BASIC CONCEPTS OF

GRAPH THEORY
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Undirected graph
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

The vertices of a graph

vertex set V, α0 := |V |
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

The edges of a graph

edge set E, α1 := |E|, −→ Graph G = (V, E)

|E|
density ε(G) = |V |
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Special edges: loops and multiple edges

Graphs without loops and multiple edges: simple graphs

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Adjacency and incidence

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

A vertex v and the set of its neighbours Γ(v)

d(v) = dG(v) = |Γ(v)| = the degree of v

δ(G) = minv∈V d(v), ∆(G) = maxv∈V d(v)

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Directed case: successors Γ+(v) and predecessors Γ−(v)

d+(v) = |Γ+(v)| and d−(v) = |Γ−(v)|: out-degree and indegree of v,
respectively.
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Directed case: successors Γ+(v) and predecessors Γ−(v)

d+(v) = |Γ+(v)| and d−(v) = |Γ−(v)|: out-degree and indegree of v,
respectively.

Theorem (Handshaking lemma)

d+(x) = d−(x) = |E(G)|

X X X
d(x) = 2|E(G)|, directed case:
x∈V (G) x∈V (G) x∈V (G)
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Example: Hypercube

G = ({0, 1}n, E)

For v = v1v2 · · · vn and w = w1w2 · · · wn we stipulate

n
X
vw ∈ E :⇐⇒ |vi − wi| = 1.
i=1
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Example: Hypercube

G = ({0, 1}n, E)

For v = v1v2 · · · vn and w = w1w2 · · · wn we stipulate

n
X
vw ∈ E :⇐⇒ |vi − wi| = 1.
i=1

Then, for all x ∈ V we have d(x) = n and |V | = 2n.

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Example: Hypercube

G = ({0, 1}n, E)

For v = v1v2 · · · vn and w = w1w2 · · · wn we stipulate

n
X
vw ∈ E :⇐⇒ |vi − wi| = 1.
i=1

Then, for all x ∈ V we have d(x) = n and |V | = 2n.

So,
1 X 1 X 1
|E| = d(x) = n = · n2n = n2n−1
2 x∈V 2 x∈V 2
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

A graph G and one of its subgraphs, G0

G0 = (V 0, E 0), V 0 ⊆ V, E0 ⊆ E
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Induced subgraphs of G = (V, E): G[V0] determined by its vertex set

V0 ⊆ V

edge set of G[V0] maximal w.r.t. inclusion

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

sequences of edges with “no jumps” = walks

3
4 7 2
5 6
1

trails: no edge repetition allowed

paths: no edge and no vertex repetition allowed

(actually, paths are particular subgraphs)
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Particular walks: cylces (no edge and no vertex repetition allowed)

(actually, cycles are particular subgraphs)

circuits (tours): no edge repetition, but vertex repetition allowed,

(circuits are therefore closed trails, but can also be seen as subgraphs)
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Theorem If there is a walk from v to w, then there is a path from v

to w as well.

Theorem If in an undirected graph there exist two different paths

from v to w, then there is a cycle (of positive length).
If in a directed graph there exists a closed walk, then there is a
cycle (of positive length).
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

The adjacency matrix of G = (V, E):


1, if (vi, vj ) ∈ E,
V = {v1 . . . , vn}, A = (aij )i,j=1,...,n with aij =
0 else.

2 5 8
4 6  
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
 
1 7
3 
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

 
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
A=
 
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

 
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
 
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

The adjacency matrix of G = (V, E):


1, if (vi, vj ) ∈ E,
V = {v1 . . . , vn}, A = (aij )i,j=1,...,n with aij =
0 else.

2 5 8
4 6  
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
 
1 7
3 
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

 
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
A=
 
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

 
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
 
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
n
X n
X
We have: d(vi) = aij = aji
j=1 j=1
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Theorem Let G = (V, E) be an undirected graph and v ∼ w by defi-

nition if and only if there exists a (possibly empty) walk from v to w.
Then ∼ is an equivalence relation.

