ECE Licensure Exam SYLLABI

SYLLABI FOR THE ELECTRONICS ENGINEER (ECE) LICENSURE EXAMINATION

I. MATHEMATICS - MATH (20%)
1. Algebra & General Mathematics _ Analytical geometry
_ Algebraic functions
_ Theory of equations 3. Trigonometry
_ Factorization and algebraic functions _ Logarithmic principles
_ Ratio, proportion and variation _ Trigonometric functions
_ Matrix theory _ Fundamental trigonometric identities
_ Arithmetic and geometric progressions _ Solutions of right and oblique triangles
_ Equations and inequalities _ Applications of terrestrial mensuration
_ Linear and quadratic equations _ Area, perimeter and centroid of plane figures
_ Complex number system _ Polar coordinates
_ Polynomials _ Spherical trigonometry
_ Mathematical induction
_ Logic and probability 4. Calculus
_ Statistics _ Complex variables
_ Derivatives and applications
2. Geometry _ Integration and applications
_ Lines and planes _ Transcendental functions
_ Plane figures _ Partial derivatives
_ Application of Cavalier’s, Pappus and Prismodial Theorems _ Higher derivatives
_ Coordinates in space _ Indeterminate forms
_ Quadratic surfaces _ Multiple integrals
_ Mensuration _ Differential equations
_ Plane geometry
_ Solid geometry 5. Mathematics Laws, Terms and Theories
_ Spherical geometry _ Laws, theories and other rules relative to the fields of mathematics

II. GENERAL ENGINEERING & APPLIED SCIENCES - GEAS (20%)

1. Engineering Mechanics 9. Laws and Ethics
2. Strength Of Materials _ Contracts and Specifications
3. College Physics _ Telecommunications and broadcasting law and regulations
4. General Chemistry _ Electronics engineering law of 2004
5. Thermodynamics _ Code of professional ethics and conduct
6. Engineering Materials _ Philippine electronics code
7. Engineering Economics _ Code of Technical Standards and Practice
8. Engineering Management (Manual of Practice)
III. ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING - ELEC (30%)
1. Electricity/ Magnetism Fundamentals
_ Atomic structure 6. Tests and Measurements
_ Electric charge _ Volt-ohm-ammeter (analog/digital)
_ Laws (Ohms, Kirchoff, Coulomb, etc) _ R-L-Z bridges
_ Magnetic power _ Oscilloscope
_ Magnetic field/flux _ Cable testers
_ Magnetic/electric quantities/units _ RF meters
_ Magnetic/electromagnet principles _ Signal generators (audio, RF, video)
_ Noise generators
2. Electrical Circuit _ Power/reflectometer/grid dip meter
_ Ac-dc circuits
_ Resistors 7. Microelectronic
_ Inductors _ Integrated circuits components, characteristics and products
_ Capacitor _ Operational amplifiers/multivibrators

3. Solid State Devices/Circuits 8. Industrial Electronics Principles/Applications

_ Semi-conductor fundamentals _ Electronic control system
_ Transistor components, circuits, analysis, and design _ Industrial solid state services
_ Special services (photo, electric, photovoltaic etc.) _ Welding systems/high frequency heating
_ Feedback systems/servomechanism
4. Power Generator/ Sources/ Principles/Applications _ Transducers
_ Cells and batteries _ Motor speed control systems
_ Electric generator _ Robotic principles
_ Electronic power supply _ Bioelectrical principles
_ Voltage regulation _ Instrumentation and control
_ Photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator
_ Distribution transformers 9. Computer Principles
_ UPS/float-battery system _ Analog/digital systems
_ Converters/inverters _ Binary number system/Boolean algebra
_ Mathematical logic and switching networks
5. Electronic (Audio/RF) Circuit/Analysis/Design Cells and batteries _ Basic digital circuits (logic, gates, flip-flops, multivibrators etc.)
_ Amplifiers _ Static and dynamic memory devices
_ Oscillators _ Programming and machine languages
_ Rectifier _ Information and acquisition processing
_ Filters _ Analog/digital conversion
_ Voltage regulation _ Computer networking
IV. ELECTRONICS SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGIES - EST (30%)
1. Radio Communication System
a. Transmission Fundamentals f. Antennas
_ Transmission system _ Basic considerations
_ Transmission medium _ Wire Radiators in Space
_ Primary line constants _ Isotropic Radiator
_ Velocity and line wavelength _ Current and Voltage Distribution
_ Characteristic Impedance _ Resonant, non-resonant antennas
_ Propagation constants _ Terms and definition
_ Phase and group velocity _ Antenna gain and resistance
_ Standing waves _ Bandwidth, beamwidth, polarization
_ Voltage Standing Wave Ratio _ Effects of ground on antennas
_ Telephone lines and cables _ Grounded, ungrounded antennas
_ Wave guides _ Grounding systems
_ Balanced and unbalanced lines _ Antenna height
_ Uniformly distributed lines _ Design and applications
_ Twisted pair wire _ Matching systems
_ Coaxial Cable _ Impedance Calculations
_ The Decibel _ Antenna types
_ Power level Calculations _ Directional and non-directional
_ Signal and Noise Fundamentals _ Microwave Antennas
_ Wideband and Special Purpose Antennas
b. Acoustics
_ Definition g. Wire and Wireless Communications System
_ Frequency range _ The telephone set
_ Sound pressure level _ Connection and performance
_ Sound Intensity _ Exchange Area Plant
_ Loudness Level _ Loop Design
_ Pitch and Frequency _ Trunks in the Exchange Plant
_ Interval and Octave _ Insertion Loss
_ Sound distortion _ Traffic Calculations
_ Room Acoustics _ Reference Equivalent and Standards
_ Electro-Acoustic Transducers _ Telephone networks
_ Signaling, Billing, CAMA, ANI
c. Modulation _ Echo, Singing and Design Loss
_ Amplitude modulation _ Via Net Loss
_ Phase modulation _ Network Hierarchy, Class Type
_ Frequency modulation _ VF Repeaters
_ Pulse modulation _ Transmission Considerations in Long Distance Network
_ Telephone Exchanges
d. Noise _ PSTN, PABX, Line Concentration
_ External noise _ Telephone features-IDD, NDD,LEC
_ Internal noise _ Mobile Communications
_ Noise calculation and measurements _ Cellular communication, trunk radio, radio paging system etc
_ Radio interference
h. Microwave Communications and Principles
e. Radiation and Wave Propagation
_ Electro Magnetic Radiation i. Basic Principles of various electronics systems
_ Radio Spectrum _ Electro-optics, photonics/optoelectronics
_ Wave Propagation _ Electromagnetics
_ Radiation Patterns _ Avionics, aerospace/ navigational and military operations
_ Wavelength calculations _ Medical Electronics
_ Radiation resistance _ Cybernetics
_ Diversity systems _ Biometrics

2. Digital and Data Communications Systems

a. Digital Communication Networks _ Frequency Shift Keying
_ Bit and Binary Transmission _ Phase Shift Keying
_ Signaling Rate _ Differential Phase Shift Keying
_ Error Probability _ DC Nature of Data Transmission
_ Digital Filtering _ Loops
_ Switching _ Neutral and Polar
_ Packet Circuit _ Binary Transmission and the Concept of Time
_ Vertical Circuit _ Asynchronous and Synchronous
_ Open Systems Interconnection _ Timing
_ Multiplexing, Modulation and Synchronization _ Distortion
_ Pulse Code modulation _ Bits, Band, WPM
_ Companding _ Data Interface Standards
_ Encoding _ Data Input/Output Devices
_ Bandwidth and Signal to Noise Ratio _ Digital Transmission on Analog Channel
_ Delta Modulation _ Modulation-Demodulation Schemes Parameters
_ Slope Overload _ Circuit Conditioning
_ Adaptive Delta Modulation _ Modem Applications
_ Codes and Protocols _ Serial and Parallel Transmission
_ Error Detection and Correction Codes
_ Digital Carrier Systems b. Fiber Optics
_ Principles of Light, Transmission _ Types of Satellite
_ Types _ Satellite Orbit
_ Light Sources, Laser, LED _ Uplink Considerations
_ Light Detectors _ Demand Assignment Multiple Access
_ Modulation and Waveform _ Antenna Tracking
_ System Design _ Satellite Link Budgets
_ General Application _ Path Loss
_ Design Procedure _ Figure of Merit
_ Dispersion Limited Domain _ Ratio of Carrier to Thermal Noise Power
_ System Bandwidth _ Station Margin
_ Splicing Techniques _ VSAT

3. Satellite , Broadcasting and Cable TV Systems b. Broadcasting and Cable TV systems

a. Satellite System _ Radio Transmitter (AM, FM, Television)
_ The Satellite System _ Studio (Microphone, Amplifiers, Cameras, Lighting, etc)
_ Cable Television
 Tips for Board Exam
● DAY 1 - ELEC & MATH ● Make sure to read-up on latest Technology
○ MATH - 4 hrs (8:00 AM - 12:00 NN) (especiallly for ELEC and EST)
○ ELEC - 5 hrs (1:00 PM - 6:00 PM) ● If there are multiple correct answers in the choices,
● DAY 2 - GEAS & EST choose the most COMMON answer.
○ GEAS - 4 hrs (8:00 AM - 12:00 NN) ○ E.g. VTFET, Satellites, New Microprocessors,
○ EST - 5 hrs (1:00 PM - 6:00 PM) etc.
● Go for easy items first ● Allot the last 30 minutes for shading!
○ Conceptual problems first (but make sure you ● Do not take the Board exam without memorizing the
know them) units!
○ Skip the hard problems! ○ Remember the English system units!
● You can eat during the exams =)
● You can use the questionnaire as scratch paper! ● AIM FOR TOPNOTCHER!!
○ You are only given the questionnaire for writing. ● On the coverage:
There’s no answer sheet or separate scratch paper ○ ELEC and EST: 80% concept and 20% problem
provided solving
● Dress Code ○ EST - karamihan ay objective-type questions
○ White Polo Shirt (no marks) ■ 40% from DigiComms and DataComms
○ Black Slacks ○ MATH/GEAS
○ Black shoes ■ 80% Problem Solving
● Superstitions to pass! CHECK DISCORD SERVER ■ 20% Concept questions
○ Wear red briefs ● On everything: 70% basic concepts, 20% problem
○ Wear red socks solving, 10% A-level questions
● Do not shade letter E as much as possible! ● Recommended books
● PRACTICE. PRACTICE. PRACTICE ○ EST:
○ Practice Hard Problems so the board exam will ■ Radiowave/Antenna/Transline/Fiber Optics:
be easy for you Neets (yung makapal na book!)
○ Indiabix.com and Pinoybix.com is the key ■ Data/Digicomms: Forouzan
(look-spam) ■ Other topics: Frenzel
■ For Electronics: Indiabix ● What is an ECE?
■ For EST: Pinoybix ○ An EE (Electrical Engineer) will control a circuit
○ Use mnemonics! manually (relays, etc.) while ECEs will try to
● Repeat, repeat, repeat an exam until you perfect it digitize that circuit (ON and OFF)
○ If you perfect an exam na, then you can relax ■ The power must be low (low current and
(e.g. Dota, Youtube, etc.) voltage)
○ At least 100 questions before playing a game or ■ Supply must be DC
watching an episide ● NOTA: None of the Above
 CalTech (Calculator Techniques)
( )
● General CalTech d −x
○ CALC ■ E.g. −ln(x) ¿ x= X → store
○ SHIFT - SOLVE
dx 2(x +2 y )
■ When “Solve for X” appears, input a number ‘A’
where you want the calculator find the value
closest to that number
○ COLON - SIGN
d
(−y
dx 2( y+2 x ) )
−ln( y ) ¿ x=X → store

■ Input the 1-variable expression (in variable x) in ‘B’

both sides and use the colon sign (:) dy
4. Solve for y’choice or , :
■ Useful for seeing result of expressions in both dx c h oice
sides of the colon dy −A
○ INTEGRALS, DIFFERENTIALS, DEs ■ , = → store ‘C’
■ We usually use x=1.1 or 2.2 dx c h oice B
● If x=1.1 does not work, use x=0.1 (usually 5. Substitute x, y, and dy/dx to original DE equation
for trigonometric functions) then check if equal to 1
■ Always use Radian (Rad) Mode dy
○ TABLE OF FUNCTIONS F(x) dx
■ Mode-7 (Table); 1 variable only ■ 2 2
=? 1
■ Useful for plotting functions if you can’t
x +5 xy+ 4 y
visualize it x2
○ Statistics: ■ If not equal to 1, choose a different choice then
■ Mode 3:2 (linear) solve for A, B, and C
■ Mode 3:3 (parabolic/quadratic) ● Differential Equation (Linear) - Isolated Y
■ Mode 3:6 (exponential) ○ Used for a DE with x and y values only
○ SHIFT + Ans 1. Choose a choice and isolate Y if necessary
■ Using different angle kinds (Deg, Rad, Gon, etc) dy
● Algebra: Sequences (Arithmetic, Geometric, Harmonic) ■ Original DE equation: x + y=x ln x , y(1) =
dx
○ Arithmetic -- Mode 3-2 (A+Bx)
1
■ Summation: Σ(X ŷ , 1, n)
○ Geometric -- Mode 3-6 (A•Bx) 4
■ Same formula as arithmetic sum 1 x 1
■ E.g. choice: b ¿ y= x ln x− +
○ Harmonic -- Mode 3-8 (1/X) 2 4 2x
■ Summation: Σ(X ^x ,1 , n) -- since the values of 2. If values are given, try to substitute to choices and see
the terms are in x, not y if you chose the right answer!
● Statistics: Normal Distribution 1 1 (1) 1
x−x ■ Check: ( )=? (1) ln(1)− +
○ Solve for z-score: z= 4 2 4 2(1)
std . dev . 1 1 1
○ Probability of <x : PT (¿ z)=P(z ) ( )=? 0− +
4 4 2
○ Probability of >x: PT (¿ z)=R (z) ¿ 1−P( z) 1 1
( )≡ ✓
○ Probability of x to x̄ : PT (z ¿ z 0 )=Q( z ) 4 4
● Derivatives 3. If values not given, assign own values except for y
C−B B−A ■ Let x = 1.1
4
d y −5
− −5 dy
○ 3rd Derivative: 4
= 1 ×1 0 1× 1 0 4. ∨y'
In the choice, solve for y and
dx −5 dx
1 ×1 0
(1.1)ln(1.1) (1.1) 1
● Differential Equation (Homogenous) - Isolated C ■ y (1.1)= − + →
2 4 2 (1.1)
○ This method can be used for any kind of DE w/ a C!
store ‘A’
1. Choose a choice and isolate C (constant in DE) if
necessary

■
2
dy x +5 xy +4 y
Original DE equation: =
2 dx 2 (
d x ln x x 1
− + ¿
4 2 x x= X ) → store ‘B’

dx x
2 dy
5. Substitute x, y, and into original DE equation
−x dx
■ E.g. choice: a ¿ C= −ln ( x) dy
2(x +2 y) x +y
2. Assign values for variables except for C ■ dx
=? 1
■ E.g. Let x = 1.1, y = 2.2 x ln x
dC dC ■ If not equal to 1, choose a different choice then
3. In the choice, solve for and . To solve for
dx dy dy
solve for y and
dC/dy, interchange x and y in calculator dx
● Euler’s Method ○ h: given interval
○ 1st Order Linear DE: ○ x: start at 0
■ Y =Y + MA : X=X + A where ● Simpson’s 1/3 Rule: Unlike trapezoidal rule which makes
dy use of 1st-order polynomials, this method uses 2nd-order
● M = equation polynomial approximation method
dx ○
x 1−x 2 ● Advanced Mathemetics (Laplace Transform)
● A=step= (15 is enough for step
15 ○ [Caltech] Recall:
∞
between x1 and x2, but to get a more accurate
F (s )=L[f (t )]=∫ ❑f (t)e
−st
answer, use a value bigger than 15). dt
○ 2nd Order Linear DE: 0
● Bisection’s Method: for approximating the root of a given ■ Use kernel s=5
equation based on the number of iterations ■ Replace limits 0 → ∞ with 0 → 8
1. Mode 7: Table → input equation ○ Laplace transform of f(t)
2. Start: 1, End: 2, Step: (End-Start)÷2iterations ■ Step 1: Store the transform value of
8
3. The answer is going to be a range where f(x) will
change sign (from + to - or vice-versa). ∫ ❑ f (t) e−5 t dt → A
■ If you do the iterations high enough, the range of 0
values will be smaller and smaller until such time ■ Step 2: Substitute the value of s (kernel) to the
where the start and end value of the range are choices then divide by A. The answer should be
equal close to 1
● Newton’s Method: for approximating the root of a given ○ Inverse Laplace transform of F(s)
equation ■ Step 1: Assign value of s (s = 5) to F(s) and store
f (x ) to A
○ X =X −¿ ■ Step 2: Get a choice and take its Laplace
f '( x ) transform
● Trapezoidal Rule: useful method in solving the area under ■ Step 3: Compare (which will give 1)
a curve by dividing into little trapezoids
h ● Advanced Mathemetics (Z Transform)
○ A=A + ¿ ∞
2
○ A: always starts at 0 ○ ∫
[Caltech] Recall: X (Z )=[f (t)]= ❑ f (t )e
− st
dt
0
 Legend
------------------- → TOPIC/TITLE

------------------- → FORMULA (to be put in whiteboard)

------------------- → Constants/functionalities found in Calculator

------------------- → (IN SYLLABUS): Don’t know what subject this is...

------------------- → Constants/Conversions that NEED to be remembered

------------------- → See section on… / Discussed more on … / Process to another section
------------------- → “Indiabix/Exam Primer/Gilbisco” questions

------------------- → Don’t know yet if I have to study this (i.e. is this going to be part of the exam?)
 Topics I need to restudy when Boards come
(topics not easy to remember)
● MATH
○ Algebra 2 ■ When do you use each type of distribution?
■ Binomial expansion and sum of coefficients ○ Discrete Math
○ Probability and Statistics ■ Negation vs Dual
■ Binomial Distribution ■ Properties of Relations (Reflexive, etc.)
■ Poisson Distribution ■ Properties of Functions (Surjective, etc.)
■ Expectation of values ○ Diff Eq 1 and 2 Caltech
■ Percentile Rank ■ Z-transform
■ Expectation

● ELECTRONICS
○ Electric and Magnetic Field terms/formulas
○ Kinds of resistors, capacitors and inductors
●
CONSTANTS TO NOTE:
● Mass of Earth: 5.972 ×1 024 kg 1
● Speed of light: c= =3 ×1 08 m/s
● Radius of Earth: 6.371 ×1 06 m √ μ0 ε 0
○ For EST: Use 6,370 km
● Mass of moon: 7. 34767309× 1 022 kg ● Earth’s magnetic field: 5 ×1 0−5 T
● Radius of moon: 1.7371 ×1 06 m ● Refrigerator magnet: 5 ×1 0−3 T
● Mass of Sun: 1.989 ×1 030 kg ● Bar magnet: 0.001 T - 0.01 T
● Radius of Sun: 6.96340 ×1 08 m ● Strong neodymium: 1−2 T
● Room Temperature:
● Distance of Earth to moon:
8 ○ ELEX: 300K (27oC)
384,400 km∨3.844 ×1 0 m ○ Math: always given
● Distance of Earth to Sun: ○ GEAS: 293K (20oC)
11
149.6 million km∨1.496 ×1 0 m ○ EST: 290K (17oC)

CONVERSION OF VALUES TO NOTE:

● Electricity/Magnetism 8
1 Wb 1 0 Mx 4
○ 1 amu=1.66 ×1 0−27 kg Since1 T = 2
= 2 2
=1 0 G
m 10 0 c m
○ Angstrom: 1 angstrom=0.1 nm=1 0−10 m ○ Magnetizing Force H:
● Electronics At Gb 0.4 π Gb
○ 1 inch = 1000 Mil 1 =0.4 π =
m m 100 cm
1
■ 1 Mil = 0.001 inch = inc h Gb
1000 ■ (Oersted) 1 Oe=1 (Gb: Gilbert)
○ 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss
cm
kAt
■ 1 =12.56 Oe (kAt/m)
m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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RANDOM FACTS TO NOTE:
MATH: Mathematics
● Be careful when you see ‘log(x)’ in the Boards. Some ● Coordinate Geometry
authors prefer log notation when in fact they mean the ○ X-distance → abscissa
natural logarithm: ln(x) Y-distance → ordinate
● Algebra: Z-distance → “applicate”
○ Extraneous root: roots of An =B n that are not roots ● Differential and Integral Calculus
of A=B ○ In the board exam, some board examiners use log
○ Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: “The result that instead of ln (natural logarithm). The answer should
any polynomial with real or complex coefficient has a be in ln obviously, but just take note of it in case your
root in the complex plane” answer does not appear in the
● Probability and Statistics ● Feedback/Control Systems
○ Intersection: A ∩ Bor A Ç B (C with a tail) ○ The output of the feedback control system must be a
function of input and feedback signal
○ Ace is NOT a number card nor a face card (number
○ The advantage of block diagram representation is that
cards go from 2-9)
it is possible to evaluate the contribution of each
○ Binomial Distribution vs Binomial Expansion
component to the overall performance of the system
■ Binomial Distribution: P=(¿n C r )¿ ¿ ○ Oscillations in output response is due to positive
■ Binomial Expansion: rth term of (a+b)n = feedback
(¿ n C r−1)¿ ¿ ○ Damping factor specifies peak overshoot to step
○ Binomial Random Variable: arises when you have input
an experiment with a fixed number n of observations ○ rise time is also taken into consideration, it should be
or trials which results in two possible outcomes consistent to the settling time
(success p or failure q); each trial is independent and ○ In signal flow graph,
p is the same for each trial ■ Chain node refers to the node that has both
○ A convenient way of describing a process (stochastic) income and outgoing branches
and computing the probability of any event is by a ■ Feedback path refers to the path from output
tree diagram node or a node near output node to a node near
● Discrete Mathematics input node without repeating any of the nodes in
○ Every set is a subset of the universal set (U), and the between them
empty set (∅) is a subset of all set ■ Loop gain refers to the product of gains or
○ Power Set: set of all the possible combinations of a transmittances of all branches of a loop
given set including the null set ○ If the number of poles are greater than number of
■ Set of subsets of a set zeroes then the system is known as minimum phase
○ Cardinality of a Set: count the no of distinct elements: system
n(Q) ○ Steady state accuracy is determined by suitable
■ Cardinality of a power set: 2n (Q ) choice of error constants
○ Steady state accuracy is specified in terms of steady-
● Measures of variability
state error
○ Variance: most common measure of data dispersion
○ Regulator: a control system where the desired values
○ Standard deviation: most common measure of
of the controlled outputs are more or less fixed and
variability for a single dataset
the main problem is to reject disturbances effect
○ Coefficient of variation: most common measure of
■ NOT closed-loop feedback
comparing data

ELEC: Electronics
● Electricity/Magnetism ○ A constant current is sent through a helical coil. The
○ Curie temperature: the temperature at which a coil tends to get shorter (magnetic field is
magnetic material loses its ferromagnetic properties concentrated on the center of helix thus the coil tends
○ Resistivity Table of Resistivity to get shorter)
■ Copper (least resistive) < Aluminum < Iron < ○ Ionization current: motion of ion charges in a liquid
Manganin < Lead < Nichrome < Semiconductors or gas
(most resistive) ○ Conduction in metals is only due to majority carriers,
■ Thus, copper is the most conductive or least which are electrons. Electrons and holes are
resistive responsible for conduction in a semiconductor
○ When a magnet enters a coil and a voltage is induced, ○ Atomic radius of copper atom: 1.17 Angstroms
the process is known as Flux linkage ○ Skin depth
○ What electromagnetic define has a flexible cone? → ■ the depth below the surface of the conductor at
a speaker which the current density has fallen to 1/e (about
○ The induced emf of a condcutor cutting flux lines is 0.37) of JS.

