Problem solving

Problem solving is the process of achieving a goal by overcoming obstacles, a frequent part of
most activities. Problems in need of solutions range from simple personal tasks (e.g. how to
turn on an appliance) to complex issues in business and technical fields. The former is an
example of simple problem solving (SPS) addressing one issue, whereas the latter is complex
problem solving (CPS) with multiple interrelated obstacles.[1] Another classification of problem-
solving tasks is into well-defined problems with specific obstacles and goals, and ill-defined
problems in which the current situation is troublesome but it is not clear what kind of resolution
to aim for.[2] Similarly, one may distinguish formal or fact-based problems requiring
psychometric intelligence, versus socio-emotional problems which depend on the changeable
emotions of individuals or groups, such as tactful behavior, fashion, or gift choices.[3]

Solutions require sufficient resources and knowledge to attain the goal. Professionals such as
lawyers, doctors, programmers, and consultants are largely problem solvers for issues that
require technical skills and knowledge beyond general competence. Many businesses have
found profitable markets by recognizing a problem and creating a solution: the more widespread
and inconvenient the problem, the greater the opportunity to develop a scalable solution.

There are many specialized problem-solving techniques and methods in fields such as
engineering, business, medicine, mathematics, computer science, philosophy, and social
organization. The mental techniques to identify, analyze, and solve problems are studied in
psychology and cognitive sciences. Also widely researched are the mental obstacles that
prevent people from finding solutions; problem-solving impediments include confirmation bias,
mental set, and functional fixedness.
Definition
The term problem solving has a slightly different meaning depending on the discipline. For
instance, it is a mental process in psychology and a computerized process in computer science.
There are two different types of problems: ill-defined and well-defined; different approaches are
used for each. Well-defined problems have specific end goals and clearly expected solutions,
while ill-defined problems do not. Well-defined problems allow for more initial planning than ill-
defined problems.[2] Solving problems sometimes involves dealing with pragmatics (the way that
context contributes to meaning) and semantics (the interpretation of the problem). The ability to
understand what the end goal of the problem is, and what rules could be applied, represents the
key to solving the problem. Sometimes a problem requires abstract thinking or coming up with a
creative solution.

Problem solving has two major domains: mathematical problem solving and personal problem
solving. Each concerns some difficulty or barrier that is encountered.[4]

Psychology
Problem solving in psychology refers to the process of finding solutions to problems
encountered in life.[5] Solutions to these problems are usually situation- or context-specific. The
process starts with problem finding and problem shaping, in which the problem is discovered
and simplified. The next step is to generate possible solutions and evaluate them. Finally a
solution is selected to be implemented and verified. Problems have an end goal to be reached;
how you get there depends upon problem orientation (problem-solving coping style and skills)
and systematic analysis.[6]

Mental health professionals study the human problem-solving processes using methods such
as introspection, behaviorism, simulation, computer modeling, and experiment. Social
psychologists look into the person-environment relationship aspect of the problem and
independent and interdependent problem-solving methods.[7] Problem solving has been defined
as a higher-order cognitive process and intellectual function that requires the modulation and
control of more routine or fundamental skills.[8]

Empirical research shows many different strategies and factors influence everyday problem
solving.[9] Rehabilitation psychologists studying people with frontal lobe injuries have found that
deficits in emotional control and reasoning can be re-mediated with effective rehabilitation and
could improve the capacity of injured persons to resolve everyday problems.[10] Interpersonal
everyday problem solving is dependent upon personal motivational and contextual components.
One such component is the emotional valence of "real-world" problems, which can either impede
or aid problem-solving performance. Researchers have focused on the role of emotions in
problem solving,[11] demonstrating that poor emotional control can disrupt focus on the target
task, impede problem resolution, and lead to negative outcomes such as fatigue, depression,
and inertia.[12] In conceptualization, human problem solving consists of two related processes:
problem orientation, and the motivational/attitudinal/affective approach to problematic
situations and problem-solving skills.[13] People's strategies cohere with their goals[14] and stem
from the process of comparing oneself with others.

