UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA

FACULTY OF ENGNEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
TOPIC:
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF 12V SOLAR BATTERY CHARGER
BASED MICROCONTROLLER

A PROJECT REPORT

WRITTEN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE COURSE EEE 475

BY GROUP 9;
OKOYE DANIEL OGOCHUKWU………………………………….....2019/244107

ONAH IKECHUKWU CLINTON………………………………………2019/244106

ONYIDO EMMANUEL CHINEDU………………………………….…2019/245967

ONYEJEKWE JOSEPH CHINONSO………………………………….2019/250276

OMEDE STEPHEN PEACE………………………….………………….2019/245785

ONYEDIRE JESSE KENNETH………………………………………….2019/246816

ONWE JOHN ELOCHUKWU…………………….…………………….2019/241684

ONYALI BENJAMIN OBUMNEME…………………………………….2019/251571

ONYIMMADU IFENNA.L. ……………………….…………………….2019/248206

OKORO CHRISTIAN CHIGBO………………………………………….2019/245970

LECTURER;
ENGR. DR. EYA C.U. (CO-ORDINATOR)
DECEMBER 9, 2023
i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all those that supported and guided us
throughout the process of designing and constructing the 12V solar battery charged based
microcontroller project. This endeavor would not have been possible without their
invaluable contributions and encouragement.

We extend our heartfelt appreciation to Engr. Dr. Eya, our project advisor for his expert
teachings, guidance and insightful teachings throughout the semester and for giving us the
opportunity to carry out this project to give us a hands-on experience in electrical projects
and to see how the theories we have learnt are applied in real life.

We would like to acknowledge each and every single member of the group who participated
and collaborated together to play a pivotal role in ensuring the successful execution of our
project. The teamwork and dedication shown greatly enhanced the quality of the final
result.

In conclusion, we are grateful to everyone who played a role, no matter how small, in
making this project a reality. Your collective contributions have been instrumental in
shaping this endeavor into a successful and enriching experience.

ii
TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS--------------------------------------------------------------------iii.

ABSTRACT-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv.

CHAPTER 1----------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.

1.0 INTRODUCTION ----------------------------------------------------------------1.

1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ------------------------------------------------------2.

1.2 PROBLEM-------------------------------------------------------------------------2.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE-------------------------------------------------------------------2.

CHAPTER 2----------------------------------------------------------------------------------7.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ---------------------------------------------------------8.

CHAPTER 3-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------9.

3.0 METHODOLOGY ----------------------------------------------------------------9.

3.1 COMPONENT REVIEW ----------------------------------------------------------17.

CHAPTER 4-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------21.

4.0 RESULTS----------------------------------------------------------------------------21.

4.1 ADVANTAGES---------------------------------------------------------------------21.

4.2 DISADVANTAGES----------------------------------------------------------------22.

4.3 PRECAUTIONS--------------------------------------------------------------------24.

CHAPTER 5-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------25.

5.0 CHALLENGES---------------------------------------------------------------------25.

5.1 CONCLUSION----------------------------------------------------------------------25.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS------------------------------------------------------------26.

5.3 REFERENCES-----------------------------------------------------------------------26.

iii
 Abstract:
This project focuses on the design and construction of a 12V solar battery charger using a
microcontroller. The study encompasses precautions, recommendations, challenges, and
references associated with developing an efficient and reliable solar battery charging system.
Throughout this project, a versatile and user-friendly battery charging solution is made.
Harnessing solar energy for efficient charging of a 12V lead-acid battery is crucial for off-grid
and backup power systems. Arduino is used to automate and efficiently manage the charging
process.
Keywords: Arduino, 12V battery, back-up power, renewable energy.

iv
CHAPTER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The pursuit of sustainable energy sources has led to remarkable advancements in the field of
renewable energy technologies. This term paper delves into the intricacies of designing and
constructing a 12V solar battery charger system integrated with a microcontroller. This innovative
system harnesses the potential of solar energy to efficiently charge batteries, catering to the rising
demand for eco-friendly power solutions. By synergizing solar panels with microcontroller-based
charging control, this approach presents an intelligent and environmentally-conscious alternative
to traditional power sources.
However, in this day and age, selecting solar energy requires careful consideration of a number of
significant factors. Hence, it is important to note what the term solar energy means, why solar
energy is important and why you need to go solar today.
What Is Solar Energy?
You must have heard of the word ‘solar energy’ but what is solar energy in question? According
to [1], solar energy is a vital and renewable resource that may be utilized to create electricity, heat
water, and operate a wide variety of various pieces of machinery. Because solar photovoltaic cells
are able to turn sunshine into electricity, this type of energy generation is an excellent choice for
powering homes and businesses. Lighting, pumps, and other pieces of equipment can all be
powered by the sun in their own unique ways.