√
directly proportional to the rate of cutting 2
○ An electric field is most directly related to the force ■ Skindept h= where
acting on a test charge ω μo σ
● ω: frequency in Hz (2πf)
 ● μ0: permeability of free space (constant 33) ● Leakage resistance of capacitor: resistance
● σ: conductivity (Mho/m or Siemens/m) in parallel with capacitor plates
● Conductivity is constant, the skin depth will ■ In case of ideal capacitor, they produce true/real
change for a certain frequency power only

√
S1 σ ● The quantity that represents an ideal
○ = 2 capacitor dissipating 0 W of power is
S2 σ1 true/real power
■ Convection is the current flowing through an ■ A 1 μF capacitor will store 1C or 6.24×1024
insulating medium (not Radiation or Conduction) electrons
■ The current in a metal at any frequency is due to ■ Class I capacitors:
Conduction current only (no Displacement ● class of ceramic capacitors which are stable
current), which depends on the mobility of the temperature-compensating capacitors
carriers ● have linear characteristics with properties
● Only at high frequencies and when medium independent of frequency over the normal
is air, the conduction is due to displacement range
current ○ Best elemental conductor: Silver (Ag). We only use
■ Maxwell’s equation cannot be represented in Copper (Cu) which is the 2nd best conductor, because
Static form it’s cheaper
■ For electricity to do work the electrons must low ■ Silver: 1 ,59 × 10−8 Ωm
from a higher to a lower electron voltage
■ Copper: 1.7 ×1 0−8 Ωm
● Circuit Elements ■ Gold: 2.4 × 10−8 Ωm
○ Resistors ■ Aluminum: 2.65 ×1 0−8 Ωm
■ Some Resistor Terminologies ○ Most conductive substance: Salt-solution or salt-
■ A meter-sensitivity control in a test equipment water
would probably be a linear-taper potentiometer ○ Inductors
■ Indiabix: Suppose a 1-kΩ resistor will dissipate ■ Indiabix: A major feature of a pot-core winding
1.05 W, and you have many 1-W resistors of all is its large inductance in a small volume
common values. If there’s room for 20-percent ● Not efficiency adjustment
resistance error, the cheapest solution is to use ○ Battery
two 2.2 kΩ, 1-W resistors in parallel ■ A nickel-cadmium cell has an operating voltage
● This is better than one 1-kΩ, 1-W resistor of about 1.25 V
(even if manufacturers allow for a 10- ■ The average fully-charged voltage of a lead-acid
percent margin of safety) storage cell is 2.06 V
■ Aluminum has greater resistivity than copper
(thus it is less conductive) ● DC/AC Circuits
■ Maximum allowable change in resistance for a ○ The maximum voltage output from a voltage divider
given Resistor wattage ratings for 1000-hour is equal to the voltage supply (when the other resistor
rated load life test: is 0Ω)
● For a ⅛ Wattage rating resistor, the ○ In a series-connected string of holiday ornament
maximum allowable change is 12% bulbs, if one bulb gets shorted out, the current in the
● For everything else, the maximum allowable string will go up.
change is 10% ○ The effective value of an RF current and the heating
■ Electrical resistivity of ferrites vs metals value of the current are the same.
● Ferrites have resistivities typically 10⁶ times ○ The derivative of a sine wave is a representation of
that of metals the rate of change, and not necessarily “shifted in
■ Indiabix: A light-dependent resistor is a phase by 1/2 cycle from the sine wave”
photoresistive device ○ A wiring differs form a schematic diagram in that a
■ Boella Effect: the reduction of the effective wiring diagram shows component values
resistance of a resistor (In high valued carbon- (schematic diagram only shows the components)
composition resistors) when operated at VHF or [Left: Schematic diagram, Right: Wiring diagram]
higher frequencies due to dielectric losses
● additional internally distributed capacitances
between the conducting particles of the
resistor forms a kind of noise which lowers
the effective value of the resistance as the
frequency increases
○ Capacitors
■ Most older types of paper capacitors have been
replaced by plastic film type capacitors ○ Resonant/Tank Circuits
■ An air capacitor is normally a variable type ■ A parallel tank/resonant circuit will have very
● It has oil as dielectric thus variable little effect on final filter current
■ Leaky capacitor: ● This is because a parallel tank is a current
● more current and reduced voltage due to less rejector (open circuit effect)
dielectric medium ■ A series tank/resonant circuit will have great
effect on final filter current
 ■ The Q of a coil is affected by: Coil resistance, ○ Diode Capacitance: the total capacitance (capacitance
Skin effect, and Frequency between the terminals and electrodes) and the internal
■ Networks voltage variable capacitance of the junction
● L-network: a simple inductor-capacitor (LC) ■ Also called Junction capacitance
circuit that can be used to match a wide ■ capacitance associated with the charge variation
range of impedances in RF circuits in the depletion layer
● Pi-L network: A Phase Inverter Load ○ White LED has the highest intensity (or brightness)
network. A network consisting of two usually operating at 4V @ 20mA
inductors and two capacitors ○ Standard Current value for all LEDs are always at
○ provides the greatest harmonic 20mA
suppression ○ Triboelectric effect: flow of electrons due to friction
■ Similar to Thermionic Emission (heat), and
● Semiconductors Photoelectric Effect (light)
○ A hole in a semiconductor is defined as the
incomplete part of an electron-pair bond
■ NOT a free proton (protons do not flow freely)
■ A hole does not exist in conductors, only in
semiconductors
○ The strength of semi-conductor crystals comes from
electron-pair bonds
○ Atoms within a semiconductor crystal are held ○ A Diode audio limiter circuit can cause
together by covalent bonds objectionable signal distortion
■ The sharing of electrons in a silicon crystal is ■ It does NOT rectify the audio to reduce distortion
called covalent bonding (rectifying does not help in reducing distortion)
○ Carbon is a semiconductor, but we don’t use it much ○ A increase in temperature decreases the width of the
because the valence electron is only in the 2nd layer depletion layer
so it will require higher energy (eV) to release it ○ Clipper/Clamper
○ Recombination does NOT produces new electron- ■ Clippers are commonly used to provide transient
hole pairs (in fact it reduces it) protection
○ The very commonly used processes called “planar”
and “mesa” are sub-categories of Diffused junction ● BJT/FET
■ Diffused junction: a method of producing P-type ○ BJT
and N-type regions in semiconductor material ■ Indiabix: In a BJT, the barrier potential is 0.7 V
○ Semiconductors vs Vacuum tubes across each depletion layer
■ Semiconductor devices are smaller in size and ■ Power dissipation in a transistor is the product of
lighter weight the collector current (IC) and collector to emitter
■ They have lower working voltages voltage (VCE)
■ BUT, they cannot withstand high voltages (i.e. ■ NPN transistor is faster than PNP transistor
reverse bias) because electrons are faster than holes
○ Crystal Set ■ In a properly biased NPN transistor, most of the
■ Also called as Crystal Radio Recevier electrons from the emitter pass through the base
■ A passive receiver that doesn’t need a to the collector.
battery/external power. It gets power from the ● It doesn’t recombine in the emitter itself
radio signal it receives to produce sound ■ In a transistor, the operating point is determined
● Passive receiver: does not produce power, graphically by getting the intersection of the DC
thus the output of and AC load lines
○ Thermal Runaway: higher/increased temperature in a
conductor means more heat, which means less
resistivity (R) and higher conductance (G), thus
higher current (I). This higher current produces
higher temperature. This loops until such time when
the device breaks down
○ Band gap energy (in eV) when wavelength is given:
1.24 μm
E g=
λ
● Diodes
○ The maximum forward current for silicon diode
rectifiers is 600mA. ■ Indiabix: Derating Factor: For a BJT, for every
○ Capacitance when diode is Reverse Biased depends 1°C rise in ambient temperature the power
on: dissipation must be reduced by 2.5 mW so that
■ Width of depletion region the transistor is safe
■ Cross-sectional area of PN-junction ○ FET
■ Type of semiconductor material ■ Indiabix: The normal operation of JFET is
constant current region (major portion of drain
characteristics ID is constant)
 ■ Indiabix: Small signal amplifier operation is in ○ DC/AC Generators and Motors
constant current region of characteristics ■ Generators
○ Since electrons have a higher mobility through a ● All generators are AC initially
conductor compared to holes, NPN in BJT and ● The more conductors (Z), the smoother the
JFET’s N-channel are more efficient conductor 2 pϕNZ
compared to their P counterparts (PNP, P-channel) DC → emf =
c
■ Motors
● Industrial Electronics
● AC series motors are built with as few turns
○ Power Supply
as possible to reduce reactance
■ The Transformer is the most expensive device in
● In Hysteresis motors (single-phase motor),
a voltage regulator if it gets broken
the rotor has no teeth or winding
○ Feedback/Oscillators
● A synchronous motor working at leading
■ The three basic elements of all electrical systems
power factor can be used as a phase
are Sense, Decide, Act
advancer
■ “Building Blocks” in an electric system refer to
● In a motor, back emf serves to decrease the
portions of the system that for purposes of
current in the armature
systems analysis can be thought of as boxes with
○ Filters
inputs, outputs, and power supply connections,
■ This is a LPF: Low Pass Filter (even if there is a
without studying circuit details inside
capacitor and a resistor in parallel)
○ Types of Rectifiers
● This is a Series Resonant circuit with a
parallel resistor

■ Filters are generally grouped into 3: High-pass,

○ Industrial Electronics (SCR, UJT, etc.) Low-pass, and Band-pass
■ In an SCR, anode current flows over a narrow
region near the gate during rise time (tr) and ● Microelectronics
delay time (td), which is about 10 μsec ○ History
■ Snubber circuit: used to limit the change in ■ Abacus: first computer; also called as the
di dv Counting Frame
current ( )or change in voltage ( ) --
dt dt ■ Pascaline: first mechanical computer
snubber circuit limits the change, not the actual ● Made by Blaise Pascal
current/voltage level itself. ■ Atanasoff-Berry Computer - first Digital
■ The di/dt capability of a thyristor increases when Computer
the gate current increases ● Made in 1943
○ Transmitters ● Other sources say it’s ENIAC - which was
■ PinoyBix: High-level modulation allows the RF made in 1945
amplifiers to operate more efficiently ■ ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
■ PinoyBix: Low-level modulation requires the RF Computer)
amplifiers to be linear ● the first general computer
○ DC/AC Meters ● Size: 1800 sq. ft
■ Rubidium Standard: frequency standard used ● Storage: 20 words (about 80 bytes)
as a time base standard by field technicians ● Clock speed: 7000 problems/sec ≈ 1Mhz
■ Power Rating: highest power input allowed to ● Components:
flow through particular equipment ○ Highest number of transistors in a processor is in M1
■ Current rating: the maximum current that a fuse Ultra (Apple computers) with 114 Billion transistors
will carry for an indefinite period without too ○ Smallest node chips: 2nm from IBM
much deterioration of the fuse element ■ Current standard: 7 nm from M1 (Apple)
● higher the output current rating, the more ○ Big 3 manufacturers of processors
power will be able to be supplied ■ Intel: Integrated Electronics
■ Gilbisco: A meter-sensitivity control in a test ■ AMD: Advanced Micro Devices
instrument would probably be a linear-taper ■ Apple
potentiometer ○ The processor 80386/80486 and the Pentium
■ Gilbisco: A volume control in a stereo compact- processor uses 32-bit address bus
disc player would probably be a logarithmic- ○ VTFET: Vertical-Transport Nanosheet Field Effect
taper potentiometer Transistors
■ What is probably happening when an ohmmeter, ■ The latest kind of transistor
connected across an unpowered circuit, initially ■ Made by IBM
indicates a low resistance and then shows ■ Reason why we were able to make ~2nm
increasing resistance with time? The circuit Integrated Circuits
contains a large capacitor ● Marks the start of nanotechnology
 ○ Artificial Intelligence: science and engineering of ■ AMD Ryzen 9 - 3.7 GHz
making intelligent machines, especially intelligent ■ Apple M1 Max - 3.2 GHz, 57 Billion transistors
computer programs. It is related to the similar task of ○ Microprocessor Systems
using computers to understand human intelligence, ■ JB (jump back) is NOT a jump instruction found
but AI does not have to confine itself to methods that in Assembly languages
are biologically observable ■ During a READ operation, the CPU fetches
■ Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Computer ○ Some terminologies
Vision ■ BIOS: Basic Input-Output System
■ E.g. Google’s AI LaMDA ■ I/O controller: input/output controller
○ DIP: Dual in-line package ■ PIA: programmable interface adapter
■ an electronic component package with a ■ VIA: versatile interface adapter
rectangular housing and two parallel rows of ■ PIO: programmable input/output
connecting pins ■ PPI: programmable peripheral interface
○ Four basic elements are required for an automated
● Microprocessors machine tool or production process: input interface,
○ In an 8-bit microprocessor (8085), there are 246 memory, output interface and logic
opcodes [there should be 256 since capacity is
28=256, but no idea where the 10 are] ● Digital Electronics
○ Volatile memory: Data is stored in the register until ○ FOR is not a basic Boolean operation
the power supplies are removed either by an ○ The point (decimal point) is called Radix point
equipment fault, or if the system is switched off (decimal point is for Base-10 only)
○ Non-volatile memory: data is stored even if power is ○ A “floating” TTL input may be defined as an unused
removed input that is not connected or left open
○ Operation code field is present in machine language ■ Or an unconnected input to a gate
instruction (not assembly language instruction) ■ Floating TTL: usually acts as HIGH or Logic 1
○ Kinds of flags or errors: input.
■ Overflow flag - happens when the largest number ○ Morse Code is NOT a binary code. It is a Ternary
a device can hold is exceeded; code (Dot, Dash, Space)
■ Zero flag
■ Negative flag ● Others
■ BSOD: Blue Screen of Death ○ Cold solder joint or Cold join: one where the solder
● A flag which cannot be resolved anymore. did not melt completely.
The only solution is to restart the PC. ■ often characterized by a rough, grainy, dull,
○ Clock speed of new microprocessors: lumpy surface
■ Intel core i9 (12th gen) - 3.4 GHz, 2.9 Billion ○ A Rosin-core solder is the best type of solder for best
transistors for radio and electronic use
■ AMD Ryzen 7 5800X3D - 3.4 GHz, 4.15 Billion
transistors
 MATH
● Algebra ○ Paradox - any statement (or a set of statements)
○ Rules of exponents and logarithms (don’t that seems to contradict itself (or each other)
forget!) while simultaneously seeming completely logical
■ a m × an =am +n ; m n m−n ○ Tautology - proposition that’s always true (true in
a ÷ a =a ;
■ ¿ ; ¿; every possible interpretation) → ( p ∪ ¬ p)=T
■ Hint: Tautology = “totoo”logy
()
m m
a a m
■ = m ; √ a =a n
n m ○ Contradiction - proposition that’s always false
b b (false in every possible interpretation) →
xy ( p ∩¬ p)=F
■ log ( )=log x+ log y−log z
x ○ Contingency - a proposition that is neither a
■ log x p= p log x ; tautology nor contradiction is called a
contingency
log b x
log a x=
log b a ○ Negation vs Dual of a proposition
Negation Dual
○ Word problems p becomes p’ Symbols retain their
WA q’ becomes q state
■ Work: use the rates! (r A = ) OR becomes AND
tA
AND becomes OR
work done by A T becomes F
time of A F becomes T
■ Clock: note movement of hour and minute hand: ○ Conditional Proposition subtypes:
● 1 min=6 o ■ Inverse: ¬ p → ¬q
● Hour hand: x /12 ■ Converse: q → p
● Minute hand: x ■ Contrapositive: ¬ q →¬ p
■ Upstream/Downstream or Headwind/Tailwind ● Inverse of converse or converse of
● Upstream/Headwind: V −V water∨air inverse
● Downstream/Tailwind: V +V water ∨air ● Logically equivalent to Conditional
■ Sequence: [See Caltech Section] proposition
■ Binomial Expansion:
● ¿ ● Properties of Relations
Example: Set A {1,2,3}
● Discrete Math ○ Reflexive: ordered pair (a,a) must be an element
○ Proposition: A declarative statement that is either of Relation for every a that is an element of Set
T or F A
■ I.e. you know if the statement is T or F with ■ {(1,2),(1,1),(2,3),(2,2),(3,3)} → Reflexive
certainty (it can be deduced in the statement) ■ {(1,2),(2,2),(2,1)} → NOT Reflexive
■ E.g. 4+4=9 is a proposition because (3,3) is missing
■ E.g. x>3 is not a proposition since you don’t ○ Irreflexive: ordered pair (a,a) must NOT be an
know the value of x so you can’t tell if it’s T element of Relation for every a that is an element
or F of Set A
○ Conjunction - AND ■ {(1,2),(2,1),(2,3)} → Irreflexive
○ Disjunction - OR ■ {(1,3),(2,2),(2,1)} → NOT Ireflexive
○ Conditional - “if… then…” because of (2,2)
■ P implies Q ■ Note: if a relation is already Reflexive, it is
automatically Not Irreflexive (and vice-versa
■ Logically equivalent to (¬ p ∪q )
- if a relation is Irreflexive, it is
■ Symbol: →(one-headed arrow) automatically not Reflexive)
p q p→ q ○ Symmetric: ordered pair (a,b) and (b,a) must be
F F T elements of the Relation for every a and b that is
F T T an element of Set A
T F F ■ {(1,2),(2,1),(2,2)} → Symmetric
T T T ■ {(1,3),(2,3),(3,2)} → NOT symmetric
■ False only if the statement is true but the because of (3,1) is missing
conclusion is false ○ Antisymmetric ordered pair (a,b) and (b,a) must
○ Biconditional - XNOR, “if and only if…” be elements of the Relation given that a=b
■ P implies Q and vice versa ■ {(1,1),(2,3),(3,3)} → Antisymmetric
■ Symbol: ↔(double-headed arrow) because only (1,1) and (3,3) are the only
elements satisfying (a,b) and (b,a), and a=b
 ■ {(1,3),(2,3),(3,2)} → NOT Antisymmetric ○ θ=720o: 2 full angles
because (2,3) and (3,2) satisfy (a,b) and ■ Units of angles and 1 full rotation
(b,a), but they do not satisfy a=b Angle unit 1 full rotation
■ A relation can be both Symmetric and Degrees (deg or )o
360o
Antisymmetric, it just has to satisfy the a=b
Radians (rad) 2π rads
criterion
○ Transitive: If (a,b) and (b,c) are elements of Revolutions (rev) 1 rev
Relation, then (a,c) must be an element of the Gon or Gradians (gon or g) 400 g
Relation Mil 6400 Mil
■ {(1,2),(2,1),(1,1)} → Transitive ● Conversions: multiply the value with
■ {(2,3),(2,2)} → NOT Transitive because the ratio betwee two full rotations of
(3,2) is missing different units
o
18 0
● Functions ○ Radians to degrees: n rad ×
○ Parts of Functions π
■ Domain: set of inputs ■ Radians must be in terms of π
■ Codomain: set of outputs o π
■ Range: set of all actual outputs ○ Degree to Radians: n × o
○ Properties of Functions
18 0
■ Injective (One-to-one): each element in Set 360
○ Gon to degrees:n g ×
A is paired to a distinct element in Set B 400
● Still injective if there are some elements o 6400
in B which don’t have pairs ○ Deg to Mil: n ×
360
■ Surjective: All elements in Set B is paired to ■ Angle terms:
an element in Set A ● Congruent angles: angles of same
● Every B has one-or-many A magnitude regardless of the side
● E.g. f ( x)=x2 ● Coterminal angles: two angles start and
■ Bijective (Injective+Surjective): All end at the same point and differ by a
elements in Set B is paired with a distinct multiple of 360o
element in Set A
● Every element has one-and-only-one
partner

● Reference angle: An acute angle that

can be obtained by continually
subtracting 180o from the magnitude of
● Trigonometry the angle
○ Inscribed vs Circumscribed vs Escribed ○ E.g. 770o-720o=50o (50o is the
■ Inscribed: figure 1 is inside the figure 2 reference angle of 770o)
● All vertices of figure 1 are on figure 2 ■ Combinations of angles:
■ Circumscribed: figure 1 is outside figure 2 ● Complementary angles: θ1+θ2=90o
■ Escribed: circle drawn outside of triangle ● Supplementary angles: θ1+θ2=180o
that is tangent to one side of the triangle ● Explementary angles: θ1+θ2=360o
■ Plane-related angles
● Dihedral angles: angle between two
planes

○ Circumcenter - point which is equidistant from

all vertices of the triangle
■ Made by constructing a circle that
circumscribes the triangle which passes
through all the vertices of the triangle
■ The center of the circle is the circumcenter
○ Angles ■ For an obtuse triangle, the circumcenter is
■ Kinds of angles outside the triangle
● Acute angle: θ<90o ■ Keyword: circumcenter → “circumscribing”
● Right angle: θ=90o center
● Obtuse angle: 180o>θ>90o ○ Centroid - intersection of medians
● Straight angle: θ=180o ■ Median: line segment passing through the
● Reflex angle: 360o>θ>180o midpoint of each side (divides the side into
● Full angle: θ=360o two equal parts)
 ■ Can be thought of as the ‘center of mass’ of ■ Keyword: Incenter → “inside” center
the triangle ○ Relationship between centroid, orthocenter, and
■ Centroid: ALWAYS inside the triangle circumcenter
○ Orthocenter - intersection of altitudes ■ The 3 points fall in a straight line, with
■ Altitude: line segment passing through a centroid always in between the other two
vertex and perpendicular to the opposite side ■ The distance between the centroid and the
■ For the obtuse triangle, the orthocenter falls orthocenter is always twice the distance
outside the triangle between the centroid and the circumcenter
○ Incenter - intersection of angle bisectors ■ In an equilateral triangle, all the points
■ The intersection point (Incenter) becomes (including the incenter) fall on the same
the center of a circle inscribed inside the point
triangle
■ Incenter: ALWAYS inside the triangle
● Analytic Geometry
○ Tangent line vs Normal Line
■ Tangent line: slope=m 1
■ Normal line: perpendicular to tangent line
● negative reciprocal of the tangent line
1
slope=¬
m1
m2−m1
○ Angle between 2 lines: tanθ=
1+ m1 m2
○ Dist between line and point:

d=
| A x 1 +B y 1 +C
√ A 2+ B 2 |
○ Radius of Curvature: R = ¿ ¿
1
■ Curvature: C =
R
■ Line: Ax+By+C = 0, pt (x1,y1)
○ Conic Sections: locus of a point which moves so
that its distance from a fixed point is in constant
ratio to its distance from a fixed straight line
■ Parts:
● Principal axis: divides conic
symmetrically
● Focal point/focus: Fixed point
○ Distance to from point on conic to
focal pocus: f
● Directrix: Fixed straight line
○ dist. from point on conic to
directrix: d
f
■ Eccentricity: e=
d
● The measure of uncircleness -- higher e
means more conic, lower e means more
circular
■ Equation: Ax2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F = 0
Horizontal/vertical axis: Ax2+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F = 0
● If principal axis is inclined, Bxy remains
■ How to determine the Conic - use
Discriminant
○ Conics special properties
■ LINE: Eccentricity: e=∞
■ ELLIPSE: d 1 +d 2=2 a
● Has 2 foci, 2 directrix
f a c
● Eccentricity: e= = =
d D a
● Semi-major axis is the longest

■ HYPERBOLA: d 2−d 1=2 a

● Has 2 foci, 2 directrix
● Transverse axis (2a) and conjugate axis (2b)
● Note: whichever term is positive in the std
equation, determines the opening of the
hyperbola and the variable a
○ a is always positive in the std equation!
 ● Asymptotes:

Conic Section Hyperbola Ellipse Parabola Circle

e >1 0< e<1
Eccentricity a c a c e=1 e=0
e= = e= =
D a D a
2 2 2
Discriminant B −4 AC >0 B −4 AC <0 B −4 AC =0 ------
Sign if no Bxy A ≠ C and opp. signs A ≠ C and same signs A=0 or C=0 A=C
¿¿ ¿
Std Equation ¿¿ ¿
¿¿ ¿
2
Length of Latus
LR ¿
2b LR = 4a -----
Rectum (L.R.) a

Perimeter

Area
-----

-----
P=2 π

A=πab
√
a 2+ b2
2
-----

-----
P=2 πr

A=π r
2
● Differential Calculus ■ Exponent: 0 0 , 1∞ , ∞ 0
○ Finding the equation of the tangent line about a ■ Note: 0 ∞=0 still
point or line: ■ Use L’Hospital’s rule to solve indeterminate
■ Derivative = tangent = slope only forms
d ○ Discontinuity
[ y]
dy dθ ■ Point
● Slope in polar form: =¿ ■ Removable
dx d
[ x] ■ Jump
dθ ■ Essential
where y=r sin θ , x=r cos θ ○ Some differentiation formulas to take note
1. Substitute given r into x and y ^ du du
2. Take derivative of x and y with ■ f ' (lo g e u)= =
respect to θ uln (e ) u
3. Solve for dy/dx du
■ f ' (lo g a u)=
■ To get equation of the line, use point-slope uln (a)
form y− y o=m(x−x 0 ) ■ In hyperbolic functions (e.g. sinh(x),
○ Maxima/Minima/Point of Inflection: cosh(x), etc.), the derivatives are all the
■ Maxima/Minima: first derivative=0 same as the functions without hyperbolic,
■ Point of Inflection: second derivative=0 except for cosh(x) and sech(x) where the
○ In angles, make sure that your calculator is set to sign is inverted.
radians ○ For maximum/minima problems with muiltiple
○ Indeterminate forms: variables: take the partial derivatives and equate
0 ∞ to 0:
■ Fraction: , ■ E.g. get the maximum of P=
0 ∞ 2 2
■ 0×∞ 18 xy−x y−x y :
■ dP dP
→ = =0
■ Subtraction: ∞−∞ dx dy
Then solve for x and y