Cognitive sciences
Among the first experimental psychologists to study problem solving were the Gestaltists in
Germany, such as Karl Duncker in The Psychology of Productive Thinking (1935).[15] Perhaps best
known is the work of Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon.[16]

Experiments in the 1960s and early 1970s asked participants to solve relatively simple, well-
defined, but not previously seen laboratory tasks.[17][18] These simple problems, such as the
Tower of Hanoi, admitted optimal solutions that could be found quickly, allowing researchers to
observe the full problem-solving process. Researchers assumed that these model problems
would elicit the characteristic cognitive processes by which more complex "real world" problems
are solved.

An outstanding problem-solving technique found by this research is the principle of

decomposition.[19]
Computer science
Much of computer science and artificial intelligence involves designing automated systems to
solve a specified type of problem: to accept input data and calculate a correct or adequate
response, reasonably quickly. Algorithms are recipes or instructions that direct such systems,
written into computer programs.

Steps for designing such systems include problem determination, heuristics, root cause
analysis, de-duplication, analysis, diagnosis, and repair. Analytic techniques include linear and
nonlinear programming, queuing systems, and simulation.[20] A large, perennial obstacle is to
find and fix errors in computer programs: debugging.

Logic
Formal logic concerns issues like validity, truth, inference, argumentation, and proof. In a
problem-solving context, it can be used to formally represent a problem as a theorem to be
proved, and to represent the knowledge needed to solve the problem as the premises to be used
in a proof that the problem has a solution.

The use of computers to prove mathematical theorems using formal logic emerged as the field
of automated theorem proving in the 1950s. It included the use of heuristic methods designed to
simulate human problem solving, as in the Logic Theory Machine, developed by Allen Newell,
Herbert A. Simon and J. C. Shaw, as well as algorithmic methods such as the resolution principle
developed by John Alan Robinson.

In addition to its use for finding proofs of mathematical theorems, automated theorem-proving
has also been used for program verification in computer science. In 1958, John McCarthy
proposed the advice taker, to represent information in formal logic and to derive answers to
questions using automated theorem-proving. An important step in this direction was made by
Cordell Green in 1969, who used a resolution theorem prover for question-answering and for
such other applications in artificial intelligence as robot planning.
The resolution theorem-prover used by Cordell Green bore little resemblance to human problem
solving methods. In response to criticism of that approach from researchers at MIT, Robert
Kowalski developed logic programming and SLD resolution,[21] which solves problems by
problem decomposition. He has advocated logic for both computer and human problem
solving[22] and computational logic to improve human thinking.[23]

Engineering
When products or processes fail, problem solving techniques can be used to develop corrective
actions that can be taken to prevent further failures. Such techniques can also be applied to a
product or process prior to an actual failure event—to predict, analyze, and mitigate a potential
problem in advance. Techniques such as failure mode and effects analysis can proactively
reduce the likelihood of problems.

In either the reactive or the proactive case, it is necessary to build a causal explanation through a
process of diagnosis. In deriving an explanation of effects in terms of causes, abduction
generates new ideas or hypotheses (asking "how?"); deduction evaluates and refines hypotheses
based on other plausible premises (asking "why?"); and induction justifies a hypothesis with
empirical data (asking "how much?").[24] The objective of abduction is to determine which
hypothesis or proposition to test, not which one to adopt or assert.[25] In the Peircean logical
system, the logic of abduction and deduction contribute to our conceptual understanding of a
phenomenon, while the logic of induction adds quantitative details (empirical substantiation) to
our conceptual knowledge.[26]

Forensic engineering is an important technique of failure analysis that involves tracing product
defects and flaws. Corrective action can then be taken to prevent further failures.

