” accurately what the respondents
experience to understand the language issues from the perspective of the subjects themselves.

Brian Mittman characterized qualitative research by its emphasis on describing,

understanding, and explaining complex phenomena -on studying, for example, the relationships,
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patterns and configurations among factors; or the context in which activities occur. The focus is
on understanding the full multi-dimensional, dynamic picture of the subject of study.

Its approaches contrast with quantitative methods that aim to divide phenomena into
manageable, clear ly defined pieces, or variables. Quantification is good for separating
phenomena into distinct and workable elements of a well-defined conceptual framework. But
when we focus on what we already know how to quantify (e.g., what can be reliably quantified),
we may miss factors that are key to a real understanding of the phenomena being studied. The
downside of quantification is that it does not always support (as well as qualitative methods)
understanding of complex, dynamic and multidimensional wholes. Qualitative methods are
useful, not only in providing rich descriptions of complex phenomena, but in constructing or
developing theories or conceptual frameworks and in generating hypotheses to explain those
phenomena.

A wide range of tested qualitative research methods are available to address these
challenges. The selection of method, or combination of methods, will be tailored to the questions
being studied and the setting for research.

Types of Qualitative Research

a. Case Study. It attempts to shed light on phenomena by studying in depth a single example
case of the phenomena. The case can be an individual person, an event, a group, or an institution.

b. Grounded Theory. The theory is developed inductively from corpus of data acquired by a
participant-observer.

c. Phenomenology. It describes the structures of experience as they present themselves to

consciousness, without recourse to theory, deduction or assumptions from other disciplines.

d. Ethnography. It focuses on the sociology of meaning through close field observation of

socio-cultural phenomena. Typically, the ethnographer focuses on a community.

e. Historical. Its systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past
occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of these events that
may help to explain present events and anticipate future events. (Gay, 1996)

Using Qualitative Research for Hypothesis Testing

 Naturalistic inquiry, or ethnography, has its roots in anthropology and sociology and
involves long-term exposure to a setting or a group of people. Extensive use of
unstructured observations and conversations documented by detailed field notes form the
basis for this type of research, often considered the purest form of qualitative research.
Naturalistic inquiry is used when situations are unique or complex, when the level of
uncertainty about the questions to ask is high and when there is little or no theory to
direct the investigator.

A subset of this type of inquiry involves participant observation in which the investigator
becomes a part of the setting or the process being studied. (Sofaer) reports that she was
able to lean more from attending a few group meetings in a particular setting than she
could have by using more structured qualitative methods such as interviews or survey.

 Case Studies are the preferred strategy when “how” or “why” questions are being posed,
when the investigator has little control over events, and when the focus is on a

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 contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context. The case study is especially
appropriate when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly
evident. The case study copes with the technically distinctive situation in which there will
be many more variables of interest than data points, and as one result relies on multiple
sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulation fashion.

The case study approach can involve a single event or multiple cases and can be short or
long term. However, rather than requiring total immersion in the setting or culture,
sampling of sites, experiences and/or informants is typical. The methods used in case
study research are similar to those of naturalistic inquiry. However the data collection is
often more structured, using key informant interviews, structured observations of events
and interactions and the collection and content analysis of relevant documents(e.g., to
help establish the facts, the assumptions, values and priorities, or to illuminate differences
in perceptions.) Case studies often also include quantitative data for background or to
help generate questions to ask informants (e.g., data on demographics, health status,
utilization, finances, etc.)

 Structured Observations of Meetings involves attending meetings of the group that you
wish to research on. This can also be extended to observation of individuals in their daily
work routine or on special tasks. The purpose of observing is to learn what is going on at
the meeting and witness the group dynamic in process. This can be a rich information
source as it give researchers insight into the group.
 Content Analysis of Documents is a non-intrusive form of research. This involves
reviewing documents, memos or other pieces of written information for content and
themes. By examining written word, the researcher is studying one type of
communication that occurs in the selected sample.

 Collection and analysis of other archival, administrative and performance data is

also a non-intrusive method. Information that has been previously collected, or secondary
data, are reviewed to gain a better understanding into the topic. This information is part
of the organization’s history and can be a valuable key to understanding the past.

 Focus groups usually explore specific issues. The focus group brings together
individuals chosen to meet a specific profile. They may be homogenous along some
dimensions and heterogeneous along others and structures, yet informal, setting is used to
explore a limited number of questions. Focus groups, unlike individual interviews,
provide the added dimension of the interactions among members. Focus groups are often
combined with more quantitative approaches such as surveys that can be administered at
different points in the group discussion and even used as grist for additional discussion.

 Cognitive interviews are typically used in survey development. One-on-one interviews

are conducted with people (meeting the criteria for completing a particular survey) as the
individuals complete the instrument being tested. This method helps investigators
understand how people perceive and interpret language and their own experiences as they
refine the survey instruments.

 Mail and telephone surveys are a method of collecting information by sending surveys
via email or postal mail. Participants return completed forms to the researcher or an
outside vendor. Surveys may ask respondents to rate items on a scale (e.g., Likert scale of

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 1-5). Some surveys also allow respondents to write their feelings or attitudes about a
particular event or to elaborate in more detail on a n item, or to express suggestions, etc.

