DATA

TRANSMISSION
2 Network Models
Concept of protocol layering
 Two principles for the protocol layering

 Logical connection between two identical layers in protocol layering

Five layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite
 Physical, data-link, network, transport, and application
OSI model and its comparison with TCP/IP protocol suite
 Reason for OSI model’s lack of success
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 PROTOCOL LAYERING
 Definition:
 “A protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate
effectively.”

 Simple communication:
 Simple protocol

 Complex communication:
 Divide the task between different layers
 Protocol layering

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 Scenario 1

 Simple communication:
 Occurring in only one layer
 Face to face in the same language

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 Scenario 1

 Rules:
 Greeting each other when they meet
 Confining their vocabulary to level of their friendship
 Refraining from speaking when the other party is speaking
 Being a dialog, not a monolog
 Exchanging some nice words when they leave
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Scenario 2
 More complex communication:
 Maria and Ann are very far from each other
 Continue their communication and exchange ideas, using regular mail
through the post office
 Requirement: Their ideas are not revealed by other people

 Solution:
 Using an encryption/decryption technique
 Taking place in three layers with three machines on each side

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Scenario 2

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Protocol layering
 Enabling to divide a complex task into several smaller and
simpler tasks
 Modularity: independent layers to do separate tasks
 A layer (module): defined as a black box with inputs and outputs

 Advantages:
 Enabling to separate services from implementation
 Internet: requiring intermediate systems that need only some layers, but
not all layers

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 Principles of Protocol Layering

 Principle 1: For bidirectional communication

 Making each layer perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction
 Example:
 Layer 3: to listen and talk
 Layer 2: to encrypt and decrypt
 Layer 1: to send and receive mail

 Principle 2:
 Two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical
 Example: Objects at both sites should be
 Layer 3: plaintext letter
 Layer 2: ciphertext letter
 Layer 1: piece of mail
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Logical Connections

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 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
 Definition:
 A set of protocols organized in different layers
 A hierarchical protocol: interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality

 Original TCP/IP protocol suite:

 Four software layers built upon the hardware

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

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Layered Architecture

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite > Logical connections

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite > Logical connections
 Duty of each layer:
 End-to-end: application, transport, and network layers
 Hop-to-hop: data-link and physical layers
 Domains of duty: internet and link

 Data unit: created from each layer

 Top three layers: data unit (packets) are not changed
 Bottom two layers: packet created by the host is changed (only by
routers, not by link-layer switches)

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite > Identical objects

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite > Identical objects

 Discussions: At the network layer

 Logical connection is between the two hosts
 Identical objects exist between two hops: a router will
 Fragment the packet
 Send more packets than received

 Link between two hops does not change the object

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Description of Each Layer
 Physical Layer

 Data-link Layer

 Network Layer

 Transport Layer

 Application Layer

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Description > Physical Layer
 Responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across the link

 Communication between two devices at the physical layer

 Still a logical communication
 Hidden layer: the transmission media under the physical layer
 Transmission medium: not carry bits, but rather electrical or optical signals

 A bit in physical layer:

 Received in a frame from the data-link layer
 Transformed and sent through the transmission media
 Considered as logical unit between two physical layers in two devices
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Description > Data-link Layer
 An internet: several links (LANs and WANs) connected by routers
 Several overlapping sets of links
 Routers are responsible for choosing the best links
 Require a layer to move the packet through the link

 Data-link Layer:
 Responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the link
 A link-layer switch: wired/wireless LAN, wired/wireless WAN
 Taking a datagram and encapsulates it in a packet called a frame
 Different service protocols, e.g., complete error detection and correction

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Description > Network Layer
 Responsible for creating a connection between the source
computer and the destination computer
 Several routers from the source to the destination
 Routers in the path: choosing the best route for each packet
 Network-layer tasks:
 Host-to-host communication
 Routing the packet through possible routes
 Separating the tasks: fewer protocols on the routers
 Main protocol: Internet Protocol (IP) defines
 Format of the packet, called a datagram
 Format and the structure of addresses
 Responsible for routing a packet from its source to its destination
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Description > Transport Layer
 Logical connection: End-to-end
 Transport layer at the source host:
 Getting the message from the application layer
 Encapsulating the message: a segment or a user datagram
 Sending the message through the logical (imaginary) connection
 Separating from end-to-end application layer
 Main protocol: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Connection-oriented protocol
 Establishing logical connection between transport layers at two hosts
 Providing flow control, e.g., matching sending with receiving data rate
 Supporting error and congestion control
 Others: UDP and SCTP
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Description > Application Layer
 Communication between two processes (two programs)
 A process sends a request to the other process and receives a response
 Process-to-process communication

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

 A vehicle for accessing the World Wide Web (WWW)

 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

 Main protocol used in electronic mail (e-mail) service

 Others: FTP, TELNET or SSH

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Encapsulation and Decapsulation

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 Source Host: Encapsulation
Datagram

Segment /
User datagram

Frame
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Router: Decap. And Encap.

Datagram

Frame 26
Destination Host: Decapsulation

Segment /
User datagram

Datagram

Frame
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Addressing

 Any communication needs two addresses:

 Source address
 Destination address

 Four pairs of addresses

 Physical layer does not need addresses

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Addressing

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Multiplexing

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Demultiplexing

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THE OSI MODEL
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

 ISO standard covers all aspects of network communications

 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
 Introduced in later 1970s

 OSI model
 Purpose: to facilitate communication between different systems
 Not a protocol
 A model for understanding and designing a network architecture

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THE OSI MODEL

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OSI versus TCP/IP

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Lack of OSI Model’s Success

 Completed when TCP/IP was fully in place

 Some layers in OSI model were never fully defined

 E.g., presentation and session layers:
 Actual protocols were not fully defined, nor fully described
 Corresponding software was not fully developed

 Implemented by an organization in a different application

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