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Handbook of
Item Response Theory
VOLUME THREE
Applications
Handbook of Item Response Theory, Three-Volume Set
Handbook of
Item Response Theory
VOLUME THREE
Applications
Edited by
Wim J. van der Linden
Pacific Metrics
Monterey, California
Contents
1. Item-Calibration Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Martijn P. F. Berger
2. Parameter Linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Wim J. van der Linden and Michelle D. Barrett
3. Dimensionality Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Robert D. Gibbons and Li Cai
ix
x Contents
21. Bayesian Inference Using Gibbs Sampling (BUGS) for IRT Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
Matthew S. Johnson
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
Contents for Models
1. Introduction
Wim J. van der Linden
3. Rasch Model
Matthias von Davier
xiii
xiv Contents for Models
15. Poisson and Gamma Models for Reading Speed and Error
Margo G. H. Jansen
Index
Contents for Statistical Tools
2. Discrete Distributions
Jodi M. Casabianca and Brian W. Junker
xvii
xviii Contents for Statistical Tools
Index
Preface
Item response theory (IRT) has its origins in pioneering work by Louis Thurstone in the
1920s, a handful of authors such as Lawley, Mosier, and Richardson in the 1940s, and more
decisive work by Alan Birnbaum, Frederic Lord, and George Rasch in the 1950s and 1960s.
The major breakthrough it presents is the solution to one of the fundamental flaws inherent
in classical test theory—its systematic confounding of what we measure with the test items
used to measure it.
Test administrations are observational studies, in which test takers receive a set of items
and we observe their responses. The responses are the joint effects of both the properties
of the items and abilities of the test takers. As in any other observational study, it would
be a methodological error to attribute the effects to one of these underlying causal factors
only. Nevertheless, it seems as if we are forced to do so. If new items are field tested, the
interest is exclusively in their properties, and any confounding with the abilities of the
largely arbitrary selection of test takers used in the study would bias our inferences about
them. Likewise, if examinees are tested, the interest is only in their abilities and we do not
want their scores to be biased by the incidental properties of the items. Classical test theory
does create such biases. For instance, it treats the p-values of the items as their difficulty
parameters, but these values equally depend on the abilities of the sample of test takers
used in the field test. In spite of the terminology, the same holds for its item-discrimination
parameters and definition of test reliability. On the other hand, the number-correct scores
typically used in classical test theory are scores equally indicative of the difficulty of the
test as the abilities of test takers. In fact, the tradition of indexing such parameters and
scores by the items or test takers only systematically hides this confounding.
IRT solves the problem by recognizing each response as the outcome of a distinct prob-
ability experiment that has to be modeled with separate parameters for the item and test
taker effects. Consequently, its item parameters allow us to correct for item effects when we
estimate the abilities. Likewise, the presence of the ability parameters allows us to correct
for their effects when estimating the item parameter. One of the best introductions to this
change of the paradigm is Rasch (1960, Chapter 1), which is mandatory reading for anyone
with an interest in the subject. The chapter places the new paradigm in the wider context
of the research tradition still found in the behavioral and social sciences with its persistent
interest in vaguely defined “populations” of subjects, who, except for some random noise,
are treated as exchangeable, as well as its use of statistical techniques as correlation coeffi-
cients, analysis of variance, and hypothesis testing that assume “random sampling” from
them.
The developments since the original conceptualization of IRT have remained rapid.
When Ron Hambleton and I edited an earlier handbook of IRT (van der Linden & Ham-
bleton, 1997), we had the impression that its 28 chapters pretty much summarized what
could be said about the subject. But now, nearly two decades later, three volumes with
roughly the same number of chapters each appear to be necessary. And I still feel I have
to apologize to all the researchers and practitioners whose original contributions to the
vast literature on IRT are not included in this new handbook. Not only have the original
models for dichotomous responses been supplemented with numerous models for differ-
ent response formats or response processes, it is now clear, for instance, that models for
response times on test items require the same type of parameterization to account both
xix
xx Preface
for the item and test taker effects. Another major development has been the recognition
of the need of deeper parameterization due to a multilevel or hierarchical structure of
the response data. This development has led to the possibility to introduce explanatory
covariates, group structures with an impact on the item or ability parameters, mixtures
of response processes, higher-level relationships between responses and response times,
or special structures of the item domain, for instance, due to the use of rule-based item
generation. Meanwhile, it has also become clear how to embed IRT in the wider develop-
ment of generalized latent variable modeling. And as a result of all these extensions and
new insights, we are now keener in our choice of treating the model parameter as fixed
or random. Volume One of this handbook covers most of these developments. Each of its
chapters basically reviews one model. However, all chapters have the common format of
an introductory section with some history of the model and a motivation of its relevance,
and then continue with sections that present the model more formally, treat the estimation
of its parameters, show how to evaluate its fit to empirical data, and illustrate the use of the
model through an empirical example. The last section discusses further applications and
remaining research issues.
