MA 109: Calculus

Prof. Madhusudan Manjunath

Department of Mathematics,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

October 2022
Introduction

I Madhusudan Manjunath (“Madhu”).

Introduction

I Madhusudan Manjunath (“Madhu”).

I Research Interests: Around Algebra.
Introduction

I Madhusudan Manjunath (“Madhu”).

I Research Interests: Around Algebra.
I Bridge between algebra, combinatorics and geometry.
Mindset for the Course

I Focus on learning.
Mindset for the Course

I Focus on learning.
I How to learn:
Mindset for the Course

I Focus on learning.
I How to learn:
I i. Listen.
Mindset for the Course

I Focus on learning.
I How to learn:
I i. Listen.
I ii. Reason.
Mindset for the Course

I Focus on learning.
I How to learn:
I i. Listen.
I ii. Reason.
I iii. Internalise.
Mindset for the Course

I Focus on learning.
I How to learn:
I i. Listen.
I ii. Reason.
I iii. Internalise.
I Enjoy this process.
Mindset for the Course

I Focus on learning.
I How to learn:
I i. Listen.
I ii. Reason.
I iii. Internalise.
I Enjoy this process.
I Daily efforts.
Mindset for the Course

I Focus on learning.
I How to learn:
I i. Listen.
I ii. Reason.
I iii. Internalise.
I Enjoy this process.
I Daily efforts.
I Do not obsess over the grades.
School/ IIT-JEE Calculus vs this Course

I Emphasis: School/IIT-JEE: Problem Solving.

School/ IIT-JEE Calculus vs this Course

I Emphasis: School/IIT-JEE: Problem Solving.

I Here: Foundations and Concepts.
School/ IIT-JEE Calculus vs this Course

I Emphasis: School/IIT-JEE: Problem Solving.

I Here: Foundations and Concepts.
I Method of teaching different.
Course Policy

I Tutorial every week.

Course Policy

I Tutorial every week.

I Quiz in the fourth week.
Course Policy

I Tutorial every week.

I Quiz in the fourth week.
I Final after seven weeks.
Course Policy

I Tutorial every week.

I Quiz in the fourth week.
I Final after seven weeks.
I Details in the booklet (uploaded in moodle).
Lecture Notes and other references

I After every lecture, the corresponding slides will be uploaded

to moodle.
Lecture Notes and other references

I After every lecture, the corresponding slides will be uploaded

to moodle.
I Credits to several colleagues including Prof. Balmohan
Limaye, Prof. Sudhir Ghorpade, Prof. Prachi Mahajan.
Lecture Notes and other references

I After every lecture, the corresponding slides will be uploaded

to moodle.
I Credits to several colleagues including Prof. Balmohan
Limaye, Prof. Sudhir Ghorpade, Prof. Prachi Mahajan.
I Calculus and analytic geometry by Thomas and Finney.
Lecture Notes and other references

I After every lecture, the corresponding slides will be uploaded

to moodle.
I Credits to several colleagues including Prof. Balmohan
Limaye, Prof. Sudhir Ghorpade, Prof. Prachi Mahajan.
I Calculus and analytic geometry by Thomas and Finney.
I A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis by Limaye and
Ghorpade.
Lecture Notes and other references

I After every lecture, the corresponding slides will be uploaded

to moodle.
I Credits to several colleagues including Prof. Balmohan
Limaye, Prof. Sudhir Ghorpade, Prof. Prachi Mahajan.
I Calculus and analytic geometry by Thomas and Finney.
I A Course in Calculus and Real Analysis by Limaye and
Ghorpade.
I Caution: None of this is a substitute of attending class.
What is this course about?

I Broadly speaking: Aspects of Calculus. What is Calculus?

What is this course about?

I Broadly speaking: Aspects of Calculus. What is Calculus?

I Dictionary Meaning: “A method of computation or
calculation in a special notation”.
What is this course about?

I Broadly speaking: Aspects of Calculus. What is Calculus?