Main Types of Qualitative Data Collection & Analysis

“Those who are not familiar with qualitative methodology may be surprised by the sheer volume
of data and detailed level of analysis that results even when research is confined to a small
number of subjects” (Myers,2002)

The three main methods of data collection are: (1) interactive interviewing, where people asked
to verbally describe their experiences of phenomenon; (2) written descriptions by participants,
this time people asked to write descriptions of their experiences of phenomenon; (3) observation
which can descriptive observations of verbal and non- verbal behavior. Analysis begins when the
data are first collected and are used to guide decisions related to further data collection.

“In communicating-or generating-the dta, the researcher must make the process of the study
accessible and write descriptively so tacit knowledge may best be communicated through the use
of rich, thick descriptions” (Myers,2002)

2. Process of Conducting Qualitative Research (Seliger and Sholamy, 1989)

a. Define phenomenon or problem situation of language to be described. At the beginning of

the study, the focus of the research situation may not be definite, however, as the investigation
progresses, narrowing the scope of the observations as regards what specific areas of the
language activity to be studied is essential.

b. Use qualitative methods to gather data. Data collection may range from observations, tapes,
questionnaires, interviews, case histories, and field notes. The variety of sources of data provides
insights not available in an experimental method. Moreover, it facilitates “validation and
triangulation” of data.

c. Look for patterns in the data. Data collected may not have been gathered based on specific
research questions or hypotheses, however, they must undergo careful examination to identify
the recurring patterns arising from them. Based on these recurring patterns, the researcher
establishes hypotheses, generates principles or develop paradigm to explain the findings.
d. Validate initial conclusions by returning to the data or collecting more data. Once
patterns have been established, the researcher must verify the findings through triangulation, i.e.
confirming the findings by re-inspection or demonstrating the same findings through different
sources. Replication of the study will show whether there are variables in the initial investigation
that might have caused the language learning behavior different from what it would be if not
studied. Because subjectivity might have influenced the interpretation of the data, these
subjective factors may be controlled by triangulation.

e. Return to step 1 and repeat the cycle to redefine the area of focus based on the first cycle.
Although the data have been analyzed in the initial stage, it is still important to “redefine” and to
gradually narrow down the focus of the study. This can be done by re-examining the data or
collecting additional data utilizing the same methods but more focused methods.

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SAMPLE LANGUAGE RESEARCH:

Title: Correlation of the Use of Taglish and the English Proficiency Among College Students by
Ryan R. Morrondoz

Introduction
Filipinos are bilingual. They speak with their mother tongue and take pride in being one
of the best English speaking races in the globe. Because of the globalization trend, different new
cultures and practices have been adopted by the Filipinos, and one of these is Taglish.
When the Bilingual Policy was implemented in Philippines schools by the government in
1987, the Filipino language or the regional dialect, together with the English language, became
the medium of instruction in schools-- the former, in basic education and latter, in secondary and
tertiary education. Consequently, more and more Filipinos have been speaking in their native
tongue and English simultaneously, and as time passes by, speak in their first language with
stretches of some English words or vice-versa during a conversation.
In Tagalog-speaking regions, this combination called Taglish became the common
medium for most everyday from “Good morning po sa ‘yo” to “Aalis nap o ako, Goodbye!”.
Nowadays, people rarely communicate directly in straight English or tagalong. As a result, there
are now claims that Taglish is corrupting the English abilities of Filipinos thus making the
country lose its pride as one of the good English speaking nations of the world.
The researcher decided to make a study regarding this issue in order to determine whether
Taglish indeed plays a significant role on the steady decline of English abilities of Filipino
students.

Statement of the Problem

This study sought to show the correlation between the use of Taglish and the English
proficiency of the respondent.
Specifically, it aimed to answer the following questions:
1. To what extent did the respondents use Taglish?
2. What was the English proficiency of the respondents based on the given test?
3. What was the relationship between the respondents’ use of Taglish and their English
proficiency?

Research Methodology
The researcher made use of test, questionnaires and survey forms as the main instruments
using correlational method. The subjects of the study were selected college students using
stratified sampling. Each college is represented equitably according to its population.

Findings
1. Extent of use of Taglish.
Majority of the respondents speak Taglish always.
2. English proficiency of the respondents based on the given test
Based on the given English Proficiency Test in Grammar, Sentence Structure,
Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension, the respondents had an outstanding proficiency in the
first two, average proficiency in Vocabulary and superior proficiency in Reading
Comprehension. The overall proficiency of the respondents was outstanding.
3. Relationship between the respondents’ use of Taglish and their English proficiency

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 Result of the study showed that the respondents’ use of Taglish does not affect their
English proficiency, that is, although they always used Taglish in conversation, their English
proficiency remained outstanding.

Conclusions
1. Students’ use of mixed language, like Taglish, in conversation does not affect their proficiency
in English,
2. Students’ proficiency in vocabulary is just average.

