1.

0 SOIL ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF HIGHWAY, RAILWAYS AND AIRFIELD

1.1 COMPACTION
Many types of earth construction, such as dams, retaining walls, highways, and airport, require
man-placed soil, or fill, which must be compacted so it is in a dense state. The dense state is
achieved through the reduction of the air voids in the soil, with little or no reduction in the water
content. This process must not be confused with consolidation, in which water is squeezed out
under the action of a continuous static load.

1.1.1 Objectives of Compaction

The principal reason for compacting soil is to reduce subsequent settlement under working loads.
Compaction increases the shear strength of the soil.
Compaction decreases permeability by reducing the voids ratio making it more difficult for water
to flow through soil. This is important if the soil is being used to retain water such as would be
required for an earth dam.
Compaction can prevent the build-up of large water pressures that cause soil to liquefy during
earthquakes.

1.1.2 Laboratory Compaction tests

The purpose of a laboratory compaction test is to determine the proper amount of mixing water
to use when compacting the soil in the field and the resulting degree of denseness which can be
expected from compaction at this optimum water.
There are several types of test which can be used to study the compactive properties of soils.
Because of the importance of compaction in most earth works standard procedures have been
developed. These generally involve compacting soil into a mould at various moisture contents.

1.1.2.1 Standard Compaction Test (Proctor)

Soil is compacted into a mould in 3-5 equal layers, each layer receiving 25 blows of a hammer of
standard weight. The apparatus is shown in Figure 1.1. The energy (compactive effort) supplied
in this test is 595 kJ/m3. The important dimensions are as shown in the Table 1.1:
Table1.1: Important dimensions

Because of the benefits from compaction, contractors have built larger and heavier machines to
increase the amount of compaction of the soil. It was found that the Standard Compaction test
could not reproduce the densities measured in the field and this led to the development of the
Modified Compaction test.
1.1.2.2 Modified Compaction Test
The procedure and equipment is essentially the same as that used for the Standard test except that
5 layers of soil must be used. To provide the increased compactive effort (energy supplied equals
2072 kJ/m3) a heavier hammer and a greater drop height for the hammer are used. The key
dimensions for the Modified test are shown in the Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Important dimensions for modified compaction test

Figure 1.1: Apparatus for laboratory compaction tests

1.1.3 Presentation of Results

To assess the degree of compaction it is important to use the dry unit weight, γdry, because we
are interested in the weight of solid soil particles in a given volume, not the amount of solid, air
and water in a given volume (which is the bulk unit weight).
From the relationships derived previously we have
which can be rearranged to give

Because Gs and γw are constants it can be seen that increasing dry density means decreasing
voids ratio and a more compact soil. In the test the dry density cannot be measured directly, what
are measured are the bulk density and the moisture content. From the definitions we have

This allows us to plot the variation of dry unit weight with moisture content, giving the typical
reponse shown in Figure 2 below. From this graph we can determine the optimum moisture
content, mopt, for the maximum dry unit weight, (γdry)max.

Figure 1.2: A typical compaction test result

If the soil were to contain a constant percentage, A, of voids containing air where
writing Va as V - Vw - Vs we obtain

then a theoretical relationship between γdry and m for a given value of A can be derived as
follows:

If the percentage of air voids is zero, that is, the soil is totally saturated, then this equation
becomes

From this equation we see that there is a limiting dry unit weight for any moisture content and
this occurs when the voids are full of water. Increasing the water content for a saturated soil
results in a reduction in dry unit weight. The relation between the moisture content and dry unit
weight for saturated soil is shown on the graph in Figure 1.3. This line is known as the zero air
voids line.
 Figure 1.3: Typical compaction curve showing no-air-voids line

1.1.4 Factors affecting Compaction

The following factors affect compaction of soil:
• Water content of the soil
• The type of soil being compacted
• The amount of compactive energy used

1.1.4.1 Effects of water content during compaction

As water is added to a soil (at low moisture content) it becomes easier for the particles to move
past one another during the application of the compacting forces. As the soil compacts the voids
are reduced and this causes the dry unit weight (or dry density) to increase. Initially then, as the
moisture content increases so does the dry unit weight. However, the increase cannot occur
indefinitely because the soil state approaches the zero air voids line which gives the maximum
dry unit weight for a given moisture content. Thus as the state approaches the no air voids line
further moisture content increases must result in a reduction in dry unit weight. As the state
approaches the no air voids line a maximum dry unit weight is reached and the moisture content
at this maximum is called the optimum moisture content.

1.1.4.2 Effects of increasing compactive effort

Increased compactive effort enables greater dry unit weights to be achieved which because of the
shape of the no air voids line must occur at lower optimum moisture contents. The effect of
increasing compactive energy can be seen in Figure 1.4. It should be noted that for moisture
contents greater than the optimum the use of heavier compaction machinery will have only a
small effect on increasing dry unit weights. For this reason it is important to have good control
over moisture content during compaction of soil layers in the field.

Figure 1.4: Effects of compactive effort on compaction curves

It can be seen from this figure that the compaction curve is not a unique soil characteristic. It
depends on the compaction energy. For this reason it is important when giving values of (γ
dry)max and mopt to also specify the compaction procedure (for example, standard or modified).

1.1.4.3 Effects of soil type

Table 1.3 contains typical values for the different soil types obtained from the Standard
Compaction Test.
Table 1.3: Dry unit weight and Optimum moisture content for different soil types
1.1.5 Field specifications
To control the soil properties of earth constructions (e.g. dams, roads) it is usual to specify that
the soil must be compacted to some pre-determined dry unit weight. This specification is usually
that a certain percentage of the maximum dry density, as found from a laboratory test (Standard
or Modified) must be achieved. For example we could specify that field densities must be greater
than 98% of the maximum dry unit weight as determined from the Standard Compaction Test. It
is then up to the Contractor to select machinery, the thickness of each lift (layer of soil added)
and to control moisture contents in order to achieve the specified amount of compaction.

Figure 1.5: Possible field specifications for compaction

There is a wide range of compaction equipment. For pavements some kind of wheeled roller or
vibrating plate is usually used. These only affect a small depth of soil, and to achieve larger
depths vibrating piles and drop weights can be used. The applicability of the equipment depends
on the soil type as indicated in the Table 1.4.
 Table 1.4: Compaction equipment

1.2 The California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

The CBR of a material is the ratio, expressed as a percentage of the force required to cause a
specified penetration of a plunger in the material in a standard CBR test, to the force required to
cause the same penetration in a standard material which is compacted crushed limestone. The
CBR is an index of the strength.
The CBR test is a type of penetration test. The test is carried out in the laboratory on material
passing the 20 mm BS sieve. Material above this size is removed and thrown off.
The soil is mixed with the amount of water to bring it to the design water content and then a
calculated amount of the mixture (which will give the design unit wt.) is placed in the standard
CBR mould in five equal layers. Each layer is compacted with a required no. of blows (obtained
through preliminary experimentation) such that the top of the specimen is flush with the top of
the mould with collar removed. The sample is then subjected to a surcharge weight equivalent to
the estimated weight of flexible pavement expected above the layer from which the soil is
selected. Annular surcharge weights, each equivalent to 63.5 mm of flexible pavement, are used
for this purpose.
The plunger is then made to penetrate the specimen at a uniform rate of 1 mm/min. The
penetration is measured by a gauge. Readings of the required force are taken at penetration
intervals of 0.25 mm up to a maximum penetration of 7.5 mm. The load vs. penetration curve is
drawn.
If the curve is concave upwards near the origin as in test 2, correction is necessary. A tangent is
drawn at the point of greatest slope and projected to cut the penetration axis. The curve is then
shifted to the left so that the point of intersection of the tangent and the pen. Axis coincides with
the origin.
The CBR is determined at penetrations of 2.54 mm and 5.08 mm, noting that the loads required
to cause these penetrations in the standard crushed stone mixture are. 6.895 MN/mm2 and 10.343
MN/mm2 respectively.

e.g. CBR = Load at 2.54 mm pen x 100%

6.895

CBR = Load at 5.08 mm pen x 100%

10.343
The higher of the two values is the CBR of the soil used for design.
It is important that the CBR test is conducted on a specimen which is at the wettest equilibrium
moisture content and dry unit weight expected during the design life of the pavement.
It is possible to take the CBR value of sub-grade soil from tables if extensive studies have been
made for the soils of a particular country. For example, if the type of soil, its plasticity values
and depth to water table are known, the CBR could be taken from tables similar to Table 4 of the
handout which is for British soils.
 2.0 TRANSPORTATION MODES
Transportation modes are an essential component of transport systems since they are the means
by which mobility is supported. There are a wide range of modes that may be grouped into three
broad categories based on the medium they exploit: land, water and air. Each mode has its own
requirements and features, and is adapted to serve the specific demands of freight and passenger
traffic. This gives rise to marked differences in the ways the modes are deployed and utilized in
different parts of the world.
Recently, there is a trend towards integrating the modes through intermodality and linking the
modes ever more closely into production and distribution activities. At the same time, however,
passenger and freight activity is becoming increasingly separated across most modes.
Transport modes are the means by which people and freight achieve mobility. They fall into one
of three basic types, depending on what surface they travel over: land (road, rail and pipelines),
water (shipping), and air. Each mode is characterized by a set of technical, operational and
commercial characteristics (see Figure 1).

Figure 2.1: Performance characteristics of selected freight mode

2.1 Road transportation

This has become the dominant land transport system today. Automobiles, buses and trucks
require a road bed. Such infrastructures are moderately expensive to provide, but there is a wide
divergence of costs, from a gravel road to a multi-lane urban expressway. Because vehicles have
the means to climb moderate slopes, physical obstacles are less important than for some other
land modes. Most roads are provided as a public good by governments, while the vast majority
of vehicles are owned privately. The capital costs, therefore, are shared, and do not fall as
heavily on one source as is the case for other modes.
All road transport modes have limited abilities to achieve scale economies. This is due to the
size constraints imposed by governments and also by the technical and economic limits of the
power sources. In most jurisdictions, trucks and buses have specific weight and length
restrictions which are imposed for safety reasons. In addition, there are serious limits on the
traction capacities of cars, buses and trucks because of the considerable increases in energy
consumption that accompany increases in the weight of the unit. For these reasons the carrying
capacities of individual road vehicles are limited.
Road transport, however, possesses significant advantages over other modes. The capital cost of
vehicles is relatively small. This produces several key characteristics of road transport. Low
vehicle costs make it comparatively easy for new users to gain entry, which helps ensure that the
trucking industry, for example, is highly competitive. Low capital costs also ensure that
innovations and new technologies can diffuse quickly through the industry. Another advantage
of road transport is the high relative speed of vehicles, the major constraint being government-
imposed speed limits. One of its most important attributes is the flexibility of route choice, once
a network of roads is provided. Road transport has the unique opportunity of providing door-to-
door service for both passengers and freight. These multiple advantages have made cars and
trucks the modes of choice for a great number of trip purposes, and have led to the market
dominance of cars and trucks for short-distance trips.
The success of cars and trucks has given rise to a number of serious problems. Road congestion
has become a feature of most urban areas around the world. In addition, the mode is behind
many of the major environmental externalities linked to transportation