I Dictionary Meaning: “A method of computation or
calculation in a special notation”.
I For us: The study of the “infinitesimally small” and methods
for dealing with related problems.
Origins of Calculus

I Areas of a Circle: The area of a circle: approximate a circle

with a regular polygon of n-sides and let n become larger and
larger.
Origins of Calculus

I Areas of a Circle: The area of a circle: approximate a circle

with a regular polygon of n-sides and let n become larger and
larger.
I Chemical Reactions: The rate of decay of an element is
directly proportional to the current mass.
Origins of Calculus

I Areas of a Circle: The area of a circle: approximate a circle

with a regular polygon of n-sides and let n become larger and
larger.
I Chemical Reactions: The rate of decay of an element is
directly proportional to the current mass. Estimate the
quantity present at a given point of time (Differential
equations).
Foundations of Calculus

I Sequences and their limits.

Foundations of Calculus

I Sequences and their limits.

For this, let us first consider a notion of a set.
Foundations of Calculus

I Sequences and their limits.

For this, let us first consider a notion of a set.
I A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects.
Foundations of Calculus

I Sequences and their limits.

For this, let us first consider a notion of a set.
I A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects.
I Examples: {1}, {1, 2, 3},
Foundations of Calculus

I Sequences and their limits.

For this, let us first consider a notion of a set.
I A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects.
I Examples: {1}, {1, 2, 3}, N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } (natural
numbers)
Foundations of Calculus

I Sequences and their limits.

For this, let us first consider a notion of a set.
I A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects.
I Examples: {1}, {1, 2, 3}, N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } (natural
numbers) , Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, } (integers)
Foundations of Calculus

I Sequences and their limits.

For this, let us first consider a notion of a set.
I A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects.
I Examples: {1}, {1, 2, 3}, N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } (natural
numbers) , Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, } (integers) .
I Rational Numbers
Q = {(p, q)| p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0, gcd(p, q) = 1}.
Foundations of Calculus

I Sequences and their limits.

For this, let us first consider a notion of a set.
I A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects.
I Examples: {1}, {1, 2, 3}, N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } (natural
numbers) , Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, } (integers) .
I Rational Numbers
Q = {(p, q)| p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0, gcd(p, q) = 1}.
Key Properties

I Unordered: The order in which the elements are enumerated

is irrelevant.
Key Properties

I Unordered: The order in which the elements are enumerated

is irrelevant. For instance: {1, 2, 3} = {2, 1, 3}.
Key Properties

I Unordered: The order in which the elements are enumerated

is irrelevant. For instance: {1, 2, 3} = {2, 1, 3}.
I Distinct: Any two elements in an enumeration are regarded
different from each other.
Key Properties

I Unordered: The order in which the elements are enumerated

is irrelevant. For instance: {1, 2, 3} = {2, 1, 3}.
I Distinct: Any two elements in an enumeration are regarded
different from each other. For instance, {1, 2, 2, 3} is not
allowed.
Key Properties

I Unordered: The order in which the elements are enumerated

is irrelevant. For instance: {1, 2, 3} = {2, 1, 3}.
I Distinct: Any two elements in an enumeration are regarded
different from each other. For instance, {1, 2, 2, 3} is not
allowed.
I We will see more examples of sets shortly.
Cardinality of a Set

I Cardinality of a set measures its “size”.

Cardinality of a Set

I Cardinality of a set measures its “size”.

I A set S is said to have finite cardinality if there is a bijection
from [1, . . . , n] to S. In this case, we write |S| = n.
Cardinality of a Set

I Cardinality of a set measures its “size”.

I A set S is said to have finite cardinality if there is a bijection
from [1, . . . , n] to S. In this case, we write |S| = n.
I Otherwise, S is said to have infinite cardinality.
Cardinality of a Set

I Cardinality of a set measures its “size”.

I A set S is said to have finite cardinality if there is a bijection
from [1, . . . , n] to S. In this case, we write |S| = n.
I Otherwise, S is said to have infinite cardinality.
I Examples: {2, 5, 7}, {3, 8, 9, 10, 16} have finite cardinality
(what is it?), Z, Q have infinite cardinality.
Ordering on Sets, Maxima and Minima

I Recall 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 < . . . . This is called a total order
or an ordering on N.
Ordering on Sets, Maxima and Minima

I Recall 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 < . . . . This is called a total order
or an ordering on N.
I This induces an order on the integers and the rational
numbers.
Ordering on Sets, Maxima and Minima