Recommendations
From the given conclusions, the researcher recommends that:
1. Even though the findings of the study showed that the students’ use of Taglish in
conversation does not affect their English proficiency, teachers should continue to strengthen
students’ abilities in using English both in speaking and in writing emphasizing the use of
straight English in formal usage.
2. Teachers should allot more time in improving students’ vocabulary by always
including in their lesson’s vocabulary activities.
3. Straight English or the native tongue be used as medium of instruction in school
according to the guidelines set by the Bilingual Policy of 1987.

 Scope of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research can be heuristic or deductive. The investigation employs existing

data or non-experimental research with a preconceived hypothesis. The researchers begin with a
specific focus or general and specific questions regarding the problem-situation to be studied.
Therefore, the research deals with specific aspects of the available data in the context of
language learning. Kamil et al (1985), claimed that descriptive research differs from qualitative
research on the basis on how data analysis is carried out. Data in the descriptive is analyzed
quantitatively, while quantitative analysis is only done in qualitative research to determine the
frequency of orders of the variables of the study. Unlike the qualitative research, a descriptive
study may provide an in-depth analysis of some areas of linguistic ability of the language learner.

To specify or describe natural phenomena, descriptive methods involve collection

techniques without manipulation of variables. It deals with first hand data or already existing
knowledge taken from previous studies or student records. It seeks “what is” and emphasizes on
the discovery of ideas and insights that may affect the development of generalizations,
principles, or theories (Best an Kahn 1988).

In summary, descriptive methods when used in language research provide information

and insights related to language development which may serve as bases for drawing essential
universal conclusions about language acquisition and learning.

Uses of Descriptive Research

How can the descriptive studies be used in case and group studies, particularly in second
language acquisition? Should a researcher be interested in describing in detail the language
performance in particular grammatical forms of an individual, a case study approach is most
appropriate. On the other hand, the researcher may use the group studies in descriptive approach
if he is interested in probing deeply the different factors that motivate a group of learners of
second language and how these factors correlate with their language performance.

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Tools in Descriptive Research (as suggested Seliger and SHolamy)

a. Surveys and questionnaires are useful tools to gather data from large group of respondents.
The questions may vary depending on the relevance of the data to the study goals. It is also
important that the variables of the study should be evident in the content of the questionnaire.

b. Self-reports and questionnaires are utilized to describe the language status of the learner
during the period of language learning situations. Since the study is based on preconceived
hypothesis, only identified data may be selected.

c. Language tests may take in the forms of writing assignments or communicative classroom
activities. These activities are carefully planned to elicit specific sat such as the learner’s
proficiency to use wh-questions or any identified language forms. Standardized tests may also be
used.

d. Observations are used normally to gather data already identified before the investigation
begins. However, the collection of data should be well-planned, including the design of the
observation instrument, to ensure the reliability of the observations.

Steps in Conducting Descriptive Research

 identify the specific problem which you want to describe

 be definite on the size of the respondents of the study; for case studies one or two will do
 decide on method/s of data gathering based on the types of data to be elicited
 gather data, utilizing the field-tested instrument chosen
 organize and analyze the data from which conclusions may be drawn.

SAMPLE LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Title: Common Writing Errors of Second Year College Students: Bases of Proposed Measures to
Strengthen Writing Abilities by Austin Rainer M. Perez

Introduction

Communication is essential in life. Through it, people learn a lot of things. They are able
to express their reactions and share some information with others. Communication can be in a
form of speech, writing, or actions.

Written communication is an application knowledge obtained from learning a language.

The use of English among Filipinos entails many problems because it is not their native
language. Errors in grammar are common in many written outputs of students, and they cause
several other problems such as miscommunication and at worst, failure to totally understand the
writer’s message. In school, students’ writing ability is crucial to their academic performance
since a greater part of school activities from examinations, to assignments, reports and researches
are written. It is therefore a serious responsibility of the teacher to hone his/her students’ writing
ability to help him achieve academic success. Fortunately, one good thing about errors in writing
is that they are easily seen and can immediately be corrected.

The researcher hopes that by identifying the common errors committed by students in
writing using English as a medium, some measures may be proposed to help the teachers and the
students themselves to remedy the problem, and raise the students’ level of writing proficiency.

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Statement of the Problem

This study sought to identify the common errors in writing in English of second year
college students as a basis of proposed measures to strengthen writing abilities.

Specifically, it aimed to answer the following questions:

1. What are the common errors in written English of the students in the following
categories of the given proficiency test?

1.1 Grammar and Mechanics

1.2 Essay Writing

2. What are the factors causing these errors?

3. What measures may be proposed to improve the writing ability of the students?

Research Methodology

The researcher used the descriptive method of research with survey questionnaire and
English writing proficiency test as research instruments. The questionnaire was utilized for
information and background on the respondents and the writing proficiency test to assess their
writing ability, specifically in grammar and mechanics.

Findings

1. Common errors in written English of students based on the given proficiency test.

1.1 Grammar and Mechanics

The result showed that the students had an average proficiency in Correct Usage,
Identifying Errors, and Mechanics.

1.2 Essay Writing

The result showed that students’ errors were mostly on tenses of the verb, word
usage, capitalization and spelling.

2. Factors causing these errors

From the list provided and the other given responses of the students, the following factors
were identified as causes of these writing errors.