Reverse engineering attempts to discover the original problem-solving logic used in developing a
product by disassembling the product and developing a plausible pathway to creating and
assembling its parts.[27]
Military science
In military science, problem solving is linked to the concept of "end-states", the conditions or
situations which are the aims of the strategy.[28]: xiii, E-2 Ability to solve problems is important at
any military rank, but is essential at the command and control level. It results from deep
qualitative and quantitative understanding of possible scenarios. Effectiveness in this context is
an evaluation of results: to what extent the end states were accomplished.[28]: IV-24 Planning is
the process of determining how to effect those end states.[28]: IV-1

Processes
Some models of problem solving involve identifying a goal and then a sequence of subgoals
towards achieving this goal. Andersson, who introduced the ACT-R model of cognition, modelled
this collection of goals and subgoals as a goal stack in which the mind contains a stack of goals
and subgoals to be completed, and a single task being carried out at any time.[29]: 51

Knowledge of how to solve one problem can be applied to another problem, in a process known
as transfer.[29]: 56

Problem-solving strategies
Problem-solving strategies are steps to overcoming the obstacles to achieving a goal. The
iteration of such strategies over the course of solving a problem is the "problem-solving
cycle".[30]

Common steps in this cycle include recognizing the problem, defining it, developing a strategy to
fix it, organizing knowledge and resources available, monitoring progress, and evaluating the
effectiveness of the solution. Once a solution is achieved, another problem usually arises, and
the cycle starts again.
Insight is the sudden aha! solution to a problem, the birth of a new idea to simplify a complex
situation. Solutions found through insight are often more incisive than those from step-by-step
analysis. A quick solution process requires insight to select productive moves at different stages
of the problem-solving cycle. Unlike Newell and Simon's formal definition of a move problem,
there is no consensus definition of an insight problem.[31]

Some problem-solving strategies include:[32]

Abstraction
solving the problem in a tractable model
system to gain insight into the real
system
Analogy
adapting the solution to a previous
problem which has similar features or
mechanisms
Brainstorming
(especially among groups of people)
suggesting a large number of solutions
or ideas and combining and developing
them until an optimum solution is found
Bypasses
transform the problem into another
problem that is easier to solve,
bypassing the barrier, then transform
that solution back to a solution to the
original problem.
Critical thinking
analysis of available evidence and
arguments to form a judgement via
rational, skeptical, and unbiased
evaluation
Divide and conquer
breaking down a large, complex problem
into smaller, solvable problems
Help-seeking
obtaining external assistance to deal
with obstacles
Hypothesis testing
assuming a possible explanation to the
problem and trying to prove (or, in some
contexts, disprove) the assumption
Lateral thinking
approaching solutions indirectly and
creatively
Means-ends analysis
choosing an action at each step to move
closer to the goal
Morphological analysis
assessing the output and interactions of
an entire system
Observation / Question
in the natural sciences an observation is
an act or instance of noticing or
perceiving and the acquisition of
information from a primary source. A
question is an utterance which serves
as a request for information.
Proof of impossibility
try to prove that the problem cannot be
solved. The point where the proof fails
will be the starting point for solving it
Reduction
transforming the problem into another
problem for which solutions exist
Research
 employing existing ideas or adapting
existing solutions to similar problems
Root cause analysis
identifying the cause of a problem
Trial-and-error
testing possible solutions until the right
one is found

Problem-solving methods

A3 problem solving – Structured

problem improvement approach
Design thinking – Processes by which
design concepts are developed
Eight Disciplines Problem Solving –
Eight Disciplines of Team-Oriented
Problem Solving Method
GROW model – Method for goal setting
and problem solving
Help-seeking – Theory in psychology
How to Solve It – Book by George Pólya
Lateral thinking – Manner of solving
problems
OODA loop – Observe–orient–decide–
act cycle
PDCA – Iterative design and
management method used in business
Root cause analysis – Method of
identifying the fundamental causes of
faults or problems
 RPR problem diagnosis – problem
diagnosis method designed to
determine the root cause of IT problems
TRIZ – Problem-solving tools
Scientific method – is an empirical
method for acquiring knowledge that
has characterized the development of
science.
Swarm intelligence – Collective behavior
of decentralized, self-organized systems
System dynamics – Study of non-linear
complex systems

Common barriers
Common barriers to problem solving include mental constructs that impede an efficient search
for solutions. Five of the most common identified by researchers are: confirmation bias, mental
set, functional fixedness, unnecessary constraints, and irrelevant information.

