NOTES BY Nimisha J Chennakadan : environmental biotechnology

Unit 3: PART 3
composting process and techniques, use of composted materials. Microorganisms & Agriculture –
Microorganisms in Agricultural waste-water treatment, Vermiculture, Microbial pesticides.

Composting is the natural process of turning organic matter in waste into a beneficial fertilizer that can benefit
both soil and plants. Composting converts organic waste such as food waste, manure, leaves, grass trimmings,
paper, wood, feathers, agricultural residue, etc. into beneficial organic fertilizer by using various
microorganisms such as bacteria and fungus. Farmers can use this to increase their harvests.
• Composting is a biological process that allows the organic element of waste to decay under carefully
controlled conditions.
• The organic waste material is decomposed by microbes, which reduces its volume by up to 50%.
• Compost or humus is the name for this stabilized product. It has the texture and odor of potting soil
and can be used as a soil conditioner or mulch.
• Composting allows for the simultaneous digestion and recycling of waste and sewage sludge.
• Composting is projected to become increasingly popular as more rigorous environmental
regulations and site constraints limit the use of solid-waste incineration and landfill options.
• Sorting and segregating the waste, size reduction, and waste digestion are all processes in the process.

Compostable Wastes
• Compostable materials include anything that can be consumed or cultivated in a field or garden.
• Compostable materials include fruits, vegetables, dairy products, cereals, bread, unbleached paper
napkins, coffee filters, eggshells, meats, and newspapers.
• Plastics, grease, glass, and metals, such as plastic utensils, condiment packages, plastic wrap, plastic
bags, foil, silverware, drinking straws, bottles, polystyrene, and chemicals, cannot be composted.
• Red meat, bones, and small bits of paper can be composed, but they decompose more slowly.

Composting - Phases
Composting goes through three main phases under optimal conditions:
• Mesophilic Phase: It is an initial phase where mesophilic bacteria such as Listeria
monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli decompose the material at
moderate temperatures.
• Thermophilic Phase: As the temperature rises, a second, thermophilic phase begins, in which
diverse thermophilic bacteria such as lactobacilli, Streptococcus thermophilus and bifidobacteria
carry out breakdown at higher temperatures (50 to 60 °C).
• Maturation Phase: In the maturation phase, when the supply of high-energy molecules diminishes,
the temperature begins to drop, and mesophilic bacteria once again take the lead.

Composting Procedures Involved

Sorting And Shredding
• Sorting and separating procedures isolate decomposable materials from glass, metal, and other
inorganic components in trash.
• These are done mechanically, based on variances in the refuse's physical features such size, density,
and magnetic properties.
 • The size of the waste items is reduced by shredding or crushing, resulting in a homogenous mass of
material.
• Hammer mills and rotary shredders are used to accomplish this.

Digesting and Processing

• Composting crushed waste can be done in an open windrow or in an enclosed mechanical facility.
Windrows are long, low rubbish heaps.
• Every few days, they are flipped or stirred to allow air to reach the bacteria that are digesting the
organics.
• It may take five to eight weeks for the waste to be completely digested, depending on moisture
conditions.
• Temperatures in an active compost pile reach around 65 °C (150 °F) due to the metabolic action of
aerobic bacteria, destroying harmful organisms that may be present in the waste material.

Composting - Various Methods

• Passive Composting or Piling: Simply stacking the materials and allowing them to degrade naturally is
passive composting or piling. This process is simple and inexpensive, but it is slow and may produce
unpleasant odors.
• Aerated Static Piles: Air is added to the stacked pile via perforated pipes and blowers in aerated static
piles. This approach does not involve any labor to change the compost, but it is weather-dependent and
can result in unpredictable pathogen elimination due to poor mixing.
➢ Windrows: Windrows are long, narrow piles that are turned when temperature and oxygen
requirements dictate. This process generates a consistent output that can be remotely tracked .
Turning the compost, on the other hand, might be time-consuming or expensive.
Windrows are commonly utilized for huge volumes that take up a lot of space.
Windrows can also cause odor issues and leachate concerns if they are exposed to rain.

➢ Bins: Small amounts of food waste are usually composed in bins. Bins with wire mesh or
wooden frames allow for adequate air circulation and require little labor.
Three chamber bins speed up compost output by allowing for different stages of decomposition.

A Three - Chamber Bin

In-vessel System: In-vessel systems, which use perforated barrels, drums, or specifically
manufactured containers, are easy to use, turn, require little effort.
• They are not weather sensitive, and can be used in urban and public settings.
• The initial investment can be expensive, yet handling volumes are usually minimal.
 Vermicomposting: Vermicomposting involves feeding food waste to worms and then using the worm
castings as high-quality compost. Containers, bins, and greenhouses are commonly used for this.
• 1 pound of worms can eat 4 pounds of garbage every week on average. This kind of composting is
used in many schools as an environmental education tool.