2.1 Confusion in correct usage of tenses, etc.

2.2 Lack of interest in English

2.3 Lack of practice in English writing

2.4 Poor grammatical, vocabulary and spelling skills

3. Proposed measures to improve the students’ writing ability.

The following are the measures proposed by the researcher to improve the students’
writing ability based on the findings of the study and the suggestions of the respondents
themselves.

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 3.1 Teachers should provide more writing activities for their students in class to
give them substantial practice.

3.2 They should also strive to make their English classes more fun and enjoyable
by including games and other interactive lessons to arouse students’ attention and interest.

3.3 They should also emphasize tenses in their grammar lessons and spelling and
capitalization in their mechanics.

3.4 They should encourage their students to read more to enrich their vocabulary

Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are drawn:

1. Students have only an average writing proficiency in English.

2. They need to improve their skills in the use of verb tenses, word choice, capitalization
and spelling.

3. They need proper motivation to develop interest in studying English.

4. They are not provided enough writing practice to improve their written proficiency.

Recommendations

1. The English Department of Schools should design a writing program to improve students’
writing ability taking the measures suggested earlier as part of the program.

2. The Student Affairs Office should encourage the setting up of student organizations that will
help the writing program of the English Department such as Writing Guild, Campus Journalism
Club etc.; and competitions such as contests in Essay Writing, Creative Writing, Spelling, etc.

 Scope of Experimental Research

Like other methods, experimental research begins with a hypothesis-driven problem and
always be analytic in nature. As claimed by (Gay 1976), the experimental method is the only
resign design that can truly test hypothesis concerning cause-effect relationship since
investigation is rigorous, intensive and exacting. The experimental method also involves a more
thorough analysis of variables factors. This type of research also involves manipulation of and
control of variables, specifically the independent variables, to measure both internal and external
validity.
Control refers to the efforts of the researcher to get rid of the influence of any variable
other than the independent variable which might influence the performance of the dependent
variable. If the research is experimenting on the effect of the use of MI-bases instruction on the
language achievement of the learners, one group is given lessons/strategies in the experiment,
this should be controlled. Control is important since the purpose of the research is to determine
which treatment is most effective in the language learning performance of the learners.

Major Components of Experimental Research

a. The Population. An experiment research involves two groups: an experimental group and a
control group. The experimental group receives treatment under investigation- as in receiving

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multiple intelligences-based instructional approaches and the control group receives another
treatment or the usual approach used by the language teacher.

The researcher, however, should decide whether the experiment will use pre-existing
group or to form a particular group for the experiment, for this aspect distinguishes the
distinction between experiment and quasi-experiment.
b. The Treatment. This refers to the independent variable in the research, such as the exposure
of the experimental group to the MI-based instructional approach to determine its effect on
language achievement of the students. The effect of the manipulation of the independent variable
on the dependent variable (language achievement) is observed or measured.
Measurement or observation may be done by means of a language test or communicative tasks.
Campbell and Stanley (1963) established the following components of experimental designs
where:

X- represents an experimental treatment, e.g. exposing a group of students to

instructional materials designed applying metacognitive strategies.

O- symbolizing the observation or the effects of the treatment being measured in relation
to the language achievement of the students

R - refers the random grouping of the respondents

Categories of Experimental Research

Seliger and Shohamy (1989) categorize experimental designs into single group designs
where the study involves only one group of respondents; control group designs involve two
groups, where one group which represents the experimental group is subjected to a treatment,
while the other group of the same population is not; factorial designs involve the investigation of
two or more independent variables and allow the researcher to measure the effect of each
independent variable as well as the interaction of these variables; quasi-experimental designs
involve only one group in which the investigation is conducted in conditions which cannot be
manipulated.

a. Single group design

One-spot Case Study: X= treatment; O= observation

This research design is considered a pilot study or pre-experimental design, in which one
group receives a treatment (X) then observed and given a post test (O). The defect of this design
is it devoid of control over the variables involved. According to Gay (1976), these designs are
problematic since the results of the study are so questionable, for it does not much good in
controlling threats to test validity. For this reason, when interpretation of the findings is made,
variables that may have undue influence during the investigation must be given with great
caution.
However, in some instances, this design is used since the conditions limit the researcher
to few subjects thereby not allowing randomization of the population. An example is studying
the language acquisition of foreign students, particularly Iranian whose educational records are
not available.
Example: A second language teacher employs a task-based approach in enhancing the
English proficiency of the learners. After a month of exposing the subjects to the approach, a
post-test is administered to the students. The results reveal that the learners perform well.

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One- Group Pre-test-Post-test Design: 01 - X =treatment; 02
This design is preferred than the single spot case study design. The group is exposed to a
certain experimental treatment, but before the start of the study, the group is given a pre-test
about the subject matter to be carried out in the investigation. A post=test is given after the
experiment of the same group of subjects. It involves only one group, so it does not need to be
compared or matched to another group. Subjects are observed or tested twice on the dependent
stimuli.
However, one disadvantage of this design is that it cannot be ascertained that the excess
of the results of the post-test over the pre-test is the result of the treatment (X). Another
disadvantage is that there is a possibility that the subjects may have become familiar with some
specific aspects of the treatment (X) and this may have influenced the result of the post-test (O2).
Experts say possible threats are attrition, history, instrumentation, maturation, and statistical
regression.
Example: A language instructor would like to determine the grammatical knowledge and
fluency of the students on embedding sentences into word, phrase and clause modifiers which
becomes the experimental factor. Thus, the teacher gives the group a pre-test for the target
grammatical structure which serves as a “base line norm” of the extent of the respondents’
knowledge on the structure being measure. After the instruction or the treatment is given, a post-
test is administered to the same group of students.