2.2 Rail transportation

Railways require tracks along which the locomotives and rail cars move. The initial capital costs
are high because the construction of rail tracks and the provision of rolling stock are expensive.
Historically, the investments have been made by the same source (either governments or the
private sector). These expenditures have to be made before any revenues are realized and thus
represent important entry barriers that tend to limit the number of operators. It also serves to
delay innovation, compared with road transport, since rail rolling stock has a service life of at
least twenty years. Railway routing is affected by topography because locomotives have limited
capacities to mount gradients. As a result, railways either avoid important natural barriers or
overcome them by expensive engineering solutions. An important feature of rail systems is the
width of the rails. The standard gauge of 1.4351 meters has been adopted in many parts of the
world, across North America and most of Western Europe for example. But other gauges have
been adopted in other areas. This makes integration of rail services very difficult, since both
freight and passengers are required to change from one railway system to the other.
Other factors that inhibit the movement of trains between different countries include signaling
and electrification standards. These are particular problems for the European Union where the
lack of “interoperability” of the rail systems between the member states is a factor limiting the
wider use of the rail mode.
The ability of trains to haul large quantities of goods and significant numbers of people over long
distances is the mode’s primary asset. Once the cars have been assembled or the passengers have
boarded, trains can offer a high speed – high capacity service.
It was this feature that led to the train’s pre-eminence in opening the interior of the continents in
the nineteenth century, and is still its major asset. Passenger service is effective where population
densities are high. Freight traffic is dominated by bulk cargo shipments, agricultural and
industrial raw materials in particular. Rail transport is a “green” system, in that its consumption
of energy per unit load per km is lower than road modes.
Although sometimes identified as a mode that enjoyed its heyday during the nineteenth century,
rail transport is enjoying a resurgence because of technological advances in the latter part of the
twentieth century. In passenger transport this has come about through significant breakthroughs
in speed. For instance, in Europe and Japan high-speed rail systems reach speeds up to 515
km/hr. This gives rail a competitive advantage over road transport and even with air transport
over short and medium distances.
Unit trains, where trains are made up of wagons carrying one commodity-type only, allow scale
economies and efficiencies in bulk shipments, and double stacking has greatly promoted the
advantages of rail for container shipments. Rail transport is also enjoying a resurgence as a mode
for commuters in many large cities.

2.3 Pipelines
Pipelines are an extremely important and extensive mode of land transport, although very rarely
appreciated or recognized by the general public, mainly because they are buried underground or
under the sea.
Two main products dominate pipeline traffic: oil and gas, although locally pipelines are
significant for the transport of water, and in some rare cases for the shipment of dry bulk
commodities, such as coal in the form of slurry.
Pipelines are almost everywhere designed for a specific purpose only, to carry one commodity
from one location to another. They are built largely with private capital and because the system
has to be in place before any revenues are generated, represent a significant capital commitment.
They are effective in transporting large quantities of products where no other feasible means of
transport (usually water) is available.
Pipeline routes tend to link isolated areas of production with major centers of refining and
manufacture in the case of oil, or major populated areas, as in the case of natural gas.
The routing of pipelines is largely indifferent to terrain, although environmental concerns
frequently delay approval for construction.
 Geo-political factors play a very important role in the routing of pipelines that cross
international boundaries. Pipelines from the Middle East to the Mediterranean have been routed
to avoid Israel, and new pipelines linking Central Asia with the Mediterranean are being routed
in response to the ethnic and religious mosaic of the republics in the Caucasus.
Pipeline construction costs vary according to the diameter of the pipe and increase proportionally
with the distance and with the viscosity of the fluid (need for pumping stations). Operating costs
are very low, however, and as mentioned above, pipelines represent a very important mode for
the transport of liquid and gaseous products. One major disadvantage of pipelines is the inherent
inflexibility of the mode. Once built (usually at great expense), expansion of demand is not
easily adjusted to. There exist specific limits to the carrying capacity. Conversely, a lessening of
supply or demand will produce a lowering of revenues that may affect the viability of the system.

2.4 Water transportation

Shipping exploits the water routes that cross oceans as well as rivers and lakes. Many of the
oceanic routes are in international waters and are provided at no cost to the users. In many
coastal and inland waters too shipping lanes are “free”, although national regulations may
exclude foreign vessels from cabotage trade. Physical barriers represent a particular problem for
shipping in two areas. First are the sections of inland waterways where water depths and/or
rapids preclude navigation. The second is where land barriers separate seas. In both cases canals
can provide access for shipping, but they may be tolled.
Thus, except for canals, shipping enjoys rights of way that are at no cost to the users.
Complementing this advantage are the relatively low operating costs of ships. Ships have the
ability to carry large volumes with small energy consumption and limited manpower
requirements. Shipping, therefore, is a mode that can offer very low rates compared with other
modes.
Even if maritime transportation has experienced remarkable improvements in safety and
reliability, maritime routes are still hindered by dominant winds, currents and general weather
patterns. The North Atlantic and the North Pacific (50 to 60 degrees north) are subject to heavy
wave activity during the winter that sometimes impairs navigation, and may cause ships to
follow routes at lower latitudes, thereby increasing the route lengths.
Rivers may not be useful for commercial navigation if their orientations do not correspond to the
directions of transport demand. Thus, many of the major rivers of Russia flow north–south, while
the main trade and passenger flows are east–west.
Shallow draught and extensive obstacles, such as rapids, may also limit navigation.
Shipping has traditionally faced two drawbacks. It is slow, with speeds at sea averaging 15
knots (26 km/h). Secondly, delays are encountered in ports where loading and unloading takes
place. The latter may involve several days of handling. These drawbacks are particularly
constraining where goods have to be moved over short distances or where shippers require rapid
service deliveries. There are four broad types of ships employed around the world.
• Passenger vessels can be further divided into two categories: passenger ferries, where people
are carried across relatively short bodies of water in a shuttle-type service, and cruise ships,
where passengers are taken on vacation trips of various durations, usually over several days. The
former tend to be smaller and faster vessels, the latter are usually very large capacity ships.
• Bulk carriers are ships designed to carry specific commodities, and are differentiated into
liquid bulk and dry bulk vessels. They include the largest vessels afloat. The largest tankers, the
Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC) are up to 500,000 deadweight tons (dwt), with the more
typical size being between 250,000 and 350,000 dwt; the largest dry bulk carriers are around
350,000 dwt, while the more typical size is between 100,000 and 150,000 dwt.
• General cargo ships are vessels designed to carry non-bulk cargoes. The traditional ships were
less than 10,000 dwt, because of extremely slow loading and off-loading. More recently these
vessels have been replaced by container ships that because they can be loaded more effi ciently
are becoming much larger, with 80,000 dwt being the largest today.
• Roll on – roll off (RORO) vessels, which are designed to allow cars, trucks and trains to be
loaded directly on board. Originally appearing as ferries, these vessels are used on deep-sea
trades and are much larger than the typical ferry. The largest are the car carriers that transport
vehicles from assembly plants to the main markets.
An important feature of the economics of shipping is the capital costs. Because of their size,
ships represent a significant capital outlay.
The annual cost of servicing the purchase of these vessels represents the largest single item of
operating expenditures, typically accounting for over half of the annual operating costs.

2.5 Air transportation

Air transport, compared with other modes, has the obvious advantage of speed. This feature has
served to offset many of its limitations, among which operating costs, fuel consumption and
limited carrying capacities are the most significant. Technology has worked to overcome some of
the constraints, most notably the growth of capacity, in which aircraft will soon be capable of
transporting 500 passengers or 100 tons of freight.
Technology has also significantly extended the range of aircraft, so that while 40 years ago
aircraft were just beginning to be capable of crossing the Atlantic without stopping at
intermediate places such as Newfoundland, they are now capable of making trips of up to 18
hours duration. Surprisingly, the speed of commercial aircraft has not progressed since the
1960s, when the prospect of supersonic speed was being anticipated with the development of the
Anglo-French Concorde, which was removed from service in 2003.
winds, in particular the jet stream, to enhance speed and reduce fuel consumption. In addition,
specific corridors have been established in order to facilitate navigation and safety. Strategic and
political factors also influence route choice. For example, the flights of South African Airways
were not allowed to over-fly many African nations during the apartheid period, and Cubana
Airlines has been routinely prohibited from over-flying the USA.
Like maritime transport, the airline industry is highly capital intensive. However, unlike the
maritime sector, air transportation is labor intensive, with limited room to lower labor
requirements, although many airlines are now trying to reduce labor costs by cutting salaries and
benefits. The industry has become a powerful factor of development.
By convention, an air space exclusively belongs to the country under it, and this has led to
significant government control over the industry.
Traditionally, an airline needs the approval of the governments of the various countries involved
before it can fly in or out of a country, or even across another country without landing.

2.6 Intermodal transportation

2.6.1 The nature of intermodalism
Competition between the modes has tended to produce a transport system that is segmented and
unintegrated. Each mode has sought to exploit its own advantages in terms of cost, service,
reliability and safety. Carriers try to retain business by maximizing the linehaul under their
control. All the modes saw the other modes as competitors, and were viewed with suspicion and
mistrust. The lack of integration between the modes was also accentuated by public policy that
has frequently barred companies from owning firms in other modes (as in the United States
before deregulation), or has placed a mode under direct state monopoly control (as in Europe).
Modalism was also favored because of the difficulties of transferring goods from one mode to
another, thereby incurring additional terminal costs and delays.
The use of several modes of transport has frequently occurred as goods are shipped from the
producer to the consumer. When several modes are used this is referred to as multimodal
transport. Within the last forty years efforts have been made to integrate separate transport
systems through intermodalism. What distinguishes intermodal from multimodal transport is
that the former involves the use of at least two different modes in a trip from origin to destination
under a single transport rate. Intermodality enhances the economic performance of a transport
chain by using the modes in the most productive manner. Thus, the line-haul economies of rail
may be exploited for long distances, with the efficiencies of trucks providing local pick-up and
delivery. The key is that the entire trip is seen as a whole, rather than as a series of legs, each
marked by an individual operation with separate sets of documentation and rates.
The emergence of intermodalism has been brought about in part by technology. Techniques for
transferring freight from one mode to another have facilitated intermodal transfers. Early
examples include piggyback (TOFC: trailers on flat cars), where truck trailers are placed on rail
cars, and LASH (lighter aboard ship), where river barges are placed directly on board sea-going
ships. The major development undoubtedly has been the container, which permits easy handling
between modal systems. Containers have become the most important component for rail and
maritime intermodal transportation.
While handling technology has influenced the development of intermodalism, another important
factor has been the changes in public policy.
The provision of through bills of lading in turn necessitated a revolution in organization and
information control. At the heart of modern intermodalism are data handling, processing and
distribution systems that are essential to ensure the safe, reliable and cost-effective control of
freight movements across several modes.
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is an evolving technology that is helping companies and
government agencies (customs documentation) to cope with an increasingly complex global
transport system.
3.0 HIGHWAY PLANNING AND TRAFFIC SURVEYS
Highway transportation plays an essential role in the social and economic life of any community
or nation. Good highway transport facilities can result only from sound planning. It is only when
they are soundly planned that the facilities would be able to meet the needs for which they are
meant and to remain of good service throughout the proposed design life.
When planning for a highway or a highway improvement, some things must be taken into
consideration. These incluse land usage, effects of motor vehicle on the environment and future
increase in traffic.