The methods by which solar energy can be captured for use in a variety of applications have
emerged as a significant topic in recent times. In developing countries like Nigeria, where the
energy situation is quite acute, the importance of crude oil continues to climb, as does the price
paid for all other expenditures. This is despite the fact that oil and gas have been discovered off
the west coast of the country.
Hence, our project topic has given us an opportunity to delve into this source of energy and harness
its power to supply power to our battery charger system which will help us automate the charging
process and help us prevent overcharging of the battery. The system has been designed for
optimum efficiency and to save cost by encouraging better battery life and management.

1.
 1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The primary aim of this research is to conceptualize, build, and assess a 12V solar battery charger
system featuring a microcontroller-driven charging mechanism.
The specific objectives encompass:
1. Exploring the viability of incorporating solar panels and microcontroller technology to
enhance battery charging efficiency.
2. Devising an optimized charge controller circuit that guarantees secure and controlled
battery charging within a 12V framework.
3. Developing microcontroller software to oversee and regulate the charging process,
ensuring precise control.
4. Assembling the distinct system components and seamlessly integrating them into a fully
functional entity.
5. Appraising the performance of the developed system via rigorous testing, efficiency
analysis, and comparison with existing methodologies.
6. Spotlighting the advantages of the proposed 12V system, including heightened energy
efficiency, sustainability, and adaptability for remote applications.

1.2 PROBLEM
The problem that the design and construction of a solar battery with an overcharge protection
feature charger based on microcontroller aims to tackle is the efficient charging and management
of solar batteries. This solution addresses issues such as overcharging, which can lead to battery
degradation and reduced lifespan, by automatically disconnecting the charging process when the
battery is fully charged. The microcontroller monitors the battery’s voltage and adjusts the
charging process accordingly, ensuring optimal performance and prolonging the battery’s overall
health.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE
The design and construction of a solar battery with an overcharge protection feature charger
based on microcontroller sets holds significance in optimizing solar energy usage. It helps
prevent overcharging by adjusting the voltage at the output to a float voltage hence stopping the
charging and supplying the system with a small amount of voltage which helps to prevent the
battery from discharging hence keeping it at its optimum value until it is ready for use. This does
not only extend the battery’s lifespan but also ensures efficient utilization of solar power. The
integration of microcontroller sets enhances control, monitoring, and energy management,
making such a system environmentally friendly and cost-effective.

2.
CHAPTER 2

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Here we seek to examine similar projects done by other publishers, examine what they have done
and add or replace some certain things they have done in our own methodology and at the end of
our project we will state some limitations and recommend some improvements for some other
enthusiasts to modify.

As seen on [2], the publisher designed a battery charger that has overcharge protection and is grid
supplied. This was our main reference for our circuit design. We made various adjustments by
using an I2C module as it is less tedious compared to using the full 16 pins of the LCD used by
the publisher, we initially implemented it, but ran into some difficulties, so we opted for the I2C
module which is much easier to work with. It uses 4 pins instead of 16. Two for power and ground
(VDD and VSS), then two more for data pins (SDA and SCL).

Another modification that was done in ours, was to change the power supply method. We were
required to utilize solar panels to provide a DC supply into our system. So, we chose our solar
panel in order to meet up with the voltage requirements of the circuit. So, the publisher had to
rectify the AC to DC, our panels already provide a DC voltage hence no rectification.

Another modification that was done was the choice of IC, the publisher made use of LM 338,
which is a variable voltage regulator. As seen on [3], The LM338 series of adjustable 3-terminal
positive voltage regulators is capable of supplying in excess of 5 A over a 1.2-V to 32-V output
range. It can take in an input voltage range of 4.5 to 40V and this is also applicable to our chosen
LM 350 IC. We had to make some adjustments due to their current output characteristics.
Also, their outputs can be varied too. More explanation will be seen in the methodology and
component review section. According to [4], LM 350 has maximum output current of 3A, which
is a good value to take considering that our current sensor is 5A rated, thus we want a safe current
that will not damage any of our components.
Another modification that was done was on the code that was programmed into the Arduino. We
set out to display the voltage of the battery, the current entering the battery, the power and the
battery percentage of the battery for easy reading of charging parameters. So, we had to add a
current sensor to our circuit to measure current, hereby leading us to come up with a different code
in order to meet our project requirements.
We acknowledge the work of the publisher in giving us a hint on how to go about our project.