Time-series Designs
Respondents are subjected to a series of observations and measurements before and after
a treatment are administered. This procedure allows the researcher to disregard any events, such
as incidental exposure to a language material outside the classroom instruction, that occur
between the series of measurements over an extended period of time. The researcher establishes
a normal pattern of change emerging from the series of measurements spaced over several
weeks. Hence, any significant difference or change manifested between the observations before
and after the treatment can be attributed with certainty to results of the treatment.
Example: To investigate the efficacy of the instruction in relation to the learners’
accuracy and fluency on the correct form and usage of the three degrees of comparison of
adjectives and adverbs, a treatment consisting of lessons on the subject of t=study is designed.
Before the treatment, the learners are given series of writing descriptive paragraph exercises in
which students’ usage of the language forms is tallied and measured. Likewise, after the
treatment the same group of learners is given writing assignments on descriptive paragraphs and
the usage of adjectives and adverbs are observed and measured. Any noticeable difference
between the observation prior to the treatment and observation after the treatment is ascribed
definitely to result from the treatment.

b. Control Group Designs

The Static-Group Comparison

This is a design in which a group which has experienced treatment is compared with a
group which has not received treatment, for the purpose of determining the effect of the X
(treatment). It involves two groups, one experimental, the other control, and both groups are
given post=test. Although this design allows the use of language classes that already exist, it also
poses problems since threats to internal validity are maturation, learners’ motivation, or some
participants drop out from the experiment, and even selection interaction of subjects since there
is a possibility that subjects are equal in characteristics.

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The Pretest-Posttest Control Group
This design involves two groups formed by randomization. This procedure allows a
better control of the variables that may influence the internal validity. Randomization of subjects
distributes the effect of extraneous variables equally to both group, particularly if the subject
population is large. Both groups are pretested and post tested, but only one group receives the
experimental treatment. The second group representing the control group prevents the threats to
internal validity. Selection is taken care by randomization.
c. Factorial Designs
Factorial means two or more independent variables are being investigated. Factorial
designs allow the researcher to measure the main effect of each independent variable on the
dependent variable as well as the interaction effects of these independent variables (Sevilla,
1999). The use of more than one variable will make the experiment true and more realistic.
Factorial analysis enables researchers to determine whether underlying pattern of relationships
exists such that data may be ‘rearranged’ or ‘reduced’ to a smaller group of components (Catane,
2000).
Language research oftentimes employs factorial designs with minimal variations. As
cited by Seliger and Shohamy (1989: 147), variation is the best illustrated by Flynn’s study
which attempts to determine the levels of ability of Japanese and Spanish speakers “to imitate
sentences with right or left branching of adverbial phrase.” Flynn’s hypothesis was that the
branching direction of their first language would be translated in imitating sentences in English.
A pre-test was administered to the subjects and were classified as beginning, intermediate, and
advanced depending on their level of proficiency. They were also grouped based on their first
language. Instead of an experimental treatment, the learners were given an experimental task to
imitate a set of sentences to evaluate their proficiency on the target study. The pre-test
establishes the level of the subjects’ proficiency before they were exposed to the experimental
task.

d. Quasi-experimental Designs
The design is considered quasi-experimental since there is difficulty in controlling
variables. These designs involve just one group, pretested and post tested four times. The multi-
testing prevents the incidence of maturation, testing, and regression as threats to internal validity.
Quasi-experimental research is best appropriate for pilot studies and classroom based
research because it is designed under conditions familiar to the existing situations on real
language classroom setting, thus it is met with les resistance by language teachers.

SAMPLE LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Title: A study on the Efficacy of Context Clues in Inferring Meaning of Unknown Words by
LaeMenshuTeru

Introduction
Ever found yourself at a loss for proper word? Have you ever asked “Should it be ‘affect’
or ‘effect’? Vocabulary words are indispensable part of language learning. A limited number of
vocabularies make it difficult for everyone to convey exactly what they mean.
In fact, vocabulary is as necessary as grammar. Grammar is knowing how to say;
vocabulary is knowing what to say. They are both tools in communication. A wide vocabulary is
necessary to become more fluent in English. Academic achievement is strongly connected with
word knowledge. The richer the vocabulary, the faster the reading comprehension.

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 There are many ways of acquiring vocabulary. Rote memorization, chunking, picture
words, context clues are some of these. The study chose context clues since it is one of the most
frequently encountered helps in figuring out the meaning of words. People come face to face
with unknown words anytime, anywhere: watching a movie, reading a newspaper, listening to
news. When there are no other ways of finding the meaning of these unknown words, context
clues can be very helpful. But, how effective is this method in knowing the meaning of words?
This study attempted to show this.