● Plane and Solid Geometry ● Angles Subtended on same arc: angles

○ Polygon: Poly “many” + Gon subtended by the same arc are equal:
“angles” ○ All angles x (in the figure) are
○ Angles of polygons equal since they subtend the same
■ Internal angle: internal arc (in red)
angle inside polygon ● Angle at the Center: The
■ External angle: angle formed at the centre
supplement of internal of the circle by lines
angle originating from two
○ Dihedral angle: the amount of points on the circle's
divergence (angle) between circumference is double
two planes when they intersect the angle formed on the
with each other circumference of the
○ Kinds of polygons circle by lines originating
■ Regular polygon: all sides from the same points
are equal ○ ∠a = 2∠b
● 3 sides: equilateral triangle ● Angles in a Cyclic
● 4 sides: square Quadrilateral: In a cyclic
● 5 and above: regular + polygon shape quadrilateral, the opposite
■ Irregular: not all sides are equal angles are supplementary
○ ∠a+∠c =
○ Circle 180o
■ General Circle Theorems ∠b+∠d =
● Thale’s Theorem: For 3 180o
distinct points A, B ● Exterior angle of a
and C -- if the cyclic quadrilateral
distance AC is equal is equal to the
to the diameter of interior opposite
the circle, then angle:
∠ABC is a right angle ○ Because of the previous theorem
○ ∠A=∠B=90o since they both (opposite angles are
make part of a triangle supplementary), the exterior angle
with the longest side is equal to the opposite interior
being the diameter of angle
the circle
 ● Alternate Segment length of the other secant and its
Theorem: an angle external part
between a tangent and a ○ a (a+b)=c (c +d )(secants)
chord through the point
of contact is equal to the ○ Solid Geometry
angle in the alternate ■ Prism: refers to a 3-dimensional figure with
segment (shown in two parallel congruent bases, the rest of the
figure) faces are rectangles or parallelograms
■ Cuboid: a convex polyhedron bounded by
■ Circle Theorems Part II: six quadrilateral faces
Chords ○ Analytic Geometry
● Cross chord ■ Recall: x-intercept: y=0
Theorem: When 2 y-intercept: x=0
chords intersect, the ■ Conic section: locus of a point which moves
lengths of the divided so that its distance from a fixed point is in
segments when constant ratio to its distance from a fixed
multiplied will be equal straight line
○ AB=CD (cross
chords)
● Perpendicular chord bisection: The
perpendicular bisectors of all chords
passes through the center of the circle
and bisects the chord
○ This can be used to solve for the
equation of a circle if you are given
3 points which pass through the
circle ● Circle: plane figure obtained at a locus
● Perpendicular chords of a point whose distance from a fixed
○ If (for example), line ABis point (center) is constant
perpendicular to CD in the figure, ○ Distance = radius of circle (r)
then we can find the radius r to be: ● Ellipse:
2 2 2 2 2
4 r =a + b +c + d (perpendicu ● Parabola: set of points in a plane that
lar chords ONLY) are equidistant from a fixed point and a
fixed line
■ Circle Theorems Part III: Secants/Tangents ● Hyperbola
● Tangent-tangent ■ Coordiate systems
theorem: If AB ● Rectangular coordinate system (x,y,z)
and AC are ● Polar coordinate system (r,θ)
tangents to the ● Cylindrical coordinate system (ρ,θ,z)
circle centered at ● Spherical coordinate system (r,θ,Φ)
O then, ○ When dealing with MATH board
○ AB = AC exam: Use Mathematician’s
○ OA convention
bisects ∠A between the two ■ θ: angle the shadow of point
tangents (x’=x’) makes with respect to +x-axis
○ OA bisects the angle ■ Φ: angle that r makes with
respect to +z-axis
∠BOC between the two radii (v’’ =
v’’)
○ △ABO≡△ACO (congruent)
● Secant-Tangent
Theorem: Similar to
Secant-secant theorem
but instead of 2 chords,
one is a tangent
○ b (b+c )=a 2(sec
ants) ○ When dealing with GEAS board
● Secant-Secant exam: Use Physicist’s convention
Theorem: If 2 secants [just switch the notations]
segments are drawn to ■ θ: angle the shadow of point
to a circle from an makes with respect to +z-axis
exterior point, the ■ Φ: angle that r makes with
product of the external respect to +x-axis
part of the secant and
the total length is equal to product of the
● Integral Calculus
○ Calculating Area
■ Rectangular: A=∫ ( y u− y L )dx or
A=∫ (x R−x L )dy
1 2
■ Polar: A=∫ r dθ
2
○ Trigonometric Substitution
■ Use only when the other methods don’t go to an
answer
● √ 2 2
a −x : use asinθ, θ: [-π/2,π/2]
● √ a2 + x 2or a +x : use atanθ, θ: (-π/2,π/2)
2 2

● √ x 2−a2: use asecθ, θ: [0,π/2) U [π,3π/2)

○ Mean Value Theorem (MVT):
■ Also called Langrange’s MVT
■ If f(x) is continuous and differentiable within
[a,b], then there is at least one number c ∈
[a,b] such that
b
1
f (c )=
b−a a
∫❑ f (x)dx, AND
f (b)−f (a)
f ' (c )=
b−a
○ Rolle’s Theorem:
■ A spescial case of MVT
■ States that if f(x) is continuous on the interval
[a,b], and is differentiable everywhere on the
interval, and if f(a)= f(b) = 0, then there is at
least one number c between a and b such that
f ' (c )=0
○ Cauchy’s Throrem
■ 2nd Mean Value Theorem, or the extended
version of the Lagrange MVT
f '(c) f ( b)−f (a)
■ = where the tangent at
g ' (c ) g( b)−g(a)
f(c),g(c) is parallel to the line connecting
f(a),g(a), and f(b),g(b)

○ Intermediate Value Thorem

■ If f(x) is continuous and differentiable within
[a,b], AND f(a) < N < f(b), then
f(c) = N
○ Arc Length:
Note: dS 2=dx 2 +dy 2
2 2 2
dS d x d y
2
= 2+ 2
dx dx dx
dS
dx
= 1+
√
( )
dy 2
dx

√
dS= 1+( ) dx
2
dy ; then integrate
dx
 √( )
x2 ❑
dy 2 Moment of Volume: M = ∫ ❑ ρV g ∙ rdV
■ In terms of x: S=∫ ❑ 1+ dx ■
x
dx ❑
1
Assume ρ=1, g=1: M = ∫ dV ∙d

∫ √ ( )
y2
dx 2 MX M
■ In terms of y: S= ❑ 1+ dy ○ Centroid: y= ; x= Y
y1
dy A A

∫ √ ( )
θ2
2 dr
2 ○ Moment of Intertia:
■ In terms of θ: S= ❑ r + dθ ■ Always choose a strip that
θ1
dθ is parallel to axis of
○ Pappus-Guildin Theorems rotation
■ Surface Area: 2 πR ⋅ S ■ Mass moment of Inertia:

√
x2 2
I = ∫ dA ×d
( )
2
dy
SA=∫ ❑2 πR 1+ dx ■ Area moment of Inertia:
dx 2
1x
I = ∫ y dA
If about x-axis: R= y ● “Second moment of inertia”
If about y-axis: R=x ○ Hydrostatic Force/Pressure:
■ Volume: ■ Hydrostatic Pressure: P= ρgh=γ h
❑
where γ = ρg = specific weight
Volume=∫ ❑ 2 πR ⋅dA h = surface level to centroid of body
❑
b F
■ Hydrostatic Force: Note that P= =ρg h
■ Mean/Average:
∫ ❑ f (x )dx A
Average= a ● use horizontal strip (i.e. parallel to surface
b−a level so all the forces felt by the strip are
● Integral Calculus 2 uniform), and formula will be integral.
○ Moment F= ∫ ρ g h dA= ∫ γ h dA
■ Moment of Area: ● Be careful if the given value is γ or just ρ
❑ ○ Work in pumping a liquid out of container:
M =∫ ❑ ρ A g ∙ rdA Since W =Fd
❑
W =mg h (force on the liquid is the weight of
Assume
the liquid), and d=h= distance from centroid to surface
ρ=1, g=1: M =¿ ∫ of container
dA ×d W =∫ ρg h V = ∫ γ h dV
Δxf
● My=¿∫ ○ Work in Springs: W = ∫ ❑ kxdx
( y U − y L )dx Δxi
Note: Δx must be difference in lengths (not just
1
● Mx=¿∫ ( yU + y L )(dy ) the position of the spring along x)
2 ○ Work in chain/rope:
1 W =¿( ∫ W load +W rope−ωy )dy
¿ ( yu + y L )( y u− y L )
2 ■ ω: weight per unit length
1 2 2 ■ Wrope: initial weight of rope
¿ ( yu − y L )
2
● Trigonometric Identities

θ −θ θ −θ
e −e e +e
sin h θ=¿ , cos hθ=¿
2 2
● Differential Equations ○ Linear: no product between variable and
○ Orthogonal Trajectories: family of curves which differential variable (e.g. yy’)
intersects every member of a given family of curves ● Linear in y: y '+ P(x ) y =Q(x)
at right angles Solution: y e ∫ Pdx= ∫ Q e ∫ Pdx dx +C
1. Isolate constants in the equation
2. Differentiate implicitly with respect to x so we 5. Bernoulli’s DE
can eliminate constant C ● DE that can be reduced to linear form by a
3. Isolate y’ in equation to get slope. suitable substitution. In the form:
4. Get negative reciprocal. These are the n
orthogonal trajectories y ' + P( x ) y =Q( x) y
5. To get DE of orthogonal trajectories, just ○ If n ≥ 2: Bernoulli’s DE (up to
integrate ∞)
○ Things to note: ○ If n=1: Variable-Separable DE
dy ○ If n=0: Linear DE
■ y '= ● Solution to Bernoulli’s DE:
dx
(1−n ) (1−n) ∫ Pdx (1−n )∫ Pdx
d y e =(1−n) ∫ Q e dx+C
■ Implicit differentiation: ( y)= y '
dx
○ Caltech: [See Caltech Section in this gdoc on Page 6] 6. Higher-Order DE (2nd order and up)
○ Solution to Differential Equations (D.E.): ● Homogenous: solution R(x )=0
1. Variable-Separable DE ○ Just get the roots or ‘transient response’
● Test: Check if you can rearrange the terms Roots Solution
of the DE in 2 groups, each containing only m x m x
1 variable
Real and distinct (m1, m2) y=C 1 e 1 +C 2 e 2
m x m x
● f (x)dx + g( y )dy=0 Real and repeating (m1 multiplicity 2) y=C 1 e 1 +C 2 x e 1
Solution: ∫ f (x )dx + ∫ g ( y)dy =C ax
Complex y=e (C 1 cosbx + C2 sinbx
2. 1st Order Homogenous DE ● Non-Homogenous: solution R(x )≠ 0
● All of the terms have the same degree ○ General Solution:
● Test if DE is homogenous: replace x and y y (x )= y c (x)+ y p ( x) where yC is the
by λx and λy, it will be written in the form: complementary solution and yP is the
n
F ( λx , λy )=λ F ( x , y ) particular solution
○ n must be an integer ■ y C : same as Homogenous solution
● If homogenous: Solve by letting y=ux (let R(x) = 0)
Thus dy =udx+ xdu ■ y P : R (x)≠ 0, note the form of the
Then solve like Variable-Separable DE ‘forced response’
Forced response Solution
3. Exact DE 3x
3x
● A DE which is the result of a simple 7e y p= A e (follow the form)
differentiation in the form of: 4 3 2
4 y p= A x + B x +C x + Dx + E
M (x , y )dx+ N (x , y )dy=0 x +3 x +1
Follow highest order
dM dN
● Test for Exactness: ≡ 8 sin 3 x y p= Asin 3 x + Bcos 3 x
dy dx
● A given DE may not be integrable, but it 5 cos 2 x y p= Asin 2 x +Bcos 2 x
may become integral when it is multiplied
by a function: called Integrating Factor (IF)
∫ Pdx
IF=e where
dM dN dN dM ○ Other Differential Equations:
− −
dy dx or dx dy ■ Ricatti Equation:
P= P= 2
N M y '=P (x) y + Q(x) y + R( x )
whichever of the 2 will simplify ■ Tricomi Equation: y uxx + u yy = 0
M (x , y )(IF )dx + N ( x , y )(IF )dy=0 ■ Airy Equation:
● If exact: solve like Variable-separable DE G ' ' - yG = 0 , or y ' ' ± k 2 xy = 0
■ Logistic or Verhulst Equation:
4. 1st Order Linear DE
● Linear DE is where dependent variable (y) is
y ' = Ay - B y 2
linear degree). x can be any complicated ● A special type of Bernoulli equation (a kind
function of generalization of the equation for
● Linear test: exponential growth but with a maximum
○ Linear: variable (y) must be 1st degree value for the population)
○ Linear: diff. variable (y’) must be 1st ■ Bessel Equation:
2 2 2
degree x y ' ' + xy ' + ( x - v ) y = 0
● v is a given number (real and non-negative)
■ Legendre Equation: ○ 2-dimensional Laplace or 2-dimensional
(1- x 2) y ' ' - 2 x y’ + n ¿+1 ¿ y = 0 Poisson:
2 2
■ Laguerre Equation: 2 d u d u
● xy ' ' + ¿- x ¿ y ' + ny = 0
■ ∇ u= 2 + 2 = 0
dx dy
■ Sturm-Liouville Equation: ○ 3-dimensional Laplace:
[ p (x) y ' ]' + ¿ + λ r ( x)¿ y = 0 2 2
d u d u d u
2
● involves a parameter λ ■ 2
+ 2
+ 2
=0
■ Cauchy-Riemann Equation: u x = v y and u y = -
dx d y dz
vx
● f (z) = u(x , y) + iv(x , y) should satisfy
the Cauchy – Riemann equations to be
analytic ○ Differential Equations - Classifications
■ Euler-Cauchy Equation: x y ' ' + axy ' + by1st
2
= 0Order DE Linear Semi-Linear Quasi-linear Non-li
1 1
■
2
Duffing Equation: y ' ' + ω o y + β y = 0 3 y or x ✓ ✗ (must not have) ✓ or ✗
y’1 or x’1 ✓ ✓ ✓
1 2 ✗
■ Rayleigh Equation: y ' ' - μ ¿ - y ' ) y ' + y yy’
= or xx’
3 ydy or xdx
✗ (must not have)
✗ (must not have) ✓
0
● μ>0 ○ Differential Equations - Applications
■ Clairaut Equation: y = xy ' + g( y ') dP
2
d u d u
2 ■ Natural Growth: =kP
■ Helmholtz Equation: + + v
2
u = 0 dt
2 2
dx d y dP
■ Shifted Natural Growth: =kP+ C
■ Van der Pol equation: y ' ' - μ ¿ - y 2) y ' + y = 0 dt
■ Partial Differential Equations: ● C affects growth rate but it’s constant
A u xx + Bu yy + C u yy = ■ Radioactive Decay
■ Investments
F (x , y , u ,u x ,u y )
dQ
● Hyperbolic: B2 - 4 AC >0 ■ Mixing Problems: =Ri Ci−R o C o
dt
○ E.g. Wave equation:
2 R: volume flow rate [gal/min]
○ 1-dimensional wave: utt = c u xx C - concentration of flow rate, inflow or
2 outflow, per volume [lbs/gal]
d u
○ 2-dimensional wave: utt = c 2( 2
+ ■ Limited Exponential Growth
dx dP
2
d u =k (M −P)
2)
dt
dy ● where k and M are constants
● Parabolic: B2 - 4 A C=0 ● High growth in the start, Low growth in the
○ E.g. Heat equation end (think of learning curve)
du 2 dP
2d u ■ Logistic Growth: =kP (M −P)
○ 1-dimensional heat: =c dt
dt dt
2
● Low growth at start and end, and high
● Elliptic: B - 4 AC <0
2
growth in the middle
○ E.g. Laplace equation, Poisson equation
● Advanced Mathematics 1
○ Complex Numbers z̄ is the conjugate of of z
■ Forms: ■ Matrix/Matrices
● Rectangular: z=x + jy ● Cofactor: determinants of submatrices
● Polar: r ∠ θ associated with particular entries in the
● Trigonometric: z=r (cosθ+ jsinθ) original square matrix
● Minor
or z=rcisθ ● Basketweave Method: For getting the
● Exponential: z=r e jθ determinant of a 2x2 or 3x4 matrix ONLY
■ Operations of Complex numbers:
● Addition: (x 1+ x2 )+ j( y 1 + y 2 )
● Subtraction: (x 1−x 2)+ j( y 1− y 2 )
● Multiplication: r 1 r 2 ∠(θ1 +θ2 )
r1
● Division: ∠(θ 1−θ2 )
r2 ● Pivotal Element Method: In getting the
○ Better to use exponential form when determinant of a matrix of order n>3:
multiplying and subtracting complex Pivotal Element Method - 4x4
numbersc 1. Choose a pivotal element (preferrably 1
■ Power and Roots of Complex Numbers so easier solution). If no 1 is present,
● ¿
use any element aij in the matrix and

( 1n ( θ+ 2 πk ) )
1
divide the row/column it belongs in it
● √n r ∠ θ=( r ∠ θ )1 / n=r n ∠ such that that element becomes 1.
k=0: principal root Balance the determinant by multiplying
k=1: 2nd root … the matrix by aij
k=n-1: nth root 2. Find the pivotal row and column
■ Logarithms of Complex numbers 3. Determinant =
● ln (x+ jy)=ln ( r e jθ ) =ln(r)+ jθ ¿
where i and j are the row and column
E.g. log (−5+ 2 j) (−3+ 4 j) locations respectively
ln (|−3+ 4 j|) + j arg (−3+4 j ) ● Eigenvalues: special set of scalars associated
shortcut: = with the system of linear equations
ln (|−5+2 j|) + jarg (−5+ 4 j ) ○ [ A ] x=λx where
= 0.84−0.07 j A: square matrix
■ Trigonometric and Hyperbolic λ: eigenvalue of A
jθ − jθ θ −θ
e +e e +e ○ Eigenvalue of a square matrix:
● cos θ=¿ , cos hθ=¿ | A−Iλ|=0
2 2
jθ − jθ θ −θ E.g. Find eigenvalue of
e −e e −e
● sin θ=¿ , sin h θ=¿
2j 2 2 4 2-λ 4
=
● cos (ix)=cos h x 0 3 0 3-λ
● sin(ix)=isin h x (2-λ)(3-λ)-0 = 6-5λ+λ2=0 → λ=2,3
■ Locus of a Complex number:
Let z1 and z2 be fixed points in the complex ● Eigenvectors: vectors (non-zero) that do not
plane (i.e. can be real or imaginary) change the direction when any linear
● |z−z 1|−|z−z 2|=k transformation is applied. It changes by only
a scalar factor
○ If k ≠|z 1−z 2| : hyperbola ○ Eigenspace (of vector x) consists of a
○ If k =|z 1−z 2| : straight line joining z1 set of all eigenvectors with the
and z2 equivalent eigenvalue collectively with
the zero vector
● |z−z 1|+|z −z2|=k ● Wronskian of Function
○ If k ≠|z 1−z 2| : ellipse ○ W (f (x ), g(x ), h(x))=¿
○ If k =|z 1−z 2| : straight line f(x) g(x) h(x)
|z−z 1| f’(x) g’(x) h’(x)
● =k or |z−z 1|=k |z−z 2| f’’(x) g’’(x) h’’(x)
|z−z 2| ○ [Caltech]: Get the determinant of the
○ If k ≠ 1: circle matrix above and assume a value of x,
○ If k =1: ⊥ bisector of z1 and z2 then just divide by the choices
● |z + z|+|z−z|=k : square
● Advanced Mathematics 2
○ Z-transform T0 / 2
2
■ Z-transform of a discrete-time signal x[n] is
defined as the power series:
b n=ℑ[c n]= ∫ ❑ x (t)sin ( 2 πn f 0 t ) dt
T 0 −T /2 0
∞
○ Fourier Transform
X ( z)= ∑ ❑ x (n)z −n
where ■ See Fourier Transform section in EST
n=−∞
■ Convolution:
● Kernel: z−n t

● z=a+ jb (Complex number) F (s )G(s)=∫ ❑ f (τ )g (t−τ )dτ

● X ( z) is a power series of complex 0
or
numbers. Z-transform transforms time- t
domain signals x[n] into its complex-plane
representation X[z] F (s )G(s)=∫ ❑ f (t−τ ) g (τ )dτ
0
■ Region of Convergence (ROC): set of all values ∞ n
f (a)
of z for which X(z) attains a finite value
2 5 7
○ Taylor Series : ∑❑ n! ¿
E.g. X ( z)=1+ + + n=0
●
z z2 z3 ■ Should be in powers of x
∞
○ ROC: entire z-plane except z=0. xn
Because if z=0, X(z) approaches ∞
○ McLaurin Series: ∑ ❑ f (0) n ! n

n=0
2 2 5 7 ■ A taylor series expansion where a = 0
● E.g. X ( z)=z + + +
z z 2 z3 ■ Also should be in powers of x
∞
○ ROC: enite z-plane except z=0 & z=∞. xn
Because if z=0, the last 3 terms ○ Fibonacci Sequence: ∑ ❑ f n (0) n!
n=0
approach infinity, and if z=∞, the
○ Laplace Transform
first term approaches ■ In engineering, this is used for analysis of Linear
infinity Time-Invariant (LTI) systems such as electrical
■ Z-transform Properties
circuits, harmonic oscillators, optical devices,
● Linearity: and mechanical systems
ax (n)+by (n)↔ aX (z )+ bY (z ) ● LTI:
−n
● Shifting: x (n−n0 )↔ z X (z ) 0
Ax1 (t)→[ Linear System ]→ Ay 1 (t)
Multiply z−n 0 ● Linear + Time Invariant (will not change wrt
time)
○ E.g. x (n−2) ↔ z −2 X ( z) ∞
● Time Reversal: X (−n)↔ X (z −1 ) F (s )=L[f (t )]=∫ ❑f (t)e
−st
■ dt
● Multiplication by exponential: 0
n −st −(a + jb)t −at − jbt
a x (n) ↔ X (az ) (z becomes az) ● e =e =e e where
−at
−zdX ( z ) e : damping factor
● Derivative: nx (n)↔ − jbt
dz e : oscillation factor
● Z-transform of dirac-delta: Z [δ(n)]→1 ■ Important Laplace transforms:
■ Funding the Radius of Convergence (ROC) ● Laplace of multipliying t: differentiate in s
● |a z −1|< 1 if n ∈ [1,∞) L[t¿¿ n f (t)]→ ¿ ¿
● Laplace of dividing t: integrate in s
● |a z −1|> 1 if n ∈ (-∞,-1] ∞
1
○ Fourier Series L[ f (t )]→ ∫ ❑[ F (s)]ds
■ A technique for expressing a periodic function in t s
terms of sinusoids ● Laplace of an integral: divide by s:
● by Jean Baptiste Fourier t
1
a ∞
nπx nπx L[∫ ❑ f (τ)dt ]→ F (s )
■ f (x)= 0 + ∑ ❑[an cost + bn sin ] 0 s
2 n =1 L L ● Laplace of a derivative: multiply by s:
or df (t)
∞ ○ L[ ]→ sF (s )−f (0)
x (t)=c 0+ ∑ ❑[an cost 2 πn f 0 t +bn sin 2 π f o t] dt
n=1 ○
where: 2
d f (t) 2
1
❑ L[ ]→ s F ( s)−sf (0)−f ' (0)
c 0= ∫❑ x(t)dt → DC/average value
T0 T
dt
2