3.
Also, some other publishers when working on their solar panel projects made us of sun tracking
algorithm in order point the solar panels directly at wherever the sunlight intensity is more in order
to maximize the amount of solar energy that can be collected, some of which use sensors and
motors to move the device accordingly. This is a welcome development and will be a good
addition to our work, but due to financial constraints and the fact that it is outside the scope of our
requirements, we had to limit ourselves to what we designed and constructed.
Our circuit also made use of multi stage charging algorithm which will be explained in our
methodology.
We also added in some over voltage protection and some other components to make our system
very robust.

4.
CHAPTER 3
3.1 METHODOLOGY

Figure 1; Circuit diagram

5.
Figure 1 above gives us the entire circuit diagram. The principle of operation will be seen below,
but before that we need our block diagram. The block diagram is seen below:

LM350
SOLAR VOLTAGE ACS712
PANEL REGULATION CURRENT
(13.3V/14.2) SENSOR

ARDUINO VOLTAGE
7812 VOLTAGE UNO SENSOR BATTERY
REGULATOR(12V) (PROCESSOR)

VOLTAGE
LCD
SENSOR
DISPLAY

The first part of our circuit is the input and the LM 350 section of the circuit.

Figure 2. section A of circuit

6.
Here, we can see that the panel’s inputs are fed into the circuit. The positive terminal goes to diode
D1, while the negative is fed to the ground of our circuit. Diode D1 helps current flow in one
direction only and also helps to prevent backward voltage and current from the battery from
entering into the circuit back into the panel. Capacitor C3 is of rating 2000uF, whose main purpose
is to filter any potential ripple that may still be present in the current supplied by the solar panel.
We then come across IC1, which is a variable output voltage regulator. According to [4], The
LM350 is an adjustable three−terminal positive voltage regulator capable of supplying in excess
of 3.0 A over an output voltage range of 1.2 V to 33 V. This voltage regulator is exceptionally easy
to use and requires only two external resistors to set the output voltage. The IC is tuned so as to
provide the required voltage needed to charge the battery which is 14.2V. The LM 350 has 3 pins
which is VI, VO and ADJ.
We have set up the LM 350 in a protective way as seen in the data sheet of the IC.

Figure 3. LM 350 with protection diodes

As seen on [5], whenever external capacitors are utilized for any regulator then sometimes it is
essential to include protection diodes for avoiding the liberation of capacitors during low current
point into this regulator. Most of the 10μF capacitors contain low sufficient internal series
resistance. It delivers 20A spikes once it gets shorted. Even though the flow is short, and there is
sufficient energy to harm the IC parts.
The calculation for the output of the IC1 is gotten from [2];
The output voltage (V0ut) of the adjustable voltage regulator is described by the following
equation

Where R2 = VR1 + R3 + R4 i.e. combination of these three resistors.

R1 = 470-ohm

VREF = 1.25V

IADJ = 45 uA

7.
Therefore, the above equation can be re-written as:

Mathematical Calculation of theoretical value of R2

The maximum voltage at which we can charge the 12V battery is about 14.2V. So, let us assume
VOUT = 14.2V and calculate the value of variable resistance VR1.

Therefore,

Now, calculate the value of variable resistor VR1

R2 = VR1 + R3 + R4

Therefore, theoretical value of variable resistor VR1 is So, adjust the wiper of the
variable resistor in between.

As seen in figure 1, we have two transistors T1 and T2, which are BC 547 npn transistors. They
are responsible for enabling the circuit to switch between 3 multistage charging algorithms. This
is done with the aid of the micro processor that is the Arduino, who senses the outputs and sends
signals to the bases of T1 and T2, which depending on the value will determine what stage should
be brought out.

State 1; When both the transistor is on, in this case, no resistor (i.e. VR1, R5, and R6) contributes
in R2 i.e. R2 becomes zero because transistor T2 starts to conduct and all the voltage is passed from
collector to emitter to ground. So, the output voltage can be calculated as

So, in the case above, the IC gives very negligible voltage due to the fact that the charger is off
and hence no charging occurs. This is done by sending high (1) from the digital pin 8 and 9 from
the Arduino to the bases of T1 and T2 respectively.