Composting - Advantages
• Reduction in Methane: Methane, a strong greenhouse gas, is produced by organic waste in landfills.
Methane emissions are considerably decreased when discarded food and other organics are
composted.
• Reduction in Chemical Fertilizers: Chemical fertilizers are reduced, and in some cases eliminated,
by compost.
• Boosts Crop Yields: Compost encourages agricultural crop yields to increase.
• Aids in Rejuvenation: By rehabilitating contaminated, compacted, and marginal soils, compost can
help with reforestation, wetlands restoration, and habitat rejuvenation projects.
• Rehabilitate Soils: Compost can be used to rehabilitate soils that have been contaminated by
hazardous waste at a low cost.
• Money Saver: Wherever applicable, compost can save money over traditional soil, water, and air
pollution remediation solutions.
• Improves Moisture Dispersion: Compost assists with water absorption and penetration into the soil
by reducing soil crusting. According to new research, adding compost to sandy soils can help with
moisture dispersion by allowing water to travel laterally from its place of application.
• Aids Carbon Sequestration: When compost is added to the soil, the soil's health improves as
microbes multiply and become more abundant. From photosynthesis, these microorganisms sequester
carbon in the soil. Thus carbon sequestration is a great benefit of compost.
Composting - Challenges
• Availability: This compost's availability is solely dependent on suitable distribution systems, which
are now lacking in India.
• Functions of Government Schemes: Because of its administrative complexity, government schemes
for composite have not functioned well.
• Great Volume: Compost's great volume but low value makes it less appealing to fertilizer marketing
businesses to promote its use.
• Compliance With Government’s Requirement: Compost producers are finding it more difficult to
meet the Fertiliser Control Order's quality requirements (FCO).

use of composted materials

1. Soil Amendment: Compost improves soil structure, enhances moisture retention, and provides essential
nutrients, creating an optimal environment for plant growth. It also increases microbial activity, which
helps in nutrient cycling and disease suppression.
2. Mulching: When used as mulch, compost conserves soil moisture, regulates soil temperature, and
suppresses weed growth. It acts as a protective layer, reducing evaporation and preventing soil erosion.
3. Fertilizer: Compost serves as an organic fertilizer, offering a slow-release source of nutrients. Compost
tea, a liquid extract, can be used to provide immediate nutrient boosts and enhance plant resistance to
pests and diseases.
4. Landscaping and Gardening: Compost is ideal for improving lawns, garden beds, and potted plants. It
enriches the soil, promotes healthy plant growth, and reduces the need for chemical inputs in residential
and commercial landscaping projects.
5. Erosion Control and Land Reclamation : Compost stabilizes soil on slopes and degraded lands, aiding
in erosion control and land reclamation. It supports vegetation growth, which further stabilizes and
restores soil health and structure.
6. Environmental Applications: Compost is used in bioremediation to clean contaminated soils and in
wetland restoration projects to improve soil quality and support native vegetation, thereby enhancing
ecosystem health and biodiversity.
7. Agricultural Uses: In agriculture, compost enhances soil fertility and crop yields while reducing
dependency on chemical fertilizers. It is a key component of sustainable and organic farming practices,
promoting long-term soil health.
8. Compost Blends and Products: Commercial compost products are tailored for specific gardening
needs, and compost is a vital ingredient in various soil mixes used for horticultural purposes, ensuring a
balanced and nutrient-rich growing medium

Vermiculture: Definition and Detailed Explanation

vermiculture is the practice of breeding and raising earthworms for various purposes, primarily for the
production of vermicompost, which is a nutrient-rich organic fertilizer. This practice harnesses the natural
processes of earthworms to convert organic waste materials into valuable compost, thereby promoting
sustainable waste management and soil enhancement.

Vermiculture is a sustainable and effective method

of converting organic waste into nutrient-rich
compost through the natural processes of
earthworms. By understanding the characteristics of
different worm species, the process of vermiculture,
and its importance, individuals and communities can
utilize this practice to promote waste reduction,
enhance soil fertility, and support sustainable
agricultural practices. However, it's essential to
consider the limitations and requirements involved to
ensure successful implementation.

How to Multiply Earthworms in Large Scale?

The best method used by farmers to multiply the earthworms is by mixing more amount of biodegradable
wastes, including plant materials, dried leaves and cow dung in a proportion of 1:1. Once the medium is
done, around 40-50 earthworms species are released into the medium and protected it from the sun, rain and
other prey. Regular maintenance is required, keep a check on the moisture level by sprinkling water over it
on a timely basis. Within a timeframe of one to two months, the earthworms would multiply by 300 times
relying on this process alone. Thus, the new earthworms would assist us in preparing the vermicompost.
Earthworms Used in Vermiculture

Several species of earthworms are used in vermiculture, with the most common being:

1. Eisenia fetida (Red Wigglers): These worms are small, typically measuring 3 to 4 inches long, and are
known for their reddish-brown color. Red wigglers thrive in compost and organic waste environments,
making them ideal for vermicomposting. They can consume their weight in organic matter daily and
reproduce rapidly, producing cocoons that hatch into young worms in about 2 to 3 weeks.
2. Lumbricus terrestris (Common Earthworm or Nightcrawler): This species is larger, reaching lengths
of up to 8 inches or more. Nightcrawlers are found in soil and are excellent at aerating it. However, they
are not as efficient at breaking down organic matter in a composting environment compared to red
wigglers, as they prefer to live in the soil rather than in decaying organic materials.