I Recall 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 < . . . . This is called a total order
or an ordering on N.
I This induces an order on the integers and the rational
numbers.
I An element emax in a set S is called a maximum if emax > e
for all e ∈ S other than emax .
Ordering on Sets, Maxima and Minima

I Recall 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 < . . . . This is called a total order
or an ordering on N.
I This induces an order on the integers and the rational
numbers.
I An element emax in a set S is called a maximum if emax > e
for all e ∈ S other than emax .
I An element emin in a set S is called a minimum if emin < e for
all e ∈ S other than emin .
Ordering on Sets, Maxima and Minima

I Recall 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 < . . . . This is called a total order
or an ordering on N.
I This induces an order on the integers and the rational
numbers.
I An element emax in a set S is called a maximum if emax > e
for all e ∈ S other than emax .
I An element emin in a set S is called a minimum if emin < e for
all e ∈ S other than emin .
I A finite set always has a maximum and minimum.
Ordering on Sets, Maxima and Minima

I Recall 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 < . . . . This is called a total order
or an ordering on N.
I This induces an order on the integers and the rational
numbers.
I An element emax in a set S is called a maximum if emax > e
for all e ∈ S other than emax .
I An element emin in a set S is called a minimum if emin < e for
all e ∈ S other than emin .
I A finite set always has a maximum and minimum.
I But not so for infinite sets: {1, 1/2, 1/22 , . . . }.
Bounded Sets, Infimum and Supremum

I A subset T of Q is said to be upper bounded (lower bounded

resp.) by a rational number q if q ≥ s (q ≤ s resp.) for all
s ∈ T.
Bounded Sets, Infimum and Supremum

I A subset T of Q is said to be upper bounded (lower bounded

resp.) by a rational number q if q ≥ s (q ≤ s resp.) for all
s ∈ T.
I We identify distinguished upper and lower bounds.
Bounded Sets, Infimum and Supremum

I A subset T of Q is said to be upper bounded (lower bounded

resp.) by a rational number q if q ≥ s (q ≤ s resp.) for all
s ∈ T.
I We identify distinguished upper and lower bounds.
I An element s is called the least upper bound or supremum of
an upper bounded set T if s ≤ q for all upper bounds q of T .
Bounded Sets, Infimum and Supremum

I A subset T of Q is said to be upper bounded (lower bounded

resp.) by a rational number q if q ≥ s (q ≤ s resp.) for all
s ∈ T.
I We identify distinguished upper and lower bounds.
I An element s is called the least upper bound or supremum of
an upper bounded set T if s ≤ q for all upper bounds q of T .
I An element i is called the greatest lower bound or infimum of
a lower bounded set T if i ≥ q for all lower bounds q of T .
Problem with the Rationals: “Gaps”

I There are upper bounded subsets of Q that do not have an

supremum.
Problem with the Rationals: “Gaps”

I There are upper bounded subsets of Q that do not have an

supremum.
√
I Example: { 11 , 1 1 , 1
1 , . . . } ∩ (0, ( 5 − 1)/2).
1+1+1
1+ 1
1+ 1+1
Problem with the Rationals: “Gaps”

I There are upper bounded subsets of Q that do not have an

supremum.
√
I Example: { 11 , 1 1 , 1
1 , . . . } ∩ (0, ( 5 − 1)/2).
1+1+1
1+ 1
1+ 1+1

I Upper bound for this set?

Problem with the Rationals: “Gaps”

I There are upper bounded subsets of Q that do not have an

supremum.
√
I Example: { 11 , 1 1 , 1
1 , . . . } ∩ (0, ( 5 − 1)/2).
1+1+1
1+ 1
1+ 1+1

I Upper bound for this set?

I One?
Problem with the Rationals: “Gaps”

I There are upper bounded subsets of Q that do not have an

supremum.
√
I Example: { 11 , 1 1 , 1
1 , . . . } ∩ (0, ( 5 − 1)/2).
1+1+1
1+ 1
1+ 1+1

I Upper bound for this set?

I One?
I Does have not an supremum in Q!
Real Numbers

I “Enlarge” the set Q to include all the gaps.

Real Numbers

I “Enlarge” the set Q to include all the gaps.

I We obtain a set that strictly contains Q that we call the real
numbers R.
Real Numbers

I “Enlarge” the set Q to include all the gaps.