8.
State 2; When both the transistor is OFF i.e. both the digital pin D8 and D9 of the Arduino board
is low. Now we can see that

Value of resistor R2 is a combination of all three resistor VR1, R3, and R4 because these two
transistors are off and does not conduct any voltage i.e. R2 = 4788-ohm (current flows in the path
of least resistance)

So, the voltage output can be calculated as

Therefore

Thus, battery Charge at fast charging state.

Stage 3; When the Transistor T1 (Charger OFF Transistor) is off and transistor T2 (charge low
transistor) is ON. In this case resistor, R4 does not contribute any resistance to adjustable resistance
because conducting transistor T2 heavily conducts and passes all the voltage to the ground from
the endpoint of R3. Thus, equivalent resistance (R2) = 4788 – 330 = 4458-ohm.

. Therefore, output voltage VOUT

This float charging phase is our over charge protection mechanism, to prevent the battery from
discharging when not in use and thereby increasing the lifespan of the battery.

The next section is the indicator and extra filtration circuit

Figure 4; the indicator and extra filtering circuit

9.
The LED comes on when the system is on State 2 or 3, since these are the 2 voltages where
charging takes place. R2 is to protect the LED from burning out. The indicator part of the circuit
is important as it lets us know that we are on track.
The next section is the power supply to the Arduino which was done using an LM 7812 fixed
voltage regulator giving an output of 12V.

Figure 5; the power supply to Arduino circuit.

D3 is a protection diode that protects the IC2, the LM 7812. Capacitors C4 and C5 are also filter
capacitors. This circuit also helps to let the Arduino know when charging is taking place via the
voltage divider between R7 and R8. The voltage divider is also there to reduce the amount of
voltage entering into the Arduino.
Vout = VsR2/ (R7+ R8)
This gives us an output of 3.8V. This voltage is fed to the Arduinos analog pin A1.
From our code we have set it up in such a way that once A1 senses the 3.8V, it will know that
charging is taking place.

Figure 6; the back emf protection circuit and the current sensor circuit.

10.
R10 is a resistor of high power that reduces excess current from going into the battery. The diode
D7 has 2 uses;
1. To ensure current flows in only one direction.
2. We do not want the battery voltage from the battery going back into our circuit.
The current sensor is an ACS712 sensor of 5A maximum capacity. The positive side of the circuit
is connected to IP+, while IP- is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. This is a series
connection because to get the output current going to the battery it needs to be connected in series.
The current sensor cannot take 14.2V, so the Vcc pin is connected to the 5V pin of the Arduino.
Viout is connected to the analog in A2 of the Arduino. The current sensor gives out analog signals
and sends them to analog pin A2.

The last section will comprise of the Arduino, LCD and the calibration circuit.

Figure 7; Arduino, LCD and the calibration circuit.

11.
Figure 8; Arduino pin configuration.
We made use of an I2C module to connect the display to the Arduino board. As seen from figure
8, the SDA and SCL pin need to be connected to pins A4 and A5 respectively. These two pins are
the data pins, while VDD and Vss goes to ground.
The Arduino is the brain behind the automation of the project. The Arduino has been programmed
with C to help automate everything.
The switch on the right-hand side serves as an alternate means to power the Arduino and LCD
from the battery in situations of no supply voltage whenever we want to see the voltage inside the
battery.
Arduino board gets power from the battery and it measures the voltage from the voltage divider
network formed using resistor R12 and variable resistor VR2. The jumper is used for calibration of
the circuit for battery testing.
The jumper is for calibration, whereby we have a connection from R11 connected to ground and
then connected to digital pin 10, and then to Arduino 3.3V. The code below explains the set of
instructions being sent to the Arduino that makes the whole circuit function as desired.
#include <Wire.h>
#include <LiquidCrystal_I2C.h>

// Set the LCD address to 0x27 for a 16 chars and 2 line display
LiquidCrystal_I2C lcd(0x27, 16, 2);

int ADC_PIN = A0;

int PWR_PIN = A1;
int CHRG_OFF_PIN = 8;
int CHRG_LOW_PIN = 9;
int CALIBRATION_PIN = 10;

12.
int LED_IND = 13;
int ADC_VAL = 0;
int PWR_VAL = 0;
int VOLTS = 0;
int isCalibrate=0;
int loopno=0;

//current and charge details start

int percentage;
float power;
float charge_current = 0;
//current and charge details end

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
// initialize the LCD
lcd.init();

// Turn on the blacklight and print a message.