Confirmation bias
Confirmation bias is an unintentional tendency to collect and use data which favors
preconceived notions. Such notions may be incidental rather than motivated by important
personal beliefs: the desire to be right may be sufficient motivation.[33]

Scientific and technical professionals also experience confirmation bias. One online experiment,
for example, suggested that professionals within the field of psychological research are likely to
view scientific studies that agree with their preconceived notions more favorably than clashing
studies.[34] According to Raymond Nickerson, one can see the consequences of confirmation
bias in real-life situations, which range in severity from inefficient government policies to
genocide. Nickerson argued that those who killed people accused of witchcraft demonstrated
confirmation bias with motivation. Researcher Michael Allen found evidence for confirmation
bias with motivation in school children who worked to manipulate their science experiments to
produce favorable results.[35]

However, confirmation bias does not necessarily require motivation. In 1960, Peter Cathcart
Wason conducted an experiment in which participants first viewed three numbers and then
created a hypothesis in the form of a rule that could have been used to create that triplet of
numbers. When testing their hypotheses, participants tended to only create additional triplets of
numbers that would confirm their hypotheses, and tended not to create triplets that would
negate or disprove their hypotheses.[36]

Mental set
Mental set is the inclination to re-use a previously successful solution, rather than search for
new and better solutions. It is a reliance on habit.
It was first articulated by Abraham S. Luchins in the 1940s with his well-known water jug
experiments.[37] Participants were asked to fill one jug with a specific amount of water by using
other jugs with different maximum capacities. After Luchins gave a set of jug problems that
could all be solved by a single technique, he then introduced a problem that could be solved by
the same technique, but also by a novel and simpler method. His participants tended to use the
accustomed technique, oblivious of the simpler alternative.[38] This was again demonstrated in
Norman Maier's 1931 experiment, which challenged participants to solve a problem by using a
familiar tool (pliers) in an unconventional manner. Participants were often unable to view the
object in a way that strayed from its typical use, a type of mental set known as functional
fixedness (see the following section).

Rigidly clinging to a mental set is called fixation, which can deepen to an obsession or
preoccupation with attempted strategies that are repeatedly unsuccessful.[39] In the late 1990s,
researcher Jennifer Wiley found that professional expertise in a field can create a mental set,
perhaps leading to fixation.[39]

Groupthink, in which each individual takes on the mindset of the rest of the group, can produce
and exacerbate mental set.[40] Social pressure leads to everybody thinking the same thing and
reaching the same conclusions.

Functional fixedness
Functional fixedness is the tendency to view an object as having only one function, and to be
unable to conceive of any novel use, as in the Maier pliers experiment described above.
Functional fixedness is a specific form of mental set, and is one of the most common forms of
cognitive bias in daily life.

As an example, imagine a man wants to kill a bug in his house, but the only thing at hand is a can
of air freshener. He may start searching for something to kill the bug instead of squashing it with
the can, thinking only of its main function of deodorizing.

Tim German and Clark Barrett describe this barrier: "subjects become 'fixed' on the design
function of the objects, and problem solving suffers relative to control conditions in which the
object's function is not demonstrated."[41] Their research found that young children's limited
knowledge of an object's intended function reduces this barrier[42] Research has also discovered
functional fixedness in educational contexts, as an obstacle to understanding: "functional
fixedness may be found in learning concepts as well as in solving chemistry problems."[43]

There are several hypotheses in regards to how functional fixedness relates to problem
solving.[44] It may waste time, delaying or entirely preventing the correct use of a tool.