I We obtain a set that strictly contains Q that we call the real
numbers R.
I Basic operations real numbers.
Order and Completeness

I For any two distinct real numbers a 6= b, either a > b or

b > a.
Order and Completeness

I For any two distinct real numbers a 6= b, either a > b or

b > a.
I If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
Order and Completeness

I For any two distinct real numbers a 6= b, either a > b or

b > a.
I If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
I Completeness: Every upper (or lower resp.) bounded set has
a supremum (or infimum resp.).
Order and Completeness

I For any two distinct real numbers a 6= b, either a > b or

b > a.
I If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
I Completeness: Every upper (or lower resp.) bounded set has
a supremum (or infimum resp.).
I Important: Functions from the real numbers to itself (or
“their higher dimensional versions”).
Examples

Determine whether the minima, maxima, supremum and infimum

exist. If so, what are they?
I {1, 2, 4}.
I N.
I Z.
I {1, 1/2, 1/22 , . . . }
I {1, 2, 22 , . . . }
I [0, 1), [0, 1], (0, 1), [0, 1).
Sequences of Real Numbers

I Informally, a sequence is simply a collection of real numbers

written one after the other.
Sequences of Real Numbers

I Informally, a sequence is simply a collection of real numbers

written one after the other.
√
I Example: (2, π, 2, 6, 3/2).
Sequences of Real Numbers

I Informally, a sequence is simply a collection of real numbers

written one after the other.
√
I Example: (2, π, 2, 6, 3/2).
I Sequence vs the Corresponding Set: In a sequence the
order matters, i.e. there is a first, second, third element and
so on.
Sequences of Real Numbers

I Informally, a sequence is simply a collection of real numbers

written one after the other.
√
I Example: (2, π, 2, 6, 3/2).
I Sequence vs the Corresponding Set: In a sequence the
order matters, i.e. there is a first, second, third element and
so on.
I A finite sequence of real numbers is a function from [1, . . . , n]
to R.
Sequences of Real Numbers

I Informally, a sequence is simply a collection of real numbers

written one after the other.
√
I Example: (2, π, 2, 6, 3/2).
I Sequence vs the Corresponding Set: In a sequence the
order matters, i.e. there is a first, second, third element and
so on.
I A finite sequence of real numbers is a function from [1, . . . , n]
to R.
I An infinite sequence of real numbers is a function f from N to
R.
Sequences of Real Numbers

I Informally, a sequence is simply a collection of real numbers

written one after the other.
√
I Example: (2, π, 2, 6, 3/2).
I Sequence vs the Corresponding Set: In a sequence the
order matters, i.e. there is a first, second, third element and
so on.
I A finite sequence of real numbers is a function from [1, . . . , n]
to R.
I An infinite sequence of real numbers is a function f from N to
R.
I Notation: (a1 , a2 , . . . ) or (ai )∞
i=1 where ai = f (i).
Examples

I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
Examples

I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
Examples

I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
I dnπe∞ ∞
n=1 , (b100 · nπc (mod 10))n=1 .
Examples

I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
I dnπe∞ ∞
n=1 , (b100 · nπc (mod 10))n=1 .
I (1/(n2 + 1))∞n=1 .
Examples

I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
I dnπe∞ ∞
n=1 , (b100 · nπc (mod 10))n=1 .
I (1/(n2 + 1))∞n=1 .
I (n · sin(πn))∞
n=1 .
Examples

I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
I dnπe∞ ∞
n=1 , (b100 · nπc (mod 10))n=1 .
I (1/(n2 + 1))∞n=1 .
I (n · sin(πn))∞
n=1 .

Notice Three Types:

Examples

I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
I dnπe∞ ∞
n=1 , (b100 · nπc (mod 10))n=1 .
I (1/(n2 + 1))∞n=1 .
I (n · sin(πn))∞
n=1 .

Notice Three Types:

i. Eventually grow bigger and bigger (or Smaller and smaller).
Examples

I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
I dnπe∞ ∞
n=1 , (b100 · nπc (mod 10))n=1 .
I (1/(n2 + 1))∞n=1 .
I (n · sin(πn))∞
n=1 .

Notice Three Types:

i. Eventually grow bigger and bigger (or Smaller and smaller).
ii. Oscillate wildly.
Examples

I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
I dnπe∞ ∞
n=1 , (b100 · nπc (mod 10))n=1 .
I (1/(n2 + 1))∞n=1 .
I (n · sin(πn))∞
n=1 .