lcd.backlight();

pinMode(LED_IND, OUTPUT);
pinMode(CHRG_OFF_PIN, OUTPUT);
pinMode(CHRG_LOW_PIN, OUTPUT);
pinMode(CALIBRATION_PIN, INPUT);
digitalWrite(CHRG_OFF_PIN, HIGH);
digitalWrite(CHRG_LOW_PIN, HIGH);
delay(2000);
lcd.begin(16, 2);
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print ("Arduino controld" );
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("12V battery chrgr");
delay(1000);
lcd.clear();
}

void loop()
{
START:
loopno++;
isCalibrate = digitalRead ( CALIBRATION_PIN );
digitalWrite(LED_IND, HIGH);
13.
 if ( isCalibrate == HIGH )
{
digitalWrite(CHRG_OFF_PIN, LOW);
digitalWrite(CHRG_LOW_PIN, LOW);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(CHRG_OFF_PIN, HIGH);
digitalWrite(CHRG_LOW_PIN, HIGH);
}
delay(20);
PWR_VAL = analogRead (PWR_PIN);
delay(20);
ADC_VAL = analogRead(ADC_PIN);
VOLTS = (ADC_VAL+2) / 4;

lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0, 0); lcd.print (VOLTS/10); lcd.print ("."); lcd.print (VOLTS%10); lcd.print
("V");
// voltage = (VOLTS/10) + (VOLTS%10);

if ( isCalibrate == HIGH )
{
lcd.setCursor(0, 1); //lcd.print ("STATUS:" );
lcd.print ("CALIBRATION.....");
delay(500);
lcd.setCursor(7, 0); lcd.print ("A0 = " ); lcd.print (ADC_VAL); lcd.print ( " " );
goto START;
}

get_current();
charge_details();

if ( VOLTS>=130 )
{
digitalWrite(CHRG_OFF_PIN, LOW); digitalWrite(CHRG_LOW_PIN, HIGH);
display_details("FLOAT_CHG ");
}

else if ( VOLTS<=15 )
{
digitalWrite(CHRG_OFF_PIN, HIGH); digitalWrite(CHRG_LOW_PIN, HIGH);
lcd.setCursor(6, 0); lcd.print ("NO BATTERY" );
lcd.setCursor(0,1); if(PWR_VAL<600) lcd.print( " CHARGER IS OFF " ); else lcd.print ("
NOT CHARGING. " );
14.
 }
else if ( VOLTS<80 )
{
display_details("SLOW_CHG ");
delay(1000);
digitalWrite(CHRG_OFF_PIN, LOW); digitalWrite(CHRG_LOW_PIN, HIGH);

}
else if ( VOLTS<110 )
{
digitalWrite(CHRG_OFF_PIN, LOW); digitalWrite(CHRG_LOW_PIN, LOW);
display_details("FAST_CHG ");

}
else
{
// Serial.println(VOLTS);
digitalWrite(CHRG_OFF_PIN, LOW); digitalWrite(CHRG_LOW_PIN, LOW);
display_details("FAST_CHG ");
}

if ( loopno%2 )
{
lcd.setCursor(15,1);
lcd.print ( '.' );
}

if(loopno>1000)
loopno = 0;
digitalWrite(LED_IND, LOW);
delay(2000);
}

float get_current(){

float factor = 0.185; // for 5A

// float factor = 0.100; // for 20A
// float factor = 0.66; // for 30A
float calibrate = 0.28;
float current_sum = 0;
float current_average = 0;
for(int i = 0; i < 1000; i++)
{
int adc = analogRead(A2);
15.
 float voltage = adc*5/1023.0;
current_sum += (voltage-2.5)/factor;
}
// Serial.println(current_sum);
current_average = (current_sum/1000) ;
charge_current = current_average + calibrate;
(charge_current < 0) ? charge_current = 0.0 : ((charge_current > 3) ? charge_current = 3 :
charge_current);
Serial.println(charge_current);
}

void charge_details(){
int volt = VOLTS;
(VOLTS >=129) ? volt = 129 : ((VOLTS < 119) ? volt = 119 : volt);
percentage = map(volt, 119, 129, 0, 100);
Serial.print("volts: ");
Serial.println(volt);
Serial.print("percentage: ");
Serial.println(percentage);
power = (VOLTS/10) * charge_current;

void display_details(String info)

{
lcd.setCursor(12, 0); lcd.print (String(percentage) + "%");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
if(PWR_VAL<600)
{
lcd.print( " CHARGER IS OFF " );
}
else
{
lcd.print(String(power) + "W");
lcd.setCursor(6, 0);
lcd.print (String(charge_current) + "A");
lcd.setCursor(6,1);
lcd.print (info);
}
}

16.
3.1 COMPONENT REVIEW

The ACS712 sensor is a sophisticated current sensor that employs the Hall effect to measure
electrical currents in a non-intrusive manner. Its fundamental function involves the interaction of
the sensor with the magnetic field produced by the current flowing through a nearby conductor.
The sensor consists of a Hall-effect transducer, which is sensitive to changes in magnetic fields.