Theorem Let G = (V, E) be a directed graph and v ∼ w by definition

if and only if there exists a (possibly empty) walk from v to w and
likewise a (possibly empty) walk from w to v. Then ∼ is an equivalence
relation.

Matrix of the relation ∼ (undirected case): Let G = (V, E) be undi-

rected with |V | = n and |E| = m.

M = (mi,j )i,j=1,...,n, where mi,j = sgn(ci,j )

and
min(m,n−1)
Ak .
X
C=
k=0
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

connected graph

not connected graph

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

A weakly, but not strongly connected graph

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

The strongly connected components

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Reduction GR = (VR , ER ): VR = { strongly connected components },

ER : directions given by G = (V, E).
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

A vertex basis of a directed graph G = (V, E) is a set B ⊆ V such that

• For all x ∈ V there is a vertex y ∈ B such that there exists a (di-

rected) path y x

• B is minimal with that property, i.e. for all B 0 $ B there is an x ∈ V

such that for all y ∈ B 0 there is no (directed) path y x.
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

A vertex basis of a directed graph G = (V, E) is a set B ⊆ V such that

• For all x ∈ V there is a vertex y ∈ B such that there exists a (di-

rected) path y x

• B is minimal with that property, i.e. for all B 0 $ B there is an x ∈ V

such that for all y ∈ B 0 there is no (directed) path y x.

Remarks:
• The reduction GR of a graph G = (V, E) is always acyclic.

• The reduction GR of a graph G = (V, E) has a unique vertex basis,

namely
B = {x ∈ GR | d−(x) = 0}

• The vertex bases of G constructible from the vertex basis of GR .

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Trees and Forests

A simple undirected graph without cycles of positive length is called

forest.

A connected forest is called tree.

Theorem In a tree T = (V, E) any two vertices v, w ∈ V are connected

by a unique path W (v, w).

The length of W (v, w) is denoted by dT (v, w) and called the distance

between v and w
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Particular classes of trees: rooted trees, plane rooted trees, binary

trees, . . .
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

A vertex v with d(v) = 1 is called a leaf.

Theorem A tree with at least two vertices has at least two leaves.

Proof: Consider a path

v − v1 − v2 − v3 − · · · · · · − vk − w
of maximal length. Then v and w must be leaves.
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Theorem Let T = (V, E). Then the following statements are equiv-
alent:

1. T is a tree.

2. For all v, w ∈ V (T ) there is a unique path from v to w.

3. T is connected and |V | = |E| + 1.

4. T is a minimal connected graph (every edge is a bridge)

5. T is a maximal acyclic graph.

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

Proof: (1)=⇒(3), that is

“If T = (V, E) is a tree, then it is connected and satisfies |V | = |E|+1.”

We prove the state by induction on n = α0(T ) = |V (T )|.

Induction start: α0(T ) = 1, α1(T ) = |E(T )| = 0.

Now consider a tree T = (V, E) with n + 1 vertices. Then there is a

leaf v and let e be the edge incident to v. Let T 0 = (V \ {v}, E \ {e}).

As α0(T 0) = n, we can apply the induction hypothesis to T 0.

Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

(3)=⇒(1), that is

“T = (V, E) connected and |V | = |E| + 1 =⇒ T is a tree.”

Set n = |V |.
If T has no cycle, we are done.

If T has a cycle, then remove an edge from the cycle. −→ graph T 0.

T 0 is connected and cycle-free and has n − 2 edges.

But every connected graph on n vertices has at least n − 1 edges

(proof by induction)
Basic Concepts of Graph Theory

A spanning tree of a connected graph G = (V, E) is a subgraph T of

G such that T is a tree, V (T ) = V (G), E(T ) ⊆ E(G).

A spanning forest of a graph G = (V, E) is a subgraph F of G such that

F is a forest, V (F ) = V (G), E(F ) ⊆ E(G), each connected component
of F is a spanning tree of a connected component of G.

Remark: If a subgraph H of G satisfies V (H) = V (G), then it is called

a spanning subgraph.

Theorem Every connected graph contains a spanning tree.