Notice Three Types:

i. Eventually grow bigger and bigger (or Smaller and smaller).
ii. Oscillate wildly.
iii. Get very close to a real number.
Limits of Sequences: Convergence

I Captures the third type of sequences.

Limits of Sequences: Convergence

I Captures the third type of sequences.

I We are looking to express ”the sequence gets arbitrarily close
to a real number”.
Limits of Sequences: Convergence

I Captures the third type of sequences.

I We are looking to express ”the sequence gets arbitrarily close
to a real number”.
One of the key achievements of the subject called analysis is to
make this notion precise.
Limits of Sequences: Convergence

I Captures the third type of sequences.

I We are looking to express ”the sequence gets arbitrarily close
to a real number”.
One of the key achievements of the subject called analysis is to
make this notion precise. This leads to the following  − N0
definition of convergence:
Limits of Sequences: Convergence

I Captures the third type of sequences.

I We are looking to express ”the sequence gets arbitrarily close
to a real number”.
One of the key achievements of the subject called analysis is to
make this notion precise. This leads to the following  − N0
definition of convergence:
Definition
A sequence (an )∞
n=1 is said to converge to a real number c if for
every  > 0, there exists an N0 ∈ N such that |c − an | <  for every
n ≥ N0 .
Examples

I A sequence is said to be convergent (or converges) if there is

a real number to which it converges.
Examples

I A sequence is said to be convergent (or converges) if there is

a real number to which it converges. Otherwise, it is said to
be non-convergent (or does not converge).
Examples

I A sequence is said to be convergent (or converges) if there is

a real number to which it converges. Otherwise, it is said to
be non-convergent (or does not converge).
From the Examples:
I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
Examples

I A sequence is said to be convergent (or converges) if there is

a real number to which it converges. Otherwise, it is said to
be non-convergent (or does not converge).
From the Examples:
I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
Examples

I A sequence is said to be convergent (or converges) if there is

a real number to which it converges. Otherwise, it is said to
be non-convergent (or does not converge).
From the Examples:
I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
I dnπe∞ ∞
n=1 , (b100 · nπc (mod 10))n=1 .
Examples

I A sequence is said to be convergent (or converges) if there is

a real number to which it converges. Otherwise, it is said to
be non-convergent (or does not converge).
From the Examples:
I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
I dnπe∞ ∞
n=1 , (b100 · nπc (mod 10))n=1 .
I (1/(n2 + 1))∞n=1 .
Examples

I A sequence is said to be convergent (or converges) if there is

a real number to which it converges. Otherwise, it is said to
be non-convergent (or does not converge).
From the Examples:
I (k)∞ ∞ ∞
k=1 , (2k)k=1 and (2k − 1)k=1 .
I (sin nπ)∞ n=1 .
I dnπe∞ ∞
n=1 , (b100 · nπc (mod 10))n=1 .
I (1/(n2 + 1))∞n=1 .
I (n · sin(πn))∞
n=1 .
Properties of Convergent Sequences

I If a sequence (an )∞ ∞
n=1 converges, then so does (ak+n0 )k=1 and
for every n0 ∈ N.
Properties of Convergent Sequences

I If a sequence (an )∞ ∞
n=1 converges, then so does (ak+n0 )k=1 and
for every n0 ∈ N.
I Any convergent sequence converges to a unique real number.
This unique real number is denoted by limn→∞ an .
Properties of Convergent Sequences

If (an )∞ ∞
n=1 and (bn )n=1 are convergent with limn→∞ an = a0 and
limn→∞ bn = b0 then:
Properties of Convergent Sequences

If (an )∞ ∞
n=1 and (bn )n=1 are convergent with limn→∞ an = a0 and
limn→∞ bn = b0 then:
I (an + bn )∞n=1 is convergent and limn→∞ (an + bn ) = a0 + b0 .
Properties of Convergent Sequences

If (an )∞ ∞
n=1 and (bn )n=1 are convergent with limn→∞ an = a0 and
limn→∞ bn = b0 then:
I (an + bn )∞n=1 is convergent and limn→∞ (an + bn ) = a0 + b0 .
I (an − bn )∞
n=1 is convergent and limn→∞ (an − bn ) = a0 − b0 .
Properties continued