When an electric current flows through a conductor close to the ACS712 sensor, it generates a
magnetic field. The Hall-effect transducer within the sensor responds to this magnetic field,
producing a voltage output that is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and,
consequently, the current passing through the conductor.

This analog voltage output can then be interpreted to determine the magnitude of the current
being measured. The ACS712 sensor typically provides a linear relationship between the current
and the output voltage, enabling accurate and reliable current measurements.

Due to its non-intrusive nature, the ACS712 is commonly utilized in a variety of applications. It
finds prominence in projects involving motor control, power monitoring, energy management
systems, and any scenario where precise and real-time measurement of electrical currents is
essential. The sensor’s ability to offer accurate readings without requiring direct contact with the
conductor makes it particularly advantageous for applications where safety, efficiency, and
minimal disruption to the electrical circuit are paramount.
In summary, the ACS712 sensor serves as a crucial component in electronic systems, enabling
engineers and hobbyists to monitor and control current flow with precision, contributing to the
efficiency and reliability of diverse electrical applications.
17.
LM350

The LM350 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit (IC) designed to provide a stable and
adjustable output voltage. Its primary function is to regulate the voltage across its output
terminals, maintaining a constant level even when the input voltage or load conditions vary.
FEATURES
 Guaranteed 3.0 A Output Current
 Output Adjustable between 1.2V and 33V
 Local regulation typically 0.1%
 Line Regulation typically 0.005%/V
 Internal thermal overload protection
 Internal short circuit current limiting constant with temperature
 Output transistor safe area of compensation
 Floating operation for high voltage amplification
 Standard 3-lead transistor package
 Eliminates stocking many fixed voltages
 Pb-free packages are available.

Here’s a more detailed breakdown of its functions:

1. Voltage Regulation: - The LM350 regulates the output voltage by comparing a portion of the
output voltage to a reference voltage. Any deviation from the desired output voltage results in an
adjustment of the internal circuitry to bring the output back to the specified level.
2. Adjustable Output:
- One of the key features of the LM350 is its adjustability. The output voltage can be finely
adjusted within a specified range using external resistors. This makes it versatile for various
applications where a precise and stable voltage is required.
18.
3. Current Limiting:
- The LM350 incorporates current-limiting functionality, protecting itself and the connected
circuit from excessive currents. If the load attempts to draw too much current, the LM350 limits
the output to a safe level.
4. Thermal Regulation:
- To prevent overheating, the LM350 includes thermal regulation. If the temperature of the IC
rises beyond a certain threshold, the device reduces its output to prevent damage. This thermal
protection enhances the reliability of the regulator.
5. Short Circuit Protection:
- In the event of a short circuit at the output, the LM350 is designed to limit the current to a
safe level. This helps prevent damage to the IC and the connected components.
6. Versatility:
- The LM350 is versatile and widely used in electronic circuits requiring a stable and
adjustable DC voltage source. It finds applications in power supplies, battery chargers, and
various other systems where regulated power is essential.
In essence, the LM350 plays a crucial role in maintaining a stable and adjustable output voltage,
providing essential regulation, current limiting, and thermal protection features to ensure the
reliable operation of electronic circuits.
LCD1:
A 16x2 alphanumeric LCD display for visual feedback and information display, commonly used
in projects to provide status updates or user interface.

Other Components: Arduino UNO Board: A microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P
microcontroller. It provides digital and analog I/O pins, which can be used for control, sensing,
and data processing.

19.
20.
CHAPTER 4

4.0 RESULTS

The implementation of the designed 12V lead acid battery charger yielded promising outcomes
across various parameters. The charging system demonstrated a remarkable capability to regulate
voltage with precision, ensuring a consistent and controlled charging process for the 12V lead acid
battery. This aspect is crucial in maximizing battery life and preventing potential overcharging,
which can lead to performance degradation and safety hazards.

Moreover, the integration of Arduino technology showcased its effectiveness in executing multi
stage charging. The microcontroller successfully managed the charging process, optimizing
current flow to the battery. This dynamic control not only contributes to the battery's longevity but
also provides a platform for adaptability to different battery chemistries and sizes, showcasing the
versatility of the designed system.