Land Usage
Transport planning cannot be isolated from land use planning. This is illustrated in the figure
below.

This figure shows that:

i. whatever the land is used for, its activities generate trips, and some activities obviously
generate more trips than others (1-2);
ii. these trips, in turn, bring up corresponding transport needs (2-3);
iii. the transport needs are eventually met by the provision of certain transport facilities (3-
4);
iv. these transport facilities increase the quality or degree of accessibility of the associated
land in question (4-5);
v. of course, the accessibility associated with the land increases its value since, logically, the
land has no value if people cannot get to it (5-6); and finally,
vi. it is the land value which help to determine the use to which the land is put (6-1). Greater
land value result in greater activities which would generate more trips, etc.
Especially in the urban areas, a new or improved road may have the following effects on land
usage:
a. Flight of private residential homes from the congested town centres to the more spacious
suburbs.
b. Establishment of shopping centres, tourist facilities, recreation facilities, etc. in the
suburbs.
c. Movement of industries to sites adjacent to the new or improved road
d. Diversion of traffic from nearby alternative parallel routes to the better one just
constructed or improved.
All the above changes in land usage will affect the traffic tendencies from those in force during
the design stage and used for the design, and they may render the new road inadequate,
redundant or irrelevant almost immediately after completion or at least long before the end of its
proposed design life.

Effects of the Motor Vehicle on the Environment

While road transportation has many advantages in terms of the personal mobility it gives
to man, it has some undesirable by-products (side effects), which need to be taken into account
when planning a new road or road improvement for any community.
a. Road accidents: This may be undesirable in residential or shopping areas where improved
road facilities may lead to increased vehicle speeds and more accidents. (At the same
time, the severity of accidents also increases with increased speed.)
b. Noise pollution: This is significant, especially in urban areas. Noise is undesirable near
residential estates, schools, hospitals, places of worship, etc.
c. Odours and fumes from fuel emissions: This is undesirable and may cause considerable
damage to human health or plants.
d. Aesthetic deterioration: The very great widths of highway works, especially expressways,
and the extensive car parks often lead to formless, dreary landscapes.
e. Division of communities: Heavy and fast traffic flows on roads through residential areas
often prevent communication and interaction between residents on opposite sides of the
road, thereby effectively dividing and severing previously closely-knit communities.
Future Increase in Traffic
The number of vehicles will be expected to increase in the foreseeable future because of the
following reasons.
a. The population is continually growing, thereby leading to a corresponding increase in
motor vehicles.
b. People’s standard of living will continue to increase, thereby making more trips
(business, pleasure, recreational, etc.) necessary.
c. People now regard “personal mobility” as a necessity.
d. No new form of personal transport may supplant the motor car.
In view of the above, it may be unwise when planning for a road, not to take into account
the expected future increase in traffic.

3.1 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS

When planning a new or improved road, it is necessary to know the volume, distribution and
performance of the traffic on existing roads. This is useful not only in predicting future traffic
behaviour, but also in assessing whether alterations are justified and in deciding priorities for
road improvement.
Therefore in almost all planning studies, measurements of traffic flows (volumes) and speeds are
needed. Often, measurements are also needed of stopped times (delays) and the frequency of
these delays. The manner in which these data are obtained and analysed will be discussed here.

3.1.1 Traffic Volumes

Before treating the conduct of traffic volume studies, we shall first discuss some points
concerning traffic volumes.

Patterns, trends and composition of traffic

Traffic volumes are much heavier during certain periods of the day and during certain times of
the year. The highway planner must be familiar with the hourly variation throughout the day, the
daily variation throughout the week, and the monthly (seasonal) variation throughout the year.
So also, he should be familiar with the directional distribution of the traffic and the manner in
which its composition varies.

Hourly Patterns
The observed trend is that there are two peak periods during weekdays (Monday to Friday), one
in the morning (7.30-8.30 am) and one in the evening (4.00-5.00 pm), whereas on weekends
there is only one peak (12.30-1.30 pm) in the early afternoon, when people begin to go for
shopping, visits or recreational trips. This hourly pattern is fairly consistent throughout the year.
The actual pattern, however, may vary from place to place.
Daily Patterns
The traffic volumes remain consistent for weekdays and weekends throughout the year, except
for variations on special days, e.g. environmental sanitation days, election days, feast days,
public holidays, etc. Traffic volume studies should not be conducted on such days.

Monthly (Seasonal) Variations and Yearly Trends

Because of the effect of weather, the traffic volumes in the months of the rainy season are
slightly less than the volumes during the months of the dry season. However, the general yearly
trend is that the traffic volume increases form year to year.

Directional Distribution
This is very important in the planning of a highway. The actual distribution to be used for design
purposes can only be determined by field measurements. Directional distribution (in percentages)
for any specific road is relatively stable and does not change materially from year to year. Hence,
relationships established on the basis of current traffic movements are also applicable to future
movements.

Traffic Composition and Traffic Components

Passenger cars, buses, lorries, motor cycles and bicycles all have different operating
characteristics and hence, for comparison purposes, they must be given different weightings to
allow for their varied effects within the traffic stream. In estimating the design volume of a road
it is therefore necessary that the percentages of the different classes of vehicle present in the
traffic stream during the design period should be determined.
Generally, traffic composition varies from locality to locality. For instance, highly industrialized
localities will have a greater number and percentage of commercial vehicles (i.e. those with an
unladen weight of 1,500 kg, i.e. 1.5 tonnes, or more). Like directional distribution, traffic
composition is stable from year to year and the values to be used for design purposes are best
determined from field studies.
The composition of traffic (i.e. the percentage of the various components of the traffic stream) at
any particular time has an effect on the traffic flow (i.e. the number of vehicles passing a point
per unit time) and the speed. This is why in estimating the design volume for the geometric
design of a road, the percentages of the different classes of vehicle present in the traffic stream
are determined. To allow for the varied effects of the various types of vehicle, they are given the
following equivalent traffic values in relation to passenger cars at the different locations:
Table 1: Equivalent Passenger Car Units (PCU) for Capacity or Volume Determination
Type Of Vehicle Passenger Car Units (Pcu)
Urban Rural Round-Abouts Traffic Signals
Roads Roads
Car 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Motorcycle 0.75 1.00 0.75 0.33
Lorries/Trucks 2.00 3.00 2.80 1.75
Buses/Coaches 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.25
Bicycles 0.33 0.50 0.50 0.20

On the other hand, in the structural design of pavements (flexible or rigid), only the volume of
the commercial vehicles (i.e. those with an unladen weight of 1,500 kg, i.e. 1.5 tonnes, or more)
e.g. heavy buses, trucks, etc. that will use the road during its design life is considered. This is
because it is felt that the loads imposed by cars do not contribute significantly to the structural
damage caused to road pavements by traffic.
Another important component of the traffic stream which must be taken care of is the pedestrian
component. Measures must be taken to ensure the safety of pedestrians and to determine the
effect of pedestrian movement on the ease of movement of vehicles, or the effect of vehicle flow
on the ease of movement of pedestrians.

3.1.2 VOLUME STUDIES

Traffic flow or volume is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a given point on the
highway in a given period of time. It is the most important datum for the design of a highway.
Volume studies are used to reveal the relative importance of individual highways and thus justify
particular highway improvements or traffic management measures.
There are three main methods of traffic volume measurement:

3.1.2.1 Automatic Methods Using Mechanical Devices

These are employed in the greater part of traffic counting, especially when data are required over
long periods of time.
1. Electric Contact-Strip Device: This consists of a subsurface detector which provides for a
positive electrical contact for each vehicle axle crossing it. It consists of a steel base plate over
which a moulded and vulcanized rubber pad (which is installed flush with the road surface) holds
suspended a strip of spring steel. It is installed in each lane.
2. Photoelectric Device: Detection is accomplished by the vehicle passing between a source
of light and a photocell which is capable of distinguishing between light and lack of light. The
equipment is mounted above and at the sides of the road surface. It is used only for light volume
roads.
3. Radar Device: Detection is accomplished by continuously comparing the frequency of a
transmitted radio signal with the frequency of the reflected signal. When a moving vehicle
intercepts the signal, a frequency difference exists. The unit is normally mounted above the
center of the lane or lanes for which detection is desired.
4. Magnetic Device: Detection is accomplished by a signal or impulse caused by a vehicle
passing through and disturbing a magnetic field. The unit is installed in each lane immediately
below the road surface.
5. Ultrasonic Device: This is similar in its operation and installation to the Radar Device.

3.1.2.2 Manual Counts

Manual counts use field observers to obtain volume data with more detailed information which
cannot be collected by mechanical means. For light volumes, observations are recorded by tally
marks on prepared field data sheets, and for heavier volumes mechanical hand counters are used.
Manual counts are more accurate because they give the exact number of vehicles and not the
number of axles.
Manual counts are employed:
i. when no automatic devices are available
ii. in establishing correction factors to be applied to automatic traffic counts
iii. when more detailed information or other special information is required, such as
a. the exact number of vehicles instead of the number of axles
b. the turning movements at an intersection
c. vehicle classification, i.e. traffic composition
d. occupancy studies (the number of occupants of vehicles)
e. pedestrian counts

Scheduling Counting Periods:

The schedule at any specific location depends upon the method used to obtain data and the
purpose or planned use of the data. The counting period should avoid special-event conditions
such as holidays, sporting events, exhibitions or fairs, transit strikes, special soles, unusual
weather, or temporary street closures, unless the count is for the specific purpose of studying the
effect of the special event condition.
 Mechanical counts are usually made for periods of 24 hours or longer. Manual counts are
more expensive and limited to short periods of time. They are made for the following periods:
i. 12 hours: 7.00 am – 7.00 pm
ii. 8 hours: 7.00 am – 11.oo am, 1.00 pm – 5.00 pm
iii. 4 hours: 7.00 am – 9.00 am, 4.00 pm – 6.00 pm
iv. 2 hours: 7.00 am – 9.00 am, or 4.00 pm – 6.00 pm

3.1.2.3 Moving Car Observer Method

This method is most economical and allows much information to be collected at the same time:
traffic flow volume, running times and speeds, journey times and speeds, delays due to
intersections or parked cars, and other relevant information. It will be described here.
The moving car observer study is usually done to cover two opposing flows simultaneously, for
example from point A to B and from point B to A. A car containing a team of at least three
observers excluding the driver sets out from point A en route to point B. One observer takes note
of the time the vehicle is in motion, the time it is stationary (delay times) and the
causes/locations of the delays. Another observer counts the vehicles met, while the third observer
counts the vehicles overtaking the study vehicle and those being overtaken by the study vehicle.
The same observations are made and recorded on the return journey from B to A.