Statement of the Problem

The study sought to determine the effectiveness of using context clues in inferring
meaning of unknown words.
Specifically, it aimed to answer the following questions:
1. What was the vocabulary level of the respondents as reflected in Test A?
2. What was the vocabulary level of the respondents as reflected in test B?
3. How did the vocabulary levels compare?
4. How effective was using context clues as a strategy in inferring meaning of
unknown words?

Research Methodology
The study utilized experimental method using two sets of tests (A and B) to determine the
effectiveness of context clues as a method of inferring meaning of unknown words. Test A was
purely objectives where a list of words and their probable meanings are given, while Test B used
the same set of words, but this time used in sentences. Descriptive method was also used to
identify the vocabulary levels of the freshman college students using tests that did not utilize
context clues (A) and one that did (B).

Findings
1. Vocabulary level of students as reflected in Test A.
Majority of the students had an average vocabulary level as reflected in test A with 20,.93
as mean.
2. Vocabulary level of students as reflected in Test B.
Majority of the students showed an average vocabulary level as reflected in test B with
22.83 as mean.
3. Comparison of the two vocabulary levels
There was a slight difference in the means of the students’ vocabulary levels in Tests A
and B.

4. Effectiveness of context clues in inferring meaning of unknown words

Based on the above results, the use of context clues was not effective.

Conclusions

1. The findings of the study have not established the efficacy of context clues for inferring
meanings of unknown words.
2. Freshmen college students have average vocabulary level.

Recommendations

1. There is a need to strengthen the teaching of vocabulary in college.

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2. Students should strive to enrich their vocabulary even outside of their classes by reading a lot
and listening to good speakers.
3. A similar study should be conducted to validate the findings of this study.

 Lesson 2: Data Collection and Analysis

 explain the different ways in collecting data

 give examples of the different methods in collecting data
 enumerate and explain the stages of data collection
 explain the different descriptive statistics
 determine appropriate descriptive statistics to be used

Learning Content

 Methods of Collecting data

a. Data Collection by Observations. The use of observation as a tool in gathering data has
gained increasingly in classroom-based research studying second language learning and teaching
processes. It is aimed at investigating classroom situations and learners and teachers’ behaviors
toward a language phenomenon. An example is establishing the frequency and types of
intrasentenial and intersentenial code switching among students and teachers. Using observation
as a tool allows researchers to record the learners’ and teachers’ language use as the events
occur. However, studying the respondents at a close range may also influence their language
behavior, thereby affecting the objectivity of the investigation, as noted by Seliger and Sholamy.

Observations may be structured or unstructured. It is said to be structured if the

researcher had pre-determined what data he/she wishes to look for in the research situation like
classroom interaction analysis. Data are obtained using a checklist, m=numerical scales and
rating scales. On the other hand, open observations are considered unstructured since the
researcher records all behaviors happening simultaneously, without establishing specifically in
advance what aspects of the language behavior will be observed.

Long (1980) suggested that using varied ways of observational procedures parents a more
complete picture of what really takes place in the language classroom setting. Although taking
notes provides records, the researcher may not record everything with accuracy. Likewise, audio
recording may not ‘capture the vocal aspect of the verbal interaction’. Although video tapes can
capture a more elaborate picture of the events taking place, it is considered more intrusive than
audio tapes. Hence the observational procedures will depend largely on the types of data the
objectives/s of the investigation and the research design.

b. Data Collection through Interviews. Oftentimes, conversation-like interviews that are ‘open,
informal, unstructured’ do not make subjects aware that they are taking a part in a research study.
Such interviews provide a level of in-depth data gathering, free response and flexibility.
Moreover, the subjects are given ample time to elaborate on their response which cannot be
obtained in a structured interview in which questions are defined in advance and presented to
learners. The researcher may have a list of questions, but he/she does not need to follow the
order in which they come. Furthermore, he/she is free to repeat a question, to ask additional
questions and move to other aspects which he/she thinks will add information to the data desired.

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Unlike structured interviews which elicit limited and short responses, open and unstructured
interviews allow the learners freedom to expound on a question, thus providing the researcher
more information, particularly, on covert variables. However, all these depend on the
researcher’s skill in formulating questions. Effective interviewing techniques will certainly
obtain significant data and ensure the quality of interviews.

Interviews are used to gather data about the language learners’ attitude and motivation for
learning the target language. Researchers have also employed interviews in determining learners’
strategies in acquiring and learning a second language in different situations in some cases, semi-
structured interviews are used. Core questions are pre-determined and follow-up questions are
asked to further elaborate information shared by the respondents.

In summary, the nature of the interview will determine the data obtained which in turn
will dictate the procedure for analyzing the data. Data collection through interviews may yield
higher response rate, greater chance to evaluate validity of reports; minimal instance of questions
without response, and opportunity for more in-depth probing of phenomenon being investigated

c. Data Collection through Verbal Reports. This data collection procedure provides more
insights about how the respondents learn and use the second language in varied language
contexts. Verbal reporting may be elicited through thinking aloud, introspection, and
retrospection.