The real-time monitoring feature through the LCD display proved invaluable in providing users
with immediate insights into the charging status. The display accurately presented critical
information such as power consumption, current flow, voltage levels, and the battery percentage.
This user-friendly interface enhances the accessibility of the charging system, catering to both
enthusiasts and professionals seeking a comprehensive understanding of the battery's state during
the charging process.

Safety features added include the IC protection configuration using diodes and also the float
charging mechanism added will help protect the battery from overcharging. Additionally, the ICs
were selected based on parameters that were suitable for this project.

In conclusion, the results of this research project signify a successful integration of hardware
components and software control mechanisms. The collaborative synergy between the designed
charging circuit, Arduino microcontroller, and LCD display establishes a robust 12V lead acid
battery charging system. The positive outcomes encompass precise charging control, real-time
monitoring capabilities, and enhanced safety features, collectively contributing to the advancement
of smart battery charging solutions.

4.1 ADVANTAGES.
A 12-volt solar battery charger based on a microcontroller offers several advantages:
1. Efficiency: The microcontroller can optimize the charging process, ensuring that the battery
receives the right amount of energy without overcharging or damaging it.
2. Control: Microcontrollers allow precise control over the charging algorithm, adapting to
different battery types and conditions, which can extend the battery’s lifespan.
3. Monitoring: The microcontroller can monitor the battery voltage, current, and temperature,
providing real-time data for better management and preventing overcharging or overheating.
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4. Remote Monitoring: With a microcontroller, you can set up remote monitoring and control of
the charger via digital interfaces, enabling easy adjustments and notifications.
5. Customization: Microcontrollers allow for customization of the charging profile,
accommodating specific battery chemistries or usage scenarios.
6. Energy Harvesting: Microcontrollers can manage energy harvesting systems effectively,
ensuring optimal power conversion from the solar panel to the battery.
7. Low Standby Power: A microcontroller can regulate standby power consumption, reducing
energy wastage when the charger is not actively charging.
8. Safety: The microcontroller can implement safety features like short-circuit protection, reverse
polarity protection, and temperature monitoring, enhancing the overall safety of the charging
system.
9. Automated Operation: The microcontroller can automate charging based on predefined
conditions, ensuring the battery is always charged when needed.
10. Integration: Microcontrollers facilitate integration with other smart systems, allowing the
charger to communicate with other devices or systems for enhanced functionality.
11. Data Logging: Microcontrollers can log charging data, helping users understand battery
performance and identifying potential issues.
Overall, using a microcontroller in a 12-volt solar battery charger enhances charging efficiency,
battery life, safety, and control, making it a versatile and intelligent solution for solar-powered
systems.
4.2 DISADVANTAGES
While 12-volt solar battery chargers based on microcontrollers offer several advantages, they also
come with some potential disadvantages:
1. Complexity: Microcontroller-based systems can be more complex to design, build, and
troubleshoot compared to simpler non-electronic chargers.
2. Cost: The inclusion of a microcontroller and associated components can increase the cost of the
charger, making it less cost-effective for certain applications.
3. Power Consumption: The microcontroller itself consumes power, which could slightly reduce
the overall efficiency of the charging system, especially in low-light conditions.
4. Programming and Expertise: Developing and programming the microcontroller requires
technical knowledge and skills, which might be a barrier for some users.

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5. Reliability: Microcontrollers are electronic components that can be susceptible to failures due
to factors like temperature, voltage spikes, or software bugs, potentially affecting the reliability of
the charger.
6. Maintenance: Microcontroller-based systems might require periodic updates or maintenance to
ensure proper functioning and optimal charging performance.
7. Compatibility: If not programmed correctly, the microcontroller might not be compatible with
certain battery types, leading to improper charging and potential damage.
8. Software Vulnerabilities: Just like any software-based system, microcontrollers could be
vulnerable to hacking or cyber-attacks if not properly secured.
9. Limited Analog Control: While microcontrollers offer precise digital control, they might have
limitations in analog control, potentially affecting charging performance for certain battery
chemistries.
10. Learning Curve: Users unfamiliar with microcontrollers might need time to learn how to
program and operate the system effectively.
11. Reduced Simplicity: Microcontroller-based chargers might lose the simplicity and ease of use
that non-electronic chargers offer.
12. Dependency on Electronics: Microcontroller-based chargers heavily depend on the proper
functioning of electronics. If the microcontroller fails, the charger might become inoperable.
13. Initial Setup: The initial setup and programming of the microcontroller could be time
Consuming, especially for users with limited technical experience.
Despite these disadvantages, many of these challenges can be mitigated with careful design,
quality components, and proper testing. It’s important to weigh the pros and cons based on your
specific needs and priorities when considering a microcontroller-based solar battery charger.