0 ○ General:
T 0 /2 n
2 d f (t) n n−1 n−2
a n=ℜ[c n ]= ∫ ❑ x (t)cos ( 2 πn f 0 t ) dt
T 0 −T /2
L[
dt
n
]→ s F( s)−s f (0)−s
0
● Note: un (t )=u(t−n)
 ○ E.g. u3 (t )=u(t−3) ● 2nd Shifting Theorem (shift in time
domain):
● Laplace of dirac-delta: L[δ (t)]→1 (same −as
as Z-transform) L[f ( t−a)u (t−a)]→e F(s)
○ ∫ f (t)δ (t−a)=f (a) ● Steady state of f(t): lim sF (s)
s→0
■ Laplace Transform Properties ○ Find F(s) first from f(t) then multiply by
● First Shifting Theorem: (shift in Laplace s then get limit as s approaches 0
domain) ○ Gamma Function
○ L[e ±at f (t)]→ F ( s ∓ a) ■ Γ ( x)=(x−1)! where x: whole number
at 1 ■ Γ ( x+1)=xΓ (x) where x: (+) fraction
■ E.g. e →
s−a Γ (x +1)
(s−a) ■ Γ ( x)= where x: (-) fraction
at
■ E.g. e cos kt → x
¿¿ ■ Γ (1) = 1
1
■ Γ ( )=√ π
2
Z-Tranform Table
Laplace Tranform Table
● Engineering Data Analysis/Probability
○ Fundamental Principle of Counting: ○ Standard Deviation (sd): √ variance
■ N=m× n ○ Coefficient of Variation (CV):
■ N=m+ n σ sx std . dev
○ Statistics: involves the methods of collecting, CV = ∨ × 100 %= × 100
processing, analyzing, and summarizing data in order
μ μ mean
○ Probability
to provide answers or solutions to an inquiry
■ Population Sample ■ Probability of event: P E ≤ 1 ALWAYS
● How many samples do we need? ■ Binomial Distribution
N ● P ¿n Cr ¿ where
● Slovin’s Formula: n= ○ p: probability of success
1+ N ¿ ¿
○ n: no. of samples ○ q = 1-p: probability of failure
○ N: total population ○ Conditions: outcome are independent,
○ err = error margin / margin of error constant; only 2 possible outcomes for
■ Sampling methods an event
X −λ
● Probability Sampling
■ Poisson’s distribution: P x =
λ e where
○ Simple random sampling X!
○ Systematic sampling ● Limiting case of Binomial distribution when
○ Stratified sampling N (# of trials) gets very large and p (prob of
○ Cluster sampling success) is small
○ Multistage sampling ● Keyword: “Poisson”, “average”
● Non-probability sampling ● λ=np=¿ mean
○ Convenience sampling
● X = # of successes
○ Quota sampling
■ Conditional probability
○ Snowball sampling
■ Kinds of Data: Qualitative & Quantitative P(B ∩ A )
● P B ∨ A=
■ Levels of Measurements P ( A)
● Nominal - variables are categorical and ○ Others
non-numeric + no sense of ordering ■ T-tests (based on Student’s distribution): for
○ Qualitative determining if the differences between
○ E.g. Jersey numbers samples mean is significant.
● Ordinal Level - variables are categorical m
also, but ordering is important ■ Expectation: E= ∑ ❑ P n xn
○ Qualitative n=1
○ Strongly disagree -- strongly agree ● Average amount a player can win/lose on
● Interval - one unit differs from another unit one play in a game
by a certain amount of degree ■ Odds
○ Quantitative P (success)
○ E.g. Celcius scale, IQ level ● Odds for an event to occur:
P (failure)
● Ratio - one unit has so many times as much
of the property as does another unit. It has a ● Odds against an event to occur:
meaningful (unique and arbitrary) absolute, P (failure)
fixed zero point and allows all arithmetic P (success)
operations ○ Coefficient of Skewness
○ Quantitative 3 ( x−Median)
○ E.g. height,weight,energy,charge ■ S K median =
■ Measures of Central Tendency Sd
● Measures of Location ( x−Mode)
■ S K mode=
Σ(values) Sd
○ Mean: average x=
N ○ Kurtosis:
○ Median: find the middle value ■ K=¿ Σ ¿ ¿
○ Mode: most frequent ● If K < 3: Platykurtic: flat-topped curve
¿h ● If K = 3: Mesokurtic: normal
○ Percentiles: Pn=N ∙ ● If K > 3: Leptokurtic: high-peaked curve
100
¿h
○ Quartiles: Q n=N ∙
4
¿h
○ Deciles: D n=N ∙
10
● Measures of Dispersion
○ Range: max−min
○ Interquartile range: IQR=Q 3−Q 1
○ Variance: Σ ¿ ¿ ○ Some problems:
■ How many different 5-letter words can be ○ 1 C 1 for letter I (only letter I has 3 alike
formed from the word DEFINITION (i.e. total letters)
number of combinations:) ● 2 alike, 2 alike, 1 diff:
● All different: (7 C 5) ×5 !=2520 5!
(2 C 2)(5 C 1)( )=¿ 150
● 2 alike, 3 different: 2 ! 2!
5! ○ 2 C 2 for letter both letter I and N (both
(2 C 1)(6 C 3)( )=2400
2! have 2 alike letters)
○ 2 C 1 for either I or N ● 3 alike, 2 different:
● 3 alike, 2 different: 5!
(1 C 1)(1C 1)( )=10
5! 3 ! 2!
(1 C 1)(6 C 2)( )=300
3! ○ 1 C 1 for letter I (3 alike), 1 C 1 for letter
N (2 alike)
● Total: 5380
 ● Electromagnetics (Math)
○ Vector Analysis: branch of mathematics that deals ○ Identities:
with quantites that have both magnitude and direction ■ ¿(curl(V ))=0
E.g. Let vector a=a x i+a y j+ a z k ● Because curl(V) gets the vector representing
■ √
Vector magnitude: |a|= a x +a y +a z
2 2 2 the perpendicular of the 2 vectors (sinθ), and
Divergence gets the projection (cosθ) so the
a vector answer must be 0
■ ^=
Unit vector: a
|a| magnitude of vector ■ curl (grad (U ))=0
● |a ^|=1 (ALWAYS) ● Because grad(U) gets only the changes in
○ Scalar multiplication: c |a|=√ ¿ ¿ every axis only (i,j,k). Using the right-hand
rule for each unit vector with itself will
○ Dot product: A ∙ B=| A||B|cosθ result to 0
A ∙B ■ Laplacian(f )=¿(Grad (U ))
■ Scalar projection: | A B|=|A|cosθ=
|B| ○ Electromagnetism: interaction of electric
(vector A projected onto B thus scalar only) currents/fields and magnetic fields
■ Vector projection: vector ■ Electrostatics: deals with the properties of
Multiply | A B| and the unit vector of B stationary or slow-moving electric charges
Q1 Q2 1
A∙ B ● Coulomb’s Law: F=k , k=
∗B r
2 4 π εo
|B |
A B=| A B| ^B=
|B|
( A ∙ B)∗B
A B=¿ 2
|B|
○ Cross product: A × B=| A||B|sinθ
■ Use Right-hand rule for direction [See ELEC: Electricity/Magnetism
Fundamentals]
■ Volume of Parallelepiped: V =| A ∙(B × C)|
Q1 Q2
● Order of the vectors don’t matter In vector notation: F 12=k 2
a12
○ Del or Nabla: ∇=
d d
i+ j+ k
d |a12|
dx dy dz ● Gauss’ Law: (See below)
df df df ■ Magnetostatics: study of magnetic fields in
○ Gradient: ∇ f (x , y , z )= i+ j+ k systems (usually permanent magnets or DC
dx dy dz currents) → where currents are steady
■ Describes the changes in a particular axis only ● Biot-Savart Law (See below)
■ Input scalar, Output vector ● Ampere’s Circuital Law: (See below)
d d d
○ Divergence: divf =∇ ∙ f = f ^+ f ^ + f ^
dx i dy j dz k ● Maxwell’s Equation (time-varying fields)
■ Rate of outward flow ○ Faraday’s law: time-verying magnetic fields
■ Input vector, Output scalar produce an electric field (voltage) or emf. This is
○ Curl: curl f =∇ × f equal to rate of change of flux linkage.
Let ■ Faraday’s Law: When the magnetic flux
f (x , y , z)=P( x , y , z )+Q(x , y , z)+ R(x , y , z ) linking a circuit changes, an electromotive
force (emf) is induced in the circuit
proportional to the rate of change of the flux
linkage
dΦ d (BA) di
■ emf =−N =−N =−L
dt dt dt
−d
■ Integral form: ∮C E ∙ dl= ∫A B∙ dS
dt
∇×f = ( dRdy − dQdz )i−( dRdx − dPdz ) j+( dQdx − dPdy ) k ■ Differential form: ∇ × E=
−d B
dt
■ Input vector, Output vector
● The induced magnetic field inside any
○ Laplacian: Δ f (x , y , z )=∇ 2 f =∇ ∙ ∇ f
loop of wire always acts to keep the

( dxd i+ dyd j+ dzd k ) ∙ dxd f + dyd f + dzd f

i^ ^j ^k
●
magnetic flux in the loop constant
E: electric field/ electric field intensity,
B: magnetic flux
¿ ( )+ ( )+ ( )
d df d df d df
dx dx dy dy dz dz ○ Ampere’s law: steady currents and time-varying
2 2 2
electric fields (voltage or emf) produce a magnetic
d f d f d f field [around a coil of wire]
∇ f¿ + 2+ 2
2
2
dx d y d z ■ Σ B ∙ dl=μ0 I where
■ “Acceleration” B: magnetic field density
■ Input scalar, Output scalar
 dl: distance that the magnetic field travels ● D: Electric flux density
(for straight conductors: l=2πr) D ∙ dS: component of D entering or
µ0: permeability of free space [const 33] exiting the volume
I: current ρ : Electric charge density
■ Integral form: ■ The electric field inside any closed hollow
❑ ❑ ❑
conductor is zero (assuming that the region
∮ ❑ H ∙ dl=∮ ❑ J ∙ dS+∫ ❑ D ∙ dS=I enclosed by the conductor contains no charges)
c c S
● All the charges lies on the shell thus there
dD
■ Differential form: ∇ × H=J + is no electric field inside the shell
dt ○ Gauss law for magnetism: There are no magnetic
H: magnetic field/magnetic field intensity monopoles (All magnets are dipoles) The magnetic
dD flux across a closed surface is zero. Magnetic field
: displacement current density due to lines form closed loops
dt ❑
free flowing charges
D: electric field density
■ Integral form: ∮ ❑ B∙ dS=0
c
J or J ∙ dS: current that crosses a surface ■ Differential form: ∇ ∙ B=0
(or current density)
● Also since B=μH , ∇ ∙ H=0
I: current
● Use right-hand-rule (RHR) to find
direction of current and magnetic field.

■ Biot-Savart Law: a differential current

element produces a differential magnetic field
μ0 ❑ Id L × r^ ' μ 0 Idlsinθ
d B= ∫ ❑ r2 = 4 π × r2
4π C
d ^ d ^ d ^
● Describes the magnetic field generated by ■ where ∇ (∇ )= i + j + k (gradient)
a constant electric current (which are their dx dy dz
sources); where ■ ∮C: closed integral
● Curl Right-hand rule for direction of B
dB = differential magnetic flux density ● Maxwell’s Equation (boundary conditions, conductors
μ = μ0μr = permeability and dielectrics)
I: current ■ Boundary condition:
dl: differential length of wire/conductor ● Faraday’s law: : a ^n × ( E1−E 2) =0
r̂ ’: unit vector of r’ (r’=r-l, which is the full ○ Tangential electrical field E is
displacement vector from wire element dl at continuous
point l to the point at which the field is being
computed (r) ● Ampere’s law: a ^n × ( H 1−H 2 )=J c
○ Discontinuity of tangential magnetic
Some formulas from Biot-Savart Law: field H equals the surface current
μ0 I ● Gauss’ electric law: : a ^n ∙ ( D1−D2 ) =ρV
● B at center of a circular loop: B=
2r ○ Discontinuity of the normal electric
μ0 I field density D equals the charge
● B of a finite-straight wire: B= density enclosed
2 πr
● B on axis of current loop: ● Gauss’ magnetism law a ^n ∙ ( B1−B2 )=0
μ0 2 π r 2 I ○ Normal component of magnetic flux
Bz =¿ density B is continuous
4 π ¿¿ ■ Notes on boundary conditions
○ Gauss’ electric law: electric charges produce an ● If surface is perfect conductor: σ =∞ and
electric field. The electric flux across a closed no time-varying fields can exist. Thus all
surface is proportional to the charge enclosed. subscripts 2 will be removed.
❑
Q ○ a ^n × E=0
■ Φ E =ψ= =∮ ❑ E ∙ dA
ε0 ❑ ○ a^n × H =J c
[See ELEC: Electricity/Magnetism Fundamentals: Gauss Law] ○ a^n × D=ρV
Φ E is the electric flux ○ a^n × B=0
Q: charge ● If surface is a dielectric: no current can
Total electric flux out of a closed space is pass through thus JS and ρV are both zero.
the charge enclosed divided by the
permittivity of free space ε0 [constant 32] ○ a^n × ( E1−E 2) =0
■ Integral form:
❑ ❑
○ a^n × ( H 1−H 2 )=0
∮ ❑ D ∙ dS=∫ ❑ ρ ∙ dV =Q enclosed ,T ○ a^n ∙ ( D1−D2 ) =0
S V
■ Differential form: ∇ ∙ D=ρV
a^n ∙ ( B1−B2 )=0
● Feedback/Control Systems (Math)
○ or the fundamentals/applications of Feedback and K (s +3)
Control Systems, [See ELEC: Feedback systems: E.g. G(s) = =
Fundamentals]
s¿¿
○ Transfer Function: represents the relationship (0−4−4−5−6)−(−3)
between the output signal of a control system and the 5−1
input signal, for all possible input values 4 asymptotes, centroid: (-4,0)
■ In deriving the transfer function of a system:
● assume all initial conditions to be zero (0)
● Gain is the ratio of Laplace(output) to
Laplace(input)
● Loading or input cannot be assumed to be
zero
■ Also the gain of the system (G)

With feedback: There are 3 zeroes, 6 poles. As the number of

zeros should be equal to number of poles, the
remaining three zeros are located at s → ∞

○ Electrical Network Transfer Functions

■ Resistor: v R=Ri (t)→ RI (s)
C (s) q 1
G(s)= ⇒C (s)=G(s)R (s) where ■ Capacitor: v c ( t)= = ∫ i(t)dt →
R(s) C C
c(t) or C(s): system output 1
r(t) or R(s): system input I (s )
Cs
g(t) or G(s): open-loop transfer function
h(t) or H(s): feedback gain or Feedback ratio di( t)
■ Inductor: v L (t)=L → LsI (s)
b(t) or B(s): output of feedback elements dt
e(t) or E(s): error signal ○ Time Response of a control system
■ Note: s is a complex variable (σ + jw ) ■ Time response: input and output of control
■ In polynomial form: system varies with respect to time
(s−z 1 )(s−z 2 )(s−z 3 )... ■ c (t )=c tr (t)+c ss (t ) where
G(s)=k where k ctr: transient response of system
(s− p1 )(s− p2 )(s− p3 )...
css: steady-state response of system (after 5τ)
(sometimes H) is the scale factor of the transfer ■ Time response: 1st Order System
a0 a0 C (s) a
function k = or H= ● G(s)= =
b0 b0 R(s) s+a
○ Poles: roots of the denominator of G(s) 1
■ The poles in a transfer function are denoted by x ○ Unit step response where R(s)= :
in the complex plane (see figure below) s
■ Describes the number of asymptotes of a closed a 1 a
C (s )=G(s)R (s )= =
loop system in a root loci s+ a s s (s +a)
○ Zero: roots of the numerator of G(s) ○ Derivation: [See AC Fundamentals:
■ The zeroes in a transfer function are denoted by o First Order (RL & RC)]
in the complex plane c (t) y
○ If s approaches ∞ as the roots are all Step responsetime: g(t ) = = =
finite numbers, they can be ignored r (t ) yi
−t /τ
s
n
(1−e )
compared to s: G(s)=k m = ks n−m Unit step → r(t) = 1 , thus c (t )=1−e−at
s
■ If s → ∞ and n>m (more zeroes than poles) 1 1
C (s )= −
● G(s) will approach ∞ s s+a
● G(s) has poles at infinite s, and the s+ a−s a
multiplicity/order of such pole is n-m C (s )= =
■ If s → ∞ and n<m (more poles than zeroes) s (s+ a) s(s +a)
● G(s) will approach 0 1
● Time constant (τ = ): the time it takes for
● G(s) has zeroes at infinite s, and the a
multiplicity/order of such zero is m-n the step response to rise to 63% of its final
■ How to find centroid of a transfer function: value
Σ ℜ{ poles }−ΣRe { zeroes } 5
Centroid = ○ To reach steady-state: 5 τ = = 99.3%
¿ poles−¿ zeroes a
(full dis/charging time)
 ● Rise time (Tr): time for the waveform to go ■ The coefficients of the polynomials P(S) and
from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final value Q(S) in the network function H(S) are real and
○ Found by solving the difference in time positive for a passive network.
at c(t)=0.9 and c(t)=0.1 ■ Simple vs Multiple pole
2.2 ● If the poles or zeros are not repeated, then
○ T r= =2.2 τ the function is said to be having simple poles
a
or simple zeroes and the network function is
● Settling time (Ts): time for the response to
said to be stable when the real parts of the
reach, and stay within, 2% of its final value.
poles and zeros are negative
○ It is found by solving for t at c(t)=0.98
● If there are repeated poles or zeroes, then
4
○ T s= =4 τ function is said to be having multiple poles
a or multiple zeroes, and the network function
■ Time response: 2nd Order System is stable if the poles and zeroes lie within the
b left-half of the s-plane.
● Given: G(s)= 2 ○ Initial and Final Value Theorem
s +as +b
○ Get the roots of the denominator ■ Initial Value Theorem: lim f (t)=lim sF (s )
t →0 s→∞
[See Math: Differential Equation: Higher- ● For determining the initial value of a time-
order DE (2nd Order and up)] domain response
−r t −r t
● Overdamped: c (t )=c 1 e 1 +c 2 e 2
■ Final Value Theorem: lim f (t)=lim sF (s)
○ Rise is slower than critically damped t →∞ s→0
because the damping factor is really ● For determining the initial value of a time-
high domain response
−r t −r t ● f(t) must be continuous in time
● Critically damped: c (t )=c 1 e 1 +c 2 te 2
○ Routh hurwitz Criteria: used to find the stability of
○ Output will rise to a certain value then the system and this is determined by the number of
stay at that critical value (steady-state) roots in which the number of roots is equal to the
○ damping factor is high enough to stay at number of sign changes
that level ○ Reduction of Multiple Subsystems
● Underdamped: c (t )=A e−αt cos (βt −Φ) ■ Combine blocks in cascade: X 3 =G 1 G 2
○ Overshooting happens ■ Combine blocks in parallel: X 3 =G 1+ G 2
○ Damping factor is minimal to minimize
● The overall transfer function of two blocks
oscillation so that a final value is
in parallel are sum of individual gain
reached
■ Move summing point behind: X 3 =( X 1 ± X 2 )G
● Undamped: c (t )=A cos( βt−Φ)
○ Pure oscillation (no steady-state); thus ● Summing point = mixing
Undamped circuits are Resonant circuits ■ Move pickoff point ahead: X 2 =G X 1
● Pickoff point = sampling
■ Move pickoff point behind: X 2 =G X 1,
X 1 =X 1
■ Move summing point ahead: X 3 =G X 1 ± X 2
G
■ Eliminate feedback loop: feedback=
1 ∓ GH
○ Some notes: ● Sign is inversed in the denominator of
■ The values of the poles and the zeros of a system whatever is in the summing point
determine whether the system is stable, and how ■ Adjacent summing points can be interchanged
well the system performs ■ How to split a summing point into two: How do
● If at right-hand side: Unstable you split a summing point into two? - Electrical
● If at left-hande side: Stable Engineering Stack Exchange
● If at imaginary-axis: Marginally-stable
 ELEC: Electricity/Magnetism Fundamentals
● Electric Charge (Q) and Electricity ■ >50 mA: Severe shock
○ Electricity ■ >100 mA: Fatal
■ The movement of electrons
■ From “Elektron” meaning “amber” ○ Work: W =Fd=ΔKE (Joules)
■ Observed when amber was rubbed into fur, and 2
W E V 2
amber could attract other objects ○ P= = = =I R=IV (Watts = J/s)
Power:
○ The atom
t t R
■ Charge of e-: -1.602 x 10-19 C ○ Energy: E=Pt
■ Charge of p: + 1.602 x 10-19 C
■ Where 1C = 6.24 x 1018 electrons ● Electric Flux (Φ E ), Voltage (V), Resistance (R),
● This is for a material already, not just for a and Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)
single atom ○ Charge carriers: free electrons flowing through
■ Net charge (QT): sum of individual charges of conductor for closed circuit
each subatomic particle ○ Electrostatic force/Electric Field Strength and
○ Nature of charges Coulumb’s law
■ A neutral atom, when affected by thermal m 1 m2
energy, will produce random motion of electrons ■ From Newton’s law of gravity: F=G 2
(free electrons) resulting to current r
● Current: rate of flow of free electrons q1q2 1
○ Types of electricity ■ Coulumb’s law: F s=k 2
, k=
■ Static electricity r 4 π ε0
● Stationary, accumulation of electric charges where FS: electrostatic force, and
9 2 2
(produce electrons only, no flow yet) k ≃9 ×1 0 N m /C
○ Also known as Frictional electricity ● The electrostatic force is what dominates the
○ No conductor atomic level
● Can be seen in open circuits ● Note from the formula that both bodies must
○ E.g. Lightning, usually in air, rubbing of have charges otherwise there is no
amber and fur Electrostatic force FS
● Kinds of Static electricity ○ Electric Field Strength/Electric field intensity (E)
○ Vitreous static electricity: produced by ■ Also called Voltage gradient
rubbing silk on a glass rod ■ Concerns only the source charge Q, it does not
■ Vitreous: latin for “glass” concern the point charge q (which is considered
■ Positive electricity in electrostatic force/Coulomb’s force FS)
○ Resinous static electricity: produced by ■ Q: source charge, q: point/test charge
rubbing fur on a rubber, amber or plastic
rod
■ Negative electricity ■ By Coulumb’s law:

( )
■ Dynamic electricity Fs Q
● Flow of electric charges E= =k 2
○ Also called Electric current
q r
● transfer is continuous; cyclic (unit: V/m or N/C)
● Only for closed circuits V
■ E=
r
● Current (A), Work, Energy, Power (in ■ Electric Flux lines flow from Positive to
Electromagnetics) Negative charge: Positive charge (+) flow
○ Charge carriers: free electrons flowing through outward, while Flux lines for negative charge (-)
conductor for closed circuit flow inward
○ Motion of electrons caused by: ■ Parallel-plate capacitors (Electric field intensity
■ Collision of Positive ions and electrons between two oppositely charged particles)
■ Attractive and repulsive forces σ
○ Current (A) ● E= (see Gauss’ law)
ε0
Q Q
■ I= (C / s∨ A) ● From Surface charge density: σ = ,
t A
■ Conventional current (or hole flow): positive to
Q Q
negative; E= =
Electron flow: negative pushes away, positive A ε 0 (4 π R2 )ε 0
attracts
● Hole flow flows in opposite direction as that ○ Electric Flux: Φ E =E( A⊥ )cosθ=E( A area )
of electron flow (Φ E ∨Ψ ; unit: C) → Measure or flow of Electric
● Electron flow must give the same voltage field PERPENDICULAR through a given area
drop as that using the conventional flow. ● Parallel E and Area = 0 Flux
○ Keeping safe: ● Perpendcular E and Area = maximum Flux
■ >10 mA: dangerous, temp paralysis
 ○ E: Electric field strength ○ n: electron concentration [/m3]
○ A: area of surface ○ p: hole concentration [/m3]
2
○ µn/µp: mobility of electron/hole [
m ]
V⋅s