Let q = traffic flow in one direction, veh/hour

x = no. of vehicles met while driving against the flow to be estimated
y = number of vehicles overtaking minus the number of vehicles overtaken while driving
with the flow to be estimated
t = the average journey time of the flow
ta = travel time against the flow (in minutes)
tw = travel time with the flow (in minutes)

Then, x = q(ta + t)
and y = q(tw – t)

Therefore, q = 60 (x + y) (veh/hr)
ta + tw
and t = tw – y = x – ta (minutes)
q q
For example, if the flow to be estimated is flow AB, then x = xBA, ta = tBA, while tw = tAB. So
also, if the flow to be estimated is flow BA, then x = xAB, ta = tAB, while tw = tBA.

Example:
Six runs were made in each direction along a two-way highway between X and Y. Flows were
measured both with and against the moving car and the following notes obtained.

Car travelling from X to Y:

TRIP NO. OF VEHICLES
Commences Ends Overtaking Overtaken Met
16.05 hrs 16.16 hrs 2 1 401
16.34 16.44 3 2 360
17.05 17.17 4 1 419
17.35 17.44 5 3 397
18.05 18.18 2 1 406
18.35 18.45 2 3 412

Car travelling from Y to X:

TRIP NO. OF VEHICLES
Commences Ends Overtaking Overtaken Met
16.19 hrs 16.31 hrs 3 2 320
16.50 17.03 7 3 319
17.20 17.32 4 2 307
17.50 17.59 4 3 331
18.20 18.33 5 2 317
18.50 19.01 7 1 305
Distance from X to Y is 6.4 km. Calculate the flow and stream journey speeds in each direction.
Solution:
Flow X to Y:
x y ta tw q (veh/hr) t
(minutes)
320 1 12 11 837.39 10.93
319 1 13 10 834.78 9.93
307 3 12 12 775.00 11.77
331 2 9 9 1110.00 8.89
317 1 13 13 733.85 12.92
305 -1 11 10 868.57 10.07
Mean values 859.93 10.75
qXY = 860 veh/hr
vXY = (6.4) (60)/10.75 = 35.7 km/h

Flow Y to X:
x y ta tw q (veh/hr) t
(minutes)
401 1 11 12 1048.70 11.94
360 4 10 13 949.57 12.75
419 2 12 12 1052.50 11.89
397 1 9 9 1326.67 8.95
406 3 13 13 948.35 12.81
412 6 10 11 1194.29 10.71
Mean values 1085.93 11.51
qYX = 1090 veh/hr
vYX = (6.4) (60)/11.51 = 33.4 km/h
3.1.3 SPEED STUDIES
There are many types of speed in connection with highway planning. Those of most interest are:
Spot speed, Running speed, and Journey speed.

3.1.3.1 Spot Speed

This is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location. The various uses include the
following:
i. as evidence regarding the effect of particular traffic flow constrictions, e.g. intersections
or bridges
ii. for geometric design purposes on improved or new facilities
iii. for determining enforceable speed limits.
Methods of Measurement:
The observer and equipment should not be conspicuous so as to minimise their influence
on the measurements. If it is not possible to measure all vehicle speed, vehicles should be
selected at random from the traffic stream to avoid bias, e.g. every tenth vehicle or those whose
registration numbers end in pre-selected digit.
i. Direct-timing Method
The time required to cover a short distance l of roadway is measured with a stop-watch.
(Speed = Distance/Time)
ii. Direct-timing using an enoscope
Here an enoscope is used to overcome the effect of parallax
iii. Pressure-contact-strip method
The time which elapses between the impulse sent by two contact strips laid across the
roadway at a fixed distance apart is measured.
iv. Radar Speed-meter.
This uses the Doppler effect. The rate of change of the frequency of the radar signal
reflected by the moving vehicle to the speed-meter indicates the speed of the approaching
vehicle.
v. Time-lapse camera
This camera takes photographs at fixed intervals of time. The position of the vehicle on
successive exposures is used to determine the spot speed. The method is very costly.
Analysis:
The observation of the frequency of vehicles with speeds within speed classes is made. A
cumulative frequency curve of the spot speeds is plotted.
The 85-percentile speed is the speed below which 85% of the vehicles are being driven. It serves
as the upper speed limit on a highway or the design speed for similar new highways.
The 15-percentile speed should be the minimum speed limit. Vehicles travelling below this speed
are potential accident hazards because of their obstructive influence upon traffic flow.
Example:
Speed class Av. Speed, No. of Frequency, Cumulative
vehicles % frequency, %
km/h km/h
10-14.9 12.5 3 1.5 1.5
15-19.9 17.5 10 5.0 6.5
20-24.9 22.5 21 10.5 17.0
25-29.9 27.5 31 15.5 32.5
30-34.9 32.5 54 27.0 59.5
35-39.9 37.5 43 21.5 81.0
40-44.9 42.5 21 10.5 91.5
45-49.9 47.5 10 5.0 96.5
50-54.9 52.5 5 2.5 99.0
55-59.9 57.5 2 1.0 100.0
200

Cum. Freq., %

85 percentile speed = 39 km/h

Median speed = 31 km/h

15 percentile speed = 22 km/h

0 22 31 39 Spot speed, km/h

Assignment:
Observations are made of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on the highway using a radar
speedmeter. Calculate the mean speed, the 15-percentile and 85 percentile speeds. What are these
used for? The observations are given in the table below:
Speed class, km/h 30-34.9 35-39.9 40-44.9 45-49.9 50-54.9 55-59.9 60-64.9 65-69.9 70-74.9
No. of vehicles 3 9 14 21 32 40 48 55 47

Speed class, km/h 75-79.9 80-84.9 85-89.9 90-94.9 95-99.9 100-104.9

No. of vehicles 39 33 23 15 10 5

3.1.3.2 Running and Journey Speeds

Running speed is defined as the average speed over a given route while the vehicle is actually in
motion. The times en route when the vehicle is at rest are not taken into account. Running speed
is the speed value used for capacity determinations. It can also be used as a measure of the effect
of a highway improvement.
Journey speed is the average speed maintained over a route while taking into account both the
running time and the time when the vehicle is at rest, e.g. at traffic signals, in traffic jams, etc. It
is used as a direct measure of traffic congestion and the general adequacy or inadequacy of a
road or road system.

Methods of Measurement:
i. Registration Number Method
Observers with synchronized watches stay at both ends of the test section and note the
time a vehicle passes them.
ii. Elevated Observer Method
Here the road section has to be relatively short so that the vehicles remain within sight of
the elevated observer. This method is useful in city streets. It also has the advantage that
any vehicle delays can be noted. The disadvantage is that suitable observation points are
difficult to secure.
iii. Moving Car Observer Method
This is the same method already described under “Volume Studies”. We use the
formulas:
 For the stream flow,
q = 60 (x + y) (veh/hr)
ta + tw
and for the flow journey time,
t = tw – y = x – ta (minutes)
q q
Then, Journey speed, v = distance/journey time = l/t.

3.1.4 DELAY STUDIES

Delay studies enable the highway planner to pinpoint locations where conditions are
unsatisfactory as well as determining the reasons for, and the extent of, the delays. They indicate
the urgency of need for improvement and the extent to which the improvement should be carried
out.
There are two types of delay:
i. Fixed Delay
This occurs as a result of some fixed roadway condition and irrespective of the traffic
condition, e.g. at traffic signals, railway crossings, roundabouts and intersections.
ii. Operational Delay
This is primarily a reflection of the interacting effects of traffic on the road or street, e.g.
parking and unparking vehicles, parked cars, pedestrians, crossing and turning vehicles at
uncontrolled intersections, vehicles stalling in the middle of the traffic stream, as well as
vehicle volumes in excess of capacity thereby causing congestion, etc.

Methods of Measurement:
Delay studies are carried out separately at particular locations or in conjunction with studies
determining running and journey speeds, e.g. the elevated observer method but most especially
the moving car observer method, which is most useful in determining the cause and extent of
delay encountered en route.

3.1.4.1 Origin-Destination Studies

O-D surveys show what amount of travel there is between various locations, without telling
much about the actual routes traveled between particular origins and destinations. They reveal
whether motorists are using a particular route because it is less crowded or better designed, or
whether it is actually the most direct and desirable route between the particular origin and
destination. In this regard O-D surveys help to estimate where new or improved traffic routes
and facilities should be located so as to attract or relieve most traffic, and how much traffic they
will actually carry when constructed.
O-D surveys also help to determine what relationships exist between the amount and type of
travel and the traffic-generating land-use factors such as residential housing, factories,
commercial establishments, etc.
In conducting O-D surveys, origins and destinations are grouped by zones, each zone including
homogeneous developments. Thus, for urban areas, zones closer to the central area may be
smaller while those in residential suburban districts are larger. Zone boundaries may be political
boundaries and are also often dictated by geographical or physical limitations such as rivers,
hills, etc.

3.1.4.2 Methods of Conducting O-D Surveys

3.1.4.2.1 Roadside Interview method
In this method, motorists are stopped on the highway and questioned directly. Typical
information collected include survey station location, date and hour, vehicle type, direction of
travel, no of passengers, origin and destinations, purpose of trip, etc.
Advantage:
(a) It is a good method capable of supplying detailed and accurate information
Disadvantage:
(a) The survey is confined to drivers only and does not provide detailed information
concerning passenger desires.

Location of Interview Sites

For single road studies, an interview site along the road is adequate. For town studies however,
sites may be located on all main radial roads. For an isolated major highway, interview stations
may also be sited on all other highways expected to be affected by the construction or
reconstruction of the new facility. In general, interview sites should be located near zonal
boundaries to avoid having both origin and destination within the same zone for some drivers.
Stations should be sited where safety will be guaranteed through adequate sight distances on both
sides.

Sampling Techniques
It is not possible to interview all vehicles and so sampling may be done in one of three ways:
(a) Stopping a fixed no. of vehicles out of a certain no. in order to get a certain percentage,
e.g. stopping three vehicles and allowing the next nine to proceed to get a 25%-by-
vehicle sample.
(b) Stopping all vehicles that arrive at the site during a pre-determined period of time, e.g
stopping all vehicles every alternate half-hour in order to get a 50% by time sample.
(c) After completing an interview, the very next vehicle but one is stopped and others
allowed to proceed until the interview with that vehicle is again completed. In this way,
the interviewer is able to work at a constant rate, traffic delays are kept to a minimum,
and good sampling percentages are obtained (higher in light traffic and lower in heavy
traffic).

3.1.4.2.2 Postcard Surveys

In this method, return-stamped addressed postcards are mailed to all registered motor vehicle
owners within the survey area. Each recipient is asked to record all trips of his vehicle made on
a pre-determined weekday. Alternately, the postcards may be handed out to motorists as they
pass slowly by selected sites.
Success of this kind of survey depends on the willingness of motorists to complete and return the
postcards. Therefore the survey must be well publicized prior to sending out the postcards.

Disadvantages:
(a) Results are unreliable because no. of cards returned may be small.
(b) Results may be heavily weighted in favour of facilities of particular interest to motorists
in certain areas.
(c) Results may be distorted because returns from through-trippers will be especially low and
unrepresentative.
(d) Results may be distorted because office workers will more likely return postcards than
manual workers.