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4.2 CHALLENGES
Charging Algorithm: Developing an effective charging algorithm that balances battery health and
charging time.
Component Selection: Choosing suitable components that meet efficiency, cost, and performance
requirements.
Microcontroller Programming: Writing firmware to control charging parameters, and manage
user interactions.
Energy Management: Optimizing energy harvesting from the solar panel and regulating power
flow to the battery.
Environmental Variability: Dealing with changes in sunlight intensity, angle, and weather
conditions that affect charging efficiency.

4.3 PRECAUTIONS
1. Overcharging Protection: Implement mechanisms to prevent overcharging of batteries, such
as using voltage monitoring and cutoff systems.
2. Temperature Regulation: Ensure the charger can handle temperature variations and
incorporate thermal management techniques like putting heat sinks to avoid overheating of the
ICs.
3. Surge Protection: Install surge suppressors to safeguard against voltage spikes from the solar
panel.
4. Enclosure Design: We added air pockets in our package to help with cooling the system.

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CHAPTER 5
5.0 CHALLENGES
1. Charging Algorithm: Developing an effective charging algorithm that balances battery health
and charging time.
2. Component Selection: Choosing suitable components that meet efficiency, cost, and
performance requirements.
3. Microcontroller Programming: Writing code to control charging parameters, and manage user
interactions.
4. Energy Management: Optimizing energy harvesting from the solar panel and regulating power
flow to the battery.
5. Environmental Variability: Dealing with changes in sunlight intensity, angle, and weather
conditions that affect charging efficiency.

5.1 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the design and construction of the 12V lead acid battery charger utilizing Adriano
with an LCD display represent a successful fusion of hardware and software technologies. The
precise voltage regulation, dynamic control facilitated by the Arduino microcontroller, and real-
time monitoring capabilities provided through the LCD display collectively contribute to an
intelligent and user-friendly charging system. The positive outcomes, including adaptability to
different battery types, enhanced safety features, and a robust user interface, position the developed
charger as a valuable solution in the realm of battery management. However, it is essential to
recognize the scope for future improvements, such as scalability, integration of additional smart
features, and compatibility with diverse charging scenarios. As technology advances, continuous
research and development will be crucial to refining and expanding the capabilities of this
intelligent charging system, ensuring its relevance and efficacy in addressing evolving demands in
the field of energy storage and management.

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5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
While acknowledging the commendable performance of the 12V lead acid battery charger
featuring Arduino and an LCD display, it is crucial to consider certain aspects that have not been
fully addressed in this research. Future implementations should delve into scalability, assessing
the system's adaptability to a broader range of battery capacities and chemistries. Also, sun tracking
technology can be added to ensure efficient capture of solar energy. Furthermore, the integration
of additional smart features, such as remote monitoring and control, could enhance the system's
functionality and appeal. Compatibility with diverse charging scenarios, beyond the scope of this
study, should also be explored to ensure the system's robustness across varied applications. As
technology advances, keeping abreast of emerging trends and standards in battery management
systems will be essential to maintain the charger's relevance and efficacy in an ever-evolving
landscape. These considerations, while not exhaustively covered in this study, underscore the need
for ongoing research and development to refine and expand the capabilities of intelligent battery
charging technologies.

REFERENCES
[1] S. Idika, “Why Solar Energy Is Important,” Best Renewable Energy Company in Nigeria,
Mar. 01, 2023. https://greenpowernig.com/why-solar-energy-is-
important/#:~:text=Importance%20Of%20Solar%20Energy&text=Independence%20from%20tra
ditio (accessed Dec. 01, 2023).
[2] E. Projects, “Arduino Controlled 12V battery charger circuit,” Engineering Projects, Oct. 11,
2018. https://bestengineeringprojects.com/arduino-controlled-12v-battery-charger-
circuit/#google_vignette (accessed Nov. 05, 2023).
[3] LM 338 datasheet
[4] LM 7812 datasheet
[5] T. Agarwal, “LM350 IC: Pin Configuration, Circuit Diagram and Its Applications,”
ElProCus - Electronic Projects for Engineering Students, Dec. 04, 2019.
https://www.elprocus.com/lm350-adjustable-voltage-regulator/ (accessed Dec. 05, 2023).

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