● Magnetism, Magnetic Feild/Flux (Φ M ),

Reluctance (S)
○ Permittivity (ε ) ○ Magnetism: A property possessed by iron, steel, and
■ Permittivity: the opposition offered against the certain other magnetic materials, in which these
formation of an electric field (E) materials can produce or conduct magnetic lines of
D forces (on their own)
■ ε =ε 0 ε r= (unit: F/m) where
E ■ Energy in Electric vs Magnetic circuits
ε 0 : permettivity of free space [constant 32] ● Electric circuits: Energy is converted to heat
in resistive electric circuits
ε r: relative permittivity or Dielectric ● Magnetic circuits: Energy is stored
constant (for dielectrics) ■ A magnetic field cannot change the kinetic
Qenclosed energy of a charged particle
○ Gauss’ Law: Φ E =¿ ■ Laws of Magnetism:
ε0
● Like poles repel, opposite poles attract
■ The total electric flux passing through any
● “A magnetic field always tends to arrange
enclosed surface is equal to the charge enclosed
itself so that the greatest number of lines of
by that surface
force are created”
● +ΦE: flux going out of the solid
● Magnetic field lines go from North pole to
● -ΦE: flux going in to the solid
South pole outside a magnet (Inside a
■ Unit: Coulumb (C)
magnet, the magnetic field is South→North)
■ Derived from Electric flux ΦE formula: ● Magnetic fields always comes in loops
kQ 2 1 Q 2 Q ○ Unlike electric charges which can be
Φ E =EA= (4 π r )= ( 4 π r )=
r
2
4 π εo r 2
ε0 separated, magnetic poles cannot be
○ Electric Flux Density (D) separated (i.e. magnets are always in
■ Describes how focused flux is on a given area; dipoles).If a magnet is broken, each
not dependent on material unlike E piece will have its own north/south pole
■ D=εE (unit: C/m2) ● Metals when attracted to magnets attract
■ From surface charge density σ and Gauss’ Law: towards the true North
ΦE Q Q Electric flux ○ Types of magnetic devices
D=¿ = = ■ Natural vs Artificial
A A 4 π r2 Area ● Natural: naturally occuring magnet
Area is most usually SA of sphere ○ E.g. lodestone or magnetite (strongest
● Charges are always omnidirectional in natural magnet), pyrrhotite, ferrite,
nature (thus forming a sphere) regardless of columbite
the enclosed solid the charge is in ● Artificial: magnets made by people; can be
○ Voltage (V) designed so the North and South poles are
■ Voltage as ‘potential difference’ located at specific spots on the magnet
■ Voltage formula ■ Permanent vs Temporary
W Joule ● Permanent magnets: materials which create
● V=, unit [J/C]
Q Coulomb their own persistent static magnetic field;
Q coulomb k q1 q2 retains their magnetism once magnetized
● V= , thus W = ○ These do not lose their magnetic field
C Farad r strength
● From Electric Field formulas: ● Temporary magnets: behave like permanent
kQ Fr W ΔPE magnet when in the presence of a magnetic
V =Er = = = = field
r q q q
thus voltage is termed as “potential” from ○ Electromagnet: made from coil of wires
the potential energy which act as a magnet (i.e. creates
○ Resistance (R) magnetic field) when a current passes
l l through it [see Electromagnetic
■ R=ρ = [See Resistors: Formulas] Induction/Electromagnetism basics]
A σA ■ Electromagnets are generic terms
● ρ : resistivity, σ : conductivity ○ Solenoids: a cylindrical coil of wire that
○ conductance G is the inverse of acts as a magnet (electromagnet) but the
resistance R magnetic core can be movable (in or
○ conductivity σ is the inverse of out)
resistivity ρ ■ Weaker than an electromagent
● σ =e (n μn + p μ p) where because of the magnetic core inside
○ e: electron charge (1.6x10-19C) the coil can be absent (moved out)
[constant 23] of the coil
 ■ Solenoids: type of electromagnet;
also called Temporary magnets
○ Magnetic Flux Density (B)
○ Magnetic Field/Flux (Weber [Wb]) Φ Flux
■ Made up of magnetizing force instead of ■ B=μH= [ ] (Tesla-T or Wb/m2,
A Area
electrostatic forces; represented by magnetic flux
Gauss-G or Mx/cm2)
lines (Φm)
● 1 Flux line = Maxwell (Mx) ● 1 T =1Wb /m 2=1 04 G
● Group of flux lines: Weber (Wb) ■ Magnetic Flux based on distance from the center
○ 1 Wb = 1 x 108 Mx and the current I in a straight conductor:
● Flux lines flow from positive end to negative μ0 I
end of a conductor B=
2 πr
■ Φ m=B ∙ A=B A ⊥ cosθ (formula
○ Permeability¿ based on
■ ability of magnetic material to support an applied Ampere’s
magnetic field (unit: H/m or Wb/A-m) Law)
■ how easy a material can be magnetized ○ Magnetomotive
B force (mmf)
■ μ❑=μ 0 μr = where: ■ Force
H
µ0: permeability of free space [constant 33] required to
µr: relative permeability setup
■ Susceptibility: amount by which relative magnetic
permeability differs from unity/vacuum flux lines
within a
X m=μr −1 magnetic
● Inverse of Reactance (X) thus “Susceptance” material
term ■ mmf =¿ (At or Ampere-turns or A)
■ Types of Magnetic materials (based on relative
● 1 A ∙t=0.4 π Gb (Gilbert)
permeability µr)
● Non-magnetic: µr = 1 ○ Magnetic Field Strength (H)
○ Not capable of being magnetized ■ Also called Magnetizing force or amount of
(i.e. Walang pake sa magnet) A At
magnetizing force per unit length (unit: or
○ E.g. Air m m
● Diamagnetic: µr < 1 )
○ Since µr < 1, the material repels B ¿ mmf
magnetism (note: magnetism and not ■ [coil of wire]: H= = =
electricity thus it is still a good
μ❑ l l
conductor) ■ [straight conductor or infinitely long wires]:
○ Materials are freely magnetized, but the B I
= H=
direction is opposite of that of magnetic μ 2 πr
field ● ¿=Hl=mmf
○ “Are you magnetic? Dia! (Hindi ah)” ● Inversely proportional to cross-sectional area
thus it’s not magnetic (thus 2 πr ¿
○ E.g. Beryllium, Bismuth, Copper, Zinc,
■ Corresponds to Electric Field strength or
Mercury, Antimony, Gold, Silver, Wax,
V
dry wood Electrostatic force in Electricity ( E= )
● Paramagnetic: µr > 1 r
○ Materials are weakly attracted to ■ Can be increased by placing an magnet within
magnets the coil
○ “Parang magnetic” so it’s slightly ○ Reluctance (S)
greater than 1 ■ Other term is Magnetic resistance (resisting
○ E.g. Aluminum, Platinum, Manganese, magnetic fields) → Equivalent to resistance for
Chromium Electric fields E
● Ferromagnetics: µr >> 1 (e.g.µr ≥ 1) mmf l l
○ Ferromagnetics have minute magnetic ■ S= = = (H-1 or At/Wb)
Φ μA μ0 μr A
domains created within their atomic
l
structure by the orbital motion and spin ● Other formula: S= ρm where
of electrons A
○ Ferromagnetics readily accept magnetic ○ ρm : reluctivity - equivalence of
field lines thus they get extremely 1
concentrated inside the material resistivity in magnetic materials ρm =
○ Ferrites have very low loss of current μ
Hl l
and used in high frequency circuit S= ¿ = =
○ E.g. Iron, Nickel, Steel, Cobalt, alloys ● From: Φ BA B
of these metals A
H
 ■ Inverse: Permeance(ϱ), property of a substance
to allow magnetic flux to be established in a
l
material ϱ= .
S
○ In a ring/loop of magnetic material:
■ A ring/loop is a series magnetic circuit. If the
loop has different sections made from different ● Electromagnetic Induction / Electromagnetism
materials or different lengths/areas, then: ○ Electromagnet: made from coil of wires which act as
● Magnetic flux ΦM is the same (acts like a magnet (i.e. creates a magnetic field) when a
current) current passes through it
mm f T ■ E.g. Solenoids/Toroids
○ Φ T =¿ ¿ Φ 1=Φ2 ■ Electromagnet is a current carrying conductor
ST
■ Effect of ferrous core: concentrates magnetic
● Reluctance S differs: ST =S1 +S 2 +.. . (acts field lines
like resistance) ■ The saturation of the iron core of an
● mmf differs: mm f T =mm f 1 +mm f 2+ ... electromagnet occurs when:
(acts like voltage) ● (1) Molecular dipoles are aligned by the
● Flux density B will also vary depending on magnetizing force H
the cross-sectional area of that segment ● (2) The flux density B cannot be increased
[ΦT =B1 A1 ] or some other segment anymore in the core even if the field
● An air-gap in a magnetic circuit increases intensity H is increased
the reluctance S of magnetic path. thus ○ Electromagnetic induction: the ability of a changing
preventing core saturation. magnetic flux to create voltage and current inside a
○ Recall: magnetic saturation causes loss conductor. [See Faraday’s Law]
of inductance, thus increasing current, ■ Changing magnetic flux → either by relative
and power loss in the circuit motion of the magnet and the coil/conductor OR
○ Introducing an air-gap influences the a change in current in the coil → induced emf
parameters of BH curve ■ Relative motion between coil and magnet =
■ Allows driving inductor at higher H change in magnetic field lines or flux linkages
(magnetic field strength) thus with the coil = change in magnetic flux B =
extending range before magnetic induced voltage → induced current if the
saturation occurs conductor circuit is closed [Electromagnetic
■ Decreases inductance induction as stated by Faraday’s Law]
■ Increases saturation current of ■ Notes: Magnetic field does not have specific
magnetic inductor North or South poles
○ Air gap thus reduces excessive flux ○ Electromagnetism: magnetism produced by an
produced by high saturation current electric current (electromagnet) rather than by a
○ Force between two straight, current-carrying wires: natural magnet
○ Discovered by Hans Christian Oersted, through a
I1 I2
F=μ0 mangetic needle that is deflected at right angles to a
2 πr wire carrying an electric current
○ Some magnetism terms: ■ From Michael Faraday: an electric current can be
■ Intrusion - placing materials in path of magnetic produced in a circuit by moving a magnet
flux can cause several effects in the flow of flux near/away a coil of wire. This is due to the
lines change in magnetic field [See Magnetic
● When an intrusion is placed outside the path Induction], which is due to the material being
of flux lines (e.g. Soft iron w/c has a high Diamagnetic (i.e copper) which introduces a
permeability), the flux lines get concentrated change in the concentration of magnetic field
to the cross-sectional area of the soft-iron ■ From James Maxwell: A changing electric field
thus intrusion happens creates a magnetic field [See Ampere’s Law]
dΦ di
■ Basically: ∝
dt dt
■ Direction of Magnetic Field around a current-
carrying wire = Curl Hand Rule (1)
● Conventional Flow: Right hand screw rule
● Electron Flow: Left hand screw rule

■ Protection - shielding electrical elements that can

be affected by stray magnetic fields
● Essentially laminating that element
● The magnetic flux lines will follow the
magnetic conductive material (soft iron)
bcause it is more conductive than air
● Used in Hard drives, Voltmeters, etc.
○ Galvanometer: an instrument used for detecting and V
indicating electric current by producing a deflection ○ Ohm’s law I=
R
in response to current flowing through a coil in a
■ If material’s current is proportional to the
constant magnetic field
voltage across it, the material is said to be ohmic
○ The needle deflection in galvanometer:
or obeying Ohm’s law
■ Magnitude of deflection: magnitude depends on
○ Hopkinson’s law/Rowland’s law
the amount of current flowing in which depends
■ Relates magnetic forces to Ohm’s law:
on the amount of magnetic field lines
mmf
■ Direction of deflection ■ mmf =ΦS or from reluctance: Φ=
● The polarity of the induced emf (and S
direction if induced current) is such that it ● like Ohm’s law (I=V/R) but for Magnetism:
produces a current whose magnetic field where mmf is the voltage/force, Φ is the
opposes the change that produces it [See current, and S is like resistance
Lenz’s Law]
■ τ =NIBAsinθ ● Microscopic View of Ohm’s law:
○ τ: torque developed in coil of ○ V = IR proportionality comes from the fact that an
galvanometer applied electric field superimposes a small drift
○ N: no of turns velocity on the free electrons in a metal
○ I: current through coil ○ Ohm’s law using current density, conductivity, and
○ A: area of coil E
○ B: magnetic flux/ magnetic intensity of Electric Field: J=σE=
the field ρ
○ θ: angle between cross-sectional area I current
■ J= [ ]
and direction of magnetic flux A area
■ the resistivity is the proportionality constant for
○ Using Right-hand-rule (RHR) vs Left-hand-rule current density and Electric field
(LHR) ■ J: current density [A/m2]
■ Convention: ■ E: electric field [V/m]
● X : away from viewer ○ Current calculation from free-electron density
● ∙ : toward the viewer i=nAe v d or J=ne v d
■ Fleming’s Right-hand-rule: ■ i: current (electron flow) [A or C/s]
● Also called Generator Rule (given force, ■ J: current density [A/m2]
find current) ■ n: free-electron density [e- per m3]
● Used for Electromagnetic induction; ■ A: cross-sectional area [m2]
Induced emf and induced current ■ e: electron charge [Coulumb]
direction due to an external magnetic field ■ vd: drift velocity [m/s]
B [magnetic field created by an ○ Number of atoms per unit volume:
electromagnet around a current-carrying
atoms kg
conductor] (N A )×(ρ 3 )
○ Used for dynamos and Generators mol m
● Thumb: Force/Induced emf;
n=
kg
Forefinger: magnetic field; A( )
Center finger: Current
mol
● NA: avogadro’s number [constant 24]
○ Current is assumed to
● ρ: density
be conventional
● A: atomic mass of
current/ hole flow
■ Fleming’s Left-hand-rule: V
○ Conduction current density: J=σE= =ρ v
● Also called Motor rule RA V
(given current find Force) ■ J: refers to the movement of current in the
● B: direction of external magnetic field presence of an electric field
I: charged particle/current-carrying ● Follows Ohm’s law
conductor ■ E: electric field [C/m2]
F: direction of motion of conductor ■ σ : conduction
○ Assume electron flow for LHR ■ v : volume
● If the fingers of the left hand encircle the
coil in the same direction as the current ○ Convection current density: J= ρ v d
(electron flow), the thumb points towards ■ J: current flow in an insulating medium
the north pole. ● However, this does not follow Ohm's law
■ ρ: electron density
■ vd: particles' average drift velocity [m/s]
2
ne d
○ Conduction: σ =
m vF

■ where v Fermi =

Fermi energy
m√
2 EF
: fermi speed and EF is the
 ○ Some notes on drift velocity: ■ F=Q(E+ v × B)=BIl sin θ
■ Relationship of drift velocity and electron speed: d l Q
through using the Fermi speed: Since v= ∨ and I =
eE eE d t t t
● v d= τ= Q: charge
m m v Fermi E: electric field
■ Relationship of drift velocity to speed of light: V: drift velocity
the drift velocity of electrons is very small B: magnetic field
compared to the speed of light ■ Direction is by Left-hand Fleming’s rule
● Drift velocity ~ 2x10-4 m/s ■ For finding the force on a current-carrying wire
○ assuming copper wire with 10A current ■ Motional electric field strength: E=v × B
● Speed of light: 3x108 m/s ○ Moving conductor in a magnetic field:
BΔA BlΔx
● Hysteresis ■ emf =Blv = = where
Δt Δt
○ Hysteresis: dependence of the state of a system on its emf: voltage induced in conductor terminals as
history it’s moving in an external magnetic field
■ Hysteresis: characteristic of a magnetic material (direction: positive to negative)
whereby a change in magnetization lags the B: magnetic field density
application of a magnetizing force l: length of conductor
■ Hysteresis: lag between cause and effect v: relative speed of conductor
○ Coercivity: magnetizing field (H) needed to ■ Derivation:
demagnetize a fully magnetic material From Faraday’s Law for a straight conductor
○ Retentivity/Remanence: magnetizing field strength
(H) retained in a material after the absence of a dΦ d (BA)
of length l: emf = =
magnetic field dt dt
■ Also called residual magnetization (when a d (BlvΔt)
magnet is “magnetized” it has remanence) But Δ A=vΔt (l) , thus ¿ =Blv
■ Units: Tesla (in SI units) or Gauss (in cgs units)
Δt
■ Direction is by Right-hand Fleming’s rule
■ Magnetic materials that are used to prepare
■ B, l and v (drift velocity) are all perpendicular to
permanent magnets should have high retentivity
each other.

● Sample Problems
○ A small 1-mm-diameter circular loop is at the center
of a large 20-cm-diameter loop. Both loops lie in the
same plane. The current in outer loop changes from 2
A to 10 A in 5 seconds. What is the induced current
in the inner loop if its resistance is 1 ohm?
−dΦ −Δ(BA)
■ emf = =
dt Δt
μ0 I π d2 μ0 (I )
BA= ( )= ¿ I*2.5x10-12
● Other formulas 2r 4 2 (20 cm)
−12 −12
Voltage Induced in a Conductor −2.5 ×1 0 ( I ) −2.5 ×1 0 (10−2)
○ Lorentz’ Force emf = = =
■ Also called electromagnetic force; it is the force
t 5
−12
a current-carrying conductor is subjected to when emf −4.5 ×1 0 V
I= = =−4.5 pA
it is placed in an external electric field E and R 1Ω
magnetic field B
 ELEC: Electrical Elements
● Resistors ○ Generates negligible noise than carbon-
https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2015/01/resistor-types-resistors- composition resistors
fixed-variable-linear-non-linear.html ○ Has less reactance than a wirewound
○ Applications: type
■ Resist electric current ○ have negative temperature coefficient
■ Used for voltage division values
■ Used for biasing transistors ● Best high-frequency performance
■ Used for power dissipation ● Lower power handling compared to Carbon-
■ Bleeding charge (bleeder resistors) in parallel composition and Wire-wound
with filter capacitors to not damage the supply ● Low to medium resistances only
■ Used for current dissipation ■ IC (Integrated Circuit) resistors
■ Used for impedance matching for amplifiers ● Resistance is controlled by the thickness and
■ Resistance does not depend on size and shape of the types and concentrations of impurities
resistor added
○ All resistors can be placed in 2 categories: ● Least power handling among all types of
■ Fixed resistors due to its small size
■ Variable ● Can be fit in a semiconductor chip
○ Kinds of Fixed resistors

○ Packing style for resistors

■ Flat-pack
■ Single in-line package
■ Dual in-line package
○ Formulas
l l
■ Determining resistances: R=ρ =
A σA
● ρ : resistivity, σ : conductivity
■ Carbon-composition resistors ● l: length; A: cross-sectional area
● Fixed resistor; Most common ■ Thermal resistance: RT =R0 (1+ αΔT )
● Resistance is determined by the ratio of the ■ Power Rating or Power Handling of Resistors:
carbon to that insulating material (usually ● Find the power of the resistor
phenolic), as well as the distance between 2
V 2
the wire leads (P=IV = =I R)
● Non-reactive; thus can be used for AC R
circuit ● The power rating of the resistor must be
○ exhibit little change in effective DC greater than this^ computed power
resistance up to frequencies about 1 1 1
○ 1 Watt, 2 Watt, W , W , W , etc.
100kHz 2 4 8
● Used in radio receivers and transmitters ○ Chip resistors
● Color Code: 0123456789--5%10%20% ■ three #s: first 2 numbers → value, 3rd number
● Bad Boy Ridicules One Young Girl But → multiplier
Violeta Gave Way -- Get Some Now ■ four #s: first 3 numbers → value, 4th number →
■ Wire-wound resistors multiplier
● Has metal wires inside which determine its
resistance (conductivity, diameter or gauge,
length)
○ Has reactive components (See Parasitic
Elements section)
○ Unsuited for use above 50kHz because
of the parasitic elements
● High-precision/sensitivity resistors
● Low and moderate value resistances only ○ Variable resistors
● Best used for high-power, DC circuit ■ Potentiometer
■ Film-type resistors (Carbon-film) ● Variable resistor - 3 terminal device
● Uses thin cylindrical films made of ceramic ● Made to hande only very low levels of
to give resistance current at low voltage (low power)
● Uses a Graphite strip on the inside
 ○ Distance is proportional to its resistance ■ There is no correlation between the physical size
● Parts: of a resistor and its resistance value.
○ Yellow - represents the “always ■ Surface-mount resistor - smallest type of
counterclockwise” element wise resistor
○ Green - represents the “always ● With surface-mount technology, the devices
clockwise” element wise should mount directly
○ Red - Wiper (or collector) of ■ Most resistors have their maximum resistive
potentiometer power rating given for an ambient temperature of
○ Blue is NOT an industry standard in 70oC or below
color coding potentiometer terminals for ● 125oC: the maximum ambient temperature
identification for an EIA precision resistor
■ Rheostat ■ Sample Problems!
● A variable resistor - 2 terminal device ● A DC potentiometer is designed to measure
○ Like Potentiometer’s big brother but it up to 2V with a slide wire of 800mm. A
has higher power handling standard cell of emf 1.18V obtains balances
○ A rheostat can handle more current at 600mm. A test cell is seen to obtain
than a potentiometer balance at at 680mm. What is the emf of the
● can be made from wire wound elements test cell?
○ shares Wire Wound resistor’s ○ In a potentiometer: V ∝ L ∝ R
advantages and disadvantages E 1 L1 R 1
● Only specific values (preset in the Rheostat) = = , thus:
can be used E 2 L2 R 2
1.18V 600 mm
■ Varistor = → x = E2 =
x 680 mm
● A resistor whose resistance varies with
1.34 V
respect to its applied voltage
● Also called Voltage-dependent resistor
● has a nonlinear, non-ohmic current–voltage
characteristic that is similar to that of a diode

○ Resistors’ schematics

○ Some notes on resistors:

 ● Capacitors
https://www.watelectronics.com/different-types-of-capacitors-applications/
○ Passive electrical element that impedes the flow of
AC charge carriers by temporarily storing the energy
in the form of Electric field (E)
■ Made of two parallel plates (conductors) with an
insulator (dielectric) in between
■ Found in airconditioners and in batteries
○ Applications:
■ Decoupling (Bypass): Filter any noise in the
power supply such as voltage ripples
■ Filtering: block low frequency signals while
allowing higher frequencies to pass through
● i.e. capacitors blocks DC and passes AC
■ Energy storage: Although capacitors can store
lower energy compared to batteries of the same
size, they can deliver energy much faster (time
constant τ) and their lifespan is much longer
■ For generating AC signals out of DC signals
(capacitor becomes an oscillator)
■ To measure air humidity, fuel levels, and
mechanical strain capacitors are used as sensors
■ Power factor correction
○ Types of capacitors

■ Types of Capacitors link

■ Fixed Capacitors
● Polar Capacitors (Electrolytic, Tantalum,
Niobium, SMT)
● Non-polar Capacitors (Ceramic, Mica,
Mylar/Polyester, Paper, Film, MKT)
■ Variable Capacitors
● Mechanically controlled (Tuning, Trimmer,
● Electrically controlled (Varactor/Vericap)
● Air capacitors (normally variable)
■ Miscellaneous Capacitor types (Integrated
capacitor, Vacuum capacitor, Special capacitor:
for PCBs)
■ Obsolete Capacitor types (Layden Jar, Air-gap)
○ Formulas:
A
■ Parallel plate capacitor: C=ε ( )
d
A
If more than 2 plates: C=ε ( )(n−1)
d
● ε 0 :permittivity of free space [constant 32]
● ε r : relative permettivity/dielectric constant
○ ratio by which the capacitance is
increased when another dielectric
replaces a vacuum between two
 electrodes (Increased dielectric ■ Charge and discharge current in a capacitor flows
increases capacitance) to and from the capacitor plates and NOT
● n: number of interleaved plates through the dielectric
■ Charge of capacitor: Q=¿=CV ■ A capacitor is charged when one of its plates has
2 more electrons than the other plate, but it is fully
Energy in capacitor: Ecap =
QV C V
■ = charged when it’s open
2 2 ● Open: i.e. current through it is zero
d vc ■ Voltage and current of capacitor when in series
■ DC: i c =C ,vc is the continuity variable with a supply source:
dt
■ AC Current and Voltage relationship: ● Voltage: Initially 0 V but after t=5 τ (5
ICE: Current (I) leads or comes before time constants) will be equal to voltage of
Voltage (E) battery/source
1 ● Current: initially will have exponentially
■ Reactance of Capacitors: XC= high current (t=0) and be zero after time
2 πfC ○ When current is maximum, voltage is 0
● At DC (f=0): capacitor acts as open or and vice-versa
infinite reactance(X C =∞) ■ When disconnected from a supply, the capacitor
● At AC (f=very high value): capacitor acts as may still be charged and retain its voltage for
short or zero reactance(X C =0) some considerable amount of time (since voltage
○ Capacitance Values is the continuity variable). But, after some time it
■ Capacitor value markings are usually will leak the charge in the form of heat
alphanumeric ○ The rate of discharge depends upon
■ Ceramic capacitors strength of the dielectric
● First 2 digits: value ■ If the wires of a capacitor are connected to each
● 3rd digit: multiplier … in pF (Note: other after removing it from circuit, current will
picofarads!) flow and the capacitor will discharge
● 4th digit: tolerance ● No voltage/charge on the capacitor plates
■ The equivalent series resistance (ESR) of a
capacitor shoul ideally be zero (0).
● ESR: the AC impedance of the capacitor
when used at high frequencies -- includes
○ resistance of the dielectric material
○ DC resistance of the terminal leads
○ DC resistance of the connections to the
dielectric
○ Capacitor plate resistance
■ Capacitance of a capacitor depends on the
structure, not on its charge.
■ Tangent of loss angle: capacitor terminology that
○ Note on Capacitors:
includes
■ Capacitors create electric field when current
● power factor
passes through
● loss factor and
● dielectric loss