Advantages:
(i) All data are obtained at once for the chosen day of travel.
(ii) Untrained personnel can be used to hand out or send the cards by post.
(iii) There is little interference to traffic at congested road locations.

3.1.4.2.3 Registration Number Method

In this method, observers with synchronized watches are stationed about and within the survey
area. As a vehicle passes an observer, the registration number and time are noted. At the end of
the survey, each vehicle’s trip through the survey area is traced. The origin is taken as the first
point of observation while the destination is taken as the last.
Advantages:
(a) It can be used where traffic is heavy and it is not desired to stop vehicles for questioning.
(b) The results do not depend on motorist co-operation

Disadvantage:
(a) Because of large manpower requirements, its use is limited to single highway facilities or
to small survey areas with few exits and entrances. All observation sites must be manned
simultaneously (at the same time) and continuously throughout the day.

3.1.4.2.4 Tag or Sticker Method

In this method, a pre-coded tag or sticker, bearing the time and place of entry, is placed under the
windscreen wiper. As the vehicle leaves the survey area, the tag is reclaimed and the time,
station and direction of travel are recorded on it.

Advantage:
(a) The path of each vehicle can be traced through the survey area by having intermediate
observers note the colour/shape of the tag on each vehicle. This could help in
determining the need for a by-pass.

3.1.4.2.5 Home Interview Method

Large urban areas attract traffic from great distances outside their boundaries as well as
generating intensive traffic in their own right. Within the cities themselves, many obstacles
occur, e.g narrow streets, high traffic jams, etc., which influence the manner in which people
travel and the routes they take to their destinations. Because of the so many variables involved,
mere observation of traffic in urban areas do not give the actual or accurate travel desires of the
people. Because of the difficulties posed by the large lengths and widths of roads, heavy traffic
that cannot be stopped, etc., there is the need for a more sophisticated method to obtain the
comprehensive but detailed information required by highway planners to decide on the need as
well as location of road improvements.
Hence the home interview method. In this method, sample households are visited and all
members above five years old are asked questions about their travel for a particular day, (the day
preceding the interview). The samples must be distributed geographically throughout the survey
area in the same proportion as the whole population is distributed, so that the sampling can be
representative.
Disadvantage:
(a) It can be conducted only in the evenings when all members of the household can be met
at home.
Data from the home interviews are usually augmented with a simultaneously conducted roadside
interview study before analysis.
 4 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE AND DESIGN
4.1 Highway Pavements
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and processed
materials. The primary function of a pavement is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the
sub-grade such that the transmitted stresses are sufficiently reduced that they do not exceed the
supporting capacity of the sub-grade.
By definition, rigid pavements are those built from reinforced or plain cement-concrete. They
contain sufficient beam strength to be able to bridge over localized sub-grade failures and areas
of inadequate support. On the other hand, flexible pavements are generally considered to be any
pavement other than a concrete one. Under this category fall water-bound macadam roads,
stabilized soil roads, and other sophisticated roads which consist of various layers of road
building materials compacted so as to form a void-free compact and elastic bed. Depressions
which occur beneath flexible pavements are reflected in their running surfaces, unlike with rigid
pavements.
4.1.1 Comparison between Flexible and Rigid Pavements
The comparison between flexible and rigid pavements in terms of the constituent material,
manner of stress transmission to the subgrade, design criterion, etc. is shown in Table 4.1
Table 4.1: Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement
No. CHARACTERISTIC FLEXIBLE RIGID
1. Constituent material Any material except cement Cement-concrete
concrete
2. Manner of stress Through lateral distribution of By beam and cantilever action
transmission to the sub- the applied load over depth of the concrete slab
grade
3. Effect of sub-grade Significant, because when the Very little, because when the
strength on design sub-grade deflects, the sub-grade deflects, the concrete
overlying flexible pavement slab is able to bridge over
will deform to a similar shape localized failure and areas of
and extent inadequate support.
4. Design criterion Depth of pavement must be The section of the concrete slab
enough to distribute the load must possess enough stiffness
laterally so that the sub-grade so as to be able to resist the
is not overstressed. The applied load without formation
stiffness of the pavement is on the surface.
insignificant.
 No. CHARACTERISTIC FLEXIBLE RIGID
5. Relative thickness Very thick, because of the Much thinner, since it only
design criterion of depth of needs to meet certain minimum
pavement thickness criteria
6. Effects of loading
(a) Normal loading (a) Adjusts itself to loading by (a) Tends to act as a beam or
undergoing elastic cantilever and resists
deformation deformation
(b) Extensive loading (b) Yields to extensive (b) Ruptures by forming cracks
stresses resulting in local on the surface
depression of surface
(c) Temperature effect (c) Does not produce any (c) At high temperatures,
stress stresses are produced
7. After effects of heavy The surface has self-healing The damage caused to the
loading properties as it deforms surface under heavy loading is
elastically of a permanent nature

4.1.2. Elements of a flexible pavement

The surfacing is the uppermost layer of the pavement. The primary function of the surfacing is
to provide a safe and comfortable riding surface for the traffic. It is also expected to protect the
layers, beneath from the effects of the natural elements, (rain, wind, etc) as well as from the
disintegrating effects vehicles skidding and braking on the roadway. In this regard it should be
impervious so as to waterproof the base against the surface water. The water-sealing and dust-
preventing property of the surfacing is best considerably improved by providing a bituminous
surface binding layer.
The surfacing will normally consist of a bituminous “surface dressing” (spray-and-chip
treatment) or a single homogeneous layer of premixed bituminous material. In the higher types
of road, it may consist of two distinct sub-layers known as a wearing course and a base course.
The wearing course must be impervious and be of suitable material so that skidding accidents are
prevented. The base-course provides the wearing course with a better riding quality but may not
be as impervious as the wearing course.

b. The base is the most important and normally the thickest layer of the flexible pavement
on which the surfacing rests. It is the main load-spreading layer of the pavement. It bears the
burden of distributing the applied surface loads to ensure that the bearing capacity of the sub-
grade is not exceeded. It should therefore be built from high quality material capable of
withstanding high shearing stresses imposed from the surface loads. It will normally consist of
either
(i) crushed stone or gravel
(ii) gravelly soils
(iii) decomposed rock
(iv) sands, or
(v) sand-clays stabilized with cement, lime or bitumen

c. The sub-base is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the base. It may or may
not be present in a pavement depending on the purpose for which it is to be used. Its function
may be examined from a number of aspects:
1. The sub-base helps to distribute the applied loads to the sub-grade. Its stresses are
less than those of the base. Therefore the materials can be of lower quality than those of
the base but must always be stronger than the sub-grade.
2. A coarse-grained material in the sub-base acts as a drainage layer to pass to the
highway drainage system any moisture which falls during construction or which enters
the pavement after construction
3. When we have a fine-grained (clayey) sub-grade soil, a granular sub-base may be
provided.
(i) to carry constructional traffic and act as a foundation for subsequent layers
(ii) to act as a cut-off blanket to prevent moisture from migrating upward from the
sub-grade
(iii) to act as a cut-off blanket to prevent the infiltration of sub-grade material into
the pavement.
The material used will depend on the purpose of the sub-base and the grading of the sub-
grade soil. It will normally consist of unprocessed natural gravel, gravel-sand or gravel-
sand-clay.

d. The sub-grade is the upper layer of the natural soil over which the pavement is being
built. It may be the undisturbed local material exposed by excavation or soil excavated
elsewhere and placed into an embankment. In either case it is compacted during
construction to give added stability and, where very weak soils are encountered, the sub-
 grade may be improved by mixing in an imported better soil or a small amount of a
stabilizing agent.

e. The formation is the upper surface of the prepared sub-grade.

4.1.3 Component layers of a rigid pavement

a. The most important property of the sub-grade is whether or not it will provide uniform support
for the concrete slab. If the sub-grade can be relied on to provide uniform support, then there
will be no need for a sub-base, as is the case for all sub-grades with CBR  15%
b. The sub-base is interposed only to correct unsatisfactory sub-grade conditions which could
lead to non-uniform support for the slab. Sub-bases are used to provide uniform, stable and
permanent support in the following cases.
(i) To prevent or minimize frost action whereby differential heaving and softening of
the sub-grade can result in the break-up of the pavement in cold, temperate
climates.
(ii) A granular sub-base which acts as a drainage layer will improve the sub-surface
drainage and minimize the accumulation of water within the pavement.
(iii) To prevent mud-pumping at the joints, edges and cracks of pavements. Mud-
pumping is the forceful ejection of water-soil suspension under heavy wheel
loads. It may lead to eventual failure of the pavement. The three factors which
must be present before pumping can occur are free water, fine grained or clayey
soil, and very heavy wheel loads.
(iv) To minimize volume changes in soils susceptible to high volume changes. The
volume chances may leave the slabs unsupported at critical points. Volume
changes may be combated by chemical stabilization of the sub-grade and/or
 construction of a granular sub-base, so that a sufficient weight of pavement is
obtained to hold down the sub-grade and absorb some of the expansion.
(v) To form a working surface for construction traffic.
c. The concrete slab must be well-designed so as to possess the appropriate minimum strength. It
could be of ordinary concrete, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete. The slab must be
provided with waterproof expansion joints to take care of the warping, expansion and contraction
of concrete from variations in temperature and moisture, so that buckling under compressive
stresses do not occur and tension cracks are not developed.
d. The pavement may be provided with a bituminous surfacing for a smooth ride.