Unnecessary constraints
Unnecessary constraints are arbitrary boundaries imposed unconsciously on the task at hand,
which foreclose a productive avenue of solution. The solver may become fixated on only one
type of solution, as if it were an inevitable requirement of the problem. Typically, this combines
with mental set—clinging to a previously successful method.[45]

Visual problems can also produce mentally invented constraints.[46] A famous example is the
dot problem: nine dots arranged in a three-by-three grid pattern must be connected by drawing
four straight line segments, without lifting pen from paper or backtracking along a line. The
subject typically assumes the pen must stay within the outer square of dots, but the solution
requires lines continuing beyond this frame, and researchers have found a 0% solution rate
within a brief allotted time.[47]

This problem has produced the expression "think outside the box".[48] Such problems are
typically solved via a sudden insight which leaps over the mental barriers, often after long toil
against them.[49] This can be difficult depending on how the subject has structured the problem
in their mind, how they draw on past experiences, and how well they juggle this information in
their working memory. In the example, envisioning the dots connected outside the framing
square requires visualizing an unconventional arrangement, which is a strain on working
memory.[48]
Irrelevant information
Irrelevant information is a specification or data presented in a problem that is unrelated to the
solution.[45] If the solver assumes that all information presented needs to be used, this often
derails the problem solving process, making relatively simple problems much harder.[50]

For example: "Fifteen percent of the people in Topeka have unlisted telephone numbers. You
select 200 names at random from the Topeka phone book. How many of these people have
unlisted phone numbers?"[48] The "obvious" answer is 15%, but in fact none of the unlisted
people would be listed among the 200. This kind of "trick question" is often used in aptitude
tests or cognitive evaluations.[51] Though not inherently difficult, they require independent
thinking that is not necessarily common. Mathematical word problems often include irrelevant
qualitative or numerical information as an extra challenge.

Avoiding barriers by changing

problem representation
The disruption caused by the above cognitive biases can depend on how the information is
represented:[51] visually, verbally, or mathematically. A classic example is the Buddhist monk
problem:

A Buddhist monk begins at dawn one day walking up a mountain, reaches the top
at sunset, meditates at the top for several days until one dawn when he begins to
walk back to the foot of the mountain, which he reaches at sunset. Making no
assumptions about his starting or stopping or about his pace during the trips,
prove that there is a place on the path which he occupies at the same hour of the
day on the two separate journeys.
The problem cannot be addressed in a verbal context, trying to describe the monk's progress on
each day. It becomes much easier when the paragraph is represented mathematically by a
function: one visualizes a graph whose horizontal axis is time of day, and whose vertical axis
shows the monk's position (or altitude) on the path at each time. Superimposing the two journey
curves, which traverse opposite diagonals of a rectangle, one sees they must cross each other
somewhere. The visual representation by graphing has resolved the difficulty.

Similar strategies can often improve problem solving on tests.[45][52]

Other barriers for individuals

People who are engaged in problem solving tend to overlook subtractive changes, even those
that are critical elements of efficient solutions. This tendency to solve by first, only, or mostly
creating or adding elements, rather than by subtracting elements or processes is shown to
intensify with higher cognitive loads such as information overload.[53]

Dreaming: problem solving

without waking
consciousness
People can also solve problems while they are asleep. There are many reports of scientists and
engineers who solved problems in their dreams. For example, Elias Howe, inventor of the sewing
machine, figured out the structure of the bobbin from a dream.[54]

The chemist August Kekulé was considering how benzene arranged its six carbon and hydrogen
atoms. Thinking about the problem, he dozed off, and dreamt of dancing atoms that fell into a
snakelike pattern, which led him to discover the benzene ring. As Kekulé wrote in his diary,
 One of the snakes seized hold of its own tail, and the form whirled mockingly
before my eyes. As if by a flash of lightning I awoke; and this time also I spent the
rest of the night in working out the consequences of the hypothesis.[55]

There also are empirical studies of how people can think consciously about a problem before
going to sleep, and then solve the problem with a dream image. Dream researcher William C.
Dement told his undergraduate class of 500 students that he wanted them to think about an
infinite series, whose first elements were OTTFF, to see if they could deduce the principle behind
it and to say what the next elements of the series would be.[56] He asked them to think about this
problem every night for 15 minutes before going to sleep and to write down any dreams that
they then had. They were instructed to think about the problem again for 15 minutes when they
awakened in the morning.