● Inductors ■ Solenoids [See Electromagnetic Induction]

https://www.electronicshub.org/types-of-inductors-and-applications/ ● A type of electromagnet formed by a helical
○ Passive electrical element used to store electrical coil of wire whose length is substantially
energy in the form of magnetic field (H) greater than its diameter, which generates a
■ Also called coil (made of coils) or Choke controlled magnetic field H
■ Self-inductance happens when the current in the ● same as a magnet but with a variable
wire itself is changing magnetic field strength based on the amount
■ Opposes instantaneous changes in current of current I passing through the conductor
■ Creates a magnetic field when current passes (no current = no magnetism)
through, which enables an inductor as an ○ Factors affecting coil inductance
electromagnet (you can control when an element ■ Number of turns (N)
can be magnetic or not) [See Electromagnetics ■ Cross-sectional area of core (A)
section in ELEC] ■ Length of coil/core (l)
○ Applications: ■ Type of core material used with the coil
■ Choking/Filtering: trace, blocks or impedes (μ¿¿ r )¿
change in current and functions as a low pass ● permeability of core
filter (Low pass filter because XL = 2πfL. At high Note: the diameter of the wire does not affect the
frequencies, the reactance is bigger thus inductance of a coil
becoming more like an open circuit. ○ Formulas
■ Tuning: Tuned circuits (LC circuits, oscillators) 2
Φ BA N A where
are used for transmitting or receiving radio/ ■ L=N =N =μ
microwave signals. I I l
 µ = µoµr = core permeability (H/m) ■ AC Current and Voltage relationship:
N: no. of turns ELI: Voltage (E) leads or comes before
A: cross-section area of core (m2) Current (I)
I: current ■ Reactance of Inductors: X L =2 πfL=ωL
l: mean length of the core (m) ● At DC (f=0 or t=∞): inductor acts
lsolenoid: length of solenoid
as short or zero reactance
ltoroid: circumference (l = 2πr)
2 (X ¿ ¿ L=0)¿
N A ● At AC (f=∞ or t=0): inductor acts
● Short coil: L=μ where
l+ 0.45 d as open/infinite reactance
d: diameter of the core (m) (X L =∞)
● B=μ ¿ where ○ Note on Inductors:
l ■ When disconnected from a supply current, an
lsolenoid: length of solenoid inductor will still have energy inside it (magnetic
ltoroid: circumference (l = 2πr) field) but it can’t have an abrupt change in
[Formula came from Ampere’s Law] current
■ Voltage and current of inductor when in series
with a supply source:
● Voltage: Initially exponentially high (at t=0)
and be zero after time
● Current: will be equal to the max. current of
the supply but after t=5 τ (5 time constants)
○ When current is
maximum,
voltage is 0 and vice-
versa
■ An electric arc (arcing)
would be formed
representing the high
negative reverse voltage (in
■ Self-inductance (L): the ability of a conductor to kV) induced by the current
produce a counter-emf within itself during a called inductive kickback
current change ● Or the inductor will explode
■ Mutual inductance (M): inductance formed by 2 ● To prevent this, put a diode/resistor/zener
inductors when they are closer to each other across the inductor which will absorb the
without shielding current of the inductor
N 1 N2 A ■ Collapsing
Formula 1: M =μ =S N 1 N 2 ● When an inductor’s magnetic field collapses,
l voltage will be induced due to Law of
N 2 Φ 21 N 1 Φ12 conservation of Energy: the energy stored in
Formula 2: M = = form of the magnetic field got converted
I1 I2
back to electrical energy by self-induction to
S: reluctance, A: cross-sectional area
the circuit
○ Mutual inductance: M =√ L1 L2 where ● When a coil collapses, the induced circuit
0 ≤ M ≤ √ L1 L2 current will be in the same direction
■ When current in an inductor starts to change, it
d Ii1
○ Induced emf: v 2=−M cannot react instantly due to the counter/back
dt emf on the coil
M ■ In a small inductance, energy is stored and
● Coefficient of Coupling/factor: k = released quickly. In a large inductance, energy is
√ L1 L2 stored and released slowly.
○ 0 ≤ k ≤1 ○ Fixed vs Variable Inductance
● Inductors in series (with M involved): ■ Fixed Inductor: turns are remained fixed, same
Leq =L1+ L2 ± 2 M inductance always
● Inductors in parallel (with M involved): ● Air core
L1 L2−M
2 ● Iron core
Leq = ● Ferrite core
L1 + L2 ∓ 2 M ■ Variable Inductor: position of the core can be
1 2 changed
■ Energy in inductor: E= L I ● Moving the core deeper into the coil
2
increases permeability which increases
d iL inductance
■ v L =L , iL is the continuity variable
dt ● Commonly used in radio and tuning circuits
● Transformers iron core itself, but due to induced
○ a passive electrical device consisting of two or voltages, there are electric currents
more coils of wire used to transfer electricity (eddy currents) circulating
from one electrical circuit to another by means of ○ Results to transformer losses/heating
a changing magnetic field ○ Can be reduced by construct the
■ Does this by linking together 2 or more transformer core from thin steel
electrical circuits using a common laminations (laminating the core
oscillating magnetic circuit produced by the material)
transformer itself ○ Laminations must be as thin as possible
■ Reason why AC is convenient to use -- (0.25-0.5 mm)
because it’s easy to transform voltages on a ● Iron, rather than copper, is used in a
higher or lower level using a transformer transformer core because iron has a very
(see Power Supplies: Transformers) high permeability
■ Operates on the principle of Electromagnetic ■ Types of Core Construction
Induction”, in the form of Mutual Induction

● Closed-core transformer (“core-form”)

○ primary and secondary windings
are wound outside and surround the
core ring
○ one half of each winding is
wrapped around each leg (or limb)
of the transformers magnetic circuit
○ Leakage flux:
● Shell-core transformer (“shell-form”)
○ primary and secondary windings
○ Formulas pass inside the steel magnetic

√
N 1 V 1 I2 Z circuit (core) which forms a shell
■ = = = 1 =n (turns around the windings
N 2 V 2 I1 Z2 ○ Magnetic losses in practical transformers
ratio) ■ Also called as core losses or iron losses
■ Ideal transformer: ■ Copper loss: loss due to resistance in
● no losses P¿ =Pout material itself resulting to loss of power in
○ terms of heat
■ Dielectric loss: the dissipation of energy through
V 1 I 1 cos θ1=V 2 I 2 cos θ 2
the movement of charges in an alternating
● 0o phase shift between primary and electromagnetic field as polarisation switches
secondary circuits direction
dΦ ■ Hysteresis loss: work done by the
■ emf =E=N
dt magnetising force (H) against the internal
E=NωΦ max cos (ωt ) friction of the molecules of the coil that
produces heat
Nω N (2 πf ) ● Also represents the area under the
Erms = Φ max= Φmax
√2 √2 hysteresis loop
Erms =4.44 Nf Φ max ● Pb=η B Max fV
n

■ Transformer efficiency: ○ Pb: hysteresis loss [W]

O utput power ○ η: Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
η= × 100 % depending on material [J/m3]
Input power
○ BMax: maximum flux density
Secondary Watts(output) [Wb/m2]
● η=
Primary VA (input ) ○ n: Steinmetz exponent (~1.5-2.5)
○ Transformer Construction ○ f: frequency of magnetic reversals
■ Inefficiencies and losses in transformers: per second (Hz)
● Increasing and concentrating the ○ V: Volume of magnetic material
magnetic circuit around the coils (m3)
improves the magnetic coupling of the ■ Eddy Current loss: loss caused by reverse
two windings current (eddy currents)
○ But also results in greater magnetic ● Result of Faraday’s law
losses of the transformer core ● Can be prevented by laminating the core
● Transformer core is designed to prevent material
circulating electric currents within the
 2 2 2
● Pe =K e B Max f d V Winding material Requires more Requires less
○ Pe: eddy current loss [W] primary and
primary and
○ Ke: eddy current constant secondary winding
secondary winding
○ BMax: maximum flux density [Wb/m2] circuits are
Circuit circuits are
○ f: frequency of magnetic reversals connected both
connected
per second (Hz) electrically and
magnetically
○ d: thickness of material (m) magnetically
○ V: Volume of magnetic material Connect directly to Depends upon the
Connection
(m3) the load tapping
○ Dot convention Decreases by 1/3
Starting current decreases
■ polarity marking standards for a transformer times
to denote phase relationships between the Excitation current large small
primary and secondary winding Output constant variable
● The output phase for a transformer is Use as a starter in
dependent on the direction of the Use in power an induction motor,
primary and secondary winding system for step up as a voltage
■ Indication of transformer primary and Application
and step down the regulator, in
secondary voltage relationships is voltage railways, in a
accomplished by dot notation laboratory
○ Autotransformer (Auto Transformer working ■ Advantage:
principle, how Variac works, Uses) ● Smaller, lighter, cheaper, more
■ an electrical transformer with only one economical, more efficient for the same
winding wound on a laminated core VA rating
■ portions of the same winding act as both the ○ Saves in winding material
primary winding and secondary winding ○ Requires less copper for
sides of the transformer construction
● As opposed to ordinary transformers ● lower leakage reactance and leakage
which has separate primary and flux and resistance; Less impedance
secondary windings disconnected to ○ thus, lower core and copper losses
each other ■ Disadvantage: no electrical isolation
■ Autotransformer vs Ordinary transformer between primary and secondary winding
Parameter Transformer Autotransformer ■ Step-down, Step-up, and Variable
two separate only one winding autotransformer
No of windings
winding wound ● Variable autotransformer: connection of
secondary winding can be changed (so
Symbol it can be changed to either step-up or
step-down)
Induction Mutual Induction Self Induction
Size Large size Small size
Partly by
transformation and
Through
Power transfer: partly by direct
transformation
electrical
connection.
Voltage regulation Good Better

● Dielectrics
https://automationforum.co/what-is-a-dielectric-and-what-are-the-types-of-
dielectric-materials/
○ An insulating or poor conducting material
■ However, when an electric field E is applied,
the material becomes polarized
■ creates an internal electric field that reduces
the overall field within the dielectric itself
○ Examples of dielectrics (for capacitors)
■ Air: ε =1.00059 ○ Dielectric strength: maximum voltage required to
■ Ceramic: ε between 6 and 8000 produce a dielectric breakdown through the
■ Plastic material
■ Mica ■ Higher dielectric strength = better insulator
■
V breakdown
Dielectric strengt h=
t h ickne s s of sample
■ Material with highest dielectric strength
used on capacitors: Mica (118 MV/m)
○ Note on Dielectrics
 ■ Inserting a dielectric on a capacitor increases ● This is the major factor limiting the high
its charge it can store/ its capacitance :-) frequency performance of active devices like
■ Dissipation factor: defined as the ratio of the transistors and vacuum tubes
energy dissipated to the energy stored in the ● Multiplied by the gain of the device [See
dielectric Miller Capacitance section]
● Dissipation factor value that is equal to
the power factor of the dielectric → less
than 0.1
■ Absorption current: dielectric current is
proportional to the rate of accumulation of
electric charges within the dielectric?

● Parasitic Elements ● Miller’s Theorem (for capacitance)

○ Parasitic Element: a circuit element (i.e. ○ used to simplify the analysis of
resistance, inductance or capacitance) that is inverting amplifiers at high frequencies,
possessed by an electrical component but which where the internal transistor
it is not desirable for it to have for its intended capacitances are important
purpose ○ shows the effective input and output
■ E.g. a resistors have resistances, but they capacitance appears in the actual ac
may also possess unwanted parasitic equivalent
capacitances (i.e. wire-wound resistor) ■ C ¿, miller = C(AV + 1)
■ Parasitic elements are unavoidable
● All conductors possess resistance and
inductance
● Principles of duality: where there is
■
( )
C out ,miller = C
A v +1
Av
where

Av: voltage gain at midrange

inductance, there will also be
frequencies
capacitance
C: Cbe in BJT, or Cgd in FETs
■ May be linear or non-linear (e.g. ICs)
(capacitance common to both
○ Parasitic Capacitance/Stray capacitance
input and output)
■ an unavoidable/unwanted capacitance that exists
between the parts of an electronic component or
circuit simply because of their proximity to each
other
● When two electrical conductors at different
voltages are close together, the electric field
between them causes electric charge to be ■ Gimmick Capacitance
stored on them ● Small capacitance formed by twisting two
■ Seen in all circuit elements (resistors, inductors, insulated wires
diodes, transistors, etc.) ● may be varied by loosening or tightening the
● they all possess internal capacitance winding; can also be reduced by shortening
■ A significant problem in high frequency the twisted pair by cutting
circuits ○ Parasitic Inductance
● Parasitic capacitance is often the factor ■ Same description as parasitic capacitance (almost
limiting the operating frequency and always an undesired effect)
bandwidth of electronic components and ● Desirable in only a few applications ~
circuits helical resonators which can be used as
● there are low inductance capacitors specially filters
made for high frequency applications and for ● ~1nH in capacitors (parasitic inductance)
applications where parasitic effects are ■ At higher frequencies, this becomes an
highly undesirable increasing problem and at some point the
impedance becomes positive and the capacitor in
fact starts acting like as an inductors
■ Like parasitic capacitance, Parasitic inductance
also poses a significant problem in high
frequency circuits

■ Miller Capacitance
● The parasitic capacitance between the input
and output electrodes of inverting
amplifying devices, such as between the
base and collector of transistors
 ■ Circuit Breaker: an automatic device for stopping
the flow of current in an electric circuit as a
safety measure
● have internal switch mechanisms that can be
tripped by an unsafe surge of electricity, thus
reusable as opposed to fuses
○ Relays vs Solenoids
■ Solenoid: acts as a temporary magnet when
● Switches current is passing through it
○ Switches: device that opens or completes a ● Solenoids are electromagnetic actuators.
circuit Electrical current moves the actuator
○ Kinds of Switches ● used for control the flow of Hydraulic or
■ SPST: Single Pole Single Throw pneumatic fluid via electrical control circuit
● Simple ON-and-OFF switch because of ● Note: The electron activation of a movable
1 input and 1 output terminal shaft is the basis for solenoids

■ Relays: a solenoid in which the actuator actuates

■ SPDT: Single Pole Double Throw an included electrical switch. An electrical
● Single input, double output terminals current moves the actuator which closes or opens
the switch
● thus, electrical relays are remotely controlled
switching devices
● similar to solenoids but is used for switching
& controlling the other actuator

■ DPST: Double Pole Single Throw

● 2 input terminals and 2 output
terminals; 1 for each input terminal
● Combination of two SPST switches
●

● Batteries
○ Battery: a collection of one or more cells that
converts chemical energy (chemical reactions in
a battery cell) into electrical energy (flow of
■ DPDT: Double Pole Double Throw electrons)
● 2 inputs and 4 output terminals; each ■ All batteries are made up of three basic
input has 2 corresponding outputs that it components: anode, cathode, and some kind
can connect to of electrolyte (a substance that chemically
● With 2 inputs, it can connect to 4 reacts with the anode and cathode)
different outputs. It can reroute a circuit ■ Capacity of a battery cell: measured by the
into 2 different modes of operation amount of current that can be supplied over
time (i.e. total charge Q)
● Cell capacity: area under the discharge
curve
● Unit: Watt-hours [Wh] which is a
measure of stored energy
○ Kinds of Battery
○ Fuse vs Circuit Breakers ■ Primary Battery: disposable batteries
■ Fuse: an electrical safety device that operates to ● Designed to be used once and discarded
provide overcurrent protection of an electrical when exhausted
circuit. ● Generates DC via Chemical activity:
● Its essential component is a metal wire or chemical reactions are not reversible
strip that melts when too much current flows (only discharding possible)
through it, thereby stopping or interrupting ■ Secondary Battery: rechargeable batteries
the current ● Can be recharged and used multiple
● Made of pieces of metal when overheated times
 ● Generates DC chemically: chemical ■ What does V mean in a battery? The number
reactions are reversible (both charging of volts is the amount of energy given to an
and discharging are possible) electronic circuit (E.g. With a 12V device,
● E.g. Lead-acid battery 12 volts are always “given” from the
○ What do we mean by a 150Ah battery? [For battery)
Beginners]
 ELEC: DC Circuits, AC Circuits, TransReso
● DC Fundamentals ● Voltage equations inside supernodes
○ DC vs AC ● Equations for dependent sources
■ DC flows in one direction only, AC flows in ■ Step 3: Use Cramer’s Rule (or calculator)
both direction periodically ○ Mesh Analysis
■ DC is NOT frequency dependent, AC is ■ Step 0: NONE
■ DC Can be stored while AC cannot ■ Step 1: Label all meshes
○ Types of DC (min. no. of equations = no. of nodes)
■ Continuous DC: stable DC value # of distinct meshes (e.g. IA, IB, 2A)
■ Pulsating DC: DC current that has changing - # of recycled meshes (e.g. IB + 6)
voltage value - # of known meshes (e.g. 2A)
○ Series vs Parallel + # of new dependent source variables
■ Series: same current & power, voltage is ■ Step 2: Write KVL equations
divided ● For regular meshes
■ Parallel: same voltage, current and power is ● For unshared current sources
divided ● Current equation for shared current
● Branch = parallel sources
● Total power dissipated by source is the ● Equation for dependent sources
sum of individual branch powers ● ‘Mentally’ remove all current sources
○ Basic Ohm’s law: V =IR and find unused loops (called loops)
2 ■ Step 3: Use Cramer’s Rule (or calculator)
2 V
○ Joule’s Power law: P=IV =I R=
R

● DC Network Laws and Theorems

○ Voltage Division: V 1=V T
R1
RT ( )
○ Current Division: I 1=I T
RT
R1 ( ) (
=I T
Ropposite
RT )
■ Opposite over sum
■ Equivalent resistance:
1 1 1 1
= + + ...+ ○ Superposition Method
R eq R1 R2 Rn ■ For circuits with multiple sources
○ Voltage gain: positive ● Based on concept of linearity of devices
Voltage drops: negative ■ Turning off the sources:
○ Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): Voltage source → short
❑
Current source → open
∑
❑
❑V ❑(around closed loop)=0 ● Both the sources replaced by its internal
■ Consequence of Law of Conservation of resistance. Voltage source have internal
Energy resistance equal to zero (0Ω: short),
○ Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL): while Current source having internal
❑ ❑ resistance equal to infinity (∞ Ω: open)
∑ ❑ I going ∈node =∑ ❑ I going out node ● Dependent sources: use nodal/mesh
❑ ❑ analysis
■ Consequence of Law of Conservation of ■ Add up individual contributions of each
Charge source
○ Nodal Analysis
■ Step 0: Choose a GND ○ Thevenin’s Theorem/Norton’s Theorem
■ Step 1: Uniquely label all remaining nodes ■ Replace whole circuit with a voltage source
(min. no. of equations = no. of nodes) (Thevenin voltage VTH) in series with a
# of distinct nodes (e.g. VA, VB, 2V) resistor (Thevenin resistance RTH)
- # of recycled nodes (e.g. VB + 6) 1. Remove device in question
- # of known nodes (e.g. 2V) 2. Solve for source VTH/IN by using Nodal or
+ # of new dependent source variables (e.g. Mesh analysis (do not mentally remove
resistors!)
V3, V2) ● Placement of source:
------------------------------------------------ ○ a: + polarity (TH) or HEAD of
= no. of equations arrow (N)
■ Step 2: Write KCL equations ○ b: - polarity (TH) or TAIL of
● For regular nodes arrow (N)
● For supernodes w/o GND
 ○ Direction of Norton arrow is ■ Theorem stating that based on ONLY THIS
negative to positive! configuration↓, a voltage source and a
● Solving for VTH: open-circuit voltage current source can be swapped.
○ Any resistors in series with device
in question will be removed
● Solving for IN: shorted current
○ Any resistors in parallel with
device in question will be removed
3. Solve for RTH/RN (mentally remove all
sources) ○ Compensation Theorem
● If there is a dependent source, use ■ A resistor with a known current passing
excitation method and solve: through it can be replaced by a voltage
V Excite source
RTH ¿ R N =
I Excite
● If VExcite was used, IExcite will have a
direction of (-) to (+) ALWAYS
● IF IExcite was used, VExcite will have (+)
polarity at head of current and (-)
polarity at tail of current ○ Maximum Power Transfer
4. Construct equivalent Thevenin circuit or ■ Condition where the output is matched with
Noron circuit the input impedance of the system
● Thevenin: VTH & RTH in series w/ load ■ Question: what will be the value of the load
● Norton: IN & RN in parallel w/ load resistor (RL) for which maximum power
transfer will be delivered to the load?
○ Source Transformation ● Solved using Thevenin or Norton’s
1. Identify the unknown. DO NOT mess with theorem (RL = RTH or RN)
2
unknown until last conversion V TH
● Pmax transfer =
2. Identify Thevenin subcircuit to Norton 4 RTH
subcircuit and vice-versa
3. Repeat until you end up with the simplest ● Efficiency (η)of maximum power
circuit possible transfer = 50%
● total power is absorbed and not
● VTH = INRTH = INRN
reflected back
● R L=| RTH|
○ Wye-Delta Connection
■ Used for Resistor or Capacitor network
● For Capacitor network: replace and Ri
with 1/Ci

○ Millman’s Theorem
■ Theorem that allows you to find the value of
voltage in a branch of a parallel circuit with
multiple voltage sources

■ Wye-to-Delta:
○ Numerator is sum of product of
adjacent devices (SAME)
○ Denominator is just the device at
the opposite side of the center ‘n’
V1 V2 Vn
+ +...+ ○ Node-sum/opposite
R 1 R2 Rn
=V (voltage across all branches) Resistor Network Capacitor Network
1 1 1
+ +...+ 1 1 1
R 1 R2 Rn + +
■ NOTE: Do not include load resistor R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3+ R 1 R3 1 C 1 C 2 C 2 C 3 C 1 C 3
Ra = =
■ If load resistor is included in simplified sub- R1 Ca 1
circuit, its series voltage VNx is 0V (since it
C1
is alone)
● Millman’s Theorem | DC Network 1 1 1
+ +
Analysis | Electronics Textbook R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3+ R 1 R3 1 C 1 C 2 C 2 C 3 C 1 C 3
○ Reciprocity Theorem Rb = =
R2 Cb 1
C2
 1 1 1 1
+ +
R1 R 2+ R 2 R 3 + R 1 R3 1 C 1 C 2 C 2 C 3 C 1 C 3 Ra Rc 1 CaCc
Rc = = R 2= =
R3 Cc 1 Ra + R b+ R c C2 1 1 1
+ +
C3 Ca Cb Cc
■ Delta-to-Wye 1
● Numerator is the product of two Ra Rb CaCb
1
resistors that are delta-adjacent to the R 3= =
device Ra + R b+ Rc C3 1 1 1
+ +
● Denominator is sum of all resistive Ca Cb Cc
devices
● Adjacent/sum
○ Other concepts:
■ Wheatstone bridge: When 5 resistors/
Resistor Network Capacitor Network capacitors are connected in such a way that
1 the ratio of 2 resistances/capacitances in one
Rb Rc 1 C bCc
side to the other side is equal, then the
R 1= = potential difference across the middle
Ra + R b+ R c C1 1 1 1 resistor/capacitor is zero and we can
+ +
Ca Cb Cc remove that device