4.2 Pavement Design for Tropical Highways

There are three main stages in the design of a new road pavement. They are:
I. Estimating the amount of traffic (together with its axle-load distribution) that will use the
road over the selected design life, i.e the traffic analysis.
II. Assessing the strength of the sub-grade soil over which the road will be built.
III. While taking into account the two above items and not overlooking the environmental
factors which may affect pavement behaviour or service, selecting the most economical
combination of pavement materials and layer thicknesses that will be enough to provide
satisfactory service over the design life of the pavement with only routine maintenance,
i.e the pavement design.
I. THE TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
This consists of two steps:
STEP 1: AMOUNT OR VOLUME OF TRAFFIC
The loads imposed by private cars do not contribute significantly to the structural damage
caused to road pavements by traffic. Therefore, for the purpose of structural design, cars are
ignored. Only the total number (and the axle loading) of the commercial vehicles i.e. those with
an unladen weight of 1500kg (1.5 tonnes) or more that will use the road during its design life
need to be considered.
To estimate the total no. of commercial vehicles that will traverse the pavement in the
course of its design life, it is necessary:

(i) to know the number of commercial vehicles that will use the road when it is first opened
to traffic. This is based on the results of classified traffic counts taken on existing routes
along the corridor through which the new road will run. Seasonal traffic counts may be
conducted to provide more reliable data. When there are no existing roads in the area,
traffic estimates can be made on the basis of potential land use and other factors. For
new roads in residential and associated developments, it is common for accurate data not
to be available. The initial values to be assumed are then taken from tables (Table 1 of
the handout).
(ii) to forecast the annual growth rate, r, of this traffic. For developed countries, r is usually
taken between 3% and 6%, while for developing countries, r is between 6% and 15% and
may vary considerably from year to year, region to region and road to road. It is possible
for the growth rate to be 0% for certain specialized roads, e.g. those leading to refineries,
factories, etc. In the absence of any information, a growth rate of 4% is assumed.
(iii) to determine what the design life of the pavement should be. In the developed countries,
the design life is often taken as 20 years. However, a shorter design life (often 10 years)
is chosen for road pavements in developing countries because there is a tendency for the
percentage of heavy goods vehicles to reduce in these developing economies with time,
apart from the considerable variation in the traffic growth rates from year to year. In
those circumstances, long-term forecasting of traffic is very difficult.
A second reason for choosing a shorter design life when the traffic growth rate is high is that it is
rarely economic to build a road pavement strong enough to carry the traffic that will be using it
twenty years or so in the future when this may be as much as ten times as great as the initial
traffic. In such cases it is recommended that the pavement design is based on a ten-year design
life and that a form of construction is chosen that can readily be strengthened, normally by
adding a bituminous overlay when the growth in traffic requires it.
This approach, a form of “stage construction”, can be applied to most roads outside urban areas.
In towns the restrictions on road surface levels due to fixed access levels to buildings, drainage
arrangements, etc may make substantial overlaying impracticable.
STEP 2: ESTIMATING THE EQUIVALENT NO. OF STANDARD AXLES USING THE
ROAD OVER THE DESIGN LIFE
The deterioration of road pavements caused by traffic results from both the magnitude of the
individual wheel (or axle) loads and the no. of times these loads are applied.
(a) If the axle-load distribution of a typical sample of the commercial vehicles that will use the
road is known together with an estimate of the numbers of each axle load to be carried during
the design life of the pavement, then the equivalence factors given in Table 2 of the handout
(according to Liddle’s formula) are used as multipliers to obtain the equivalent number of
standard 8200 kg (18000 lb) axles to be catered for in the design.

Liddle’s formula: ESA = (L/80)3.8, where L is the axle load in kN.

ESA = (L/8,160)3.8, where L is the axle load in kg.
ESA = (L/18,000)3.8, where L is the axle load in lb.
The equivalence factors given in the table are for single-axle loads only. However, road tests
have established the following equivalency between tandem-axle loads and single-axle loads.
Insofar as general performance of pavement structure and sub-grade soil is concerned, a 32000 lb
(14,500 kg) tandem-axle load is basically equivalent to an 18000 lb (8200 kg) single-axle load,
i.e. tandem axles have less effect. Furthermore, the above relationship holds for other loads, so
that a tandem-axle load when multiplied by 0.57 gives the equivalent single-axle load. The load
equivalence factors for flexible pavements are different from those for rigid pavements, but the
same ones are used.
Note that it is possible to establish different growth rates for commercial vehicles with various
axle loads once the axle-load distribution has been determined.
Some roads have significant differences in the axle-load distribution of traffic traveling in one
direction and that traveling in the other direction. Such roads are those serving docks, quarries,
cement works, etc. where the vehicles traveling one way are heavily loaded but are empty on the
return journey. In such cases, the condition in the more heavily trafficked lane should be used
when converting commercial vehicle flows to the equivalent number of standard axles.
(b) If the axle-load distribution is not known, then conversion factors (which depend on
the type of road and no. of commercial vehicles per day which the road is designed to
carry in each direction at the time of construction) are used to obtain the equivalent
no. of standard axles from the no. of commercial vehicles. They are given in Table 3
of the handout:
Type of road Comm. veh. per day in No. of standard axles per
 each direction comm. veh.

Motorways and trunk roads Above 1000 1.08

Other roads From 250 to 1000 0.72
All other roads Below 250 0.45

Finally, the following formula is used to take into account a growth rate for any or all of the axle
loads:
Let Ax = no. of axles/day for a particular year, year x
Ao = no. of axles/day at the time of traffic count. (This is taken as the axles/day for the first
year of the design life of the pavement, i.e. A1 = A0.)
r = annual growth rate; this is generally taken as 0.04 or 4% in the absence of information to
the contrary. Usually, the regional growth rates for comparable or similar facilities are
employed.
x = number of years from the year of construction to the year for which the number of axles
per day is required.
Then, Ax = Ao (1 + r)x – 1
Evaluating, we have A1 = A0, A2 = A0 (1 + r), A3 = A0 (1 + r)2, A4 = A0 (1 + r)3, etc.
To obtain the cumulative no. of axles of any one category during the design life, the no. of axles
per day for each year over the design life is computed using the formula above. This is
multiplied by 365 (to obtain the no. of axles throughout the particular year) and summed to give
the cumulative no. of axles over the design life.
When the growth rates differ from year to year, the above method is the only practicable one.
When we have a constant growth rate over the design life, the following two methods can also be
used in getting the cumulative no. of axles. Firstly, it could be read from special charts such as
the one given in Fig. 1 of the handout. Secondly, we could apply the formula as derived below:
As seen above, Ax = Ao (1 + r)x – 1
This is a geometric sequence with:
first term a = A0
and common ratio R = 1 + r
Sum of first n terms of such geometric series is given by:
S = a Rn – 1
R–1
 Sn = Ao (1 + r)n –1 = Ao (1 + r)n – 1
1+ r–1 r
where n is the design life.

II. ASSESSING THE STRENGTH OF THE SUBGRADE SOIL

There are many parameters used to express the strength of a sub-grade soil for road design, but
the most common of these is the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the soil. This had been
discussed under Soil aspect of highway, railway and airfield

III. THE PAVEMENT DESIGN PROCEDURE

We shall go over certain definitions:
(i) Design lane
This is the lane on which the greatest equivalent number of standard 8200 kg (18000 lb)
single – axle loads is expected. Normally, this will be either lane of a two-lane highway or the
outside (nearside) lanes of multilane highways. For multilane dual-carriageway highways and
depending on the traffic volume, the percentage of total commercial vehicles that will use the
slow lane are as follows:
3,000 comm. veh./day 97%
13,000 comm. veh/day 70%
(ii) Design period
This is the no. of years from the initial application of traffic until the first major resurfacing or
overlay is anticipated.
(iii) Equivalent standard axle of an axle load or combination of axle loads
This is the no. of 8200 kg (18000 lb) single-axle loads required to produce an equivalent effect
on pavement performance as the axle-load or combination of axle loads of varying magnitude.
(iv)Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
This is the average daily no. of vehicles expected to use the roadway in both directions during
the first year. The axle-load distribution may also be available.
4.2.1 CBR methods of design for flexible pavements
The strength or CBR of the sub-grade chosen for design should be that of the sub-grade soil at a
moisture content equal to the wettest moisture condition likely to occur in the sub-grade after the
road is opened to traffic.
There are various flexible pavement design procedures based on the sub-grade CBR, and the
traffic loading in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles carried by the road in one
direction over the design life.

4.2.1.1 Road Note 31 (RN31) Method of Design for Bitumen-Surfaced Roads in Tropical or
Sub-Tropical Countries
RN31 design method is developed for the developing countries. The chart in RN31 (fig. 2 of the
handout) has been designed on the basis that a standard thickness of road base, with a variable
thickness of sub-base to allow for the different sub-grade strengths, is the most economical
design for flexible pavements with light commercial vehicle flows as in developing countries.
Note that the sub-base CBR must be 25% or more. Therefore, no sub-base is required if the sub-
grade CBR is 25% or more. A minimum thickness of 100 mm of sub-base is to be used with
sub-grade having CBR from 8 to 24%. For flexible pavements required to carry up to 0.5 million
standard axles in one direction over a design life of 10 years or more, a base thickness of 150
mm with a double surface dressing will be adequate.
If it is desired to provide at the time of construction a pavement capable of carrying from 0.5 to
2.5 million standard axles in one direction over the design life, there are three options or choices.
(i) Either a 150 mm thick base with double surface dressing. The sub-base thickness is
determined from the continuous lines, same as for cumulative traffic from 0 to 0.5 million
standard axles.
(ii) Or a 150 mm base with a 50 mm bituminous surfacing. The sub-base thickness is
determined from the broken lines.
(iii) Or a 200 mm base with a double surface dressing. The sub-base thickness is determined
from the broken lines.
Note that in options (ii) and (iii) the sub-base thickness is slightly reduced.
In general, for roads which will carry not more than 300 commercial vehicles per day (in both
directions) at the time of construction, the most economical solution will be to choose the
double surface dressing on the 150 mm base initially, and to add the 50 mm bituminous
surfacing some years later.
The design chart has been drawn up on the assumption that one of the following base materials,
used in the tropics for the great majority of bituminous surfaced roads, will be used:
(i) mechanically-stable natural gravel or crushed gravel
(ii) crushed rock
(iii) cement or lime stabilized soil
(iv) bitumen-stabilized sand
When the traffic loading is beyond that covered by RN31, RN29 can be used with success in
tropical countries.

Example 4.1
Given that the existing traffic flow per day and the equivalent standard axle factor are as shown
in the table below and the CBR and design life are 4% and 10 years, respectively. Design the
flexible pavement (Flexible bituminous surface).
Table: Traffic flow and ESA factor
Commercial Vehicle Existing traffic flow/day ESA factor
Heavy truck 20 4.80
Medium truck 150 4.62
Light truck 50 1.00
Large bus 100 1.00

Solution
Commercial Vehicle Existing traffic ESA factor Existing Annual ESA
flow/day ESA/day
(1) (3) (4) × 365
(2) (4) = (2)×(3)
Heavy truck 20 4.80 96 35040
Medium truck 150 4.62 693 252945
Light truck 50 1.00 50 18250
Large bus 100 1.00 100 36500
Total Annual ESAs 342735

Cummulative Standard Axle for the design period is determined using the formula below:

Cummulative ESA =

=
 =

=
= 4114533.676
= 4.1 × 106
Using the Road Note 31:
Traffic Class = T5
Subgrade Strength Class = S2

Provide
200mm Granular capping layer or selected subgrade fill
275mm Granular subbase
175mm Granular roadbase
50mm flexible bituminous surface

4.2.2 Road Note 29 (RN29) Method of Design

RN29 design method is for developed countries with heavier commercial vehicle flows. The
design method contained in the manual is of CBR – type. The thickness of the subbase is related
to the CBR value of the subgrade and to the total number of standard axle loads. The thicknesses
of the other layers are related to the quality of the materials in the pavement itself as well as to
the traffic loading by a series of curves. The design charts and tables contained in Road Note 29
are derived from the results of the TRRL’s many full-scale road tests under British conditions of
climate, materials, traffic loading etc.