The sequence OTTFF is the first letters of the numbers: one, two, three, four, five. The next five
elements of the series are SSENT (six, seven, eight, nine, ten). Some of the students solved the
puzzle by reflecting on their dreams. One example was a student who reported the following
dream:[56]

I was standing in an art gallery, looking at the paintings on the wall. As I walked
down the hall, I began to count the paintings: one, two, three, four, five. As I came
to the sixth and seventh, the paintings had been ripped from their frames. I stared
at the empty frames with a peculiar feeling that some mystery was about to be
solved. Suddenly I realized that the sixth and seventh spaces were the solution to
the problem!

With more than 500 undergraduate students, 87 dreams were judged to be related to the
problems students were assigned (53 directly related and 34 indirectly related). Yet of the people
who had dreams that apparently solved the problem, only seven were actually able to
consciously know the solution. The rest (46 out of 53) thought they did not know the solution.

Mark Blechner conducted this experiment and obtained results similar to Dement's.[57] He found
that while trying to solve the problem, people had dreams in which the solution appeared to be
obvious from the dream, but it was rare for the dreamers to realize how their dreams had solved
the puzzle. Coaxing or hints did not get them to realize it, although once they heard the solution,
they recognized how their dream had solved it. For example, one person in that OTTFF
experiment dreamed:[57]

There is a big clock. You can see the movement. The big hand of the clock was on
the number six. You could see it move up, number by number, six, seven, eight,
nine, ten, eleven, twelve. The dream focused on the small parts of the machinery.
You could see the gears inside.

In the dream, the person counted out the next elements of the series—six, seven, eight, nine, ten,
eleven, twelve—yet he did not realize that this was the solution of the problem. His sleeping
mindbrain solved the problem, but his waking mindbrain was not aware how.

Albert Einstein believed that much problem solving goes on unconsciously, and the person must
then figure out and formulate consciously what the mindbrain has already solved. He believed
this was his process in formulating the theory of relativity: "The creator of the problem
possesses the solution."[58] Einstein said that he did his problem solving without words, mostly
in images. "The words or the language, as they are written or spoken, do not seem to play any
role in my mechanism of thought. The psychical entities which seem to serve as elements in
thought are certain signs and more or less clear images which can be 'voluntarily' reproduced
and combined."[59]

Cognitive sciences: two

schools
Problem-solving processes differ across knowledge domains and across levels of expertise.[60]
For this reason, cognitive sciences findings obtained in the laboratory cannot necessarily
generalize to problem-solving situations outside the laboratory. This has led to a research
emphasis on real-world problem solving, since the 1990s. This emphasis has been expressed
quite differently in North America and Europe, however. Whereas North American research has
typically concentrated on studying problem solving in separate, natural knowledge domains,
much of the European research has focused on novel, complex problems, and has been
performed with computerized scenarios.[61]

Europe
In Europe, two main approaches have surfaced, one initiated by Donald Broadbent[62] in the
United Kingdom and the other one by Dietrich Dörner[63] in Germany. The two approaches share
an emphasis on relatively complex, semantically rich, computerized laboratory tasks,
constructed to resemble real-life problems. The approaches differ somewhat in their theoretical
goals and methodology. The tradition initiated by Broadbent emphasizes the distinction between
cognitive problem-solving processes that operate under awareness versus outside of
awareness, and typically employs mathematically well-defined computerized systems. The
tradition initiated by Dörner, on the other hand, has an interest in the interplay of the cognitive,
motivational, and social components of problem solving, and utilizes very complex
computerized scenarios that contain up to 2,000 highly interconnected variables.[64]