● AC Fundamentals
○ Alternating waveforms
■ Sine/cosine wave, Triangular wave,
Complex waves
■ Square wave: Made up of sine waves of the
fundamental frequency and all the odd
harmonics
● Basically a rectangular wave that has a
duty cycle of 50%
■ Sawtooth wave: Made up of sine waves of
the fundamental frequency and all the
harmonics (odd+even)
● Characterized by a faster rise time than
fall time (or vice versa)
○ AC values
■ Instantaneous value: v=V m sinΦ
v=V m sinωt
● Use radians for sin
■ Peak/max value: V M =V P
■ Peak-to-peak value: difference between
maximum and minimum value in a cycle
V MM =V PP
■ Half-wave rectifiers vs Full-wave rectifiers
(always assume FULL-WAVE)
■ Unless otherwise stated, all sine-wave ac
measurements are in rms values.
Half-wave rectifier Full-wave rectifier
RMS/effective value VM VM
(VRMS) 2 √2
VM 2V M
Average/DC value (VDC)
π π
Ripple voltage (Vr(rms))
0.386 V M 0.308 V M
V r (rms)=√ V RMS 2−V DC 2
Ripple factor (R) 121 % 48 %
 V r (rms) ● Series and Parallel AC Circuits
r= x 100 % ○ Resistive vs Reactive circuits
V DC ■ Resistive: V and I are in phase
Form factor (F.F.) ■ Reactive: ELI the ICE MAN
V RMS ● ELI: Voltage leads current in inductive
F . F .= x 157 % 111 % circuit (by 90o or ¼ of a cycle)
V DC ● ICE: Current leads voltage in capacitive
100 % circuit (by 90o or ¼ of a cycle)
Peak factor (P.F.) ○ Series R-L-C Circuits (use Impedance Z)
VM ■ Reactance (X):
P . F .= x 200% 141% ● Inductor: X L = jωL (+ y-axis)
V RMS
1
100 % ● Capacitor: X C = =− jwC
[See Power Supplies: Rectifiers]
jwC
○ Other formulas (- y-axis)
1 ● Calculate the impedance:
■ V DC = ( V on t on+ V off t off ) Z=R+ jX =R+ j(X L −X C )
T
■ Positive inductive reactance,
where T = period=t on +t off negative capacitive reactance
■ √
Ripple factor (R) r = F F 2−1 where ○ Impedance: |Z|= R2 +¿ ¿ √
FF: Form Factor
○ Current (IRMS, IDC, IM, etc.): divide AC voltage by
load resistance R
θdegrees =ta n
−1
( X L −X C
R )=co s
−1 R
|Z| ( )
○ Other techniques:
■ Adding and subtracting AC Waveforms:
(must be same frequency)
● Convert them first to Phasor domain
Then use Phasor Addition
1. Polar form → rectangular form
● ■ Current IT is same, voltage is different:
A ∠ Φ= A[cosΦ+ jsinΦ]=x+ yj |V T |= √V R2+ ¿ ¿
( RZ )
2. Add the waveforms in their rectangular
forms ● V R=I × R=V T ← voltage div.
3. Convert the final waveform to polar
form ● V L=I × X L
V C =I × X C
● A=√ x 2 + y 2 and Φ=tan
−1
( xy ) ●
● Note: VR + VL + VC ≠ VT (mathematical
sum). Rather, it is a vector sum.
● A ∠ Φ= Asin ( wt +Φ )
■ Phase angles in series RLC:
4. Or, use calculator directly to add them: ● IL, IC and IR in phase since series
● CMPLX Mode ● VL and VC are not in phase
● Input waveforms in polar form ( ○ 90o phase between R (resistance)
A ∠ Φ) and X (reactance)
○ make sure the angles are in degrees ○ 180o between inductive and
(convert radians to degrees) capacitive load
■ AC sinusoid ⇔ phasor/complex form: ● XL and XC are 180o out of phase
●
VM
v=V M sin(ωt +Φ1 )=V rms ∠Φ 1= ∠Φ 1
√2
(use the RMS value! Vrms)
■ AC sinusoidal waveform plust constant:
● E.g. v=100+25 sin ( ωt )
● v rms= √ effec tiv e1 +effectiv e 2

√ ( )
2
2 25
● v rms= 10 0 + =101.55
√2
■ CASIO / DISCO
○ Parallel R-L-C Circuits (use Admittance Y)
● Used for t=∞ or f =0
■ Susceptance (B)
● CASIO - at AC, Capacitor - Short,
1
Inductor - Open ● Inductor: BL = (- y-axis)
● DISCO - at DC, Inductor = Short, jωL
Capacitor - Open ● Capacitor: BC = jωC (+ y-axis)
 ❑
1 1
■ Admittance: Y =G+ jB=
Z
■ P= ∫ ❑ p (t)dt
T T
1 ■
● Conductance: G=
R 1 1
1 P= V M I M cosΦ= V M I M cos ( Φ v −Φ i )
● Susceptance: B= =BC −B L 2 2
X IM
2

○ Positive capacitive susceptance, ■ P=I rms ℜ{Z }= ℜ{Z }

negative inductive susceptance 2
(inversed of reactance) ■ P=V rms I rms cosθ
○ Apparent/Complex Power: S=P+ jQ=I 2 Z
■ |S|=√ P2+ Q 2
¿
■ S=V rms I rms
○ Imaginary/Reactive Power: Q=I 2 X
■ Power stored from source that is not
consumed by load (i.e. returned to source)
■ [unit: VAR (Volt-Ampere Reactance)
● X: reactance
● Admittance: |Y |=❑ G 2 +¿ ¿ √ ■ Q=ℑ {S }=V rms I rms sinθ

( B −B
G )
2
θdegrees = -ta n−1 C L ■ Q=I rms ℑ {Z }
● =-
○ Power Triangle:

co s−1 ( GY )
(note the negative!)
■ Voltage VT is same, current is different
|I T|=√ I R2 +¿ ¿
V
● I R =V × G=
R
● I C =V × BC
● I L =V × BL P R
■ Phase angles in parallel RLC: ■ Power Factor: pf =cosθ=¿ =
● VL, VC, and VR in phase since parallel
S Z
● IL and IC in NOT phase ● Leading: θ< 0(Quadrant IV )
○ 90o phase between R (resistance) ○ θ< 0means circuit is capacitive
and X (reactances) ■ Capacitive = -Q reactive power
○ 180o between inductive and ○ Capacitive: current is leading with
capacitive load respect to the voltage

( )
−1 I C −I L ● Lagging: θ> 0(Quadrant I )
○ Φ=tan ○ θ> 0means circuit is inductive
IR
o
■ Inductive = +Q reactive power
● XL and XC are 180 out of phase ○ Inductive: current is lagging with
● In phase diagram, the capacitive and respect to the voltage
inductive parts are just interchanged ● Power factor correction
from that of a series RLC phase diagram
○ Note that X =X 1− X 2
X =R(tan θ1−tanθ 2)
■ X1 is the given reactance in the
circuit, and X2 is the reactance of
the device that you are going to add
■ X is the reactance of the device you
are looking for
■ cosθ1is the p.f. of the circuit w/o
the added device, and cosθ2 is p.f.
of the circuit with the device
● Power factor correction (part 2)
● Powers of AC (Real, Reactive, Complex) ○ For an inductive circuit (i.e. lagging
○ Real Power: P=I 2 R (unit: Watts, W) p.f.) we add a capacitor to increase the
■ Power from source that is actually consumed p.f. to unity or something higher value
by load ○ Note that Q=Q 1−Q 2
 2 ○ RC circuits
V
=P tan(θ1 )−P tan (θ2)
X
2
V (2 πfC)=P tan(θ1 )−P tan (θ2 )
P (tan θ1 −tan θ2 )
○ C= 2
2 πf ∙ V
● Power factor correction
2 2
R❑ + X
X1= ■ Charging phase
R tan ( cos−1 ( p f new ) )−X −t
V RC
○ Negative X → capacitor ● Current: i= (e )
○ Positive X → inductor R
−t
Q X ●
■ Reactive Factor: rf =sinθ= = v C ,c h arging=V (1−e RC )
S Z ■ Discharge phase
−t
● First Order (RL & RC) and 2nd Order ● v C ,disc h arge =V e RC
(RLC) Transient Circuits
○ Transient: momentary variation in current, ○ RLC circuits (2nd Order)
voltage, or frequency 2nd order equation:
○ Exponentially rising curve: y= y i(1−e
−t / τ
) av ' '(t)+bv ' (t)+ cv (t)=f (t)
−t /τ ■ Case I: Natural/Transient response (right
Exponentially falling curve: y= y f (e )
side is set to 0)
■ Method of Assumption of Solution: Assume a
● S-equation: a s2 +bs +c=0 and
solution to the variable inside derivative
● Get discriminant of s-equation:
(v ¿ ¿ c∨i L )¿ to be A e−st
○ Case 1: D>0 : s1 , s 2real and
t
■ x= , τ :time constant distinct roots
τ s1 t s t
v N (t )= A1 e + A2 e 2 (overdamped)
L
● RL circuits: τ = ○ Case 2: D=0: s 1=s 2
R s1 t s2 t
● RC circuits: τ =RC v N (t)= A1 e + A2 t e (critically damped)
● RLC circuits ○ Case 3: D<0 : s1 , s 2 complex
○ Total discharge time: 5 τ conjugate roots ( s=σ + jω)
■ If there are two time constants (e.g. 2 inductors σt
v N (t)=e (B ¿ ¿ 1 cos (wt )+B 2 sin (wt ))¿
with different L values), then the one giving the
(underdamped)
smaller tau will dominate
Note: Euler’s identity: e− jw=cosw− jsinw (use radians)
■ y :variable in question (current I, voltage v)
● y i :initial value (for rising curve)
● y f : final/maximum value (falling curve) ■ Case II: Forced/Steady-state response
○ RL circuits: 1. Find equations in circuit (2 or more)
using KVL or any other method
2. Find differential equation in terms of
continuity variable
3. Solve for coefficients using initial
values/initial conditions

■ Charging phase (arrow pointed to 1)

−t
V
● Current: i L = ( 1−e L/ R )
R
○ Remember: 1-etau thus increasing so
charge phase
−t
● v L =V e L/ R
−R
t
● v R=V −V L=V (1−e L
)
■ Discharge phase (arrow connected to 2)
−t
● Current: i= V e L/ R , RT=R+R1
T

R
● Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits 1
○ Resonance: tendency of a system to absorb more
● f L =f r− BW
2
energy when the frequency of its oscillations ○ Thus f r=Q (BW )
matches the system’s natural frequency
○ Resonant Circuit: also called tank circuit (LC) ● Notes on bandwidth:
or Flywheel ○ Selectivity: describes the ability of
■ Flywheel effect: ability of LC circuit to that circuit to respond to certain
supply complete sine wave when the input to frequencies while rejecting all
the tank is only a pulse others.
○ Electric resonance: happens when XL = XC ○ The greater the selectivity, the
○ Series Resonance Circuit lesser the bandwidth
○ The less selective a filter is, the
steeper the slope of its curves at the
cutoff frequencies

○ Parallel Resonance Circuit

■ Also called Rejector Circuit
● Also called Current Resonance,
Antiresonance, or Current Magnifier
■ When we say “tuned LC circuit”, we
■ Also called Acceptor Circuit or Voltage meant parallel resonance circuit
Resonance circuit or Voltage Magnifier ● If we increase the shunt resistance, the
■ X T =X L −X C =0 but since XL = XC, thus Q-factor of a parallel resonance circuit
the total impedance for the circuit is Z=R , decreases
This is because
and the reactance acts as a short (X=0)
1 1 1
= + +.. .(adding a
R T R1 R2
shunt resistance) decreases RT
so Q gets smaller
■ BT =BC −B L =0 but since BC = BL, the
total reactance for the circuit is Z=R and the
reactance acts as an open (X =∞ )
■ Impedance Z is maximum at resonant
■ Impedance Z is minimum at resonant frequency thus current I is minimum
frequency thus current I is maximum and (I R =I min )
V resistor =V supply (maximum value) R R
■ Qfactor ,∥¿¿ = =
1 XL 2π f R L
■ Resonant frequency: f r= or
2 π √ LC ● Qfactor provides current magnification for
1 series resonance
ω=
√ LC
Derivation: X L =X C
1
2 πfL=
2 πfC
2 1
f = 2
4 π LC
■ Quality factor (Q-factor): ratio of maximum
or peak energy stored in the circuit to energy ■ 2 types of parallel resonant circuits:
dissipated during each cycle of oscillation Theoretical Parallel Resonance Circuit

√
X L XC 1 L
○ Qfactor , series = = =
R R R C
■ Qfactor provides voltage
magnification for series resonance
fr
■ Bandwidth: BW = =f −f
Q H L
● Bandwidth: range of freq over which at Practical Parallel Resonance Circuit
least half of the maximum power and
current is provided
1
● f H =f r + BW
2
 Series Parallel
Acceptor circuit Rejector circuit
Other name
Voltage Magnifier Current magnifier
Impedance Z minimum maximum
Reactance Acts as short (X=0) Acts as open ( X =∞ )
Max/min value Vsupply= VR (max) Imin = IR (min)
1
Resonant freq f R=
2 π √ LC

Q−factor=

X
1 L
RS C √
Q-factor
Q factor , ser= Q R B
factor ,∥¿= = ¿
■ Use Impedance Transformation to convert X = XL or XC R X G
RL series impedance to parallel impedance
2 2 VC VL Q
RS + X L Qfactor , ser== factor ,∥¿=
I C
=
IL
¿
● R P= VT VT I T
IT
RS
2 2 fR
RS + X L Bandwidth BW BW = or f R =Q(BW )
● X L, eq = Q
XL
● This makes practical parallel resonant ○ Some notes on Resonant Circuits
circuits solvable ■ At any resonant frequency, the voltage across the
■ Other formulas for Practical Resonance two series reactive components is 0
circuits (Resistor in series in inductor, both ● Because XL=XC (180o phase apart), they
in parallel with a capacitor): cancel each other out and thus the
● Resonant freq: impedance is purely resistive and

f r=
1
2 π √ LC
1−
√
R S2 L
C
Z dynamic =
L
minimum
■ Parallel LC combinations are used more
often in tuned amplifier circuits than Series
LC combinations
● Dynamic resistance:
RC ● Since Tuned = Parallel LC
○ If R increases, the dynamic ● A parallel tuned LC circuit can be used
resistance decreases and vice-versa to couple energy from one circuit to
○ The dynamic resistance is also the another
input impedance of the parallel ■ Resonant frequency of parallel circuit is the
resonance circuit same as a series circuit using the same
components when there is no resistance (i.e.
Summary of Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits LC or tank circuits)
 ELEC: Solid State Devices [Semiconductors,
BJTs, FETs, Special Services]
● Band Gap Theory: Conductors, Insulators
and Semiconductors
○ Band gaps: opposes movement of valence
electron outside the system
■ Band gaps are measured in eV (electron-
volts) → 1 eV =1.60 x ×1 0−19 J
○ The only electrons affected by force in an atom
are the valence electrons
■ Need to exceed energy gap to convert ● Semiconductor Fundamentals
valence e- to free electrons ○ Group 6: Carbon, Silicon, Germanium
● Energy gap to exceed is proportional to ■ Carbon alone cannot be used as semiconductor,
valence e- (more valence e- = higher but it’s allotropes can (e.g. Graphene w/c is 100
energy gap to exceed) times faster than Silicon)
○ Kinds of semiconductors:
■ Intrinsic/pure semiconductor: # free e_ = # holes
(+ charges)
● semiconductor permits flow of electricity in
both directions
○ Current flow is due to holes and
electrons (at room temp)
○ Major parts of the current in an intrinsic
semiconductor are due to conduction-
band electrons
○ Conductors ● Functions as a conductor with high
■ Have 1-3 valence e- resistance, not as a switch
■ Almost no band gap ● The Fermi level for the intrinsic
■ PTC (Positive Temp Coeff): higher semiconductor lies in the middle of band gap
temperature means higher resistivity ● E.g. pure silicon
■ Superconductors: only happen when the ■ Extrinsic/impure semiconductor:
resistivity is really really low, which ● Functions as a switch due to impurities
happens when the temperature is close to ● N-type (negatively charged):
absolute 0 ○ # free e_ is more than # holes (+5)
○ Insulators ○ Pentavalent atoms (5 valence)
■ Have high resistance, doesn’t permit current ■ Donor atoms
● Atoms tightly bound to one another ○ E.g. Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony
■ Thick band gap (PArSb) 5+
■ Have 5-8 valence e- ● P-type (positively charged):
■ Have NTC (Negative Temp Coeff): higher ○ # free e_ is less than # holes (+3)
temperature means less resistivity ○ Trivalent atoms (3 valence)
■ E.g. wood,glass,ceramic, plastic ■ Acceptor atoms
○ Semiconductors ○ E.g. Boron, Indium, Gallium (BInG)
■ Semiconductors: 4 valence, little band gap ■ Some notes on intrinsic vs extrinsic
● Eg = 1.1eV (Si) semiconductors:
● Eg = 0.67eV (Ge) ● The impurity level in a semiconductor
● Eg = 1.42eV (GaAs) (exstrinsicness) is about 1 atom for 108
■ Semiconductors have resistivity that lies atoms of pure semi-conductor
between that of conductors and insulators (intrinsicness)
■ Acts as an insulator at room temperature ● At very high temperatures, extrinsic
○ Direct vs Indirect Band Gap semiconductors become intrinsic
■ Direct Band Gap (DBP): top of the valence because band-to-band transition
band and the bottom of conduction band dominates over impurity ionization
occur at the same value of momentum
● E.g. GaAs, GaAsP, GaP
■ Indirect Band Gap (IBP): top of the valence
band and bottom of conduction band occur
at different values of momentum
● E.g. Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge)
 ■ Electron emission: process when an electron
escapes from a metal surface
● Photoemission/photoelectric effect:
emission of electrons when
electromagnetic radiation (i.e. light) hits
a material
○ Most widely used electron emission
process
○ The amount of photelectric
● Doping emission depends on intensity of
○ Doping: introducing impurities to a incident radiation (not on
semiconductor to change it from intrinsic to frequency)
extrinsic ● Thermionic emission: electrons
■ Doping a semiconductor in a good crystal emission due to heat or by virtue of its
introduces allowed energy states within the temperature
band gap, but very close to the energy band ○ In practice, thermionic emission is
that corresponds to the dopant type. most widely used
● Electron donor impurities (n-type) ○ The thermal energy given to
create states near the conduction band carriers (called thermions)
○ Fermi level of n-type (when added overcomes the work barrier of the
with more donor atoms) gets closer material
to conduction band ○ Used in vacuum tubes (predecessor
● Electron acceptor impurities (p-type) of diodes/transistors)
create states near the valence band ● Secondary emission: ejection of
○ Fermi level of p-type (when added secondary particles (e.g. electrons) from
with more acceptor atoms) gets a material that is bombarded by a beam
closer to valence band of charged particles
● How much dope? 1 dopant for every 1- ○ Secondary emission is NOT always
million atoms decremental (it can be useful)
■ Other results of doping: ○ useful in photomultiplier tubes
● Because doping increases the number of since the secondary electrons will
charge carriers, it increases the make the device more sensitive
conductivity of the semiconductor ● Field Effect emission:
○ This reduces the energy gap ● Thermal carrier generation: formation
between the conduction band and of holes and free electrons which
valence band increases with temperature
○ Higher doping means thinner ■ Diffusion length: the average length a carrier
depletion region moves between generation and
● Characterizes the breakdown voltage of recombination
a diode: higher doping level means ● Semiconductor materials that are
lower breakdown voltage heavily doped have greater
■ Kinds of Doping: recombination rates and consequently,
● Interstitial: “foreign” atoms squeezed have shorter diffusion lengths
between regular crystal sites ● Diffusion lengt h=√ Dτ
● Substitutional: “foreign” atoms
occupying the sites of host atoms ● Common semiconductor materials
○ Device building blocks: Combination of See links:
semiconductors: ■ PROPERTIES of Ge, Si, and GaAs at 300 K
■ Metal-semiconductor ■ Properties of Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), and Gallium
● Copper-Sulfide (CuS) Arsenide (GaAs) at 300
■ PN junction ● Properties of Silicon
● Diodes ○ Germanium
● BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) ■ Lowest forward voltage drop in diodes
● FETs (Field-Effect Transistor) ● Vthreshold,Ge ≃ 0.3V
■ Heterojunction ■ Intrinsic resistivity: ρ¿ =60 Ω ∙ cm
● Gallium-Arsenide (GaAs) ■ Effective density of states in conduction band:
● Gallium-Phosphite (GaP) N C ,≥¿=1.04 ×1 0 25
m3 ¿
● Indium-Antimonide (InSb)
■ Fermi level energy band gap: 0.72 eV
■ Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS)
○ Silicon
● Metal + insulator + semiconductor
● CMOS (Complementatry MOS) ■ Vthreshold,Si ≃ 0.7V
■ Intristic resistivity: ρ Si =60,000 Ω∙ cm
○ Some terms: ■ N C , Si =2.8 ×1 0 m
25 3
■ Work barrier - The amount of energy required to
emit an electron from the surface of a metal ■ Fermi level energy band gap: 1.09 eV
■ Most commonly used
○ Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): ○ Some formulas
■ Vthreshold,GaAs ≃ 1.2V ■ # of majority or minority carriers after doping:
2
■ Intrinsic resistivity: ρ¿ =1 08 Ω∙ cm np=ni where
■ N C , GaAs=1.04 × 1 0 m
23 3 ● n: density of majority carrier [/m3]
● p: density of minority carrier [/m3]
■ Disadvantage: very expensive ● ni: density of intrinsic carrier before doping
○ Selenium [/m3]
■ Vthreshold, Se ≃ 1.0V

● Diodes/Diode Applications
○ Di (two) + Electrodes (terminals)
○ Diode: Non-linear devices, unidirectional device
○ P-type + N-type material = semiconductor device
■ PN-junction will form -- Diffusion of
electrons and hole carriers to their opposite
side.
● Note: PN junction will form only when
P and N-types are combined. It is not
found in all semiconductor materials
(e.g. intrinsic semiconductors)
● The frequency at which a PN-junction
will work effectively depends on:
- The type of semiconductor material
- Cross-sectional area of junction
- Capacitance when reverse bias, zero
forward current till the forward
voltage reaches cut in value
● Low forward resistance, high reverse
resistance
■ Recombination happens then depletion
region is formed, preventing any further
electron transfer unless putting a forward
bias on the junction.
● Depletion region = Space-charge layer

○ Diodes
■ + terminal: Anode
■ – terminal:
Cathode
■ Biasing:
● Forward Bias:
Negative
terminal of source attached to N-type,
and positive terminal attached to P-type,
thus thinning of depletion region and
greater flow of current
● Reverse Bias: Opposite case, thus
thickening of depletion region
○ When in reverse bias, both holes and
electrons move away from junction
which thickens the depletion region
○ Peak-Inverse Voltage (PIV): maximum
voltage that the diode can take/block
before being destroyed
○ Diode Models (VD: diode voltage)
■ 1st approximation: Ideal model:
● Forward bias: VD = 0 and ID>0
● Reverse bias: VD < 0 and ID=0
 ● Functions as an ideal switch
■ 2nd approximation: Practical model:
● Forward bias: VD=VK and ID>0
○ VK = 0.7V for Silicon
○ VK = 0.3V for Germanium
○ VK = 1.4V for GaAs
● Reverse bias: VD<VK and ID=0 ■ Positive and Negative clamping
○ ID is leakage current ● Positive clamping: shifts the waveform
○ May result to breakdown region down ABOVE a reference voltage
■ 3rd approximation: Piecewise-linear model: ○ Capacitor charges during negative half-
● Increasing current will increase the voltage cycle
drop ● Negative clamping: shifts the waveform
● 0.7V + IDR down BELOW a reference voltage;
○ Capacitor charges during positive half-
cycle

○ Diode Formula: Shockley’s Equation

■ relates diode current ID to reverse saturation
current IS
■ Describes the characteristic equation of the diode

( ) ( )
VD VD
I D =I S e −1 =I S e −1
kT T
η η( ) ■ Rectifiers
q 11600 ● Half-wave rectifier
kT ○ PIV = VM
■ Thermal voltage: V t =
q ● Full-wave rectifier
If not given, use VT = 26mV ○ Center-tapped
● IS: reverse saturation current ■ PIV = 2VM
● VD: voltage across diode ○ Bridge-type: higher power rating than
● η: non-ideality factor of diode center-tapped
○ η = 1: Germanium ■ PIV = VM
○ η = 2: Silicon ■ DC and AC Sources (Load-line analysis) -
● k: Boltzmann’s constant [constant 25] continue this
● q: electron charge [constant 23]
● T: temperature in Kelvins ○ Types of Diodes
○ Room temp: in ELEC 27oC or 300K https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode#Shockley_diode_equation
■ Effect of Temperature on:
● On reverse saturation current: the reverse
saturation current in a Silicon PN diode
doubles every 10oC in Temp.
I S 2 (T ¿ ¿2−T )/1 0 C ¿ o
=2 1

I s1
● On Saturation voltage:
● On Threshold voltage:
V TH 2=V TH 1(1+ kΔT ) where
○ k: temperature coefficient of
semiconductor
ksilicon: -2 mV/oC
kGermainium: -2.5 mV/oC
■ Effect of Voltage on Temperature:
○ Diode Applications ■ Avalanche diode
■ Series and Parallel Clipping ■ Constant-current diode
● Series Clipper: diode in series with input ■ Crystal diode
○ Negative clipper: Clips negative cycle, ■ Gunn diode [See EST
positive-half remains ■ Hot-carrier diode: used as VHF and UHF mixers
○ Positive clipper: Clips positive cycle, and detectors
negative-half remains ■ Light-emitting diode (LED)
● Parallel Clipper: diode in parallel with input ● Emits light when current flows through it
■ Dual combination clipping ○ Electrical energy turns to light
 ○ Electrons recombine with holes, ● Has 2 doped regions (p and n region)
releasing energy in the form of photons separated by an intrinsic layer
● Called Photoelectric effect: free e- gives ● Characteristics
light or Electroluminescence ○ High reverse breakdown voltage
● In LEDs: the cooler the environment, the ○ Low capacitance
higher an LED's light output will be. Higher ● Application
temperatures generally reduce light output ○ High voltage rectifier
● Red and Green LEDs are common → ○ RF switching
memorize the voltage drops! ○ photodiodes/photodetector
Material Wavelength Color V @ 20mA ■ Schottky diode
GaAs 850-940 nm Infra-Red 1.2 V ● no charge storage and thus almost zero
GaAsP 630-660 nm Red 1.8 V ! reverse recovery time
GaAsP 605-620 nm Amber 2.0 V ● Compared to an ordinary semiconductor
(Orange) diode, a Schottky diode has
○ a lower cut in voltage (0.3V compared
GaAsP:N 585-595 nm Yellow 2.2 V
to 0.7 of ordinary diodes)
AlGaP 550-570 nm Green 3.5 V !
○ A higher reverse saturation current (due
SiC 430-505 nm Blue 3.6 V to high electron concentration in metals)
GaInN 450 nm White 4.0 V ■ Super barrier diode
● Some notes: Silicon is not suitable for the ■ Gold-doped diode
fabrication of LEDs because it’s an Indirect ■ Snap off or Step-recovery diode
Band Gap semiconductor [See Band Gap ■ Stabistor or Forward Reference diode
Theory] ■ Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS)
○ e- must undergo a momentum change as ■ Tunnel diode or Esaki diode
well as a change in energy. So, energy ■ Varicap or Varactor diode
is released as heat along with the light. ● A diode whose internal capacitance varies
■ Laser diode with the variation of the reverse voltage
■ Thermal diode ○ Used in storing the charge
■ Photodiode ○ Always works in reverse bias
● a transducer that takes light energy (photons) ○ Voltage-dependent capacitance
and converts it into electrical energy in the ● Used in Tuning because of the voltage-
form of reverse current dependent capacitance
● Has opposite function as LEDs: Since ● Transition Capacitance formula:
forward current in LEDs create light, light in C0
photodiodes create reverse current