Thinking aloud yields rich information kept in short term memory while the learners are
engaged in a particular language task since they are instructed to say aloud everything they think.
(Hayes and Flower 1980)

Introspection requires the learners to observe and report how their minds work while
performing a particular task while retrospection investigates thoroughly the subjects for
information after they have performed a particular language task. The learners are asked to
describe their cognitive strategies and mind processes while they were performing the task.

Although these procedures allow direct access on how the learners’ minds work while
performing the language task and provides insights on the respondents’ cognitive processes, data
collection by verbal reporting, like other methods, has its share of criticisms.

As experts have noted, some respondents may describe a reflection not directly related to
their cognitive process. Subjects may not be willing to cooperate. Students who are not used to
verbalize their thoughts may find it difficult to say aloud information desired. Or, the learners,
wanting to please the researcher, may provide information which they think the researcher
wishes to obtain. Hence, these problems raise some questions whether data gathered are true
reflection of the actual process.

To corroborate sat obtained through verbal reports, researchers have used questionnaires
or written responses for testing the reliability of the data. Verbal reporting procedures may be
used to provide clues to the underlying mental processes and results should be interpreted
carefully, as noted by Meichenbaum (Seliger and Shohamy, 1990)

d. Data Collection through Questionnaires. Questionnaires consist of pre-arranged questions

requiring written responses from the respondents of the study. This procedure is usually used
with interviews and other procedures to collect data on behavior not easily observed and to
establish background information about respondents’ language learning.

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 Open questionnaires will elicit more descriptive responses like essays and narratives. The
structured questionnaires require respondents to mark responses or to select from among a
number of choices. However, it is possible to combine open and closed types of questions in the
instrument.

In preparing questionnaires, it is necessary to include a number of questions and a

number of scales. The data obtained may use attitude scaling or rating scale techniques to
transform them into quantitative data to make them measurable, for example using Likert scale
or the semantic differential by Osgoodet. Al.(1975).

To determine whether all questions and scales will provide the desired variables, it is
important to pilot test the questionnaire before its actual administration with respondents who are
similarly situated with the subjects of study. This will greatly improve the quality of the
information obtained.

To facilitate collection using questionnaire, Ctane (2000) suggests that the questionnaire
includes the following aside from the specific questions eliciting responses on the phenomena
observed and measured:

1. The purpose of the study for what reason the data obtained will be used

2. Statement affording protection to the confidentiality of the respondents’ responses

3. Endorsement of the institution behind the research

4. Legitimacy of the researcher by identifying his name and position

5. Request for cooperation

6. Specific instructions on how the responses to the question may be marked or answered.

“Well-chosen and well-worded questions” represent the most efficient and effective data-
gathering method. The intent of the question and the nature of the information sought must be
clear to the respondents. Since questioning is primarily a verbal interaction between the
investigator and the respondent, each statement must be linguistically complete and
grammatically consistent. The questions must be specific including the time period concerned,
should signify singleness of purpose to assure that each question seeks specific response/s, and
must be free from assumptions and suggestions.

e. Data Collection through Test. Test are generally used to gather data regarding the
respondent’s lexical, semantic and grammatical knowledge and proficiency focusing on the
features and usage of the second language. Like other data collection procedures, language tests
vary depending on the degree of explicitness. Tests of high degree explicitness utilizes structured
techniques in which respondents answer pre-planned discrete questions; whereas, in test of low
degree of explicitness, the respondents are not aware that their use of the language proficiency is
assessed in the form of essays, speeches and conversations. Seliger and Shohamy identified
varied testing techniques a researcher may use: judgment test, multiple choice, cloze, completion,
translation and recall.

Like other data collection instruments, it is necessary to try out the tests before using
them in the actual study such that revision may be made on items that do not provide meaningful
and relevant information about the data to be examined and measured.

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 It is also important to consider that in choosing and adapting an instrument, revisions to
be made in existing standardized tests should not change the principles or theory from which the
measurement is based/

 Stages of Data Collection and Data Analysis

Developing instruments for data collection entails 6 stages which are:

1. operationalizing abstract variables into concrete measurable ones

2. identifying variables which can be quantified and interpreted based on current

language theories

3. choosing data collection procedures suitable to the type of data to be measured

4. putting together items and tasks to be administered to the respondents

5. pilot testing and trying out the instrument for revision and improvement

6. removing and modifying items to suit the time period of the administration of
the instrument and using the instrument (Seliger and Shohamy, 1889; 193-5).

Data Analysis

Descriptive research generally uses different types of descriptive statistics which provides
insights and information on how often certain linguistic phenomena occur, what language
elements like structures, lexicon, and speech acts are commonly used by varied learners in
different contexts and the relationship of the different aspects of the data. The following are the
descriptive statics commonly used:

Frequencies (f) indicate the number of occurrences of a language phenomenon, as well as

provide meaningful information and initial insights/ impressions and better understanding of the
learners’ proficiency on the language elements which are the focus of the study. Data may be
presented on a frequency table, graph or cross break table.