North America
In North America, initiated by the work of Herbert A. Simon on "learning by doing" in semantically
rich domains,[65] researchers began to investigate problem solving separately in different natural
knowledge domains—such as physics, writing, or chess playing—rather than attempt to extract a
global theory of problem solving.[66] These researchers have focused on the development of
problem solving within certain domains, that is on the development of expertise.[67]

Areas that have attracted rather intensive attention in North America include:

calculation[68]
computer skills[69]
game playing[70]
lawyers' reasoning[71]
managerial problem solving[72]
mathematical problem solving[73]
mechanical problem solving[74]
personal problem solving[75]
political decision making[76]
problem solving in electronics[77]
problem solving for innovations and
inventions: TRIZ[78]
reading[79]
social problem solving[11]
writing[80]
Characteristics of complex
problems
Complex problem solving (CPS) is distinguishable from simple problem solving (SPS). In SPS
there is a singular and simple obstacle. In CPS there may be multiple simultaneous obstacles.
For example, a surgeon at work has far more complex problems than an individual deciding what
shoes to wear. As elucidated by Dietrich Dörner, and later expanded upon by Joachim Funke,
complex problems have some typical characteristics, which include:[1]

complexity (large numbers of items,

interrelations, and decisions)
enumerability
heterogeneity
connectivity (hierarchy relation,
communication relation, allocation
relation)
dynamics (time considerations)
temporal constraints
 temporal sensitivity
phase effects
dynamic unpredictability
intransparency (lack of clarity of the
situation)
commencement opacity
continuation opacity
polytely (multiple goals)[81]
inexpressivenes
opposition
transience

Collective problem solving

People solve problems on many different levels—from the individual to the civilizational.
Collective problem solving refers to problem solving performed collectively. Social issues and
global issues can typically only be solved collectively.
The complexity of contemporary problems exceeds the cognitive capacity of any individual and
requires different but complementary varieties of expertise and collective problem solving
ability.[82]

Collective intelligence is shared or group intelligence that emerges from the collaboration,
collective efforts, and competition of many individuals.

In collaborative problem solving people work together to solve real-world problems. Members of
problem-solving groups share a common concern, a similar passion, and/or a commitment to
their work. Members can ask questions, wonder, and try to understand common issues. They
share expertise, experiences, tools, and methods.[83] Groups may be fluid based on need, may
only occur temporarily to finish an assigned task, or may be more permanent depending on the
nature of the problems.

For example, in the educational context, members of a group may all have input into the
decision-making process and a role in the learning process. Members may be responsible for
the thinking, teaching, and monitoring of all members in the group. Group work may be
coordinated among members so that each member makes an equal contribution to the whole
work. Members can identify and build on their individual strengths so that everyone can make a
significant contribution to the task.[84] Collaborative group work has the ability to promote
critical thinking skills, problem solving skills, social skills, and self-esteem. By using
collaboration and communication, members often learn from one another and construct
meaningful knowledge that often leads to better learning outcomes than individual work.[85]

Collaborative groups require joint intellectual efforts between the members and involve social
interactions to solve problems together. The knowledge shared during these interactions is
acquired during communication, negotiation, and production of materials.[86] Members actively
seek information from others by asking questions. The capacity to use questions to acquire new
information increases understanding and the ability to solve problems.[87]

In a 1962 research report, Douglas Engelbart linked collective intelligence to organizational

effectiveness, and predicted that proactively "augmenting human intellect" would yield a
multiplier effect in group problem solving: "Three people working together in this augmented
mode [would] seem to be more than three times as effective in solving a complex problem as is
one augmented person working alone".[88]

Henry Jenkins, a theorist of new media and media convergence, draws on the theory that
collective intelligence can be attributed to media convergence and participatory culture.[89] He
criticizes contemporary education for failing to incorporate online trends of collective problem
solving into the classroom, stating "whereas a collective intelligence community encourages
ownership of work as a group, schools grade individuals". Jenkins argues that interaction within
a knowledge community builds vital skills for young people, and teamwork through collective
intelligence communities contributes to the development of such skills.[90]

Collective impact is the commitment of a group of actors from different sectors to a common
agenda for solving a specific social problem, using a structured form of collaboration.