I (an · bn )∞
n=1 is convergent and limn→∞ (an · bn ) = a0 · b0 .
Properties continued

I (an · bn )∞
n=1 is convergent and limn→∞ (an · bn ) = a0 · b0 .
I If b0 6= 0, then there exists a k ∈ N: (an+k /bn+k )∞
n=1 is
well-defined, convergent and limn→∞ (an /bn ) = a0 /b0 .
Properties continued

I (an · bn )∞
n=1 is convergent and limn→∞ (an · bn ) = a0 · b0 .
I If b0 6= 0, then there exists a k ∈ N: (an+k /bn+k )∞
n=1 is
well-defined, convergent and limn→∞ (an /bn ) = a0 /b0 .
I (Sandwich Property) If a0 = b0 and (cn )∞ n=1 satisfies
an ≤ cn ≤ bn , then limn→∞ cn = a0 = b0 .
Examples

I ((n2 − 3n3 + n)/n4 )∞

n=1 .
Examples

I ((n2 − 3n3 + n)/n4 )∞

n=1 .
∞
I (sin(n)/n)n=1 ).
Examples

I ((n2 − 3n3 + n)/n4 )∞

n=1 .
∞
I (sin(n)/n)n=1 ).
I (n3 /n(n2 + 1))∞
n=1 .
Properties of Convergent Sequences

I A convergent sequence is both upper and lower bounded.

Properties of Convergent Sequences

I A convergent sequence is both upper and lower bounded.

Definition
A sequence (an )∞
n=1 is said to be monotonically increasing (resp.
monotonically decreasing) if there exists an n0 ∈ N: ak+1 ≥ ak
(resp. ak+1 ≤ ak ) for all natural numbers k ≥ n0 .
Properties of Convergent Sequences

I A convergent sequence is both upper and lower bounded.

Definition
A sequence (an )∞
n=1 is said to be monotonically increasing (resp.
monotonically decreasing) if there exists an n0 ∈ N: ak+1 ≥ ak
(resp. ak+1 ≤ ak ) for all natural numbers k ≥ n0 .
I Caution: A sequence need not be either monotonically
increasing nor monotonically decreasing.
Properties of Convergent Sequences

I A convergent sequence is both upper and lower bounded.

Definition
A sequence (an )∞
n=1 is said to be monotonically increasing (resp.
monotonically decreasing) if there exists an n0 ∈ N: ak+1 ≥ ak
(resp. ak+1 ≤ ak ) for all natural numbers k ≥ n0 .
I Caution: A sequence need not be either monotonically
increasing nor monotonically decreasing.
I Examples: (2k + 1)∞ ∞ 2 ∞
k=1 , (sin k)k=1 and (1/(n + 1))n=1 .
Bounded Monotonicity ⇒ Convergence

Theorem
A monotonically increasing sequence (an )∞
n=1 that is upper
bounded is convergent. The limit limn→∞ an = sup {an }n≥n0 .
Bounded Monotonicity ⇒ Convergence

Theorem
A monotonically increasing sequence (an )∞
n=1 that is upper
bounded is convergent. The limit limn→∞ an = sup {an }n≥n0 .

Theorem
A monotonically decreasing lower bounded sequence is convergent.
The limit limn→∞ an = inf {an }n≥n0 .
Bounded Monotonicity ⇒ Convergence

Theorem
A monotonically increasing sequence (an )∞
n=1 that is upper
bounded is convergent. The limit limn→∞ an = sup {an }n≥n0 .

Theorem
A monotonically decreasing lower bounded sequence is convergent.
The limit limn→∞ an = inf {an }n≥n0 .
I Does the converse: “a convergent sequence is monotonous”
hold?
An Example

I Consider the sequence a1 = 3/4 and an+1 = 1/2(an + 2/an )

for n ∈ N.
An Example

I Consider the sequence a1 = 3/4 and an+1 = 1/2(an + 2/an )

for n ∈ N.
I Is it monotonous? If yes, which way? Is it bounded?
An Example

I Consider the sequence a1 = 3/4 and an+1 = 1/2(an + 2/an )

for n ∈ N.
I Is it monotonous? If yes, which way? Is it bounded?
I If convergent, what is the limit?