Traffic Analysis
For the purpose of structural design, the loads imposed by private cars do not contribute
significantly to the structural damage caused to road pavements by traffic. Therefore, only the
number of commercial vehicles and their axle-loadings are considered. Normally, the heavy
commercial vehicles operate on the outermost lane (the slow lane). Hence, the procedure
provides designs applicable to this lane. These designs will be used over the whole carriageway
width.
For various initial intensities of commercial traffic, Fig 4.5 gives the cumulative number of
commercial vehicles carried by each slow lane for design lives up to 40 years. Fig 4.5 (a), (b), (c)
and (d) are for annual growth rates of 3, 4, 5 and 6 percent respectively.
If the initial traffic intensities are greater than 2500 commercial vehicles per day in each
direction (the maximum shown in Fig 4.5), the cumulative number of commercial vehicles
carried by the design lane can be estimated by extrapolation from the given curves. However, if
the traffic data lead to the cumulative total of more than 90 million commercial vehicles to be
carried by the design lane during the design period, a value of 90 millions should be adopted
because the road is likely to be saturated.
The number of commercial vehicles carried by the design lane is then converted to a number of
axles. The average number of axles per commercial vehicle varies with the type of road as shown
in Table 4.7. The number of commercial axles has to be expressed as equivalent number of
18,000-pound axles (standard axle). Table 4.7 also gives the number of standard axles per
commercial axle and the factor that must be applied to the cumulative number of commercial
vehicles on the design lane to derive the cumulative number of standard axles for use in the
design.
Figure 4.5: Relations between cumulative number of commercial vehicles carried by design
lane and design life
 Table 4.7: Conversion factors to be used to obtain the equivalent number of standard axles
from the number of commercial vehicles.

Thickness Design of Pavement Structure

Road Note 29 presented the charts for determining the minimum thickness of various layers of
pavement structure as shown in Fig 4.6 – Fig 4.8. The main factors used in the design are the
cumulative number of standard axles, subgrade CBR and type of materials employed.
After determining the traffic and design period, the subgrade, the subbase, the base and the
surface are each considered in turn.

Subgrade
The strength of the subgrade is a principal factor in determining the thickness of the pavement.
The strength of the subgrade is assessed on the CBR scale. Road Note 29 recommended that the
water table should be prevented from rising to within 600 mm of the finished subgrade level.
This may be done by sub-soil drainage or by raising the finished subgrade level by means of an
embankment.

Subbase
The required thickness of subbase is determined from the cumulative number of standard axles to
be carried and the CBR of the subgrade using Fig 4.6. In the case that CBR of the subgrade is
less than 2 percent (the lowest value given in Fig 4.6), an additional 150 mm of subbase, above
the requirement for CBR 2 percent, should be used.
For cumulative traffic of less than 0.5 million standard axles, the minimum CBR of the subbase
should be 20 percent. For cumulative traffic in excess of 0.5 million standard axles, the minimum
CBR of the subbase should be 30 percent. For stabilized subbase, it can be assumed the CBR of
30 percent.
If the CBR of the subgrade is in excess of the minimum requirement for the subbase, no subbase
is required. Where subbase is required the minimum thickness that should be laid are 80 mm
where the cumulative traffic is less than 0.5 million standard axles and 150 mm where the traffic
is in excess of that value.

Base
Road Note 29 suggested the base materials as summarized in Table 4.8. The thicknesses required
for each of the base materials are determined by the use of Fig 4.7 or Fig 4.8, in terms of
cumulative number of standard axles to be carried.
To use the charts, it should be noticed the difference in English and American terminology.
“Roadbase” would be “Base course” in American and “Basecourse” would be “Binder course”.

Table 4.8: Base materials as recommended by Road Note 29

Surfacing Course
The thickness of surfacing in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles to be carried can
be determined by Fig 4.7 and Fig 4.8 depending on the type of base material used. RoadNote 29
recommended the surfacing course material to be varied with the cumulative traffic to be carried
and the details are given in Table 4.9.
The surfacing is intended to be laid in two courses, except where the cumulative traffic is less
than 0.5 million standard axles. The thicknesses of surfacing course are indicated in Table 4.9.
For cumulative traffic of over 11 million standard axles the minimum thickness of surface course
plus binder course is 100 mm. For additional surfacing thickness over 100 mm shown in Fig 4.7
and Fig 4.8
Table 4.9: Bituminous surfacing materials as recommended by Road Note 29
Figure 4.6. Thickness of subbase.
Figure 4.7: Lean concrete, soil cement and cement-bound granular base courses: minimum
thickness of surfacing and base course
Figure 4.8: Wet-mix and dry-bound macadam base course: minimum thickness of
surfacing and base course.
4.3 Analytical Method of Flexible Pavements Design
The theoretical approach for designing flexible pavements uses fundamental physical properties
and theoretical model of each pavement material to predict the stresses, strains and deflections
due to load on the pavement. The thicknesses and composition of pavement materials are
designed so that the stresses, strains and deflections do not exceed the capabilities of any of the
materials.
Some of the advantages of the analytical method as compared to empirical methods are as
follows.
 The analytical method is more theoretical. It is based on mechanistic responses on
pavement materials to the applied loads. Provided that the material properties and
material model are correct, the pavement can be designed correctly and confidently
anywhere and any environment condition.
 Pavements can be designed according to any available materials. In the empirical
approach, the procedures are limited only to certain pavement materials for which they
were developed.
 The analytical approach can cater any magnitude of wheel loads and frequencies while
the empirical method is valid only for the wheel loads and traffic intensities that it has
experienced during the experimental processes.
 For certain traffic condition, a pavement can be designed into various patterns. This helps
the engineers to select the most optimum one. The empirical method is limited only one
or two patterns of pavement structure.
 Since the damage of pavement can be predicted, therefore the maintenance strategies can
be easily obtained.
 By the advent of computer, the analysis and design can be performed quickly.
The main disadvantage is that the analytical approach is still required a great deal of researches
in order to develop the relationships between loads and pavement responses as well as the
models to predict pavement distresses based on these responses. Moreover, because of
complexity of the method, computer is necessary.

4.4 Design of Rigid Highway Pavements

Rigid pavements are designed with the main view of the concrete slab being able to distribute the
applied load over a relatively wide area of soil and bridge over local areas of inadequate support
in the subgrade. Thus the major portion of the structural capacity is supplied by the slab itself,
due to the rigidity and high modulus of elasticity of the concrete slab. Therefore the major factor
considered in its design is the strength of the concrete itself, while minor variations in subgrade
and/or base strengths have little influence on the structural capacity of the pavement.
Despite the many theoretical analyses available, all theoretical design procedures make use of
quite a number of assumptions and approximations. The result is that, in the final place, the
design procedures tend to rely heavily on the results of road tests to gain design information
about slab thickness, degree of reinforcement, spacing of joints, strength of concrete and sub-
base thickness. The performances of these concrete roads have been evaluated on the rate of
cracks development as a function of subgrade strength and traffic loading.

4.4.1 Joints and reinforcement in concrete road slabs

The reinforcement in concrete road slabs is primarily to minimize the development of cracks,
and not to absorb any of the induced tensile stresses as in conventional concrete slab design. A
practical outcome of this approach is that reinforcement allows a greater spacing between
transverse joints.
If a slab is subjected to a temperature gradient, it will tend to warp. If it is subjected to a uniform
temperature change, it will tend to contract or expand. These movements are restrained by the
weight of the slab itself and by the friction between the slab and the subgrade or subbase. This
restraint will cause the pavement to crack unless provision is made to provide for crack control
by means of joints and reinforcing steel.
There are three main types of pavements used for highway construction: plain concrete pavement
slabs, simply reinforced slabs, and continuously reinforced slabs (which are not provided with
joints).
Plain concrete slab indicates that there is no reinforcing steel within the body of the slab.
However, for all three types of pavements, if there are longitudinal joints, they must have steel
tie bars across the longitudinal joints. For plain concrete and simply reinforced slabs, for short
joint spacings, the slabs are also provided with dowel bars across the transverse joints.
Plain concrete slabs must be relatively short in order to limit the formation of cracks, since there
is no distributed steel. The joints may or may not be provided with dowel bars.
In the design of simply reinforced slabs the formation of cracks is assumed. The reinforcement
is primarily to keep this crack intact so that it will not open. Further, since the slabs are
relatively long, the joints will open during contraction so that it is necessary to provide dowels as
load transfer devices.
Continuously reinforced slabs have no transverse joints except where it is necessary to put in
construction joints or expansion joints at bridges, etc.

4.4.1.1 Joints in concrete pavements

Joints are provided at optimum intervals in conventional concrete pavements to keep the stresses
induced in the concrete from changes in dimensions due to variations in temperature and
moisture (warping, expansion and contraction) within safe limits. If the changes in dimensions
are entirely resisted, the induced stresses in the pavement will be so high as to cause the concrete
to develop tension cracks or buckling under compressive stresses. The strength of the concrete is
thereby conserved to resist the stresses induced by traffic loads.
The installation of joints is the most prolific cause of defects in concrete roads, inasmuch as they
are deliberate planes of weakness inset into the pavement. Only absolutely necessary
joints are included in the design, while they should be made with the highest standard of
workmanship.

4.4.1.2 Requirements of joints

Joints must fulfill the following requirements if they are to be satisfactory constituents of a
concrete pavement:
1. A joint must be waterproof at all times: if water enters through a joint, the softening and
weakening of the subgrade will take place. If the underlying soil is clayey, then pumping
may be promoted. It is important to use long-life sealing compounds in the joints.
2. Free movement of the slabs must be permitted at all times: Expansion joints must not be
filled by grit and other such foreign matter which might prevent the expansion of the
concrete. The sealing compound should be carefully selected and poured.
3. Joints should not detract from the riding quality of a roadway: There must be no
excessive relative deflections of adjacent concrete slabs. Also, the sealing material
should not be squeezed above the level of the road surface which may form irritating
transverse ridges.
4. A joint should not be the cause of an unexpected undesigned structural weakness in a
pavement: This is achieved by ensuring that:
i) transverse joints on either side of a longitudinal joint are not staggered from each
other, as transverse cracks will be induced in the slabs in line with the staggered
joints.
ii) No joint should be constructed at an angle of less than 90º to an adjacent joint or
edge of slab unless it is an intentional part of the design.
5. Joints should interfere as little as possible with the placing of the concrete pavement:
This is achieved by having as few joints as possible.

4.4.1.3 Functions and types of joint

Expansion joints
These are primarily designed to provide space into which expansion of concrete slabs can take
place when the temperature rises above that at which the concrete is laid. They prevent the
development of high compressive stresses as well as buckling of the slab. As well as being used
between slabs, they are also used at locations where pavements join fixed structures such as
bridge abutments or at intersections with other pavements. Expansion joints also serve as
contraction joints, warping joints and construction joints.
For both reinforced and unreinforced concrete slabs, expansion joints can be replaced by
contraction joints if construction takes place in hot weather.
Expansion joints are normally used transversely in a pavement. They are formed by embedding
in the concrete a vertical layer of non-extruding compressible material, (usually 12.5 to 25 mm
thick) so that there is a complete division between abutting slabs.
Mechanical load-transfer devices (dowels) are desirable at all expansion joints. The dowel is
simply a round steel bar, one-half of which is anchored in either slab while the other half is free
to move longitudinally within the adjacent slab. Longitudinal movement is ensured by coating
the free-end half of the dowel with a rapid-curing bituminous material and having it terminate in
an expansion cup containing a compressible material.