After World War II the UN, the Bretton Woods organization, and the WTO were created. Collective
problem solving on the international level crystallized around these three types of organization
from the 1980s onward. As these global institutions remain state-like or state-centric it is
unsurprising that they perpetuate state-like or state-centric approaches to collective problem
solving rather than alternative ones.[91]

Crowdsourcing is a process of accumulating ideas, thoughts, or information from many

independent participants, with aim of finding the best solution for a given challenge. Modern
information technologies allow for many people to be involved and facilitate managing their
suggestions in ways that provide good results.[92] The Internet allows for a new capacity of
collective (including planetary-scale) problem solving.[93]

See also

Actuarial science – Philosophy

Statistics applied to risk portal
Psychology
in insurance and other portal
financial products
Wikiquo
te has
Analytical skill – quotati
ons
Crucial skill in all related
different fields of work to
Problem
and life solving.
Creative problem-
solving – mental process of searching
for an original and previously unknown
solution to a problem
Collective intelligence – Group
intelligence that emerges from
collective efforts
Community of practice
Coworking – Practice of independent
contractors or scientists sharing office
space without supervision
Crowdsolving – Sourcing services or
funds from a group
Divergent thinking – A process of
generating creative ideas
Grey problem – IT service problem
where the causing technology is
unknown or unconfirmed, making the
problem solving difficult to allocate
Innovation – Practical implementation
of improvements
Instrumentalism – Position in the
philosophy of science
Problem statement – Description of an
issue
Problem structuring methods
 Shared intentionality – Description of
the concept of shared intentionality
Structural fix – solving a problem or
resolving a conflict by bringing about
structural changes in underlying
structures that provoked or sustained
these problems
Subgoal labeling
Troubleshooting – Form of problem
solving, often applied to repair failed
products or processes
Wicked problem – Problem that is
difficult or impossible to solve

Notes
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Further reading

Beckmann, Jens F.; Guthke, Jürgen

(1995). "Complex problem solving,
intelligence, and learning ability" (http
s://www.researchgate.net/publication/2
00134353) . In Frensch, P. A.; Funke, J.
(eds.). Complex problem solving: The
European Perspective. Hillsdale, N.J.:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 177–
200.
Brehmer, Berndt (1995). "Feedback
delays in dynamic decision making". In
Frensch, P. A.; Funke, J. (eds.). Complex
problem solving: The European
Perspective. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates. pp. 103–130.
Brehmer, Berndt; Dörner, D. (1993).
"Experiments with computer-simulated
microworlds: Escaping both the narrow
straits of the laboratory and the deep
blue sea of the field study". Computers in
Human Behavior. 9 (2–3): 171–184.
doi:10.1016/0747-5632(93)90005-D (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2F0747-5632%28
93%2990005-D) .
Dörner, D. (1992). "Über die Philosophie
der Verwendung von Mikrowelten oder
'Computerszenarios' in der
psychologischen Forschung" [On the
proper use of microworlds or "computer
scenarios" in psychological research]. In
Gundlach, H. (ed.). Psychologische
Forschung und Methode: Das
Versprechen des Experiments. Festschrift
für Werner Traxel (in German). Passau,
Germany: Passavia-Universitäts-Verlag.
pp. 53–87.
Eyferth, K.; Schömann, M.; Widowski, D.
(1986). "Der Umgang von Psychologen
mit Komplexität" [On how psychologists
deal with complexity]. Sprache &
Kognition (in German). 5: 11–26.
Funke, Joachim (1993). "Microworlds
based on linear equation systems: A
new approach to complex problem
solving and experimental results" (http
s://web-archive.southampton.ac.uk/cog
prints.org/1679/2/Funke_1993_micro.p
df) (PDF). In Strube, G.; Wender, K.-F.
(eds.). The cognitive psychology of
knowledge. Amsterdam: Elsevier
Science Publishers. pp. 313–330.
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