As any other type of probabilistic modeling, IRT heavily depends on the use of statis-
tical tools for the treatment of its models and their applications. Nevertheless, systematic
introductions and review with an emphasis on their relevance to IRT are hardly found in
the statistical literature. Volume Two is to fill this void. Its chapters are on topics such as
commonly used probability distributions in IRT, the issue of models with both intentional
and nuisance parameters, the use of information criteria, methods for dealing with missing
data, model identification issues, and several topics in parameter estimation and model fit
and comparison. It is especially in these last two areas that recent developments have been
overwhelming. For instance, when the previous handbook of IRT was produced, Bayesian
approaches had already gained some ground but were certainly not common. But thanks
to the computational success of Markov chain Monte Carlo methods, these approaches
have now become standard, especially for the more complex models in the second half of
Volume One.
The chapters of Volume Three review several applications of IRT to the daily practice of
testing. Although each of the chosen topics in the areas of item calibration and analysis,
person fit and scoring, and test design have ample resources in the larger literature on
test theory, the current chapters exclusively highlight the contributions IRT has brought to
them. This volume also offers chapters with reviews of how IRT has advanced areas such
as large-scale educational assessments, psychological testing, cognitive diagnosis, health
measurement, marketing research, or the more general area of measurement of change.
The volume concludes with an extensive review of computer software programs available
for running any of the models and applications in Volumes One and Three.
I expect this Handbook of Item Response Theory to serve as a daily resource of information
to researchers and practitioners in the field of IRT as well as a textbook to novices. To serve
them better, all chapters are self-contained. But their common core of notation and exten-
sive cross-referencing allow readers of one of the chapters to consult others for background
information without much interruption.
I am grateful to all my authors for their belief in this project and the time they have
spent on their chapters. It has been a true privilege to work with each of them. The
same holds for Ron Hambleton who was willing to serve as my sparring partner dur-
ing the conception of the plan for this handbook. John Kimmel, executive editor, statistics,
Preface xxi
Chapman & Hall/CRC has been a permanent source of helpful information during the
production of this book. I thank him for his support as well.
References
Rasch, G. 1960. Probabilistic Models for Some Intelligence and Attainment Tests. Copenhagen, Denmark:
Danish Institute for Educational Research.
van der Linden, W. J. & Hambleton, R. K. (Eds.). 1997. Handbook of Modern Item Response Theory. New
York, NY: Springer.
Contributors
Michelle D. Barrett is senior director of Assessment Technology for Pacific Metrics, an ACT
technology company. She received her PhD from the University of Twente in 2015. While
conducting the research for this volume, Michelle was director of research systems and
analysis for CTB/McGraw-Hill, where she was responsible for developing systems for psy-
chometric analysis, automated test assembly, computer adaptive testing, and automated
scoring. She also previously worked as a senior consultant in the assessment division at the
Colorado Department of Education. Her research interests include response model param-
eter linking, optimal test design and assembly, and computer adaptive testing, and the
practical application of these methods through integration with assessment systems and
platforms.
Peter M. Bentler received his PhD in clinical psychology from Stanford University, spent
a postdoctoral year at the Educational Testing Service, and has been at UCLA for five
decades. A former chair of the Department of Psychology, he is now distinguished pro-
fessor of Psychology and Statistics. He has been an elected president of various societies
including the Psychometric Society and the APA’s Division of Evaluation, Measurement,
and Statistics. He was the 2007 recipient (with Karl Jöreskog) of the American Psycho-
logical Association’s Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award for the Applications of
Psychology and the 2014 recipient of the Psychometric Society’s Career Award for Lifetime
Achievement.
Martijn P. F. Berger received his PhD from Tilburg University, the Netherlands. He was
appointed professor of methodology and statistics at Maastricht University, the Nether-
lands, in 1995. His main research interests concern optimal design problems for generalized
linear mixed models, including IRT, multilevel and random effect models applied to social
and biomedical research. He has published various articles on this area and two books on
applied optimal designs.
Ulf Böckenholt is the John D. Grey professor of marketing at the Kellogg School of Man-
agement. He is a past editor of Psychometrika, a past president of the Psychometric Society,
and a fellow of the Association of Psychological Science. He received his PhD from the
University of Chicago.
xxiii
xxiv Contributors
Seung W. Choi received his PhD in educational psychology from the University of Texas at
Austin in 1996, with specialties in quantitative methods and psychometrics. He is currently
principal research at Pacific Metrics Corporation. Previously, he was chief psychometri-
cian at CTB/McGraw-Hill, held faculty positions at Northwestern University Feinberg
School of Medicine, and was a lead assessment specialist at the Oregon State Department
of Education. His research interests include applications of IRT models, computer adaptive
testing, patient-reported outcomes measurement, and large-scale testing.
Paul De Boeck received his PhD from the KU Leuven (Belgium) in 1977, with a disser-
tation on personality inventory responding. He has held positions at the KU Leuven as
professor of psychological assessment and at the University of Amsterdam (the Nether-
lands) as professor of psychological methods from 2009 to 2012. Since 2012, he is professor
of quantitative psychology at the Ohio State University. He is past section editor of
ARCS Psychometrika and past president of the Psychometric Society (2007–2008). His main
research interests are explanatory item response models and applications in the domain of
psychology and educational measurement.
Gerhard H. Fischer received his PhD in psychology (major) and mathematics (minor) from
the University of Vienna in 1963. From 1961 to 1968, he served in several positions at the
Department of Psychology, University of Vienna, and the Institut für Höhere Studien (IHS),
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