Types of Earthworms

1. Epigeic Earthworms: These worms live in the upper layers of the soil and leaf litter, feeding on
decomposing organic matter. They are primarily used in vermiculture due to their ability to thrive in
composting conditions. Example: Eisenia fetida.
2. Endogeic Earthworms: These species burrow deeper into the soil and feed on soil organic matter. They
help in soil aeration and nutrient cycling but are less commonly used for vermiculture. Example:
Aporrectodea caliginosa.
3. Anecic Earthworms: Anecic worms create deep vertical burrows and feed on organic matter found at
the surface. They play a significant role in soil structure but are not ideal for vermiculture due to their
soil-dwelling habits. Example: Lumbricus terrestris.

Process of Vermiculture

1. Setting Up the Vermicomposting System:

o Container Selection: Choose a suitable container, such as a plastic bin, wooden box, or commercial
worm bin, with adequate drainage and ventilation.
o Bedding Preparation: Fill the container with a bedding material, such as shredded newspaper,
cardboard, coconut coir, or aged compost, to provide a habitat for the worms.
2. Adding Worms:
o Introduce the selected earthworm species (e.g., red wigglers) to the bedding material. A common
recommendation is to use about 1 pound of worms for every square foot of surface area in the bin.
3. Feeding the Worms:
o Provide organic waste as food, such as fruit and vegetable scraps, coffee grounds, crushed eggshells,
and garden waste. Avoid meat, dairy, and oily foods, which can create odors and attract pests.
4. Maintaining Conditions:
o Monitor the moisture level in the bin, ensuring it remains damp but not soggy. The ideal temperature
for worms is between 15-25°C (59-77°F). Regularly check for signs of pests or odor and adjust
feeding and moisture levels accordingly.
5. Harvesting Vermicompost:
o After a few months, when the bedding material is transformed into dark, crumbly vermicompost, it
can be harvested. This process can be done by separating the worms from the compost using
techniques such as light exposure or through the use of screens.
Importance of Vermiculture

1. Waste Management
2. Nutrient-Rich Fertilizer
3. Soil Improvement
4. Sustainable Agriculture
5. Education and Awareness

Limitations of Vermiculture

1. Temperature Sensitivity: Earthworms are sensitive to extreme temperatures. High heat can cause stress
or death, while cold conditions can slow down their activity and reproduction.
2. Moisture Management: Maintaining proper moisture levels is crucial; too much moisture can lead to
anaerobic conditions and foul odors, while too little can dry out the worms.
3. Limited Waste Types: Not all organic waste is suitable for vermiculture. Avoidance of certain materials
(meat, dairy, oily foods) limits the types of waste that can be processed.
4. Initial Setup Costs: While vermiculture can be low-cost, setting up a proper system with adequate
containers and bedding can involve initial investments that may deter some individuals.
5. Space Requirements: Vermiculture requires space for bins and composting systems, which may not be
feasible for urban dwellers with limited outdoor areas.

Microbial pesticides
Microbial pesticides are a type of biopesticide that use microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, or
protozoans to control pest populations. They are considered environmentally friendly alternatives to chemical
pesticides because they are often highly specific to the target pests and are less likely to harm non-target
species, including humans, animals, and beneficial insects.
Types of Microbial Pesticides
1. Bacterial Pesticides: The most common type of microbial pesticides. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a well-
known example. Bt produces toxins that are harmful to certain insects when ingested.
2. Fungal Pesticides: These involve fungi that infect and kill pests. Examples include Beauveria bassiana
and Metarhizium anisopliae, which target a variety of insects.
3. Viral Pesticides: These use viruses that specifically infect and kill insects. An example is the NPV
(Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus), which is used against caterpillar pests.
4. Protozoan Pesticides: These are less common but can be effective against specific pests. Nosema locustae
is used to control grasshoppers.
Benefits of Microbial Pesticides
1. Environmental Safety: They are generally safer for the environment compared to chemical pesticides.
2. Specificity: Target-specific action reduces the risk of harming non-target organisms.
3. Reduced Resistance: Pests are less likely to develop resistance to microbial pesticides compared to
chemical ones.
4. Sustainability: They can be a key component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs, promoting
sustainable agriculture.
Challenges and Considerations
1. Stability and Shelf Life: Microbial pesticides can have shorter shelf lives and may be less stable under
certain environmental conditions.
2. Production and Formulation: Producing and formulating these pesticides to ensure their effectiveness
and ease of use can be challenging.
3. Regulation and Acceptance: Regulatory hurdles and market acceptance can be barriers to widespread
use.
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