Contraction joints
These are to limit tensile stresses induced in the pavement due to contraction or shrinkage of the
concrete and to prevent or control cracking. They are also constructed transverse to the road
centre-line. They are also to be provided with load-transfer devices (dowel bars). When the
pavement is reinforced, the mesh is not carried through the joints. The reinforcing is used to
control cracking between the contraction joints.
There are two main types of contraction joints: butt joints and dummy joints. Butt joints are
normally used on road schemes which utilize the alternate-bay method of slab construction.
Dummy joints are a deliberate groove which is placed in a slab in order to form a vertical plane
of weakness and thus induce a controlled crack. Dummy joints may also be constructed by
sawing the concrete after it has slightly hardened.

Warping joints
Also known as hinge joints, warping joints are simply breaks in the continuity of the concrete
which allow a small amount of angular movement to occur between adjacent slabs, thus limiting
the stresses due to restrained warping. Their main usage is for longitudinal jointing purposes,
though they may also be used as transverse joints. Longitudinal joints are used in highway
pavements to relieve curling and warping. In one lane-at-a-time construction, the longitudinal
joints are used to ensure load transfer and the pavements are tied together with tie bars.
In contrast to expansion and contraction joints, appreciable changes in joint width are prevented
at warping joints. This is done by either continuing the reinforcing steel through each joint or by
utilizing tie bars to draw the sides of the joint together.
Dummy warping joints are the same as dummy contraction joints except that the tie bars are not
lubricated to allow sliding to occur. The tie bars do not act as load-transfer devices but only to
bond both slabs together. Load transference is provided by the interlocking of the aggregate
particles at the face of the joints. In the tongue-and-groove type of warping joint, the slabs are
held together by the tie bars and load transference is provided by the tongue-and-groove
interlock.

Construction joints
These are needed when fresh concrete mixes are placed next to hardened concrete. Examples are
night joints transversely across the pavement at the end of a day’s job, or longitudinal lane joints
or edge joints when full width is not placed in the same pass.

Figure 6.8 Detail of joints

Dowels
Dowel bars are to be plain steel bars with yield strength not less than 240 MPa and 500 mm long.
Dowels should strength with one end free from burrs. Appropriate dowel diameter, for slab
thickness of 200 – 250, is 25 mm.
Dowels at a spacing of 300 mm should be installed at transverse contraction joints where
appropriate. Dowels must be securely held parallel to each other, to the road centerline and to the
centerline of the surface of the finished pavement.

Tie Bars
Tie bars prevent separating of the pavement at longitudinal joints. Ties bars are to be 16 mm
diameter, 500 mm long and have yield strength of 400 MPa. Place centrally in the joint at
spacing 600 mm.

4.5 Road Note 29 (RN 29) Design of Concrete Pavements

4.5.1 Traffic Analysis
The traffic analysis of the cumulative number of standard axles to be carried in the design lane of
the pavement is estimated as described earlier.

4.5.2 Thickness Design

For design of concrete pavement, the subgrade, the subbase and the concrete slab are each
considered in turn.

Subgrade
Road Note 29 categorized the subgrade based on its qualities in to three groups as given in Table
6.10. As in design of flexible pavements, Road Note 29 recommended that the water table should
be prevented from rising to within 600 mm of the finished subgrade level. This may be done by
sub-soil drainage or by raising the finished subgrade level by means of an embankment.

Subbase
The minimum thickness of subbase recommended for the three types of subgrade is also given in
Table 6.10.
Where heavy construction vehicles have to operate over the prepared sub-base laid on weak or
normal subgrades only, the sub-base should be strengthened as follows:
CBR  4%: Additional 150 mm of sub-base
CBR  4%: Additional 80 mm of sub-base

Table 6.10: Classification of subgrades for concrete roads and minimum thicknesses of
subbase required as recommended by Road Note 29
4.5.3 Concrete slab
The required thickness for reinforced and unreinforced concrete slab in terms of the cumulative
number of standard axles to be carried for the three types of subgrades is determined by the chart
shown in Fig 6.7. The designs given by this chart are based on a minimum compressive strength
for concrete of 28 MPa at 28 days.
Figure 6.7: Thickness of concrete slab as recommended by Road Note 29
The cumulative number of standard axles to be carried by each slow lane of the pavement is
estimated from the initial commercial traffic, growth rate and design life, using the method as for
flexible pavements.

4.6 Reinforcement
The minimum weight of reinforcement required in relation to the cumulative no. of standard
axles is given in a chart in terms of weight of long mesh reinforcement and area of steel per unit
width of pavement.
(i) The reinforcement should have 60 mm cover. This could be reduced to 50 mm if
slab thickness  150 mm
(ii) The reinforcement should terminate at least 40 mm and not more than 80 mm
from the edge of the slab and from all joints except longitudinal joints.
(iii) At the transverse overlap of reinforcing mats the first transverse wire of one mat
should lie within the last complete mesh of the previous mat and the overlap
should not be less than 450 mm. No overlap will be needed longitudinally
between mats.
(iv) When deformed bar reinforcement is used, the transverse overlap of the bars
should not be less than 40 bar diameters.
(v) To span longitudinal joints (when constructing a two-or three-lane carriageway
widths in one operation), reinforcing mats having 8 mm diameter at 200 mm
centres may be used in place of tie bars. The 8 mm wires must span at least 500
mm either side of the longitudinal joints.
4.6.1 Reinforcement design procedure
The purpose of reinforcing steel in rigid pavements is not to prevent cracking of the concrete, but
to hold tightly closed any cracks that do occur in such manner that the load carrying capacity of
the slab is preserved.
In jointed pavements the amount of steel is governed by the spacing of contraction joints. In case
of continuously reinforced pavements, sufficient steel is provided to eliminate the need for
contraction joints.

Reinforcement in Jointed Reinforced Pavements

The required area of reinforcing steel in jointed reinforced pavements is given by the equation:
where, As = the required area of steel (per width of slab)
fs = the allowable tensile stress of the reinforcing steel.
g = the acceleration due to gravity
h = thickness of slab
L = the distance between untied joints and/or free edge of slab
M = the mass per unit volume of the slab
μ = the coefficient of friction between the concrete base slab and the subbase; this varies from
1.0 to 2.0 depending on the type of debonding layer applied to the subbase.

Joints
(a) Spacing of joints in reinforced concrete slabs:
The recommended maximum spacing of joints in relation to the actual weight of reinforcement
used is shown in one of the charts. Every third joint should be an expansion joint, the
remainder being contraction joints. Reinforcement must be discontinuous at both contraction
and expansion joints.
Longitudinal joints should be provided to ensure that the slabs are not more than 4.5m wide.
(b) Spacing of joints in unreinforced concrete slabs:
For slabs > 200 mm thick, Expansion joint spacing = 60m
For slabs < 200 mm thick, Expansion joint spacing = 40m
Intermediate contraction joints are then placed at 5m intervals.
Tied warping joints may be substituted for some of the sliding contraction joints, but not
more than three such warping joints may be used in succession.
Longitudinal joints should be provided so that the slabs are not more than 4.5 m wide.
(c) Details of joints in concrete slabs:
(i) Expansion joints to be provided with joint filler 25 mm thick.
(ii) All joints should be provided with a groove to accommodate a sealing material
the most important function of which is to keep out grit, the groove being filled
with sealing compound to 5 mm below the surface of the concrete.
(iii) To ensure complete formation of contraction and longitudinal joints, the
combined depth of groove and fillet should be ¼ to 1/3 of the thickness of the
slab.
(iv) Adequate means of load transference should be provided at all joints in concrete
pavements of 150 mm or greater thickness. All expansion and contraction joints
should have sliding dowel bars placed at 300 mm centres and half the length of
the bars should be coated with a bond-breaking compound. The bars in expansion
 joints only should be provided with a cap at the debonded end, containing a
thickness of 25 mm of compressible material to allow the joint to open and close.
(v) Longitudinal joints should have tie bars 12 mm in diameter by 1m long at 600
mm centres.

Examples
1. Reinforced concrete slab
A reinforced concrete pavement design is required for a road to carry 2200 commercial vehicles
per day (sum in both directions) at the time of construction with a growth rate of 5%. The
subgrade has a CBR of 2%. Construction traffic will require to use the base. The design life is
to be 20 years.
Solution
(a) Traffic
ADT = 1100 comm. vehs. per day in each direction
r = 5%
Cumulative no. of comm. vehs. = 12.5 million
Cum. no. of std. axles = 12.5 x 1.08 = 13.5 million
(b) Subgrade
CBR = 2%
Classified as “weak”.
(c) Sub-base
Minimum requirement = 150 mm
Additional requirement for construction traffic = 150 mm
Total sub-base thickness = 300 mm
(d) Slab thickness
For weak subgrade, thickness = 222 + 25 = 247 mm for a loading of 13.5 mil. standard
axles
This is rounded upwards to 250 mm
(e) Reinforcement
Min. wt of reinforcement required for the traffic = 3.8 kg/m2
Next standard wt. of reinforcement = 4.34 kg/m2 (selected)
(f) Joint spacing
Corresponding to 4.34 kg/m2 reinforcement, joint spacing = 27.5m
Expansion joints are built at spacings of 3 x 27.5 = 82.5m.
Contraction joints will be two in between at 27.5m spacing.
If constructed in hot weather, the expansion joints may also be replaced with contraction
joints.

2. Plain concrete slab

A design is required for an unreinforced concrete pavement to be constructed with gravel
aggregate, suitable for a minor through road in a residential area. The road width is 7m and it is
to carry no public service vehicle. The soil CBR is 7%, and the pavement is intended to be used
by traffic bringing in materials for the construction of an estate of several hundred houses. The
design should cater for a life of 40 years.
Solution
(a) Traffic
Reference to tables indicate 0.4 mil. commercial vehicles on each lane during a design
life of 40 years.
Conversion factor for this type of road = 0.45
Cumulative no. of std. axles = 0.4 x 0.45 = 0.18 million
(b) Subgrade
CBR = 7%
Classified as “normal”
(c) Sub-base
Min. requirement = 80 mm
No construction traffic. No additional requirement
(d) Slab thickness
Required slab thickness = 160 mm
This is increased to 180 mm because of the initial use of the pavement by heavy traffic
concerned with the surrounding development.
(e) Joint spacing
Spacing of contraction joints = 5m
 Spacing of expansion joints = 40m (if constructed in cold weather).

Example
The following parameters were given for the design of a four lane highway:
Average daily traffic in one direction = 7429 vehicles
Percent of commercial vehicles = 28.32%
Annual growth rate = 5%
Equivalent factor for commercial vehicles = 0.45
Design the joint plain unreinforced pavement using the Road Note 29 method. Assume the
average number of standard axle per commercial vehicle = 1

Solution
Number of commercial vehicle in the design lane per day = 7429 × 0.2832 × 0.45
= 946 vehicles
Number of commercial vehicle in the design lane per year = 946 × 365 = 345290 vehicles
Number of commercial vehicles during the design period is calculated as follows:

=
= 11417359.14
= 11.4 × 106