Measures of central tendencies include the mean, mode, and median. These measures provide
information about the average and typical behavior of the language learners as regards the
linguistic elements being investigated. The mean X refers to the measure obtained by adding all
scores of the respondents and dividing the sum by the number of subjects. The mode refers to the
scores which occur most frequently in the large group of respondents. The median is the score
which divides the population into two in which half of the scores are above and half are below it.
(Seliger and Shohamy; Catane, 2000)

Measures of variability provide information on the dispersion of the behaviors among the
population of the study. The most commonly used is standard deviation (S.D.) which refers to
the deviation of scores from the mean X. Specifically, it is the square root of the averaged square
distance of the scores from the mean.’ Another measure of variability is the variance which is a
measure of dispersion of the set of scores and which is used in analyzing data from experimental
and multivariate research.

Different types of experimental designs call for different method of analysis. When
comparing two groups, such as experimental and control, t-test is used; whereas, if more than
two groups are compared, one way analysis of variance is an appropriate statistical measurement.
Factorial analysis of variance is used for more complex experimental designs.

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 The t-test analysis is the comparison of the means of two groups of respondents. It helps
the researcher establish whether or not the difference between the two groups is significant or
indicative of a true difference between the two samples, and that the results of the treatment are
not merely due to chance.

One way analysis of variance examines the differences in more than two groups and it
results in an F value which indicates the level of significance of the differences between the two
groups. A significant F occurs when the variability among the groups is greater than the
variability within each group. On the other hand, when the variability within each group is
greater than the variability among or between the groups, the F value is insignificant (Seliger
and Shohamy: 232-3).

Chi-Square data analysis procedure is used to test significant differences between a set
of expected values and a set of values observed in a sample. This technique is widely used in
analyzing data in second language (L2) acquisition studies, since many issues in L2 acquisition
require investigation of frequencies of particular language behaviors by varied types of L2
learners in different contexts.

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 LESSON 1: Activity 1
Name: ________________________________________
Course &Yr: __________________ Score: __________

iSEARCH : Cite articles describing qualitative, descriptive and experimental research. Explain
the features of each type of research that make each study qualitative, descriptive and
experimental. What are the advantages and disadvantage of the design used for each article?
Note: Just give one article for each type of research.

LESSON 1: *SELF- ASSESSMENT*

Name: _____________________________
Course & Yr: ________________
Score: ________

I. Identify the type of research for each research study.

1. Students who are more proficient in Mathematics will be encouraged to go to STEM

__________________________
2. Slips of the Tongue: Speech errors in First and second language production

__________________________
3. The listening comprehension skills and comprehension level of intermediate school
pupils: a relational study

__________________________
4. A phonological awareness program for indigenous students of government schools

__________________________
5. Language teachers’ use of audio-lingual and grammar translation method of
foreign language instruction

__________________________
6. The critical thinking skills of education graduates

__________________________

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7. Traditional and formal approaches to grammatical classes by language teachers

__________________________
8. Grammatical versus lexical competence of students enrolled in language class

__________________________
9. Planning and organizing literature instruction: its effect on the learning and reading
difficulties of children __________________________
10. The computer literacy of academicians in the basic education level

__________________________
11. Relationship between sleepiness and general health status_________________________

12. The use of mnemonics devices by Mathematics Major __________________________

13. The relationship between work stress and oral health status

__________________________
14. How different are the teaching competence of faculty users and non-users of
learner-centered teaching strategies __________________________

15. Level of cognitive learning for vocabulary enhancement: A preliminary study

__________________________

II. Answer the following questions concisely. Express your ideas in a complete sentence.
1. What type of research design that is concern with observable behaviors and activities and how
they occur in certain natural context?

2. What type of research wherein the research deals with specific aspects of the available data in
the context of language learning?

3. Does descriptive research use analytic approach? Explain.

4. What type of research that is always analytic in nature?

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5. What are the types of qualitative research?

LESSON 2: Activity 1
Name: ________________________________________
Course &Yr: __________________ Score: __________

A. Instructions: Explain the stages of data collection.

LESSON 2: *SELF- ASSESSMENT*

Name: _____________________________
Course & Yr: ________________
Score: ________

iSEARCH
Illustrate at least 3 ways of collecting data by bringing to class the data gathered and the
instruments used for gathering the data. Then explain how the collection of data was done.

Determine the type of data collection are the following.

1. Establishing the frequency and types of intrasentenial and intersentenial code
switching among students and teachers. __________________________
2. Provides more insights about how the respondents learn and use the second
language in varied language context. __________________________
3. This is used with interviews and other procedures to collect data on behavior not easily
observed and to establish background information about respondents’ language learning.

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 __________________________
4. The researcher is free to repeat the questions and ask the additional questions
for more information about the study. __________________________
5. A researcher wants to determine the learner’s strategies in acquiring and learning
a second language in different situations. __________________________
6. The respondents are asked to mark their responses or to select from the choices.

__________________________
7. The researcher wants to gather data on respondent’s lexical, semantic
and grammatical knowledge and proficiency. __________________________

8. The researcher wants to determine the features and usage of second language
of the respondents. __________________________
9. This type consist of pre-arranged questions requiring written responses from
the respondents of the study. __________________________
10. This is used to provide clues to the underlying mental process and results should be
interpreted carefully. __________________________

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