( | |)
n
○ C T (V R ) = V where
1+ R
V TH
■ V0: max capacitance
■ VR: reversed bias voltage
■ VT: threshold voltage (0.7V)
○ Also called photodetector/photosensor 1
○ Illumination→ionized covalent bonds→ ■ n= if diffused junction
3
generation of hole and electron pairs 1
■ Electron-hole pairs are formed ■ n= if alloy junction
when photons of energy more than 2
1.1eV hits the diode ■ Zener diode
■ An increase in illumination for a ● Used in voltage regulator/voltage reference
photodiode decreases its resistance circuits [See Power Supplies: Regulators
(not increasing its current) Section]
○ Photon enters the depletion region→ ○ Output voltage is equal to Zener
free electrons and hole are produced→ Voltage VZ despite variations in the
current input voltage V
■ Photon absorption intensity is ● Zener Breakdown
proportional to photon energy ● Resistor is used to limit current in the diode
● Has 3 layers: P-layer, intrinsic layer (in ■ 7-segment display
between) and N-layer ● 7-segments (a-g) each an LED to form part
● Operates in reverse bias condition: P-side of a numerical digit
connected to negative terminal and v.v. ● Forward bias (FB) a pin to light a segment
■ PIN diode ● usually driven by an IC: 7-segment
● Has 3 layers: P-layer, Intrinsic layer, N-layer decoder/driver (e.g. CMOS 4511, TTL
7447)
● 2 types
○ Common Cathode (CC): all Cathode
connections of the LED segments are
joined together to Logic 0 or GND
 ■ To light an individual segment, ■ To light an individual segment,
apply a Logic 1 to forward bias the apply a Logic 0 to the individual
individual Anode terminal Cathode terminal
■ more popular as many logic circuits
can sink more current than they can
source

○ Common Anode (CA): all Anode

connections of the LED segments are
joined together to Logic 1

● BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)

○ BJT: Bipolar Junction Transistor
■ Non-linear device
■ Current-Controlled Current Sources (CCCS)
devices
● They will turn ON only if there is current
flowing
● CCCS: input is current, output is current
■ BJT are active devices (they have amplifiers)
■ “Bipolar” devices because they operate with both
types of charge carriers: Holes and Electrons
○ Types of BJT transistors
■ NPN: electrons as charge carriers
● Conventional current flow (hole flow) is
going from collector/base to emitter OR
● Electrons drift from emitter to collector/base
since more N-type material
● More common BJT transistor because
diffusion of electrons is faster than holes
■ PNP: holes are charge carriers
● Conventionl current flow is going from
emitter to collector/base since more P-type
material

○ Transistor is unidirectional also but there is a control

in current that passes through because the middle part
(base) is of opposite material
○ Parts of BJT: Base, Collector, Emitter
■ Emitter: emits majority charge carriers (input)
■ Base: in between area of different material w/c
controls the flow of majority charge carriers
■ Collector: collects majority charge carriers
(output)
■ Some notes:
● Area: Collector>Emitter>Base (150:1)
● Doping: Emitter>Collector>Base
○ Formulas:
■ Anywhere:
● I E =I B + I C
○ IE and IC are almost equal because some
of the majority carriers in the emitter
recombine with the minority carriers of
the base
● Current gain: α, β and γ
 IC IC IE ● VCC>VCE>0.2V
○ α= , β= and γ = =β +1 ● VCE somewhere between collector supply
IE IB IB (cutoff) and 0.2V (saturation)
■ NOTE: If not given, use β=100 ● Transistor acts as a linear amplifier
■ NOTE: If question says “Q has a (transistor in ON state)
very high value of β”, then ● Q-point
IC ○ also known as a bias point, quiescent
● By β= , IB will be very point
IB
○ steady-state DC voltage or current at a
small such that it can be
specified terminal of a transistor with no
approximated to 0
input signal applied
● IC ≈ IE ○ Found at the intersection of the load-
○ Output of configuration must be line and the output-characteristic curve
constant of the configuration
α β ■ Load-line: line drawn joining the
○ β= or α =
1−α β+ 1 cut-off and saturation points
○ α + β+ γ =1 ■ Saturation region:
■ In collector-base region: ● BJT acts as CLOSED switch
● No leakage: I C =β I B or I E =( β +1)I B ● There is base and collector current (IB>0 and
IC>0) because VBE ≥ 0.7V
● W/ leakage current:
○ In fact: VB is so large and greater than
I C =β I B +( β +1)I CBO or VC and VE
I C =β I B + I CEO or ● An increase in IB will not increase/barely
I C =α I E + I CBO or increase IC anymore
● Transistor appears as a short-circuit between
I C= ( )α
1−α
I B +(
1
)I
1−α CBO
collector and emitter (close to 0V)
○ Current freely flows from collector to
○ Since I CEO=( β +1) I CBO emitter (IC ≃ IE)
○ VCE ≤ 0.2V (saturation
○ ICBO: collector-to-base current (base
voltage VCE(Sat))
open) → leakage current due to
● Saturation → “ON”
minority carriers
■ Usually so small except in high
○ Regions of Operations for PNP transistor: just flip
power transistors and high temp.
everything around (all < and >)
environments
■ In a junction transistor, the
collector cut-off current ICBO
reduces considerably by doping the
emitter with high level of impurity
○ ICEO: collector-to-emitter current (base
open or IB=0) → leakage current due to
minority carriers
■ In collector-emitter region:
● With leakage: I CEO=(β +1) I CBO
○ ICEO: collector-to-base current (emitter
open) → leakage current due to
minority carriers

○ Regions of Operations (Assuming NPN transistor)

○ Thus, transistor can act as a switch and as an
■ Cutoff region:
amplifier.
● BJT acts as OPEN switch
● Happens when VBase<0.7V thus BE junction
is reverse biased
● no base and collector current (IB=0 and IC=0)
● IE = 0 since IE = IB+IC
● Transistor appears as an open circuit
between collector and emitter (output)
○ Vout = VCC (collector supply)
● Cutoff → “OFF”
■ Forward-active region: ● BJT Configurations
● BJT acts as amplifier ○ Common Emitter
● There is base and collector current (IB>0 and
IC>0) because VBE ≥ 0.7V and I C =β I B
where β is the amplification factor of the
BJT
 ■ Parameters:
● Collector is common [VC=0]
● Input: base (VB>0), VBC, IB
● Output: emitter (VRe>0), VEC, IE or IRe
■ Characteristics:
● Low input impedance, high output
impedance
● Inverts the input signal and amplifies it (180o
out-of-phase)
● Medium current gain and voltage gain, high
power gain
● High thermal instability
■ Parameters
● Emitter is common [usually grounded VE=0]
● Input: base (VB>0), VBE, IB
● Output: collector (Vc>0), VCE, IC

● Input characteristic curve of VBC determined

by out voltage VEC (since VBC = VEC - VBE or
VBC = VEC - 0.7)
■ Formulas: ● Output characteristic is same as common
Vo V CE RC emitter
● AV =¿ - =- =- ■ Formulas:
VI V BE RB
V o V EC
Io IC ● AV =¿ = ≈1
● A I =¿ = =β V I V BC
II IB ○ because VEC and VBC only differ by 0.7
● Power dissipation: PC , max=V CE I C Vo V EC RC
■ Applications: ● A I =¿ - =- =-
● Used as Current amplifier, Voltage
VI V BC RB
amplifier, or Power amplifier ● Power dissipation: PC , max=V EC I E
● Low noise amplifiers ■ Applications
● Radio frequency amplifiers ● Impedance matching (because of its high
● Low frequency voltage amplifiers input impedance)
● Voltage buffer (isolation of a circuit)
○ Common Collector
■ Also called emitter follower/voltage follower ○ Common Base
because the emitter voltage (output) follows the
base voltage (input)
● Voltage buffers are important because of the
high input impedance it gives (i.e. current
has little to no effect on the power of the
circuit)
■ Characteristics:
● high input impedance, low output impedance
● Voltage buffer [voltage gain ≈
1], High current gain, low power
gain
● Input and output in-phase (0o)
 less than 1)
Power gain High Low Medium
Input Z Medium High Low
Output Z Medium Low High
180o out of
Phase shift In-phase (0o) In-phase (0o)
phase
Type of Power Current Voltage
amplifier Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier
■ Opposite of common collector: current
follower/current buffer (i.e. switch lol) Isolation
Application Universal RF amplifier
■ Parameters: (buffer)
● Base is common [VB=0]
● Input: emitter (VE<0 and VB =0, thus VBE is
forward biased), VEB, IE
● Output: collector (VRL>0), VCB, IC or IRL
■ Characteristics:
● Very Low input impedance, high output
impedance
● Non-inverting amplifier
● Input and output in-phase (like common
collector)
● High voltage gain, zero current gain, low
power gain

■ Applications:
● Used as voltage amplifier
● Used in moving coil microphones
Preamplifiers
● Used in VHF and UHF radio frequency (RF)
amplifiers [See Radio Frequency section]
○ VHF: Very-high frequency [30MHz-
300MHz]
○ UHF: Ultra-high frequency [300MHz-
3GHz]
■ Formulas:
V o V CB V CB RC
● AV =¿ = ≈ =α
V i V EB 0.7 V RE
Io IC
● A I =¿ = = α ≃1
Ii I E
○ At common base: I C ≃ I E
V BE 0.7 V
● Input current: I E = = (at
RE RE
constant output voltage VCB)
V CB V CB
● Output resistance: Ro =¿ = (at
IC IR L

constant input current IE)

● Power dissipation: PC , max=V CB I C
Common Common Common
Emitter Collector Base
Low (buffer,
Voltage gain Medium High
less than 1)
Current gain Medium High Low (buffer,
● BJT - DC Biasing and AC Biasing
○ Transistor Biasing is to establish a known Q-point
for the BJT to work efficiently and produce an
undistorted output signal
■ Correct DC biasing of a transistor also
establishes its initial AC operating region with
practical biasing circuits
○ DC Biasing: For DC, replace capacitors with open
■ Fixed Bias Circuit

● Very stable bias circuit (β independent)

● Solving using Exact Method
○ At base-emitter loop, supply voltage
VCC is parallel to RB1 and RB2 thus use
Thevenin’s theorem
■ Use KVL using VTH and RTH and
solve for IB
RB2
■ V TH = (V )
● Also called Base-resistor method R B 1+ RB 2 cc
● β (beta) dependent thus the current and ■ RTH =RB 1∨¿ R B 2
voltages are change when the temperature is ○ At base-emitter loop, use KVL
changing −V TH + I B RTH +V BE + I E R E=0
○ Unstable biasing (sensitive to change in
β) IE
−V TH + R +V BE + I E RE =0
● IB remains constant for any value of VCC thus β+ 1 TH
called Fixed bias Recall: If not given, use β=100
● Use KVL around base-emitter and collector-
emitter to solve values
○ Saturation: VCE must be 0
○ Cut-off: IB and IC must be 0
● This is just a basic biasing circuit, not
recommended for practical use because of
the instability of the circuit

■ Emitter-Stabilized Bias Circuit ● Solving using Approximate Method

○ Use approximate method when:
(β DC +1)R E ≥ 10 R B 2

○ DC Load-line analysis (steps)

● Fixed Bias circuit but with a resistor RE in 1. Obtain DC load-line by applying KVL at output
the emitter to stabilize the circuit/Q-point loop
○ Circuit is now β (beta) independent 2. Obtain current at the input by applying KVL at
input loop
○ RE performs two functions:
3. Plot intersection between DC load-line and
■ DC negative feedback for stable output characteristic curve
biasing ● Intersection is the Q-point
■ AC negative feedback for signal 4. Trace the output current and voltage from the Q-
transconductance and voltage gain point
specification 5. Solve for other circuit parameters
● Use KVL around base-emitter and collector- ○ Coupling & Bypass Capacitor on BJTs
emitter to solve values

■ Voltage Divider Bias Circuit

 ● The capacitance must be such that the
th
resulting reactance XC will be
1 of the
10
emitter resistance RE at the desired low
frequency response
○ Eg. At 100Hz and RE = 100Ω, use
1
CE= =160 μF
2 π (100)(Xc )
○ Bias Stabilization on BJT
■ Coupling capacitors ■ Collector current IC is sensitive to the following
● Placed in series with the input (source) and factors affected by temperature:
the output (load) ● Reverse saturation current (ICO) doubles for
● use to decouple ac and dc signals so as not to every 10oC increase in temperature
disturb the Q-point of the circuit when ac
(2 )
T f −T i
signals are injected at the input ○ k(T 1−T 0 )
I s 1=I s 0 e ≃ I s0 10
○ Note: Capacitors do not let DC pass,
○ Applies also to diodes
only AC (capacitor acts as high-pass
● Base-emitter voltage (VBE) decreases by
filter)
2.5mV for per oC increase in temperature
○ This makes the BJT circuit remain
correctly biased and the BJT will only mV
○ V BE ,2=V BE ,1−2.5 o
amplify AC signals ❑ C
● The capacitance must be such that the ● β (beta) increases with increase in
th
1 of the temperature
resulting reactance XC will be ■ Stability factors
10
input impedance Zin of the circuit at the Δ IC
● S(I CO )=
desired cutoff frequency Δ I CO
■ Bypass capacitors Δ IC
● Also called Decoupling capacitors ● S(V BE)=
● Used for bypassing AC noise Δ V BE
○ Note that there will be AC fluctuations Δ IC
in the emitter current IE because of the ● S(β )=
AC input signal. Δβ
■ Low stability factor: more insensitive to
■ the voltage drop across RE subtracts temperature variations; high stability factor:
from VIN by KVL resulting to a more sensitive to temperature variations
small base current IB. Thus, RE
reduces the voltage gain of the
circuit
■ IE will be large due to the
amplification of the circuit
● Causes the frequency response of the
amplifier to break at a designated cut-off
frequency (fC)
○ low f (DC or f<fC): use resistor path
high f (AC or f>fC): shunted to ground
through the bypass capacitor
○ At high f: the bypass capacitor becomes
a short (because XC = 1/2πfC) which
results to:
■ Lower input impedance (RE is a
feedback resistor thus it is part of
the input impedance) ○ AC Biasing: For AC, replace capacitors with short
■ Higher gain (Thus the bypass and remove DC supplies (VCC)
capacitor increases the voltage gain ■ Capacitors in AC Biasing of transistors
of the circuit) ● Coupling capacitors: connects two circuits
R C ∨¿ R L such that only the AC signal passes while
● Also recall: AV = - .
ℜ+ RE DC signal is blocked
At high f: XC is shorted so RE is ○ Connected with input and output signals
removed, thus greater AV ● Bypass capacitor: connected in parallel with
● Placed in parallel with the Emitter resistance load [emitter resistance (RE)].
RE ● Capacitors chosen with very small reactance
at frequency of application can be replaced
by a short circuit
■ AC parameters
 ● Input impedance: base to ground
● Input current: base current of transistor
● Output current: current through load RC
● Output voltage: voltage from collector to
GND
● Output impedance: across voltage output
■ Small signal AC analysis
■ 2 Port parameters:
● Z parameters: Impedance parameters
○ Called so because these are simply the
ratios of voltages and currents.
○ Also called open-circuit impedance
parameters
○ Units: Ohm (Ω)
■ V 1 = Z11 I 1 +Z 12 I 2
■ V 2 = Z 21 I 1 + Z 22 I 2
● Y paremeters: Admittance parameters
○ Called so because these are simply, the
ratios of currents and voltages
○ Also called short-circuit admittance
parameters
○ Units: Mho (Ω-1) or Siemens (S)
■ I 1 = Y 11 V 1 + Y 12 V 2
■ I 2 = Y 21 V 1 + Y 22 V 2
● T parameters: Transmission parameters
○ BJT models: ○ Also called ABCD parameters.
Lecture #4 BJT AC Analysis (check this!!) ○ A and D: dimensionless.
■ re model B: ohm (Ω), C: Mho (Ω-1)
26 mV ■ V 1 = A V 2 - B I2
● re=
IE ■ I 1 = C V 2 - D I2
○ Use DC analysis when solving for IE ○ A and C are calculated by doing open-
V o R C ∨¿ R L circuit of port2.
● AV = = B and D are calculated by doing short-
V i r e ∨¿ R E circuit of port2
● Zi‘ = (β +1)re || Zi where ● T’ parameters: Inverse transmission
○ Zi: input impedance of DC equivalent parameters
■ Hybrid π model or Hybrid-equivalent model ○ Also called A’B’C’D’ parameters.
● r π = β re ○ A’ and D’: dimensionless.
B’: ohm (Ω), C’: Mho (Ω-1)
1
● ro = ■ V 2 = A ' V 1 - B' I 1
hoe
■ I 2 = C ' V 1 - D ' I1
● gm = 1/re ○ A’ and C’ are calculated by doing open-
○ Effects of RL and RS: circuit of port1.
■ For the same configuration, AVNL > AVL > AVS: ○ B’ and D’ are calculated by doing short-
Voltage gain (no load) > Voltage gain (full load) circuit of port1
> Voltage gain (with series R) ● h parameters: Hybrid parameters
■ The larger the level of RL, the greater is the level ○ useful in transistor modelling circuits
of AC gain (networks)
■ The smaller the internal resistance of the input ○ h12 and h21: dimensionless.
signal, the greater is the overall gain h11: ohm (Ω), h22: Mho (Ω-1)
■ For any network that has coupling capacitors, RS ■ V 1 = h11 I 1 + h12 V 2
and RL do not affect the DC biasing levels
○ 2 port networks ■ I 2 = h21 I I + h22 V 2
■ 2-port networks contain two ports: one port is ○ h11 and h21 are calculated by doing short
used as an input port and the other port is used as circuit of port2
an output port. ○ h12 and h22 are calculated by doing open
■ one pair of terminals, 1 & 1’ represents one port, circuit of port1
(called as port1) and the other pair of terminals, 2 ● g parameters: inverse hybrid parameters
& 2’ represents another port (called port2) ○ g12 and g21: dimensionless.
g11: Mho (Ω-1), g22: ohm (Ω)
■ I 1 = g11 V 1 + g12 I 2
■ V 2 = g21 V 1 + g22 I 2
 ○ g11 and g21 are calculated by doing open
circuit of port2.
○ g12 and g22 are calculated by doing short
circuit of port1

● Amplifier Classes
○ Divided into two groups: (1)
■ Classically controlled conduction angle
amplifiers: Class A, AB, B and C ■ Combine Class A and Class B amplifiers to
● defined by the length of their conduction achieve a greater efficiency than Class A
state over some portion of the output (≃60%) but lower distortion than
waveform Class B
● operation lies between fully ON and fully ● Achieved by biasing both transistors so they
OFF conduct when the signal is close to zero (in
● Most commonly constructed amplifier Class B, non-linearities happen at zero
classes crossings)
● E.g. Audio Amplifiers ■ Q-point slightly above x-axis (lower part of the
■ Switching amplifiers: Class D, E, F, G, S, and T load-line)
● Use digital circuits and pulse-width ● Conduction angle is between 180o to 360o
modulation (PWM) ■ Using small bias voltage provided by series
● switch between ‘fully ON’ (saturation) and diodes and resistors
‘fully OFF’ (cutoff) only
● Uses RLC resonators or multiple power 3. Class B amplifier
supplies to reduce power loss

■ Uses two complimentary transistors (BJT or

FET) for each half of the waveform
● Each transistor only amplifies half of the
output waveform
■ No DC bias current (IQ,point = 0) thus higher
efficiency (≃50%) than class A however, low
○ Conduction angle amplifiers: linearity
1. Class A amplifier ■ transistors dead band of input base voltages from
-0.7V to +0.7V
■ Q-point is at x-axis
● The transistor conducts only half of the time
(either positive cycle or negative cycle) or
180o conduction angle
■ creates crossover
distortion at the zero-
crossing point of the
waveform
■ Most common
■ Output stage is biased on all the time (never turns 4. Class C amplifier
OFF)
■ Q-point in the middle of its load line
● Full 360o of output waveform
■ Highest linearity (signal output is linear to signal
input), high gain, low signal distortion but high
heat and lowest efficiency (≃30%) so
impractical for high-power
amplifications
■ Class A: Izero signal idling current ≥ Iload to produce the
largest output signal ■ Greatest efficiency (≃80%) but poorest
linearity of the classes of amplifiers
2. Class AB amplifier ● Heavily distorted output signal
● Thus, Class C is a non-linear amplifier
■ More than one-half of the input sinusoidal cycle
is cut off
● Transistor idling at its cut-off point
 ● Conduction angle for the transistor is Just above
■ Q-point below the x-axis AB 60% 180o-360o Moderate
cutoff
● Conduction angle is significantly less than B 78.5% 180 o
At cutoff High
180o (generally around the 90o) C 80% < 180o Below cutoff Very High
■ commonly used in high-frequency sine wave ○ As efficiency increases, distortion also increases
oscillators and tuned RF oscillators ○ Amplifier efficiency:
● not suitable for audio amplifiers;

[ ]
2
○ Swiching Amplifiers: see link: https://www.electronics- V CE(max )−V CE(min)
tutorials.ws/amplifier/amplifier-classes.html η=ηmax
V CE(max ) +V CE(min)
Summary:
θ (conduction ■ If Class A transformer coupled power
Class η (max) Q-point Distortion amplifier, then ηmax = 50%. Transformer
angle)
30% couple increases the efficiency (η) of the
(50% if amplifier, and it is only used for class A
A 360o Above cutoff Low amplifiers because Class A amplifiers have
transformer
coupled) low efficiency
● FET (Field Effect Transistors)
○ FET: Feld Effect Transistor
■ Non-linear devices
■ Unidirectional and voltage controlled
■ FETs are: Voltage-Controlled Current Sources
(VCCS) devices
● They will turn ON only if there is voltage
applied to the Gate
● VCCS: input is voltage, output is current
■ FET are active devices (they have amplifier
configurations [See FET Configurations])
■ Unipolar device that depends only on the
conduction of electrons (N-channel) or holes (P-
channel)
■ Mostly used in:
● Integrated circuits (ICs) because of their fast
switching times (compared to BJTs) and
their small size
● Digital circuits (for the same reason).
○ Parts of FET: Source, Gate, Drain
■ Source ←→ Emitter (in BJT)
● emits majority charge carriers (input)
■ Gate ←→ Base (in BJT)
● controls the flow of carriers by applying the
voltage input
■ Drain ←→ Collector (in BJT)
● collects majority charge carriers (output)
○ BJT vs FET
BJT FET
Current-controlled Voltage-controlled
(requires biasing current to turn ON) (requires biasing voltage to turn O
Larger Zi (input impedance)
Smaller Zi (input impedance)
Due to presence of dielectric on input side, it
[1-3 kΩ]
[in MΩ]
o (input impedance) Low Zo
Draws more current at input, and can cause
Draws little to no current at input, thus
loading
(low power consumption)
(high power consumption)
High gain at output Low gain at output
(BJT are current-amplifiers) (FET are Transconductance ampli
For amplification
For stabilization
[BJT: See Amplifier Classes]
Slow switching time Fast switching time
Temperature dependent Better Heat stability
Smaller size
Larger size
(thus FETs are used in ICs)
Cheaper Costly
(around P5.00-15.00) (around P25.00-50.00)
Less widely used More widely used
 ○ The only thing restricting the current ID
○ Types of FETs is the depletion region
● VP: pinch-off voltage
○ Voltage at which the channel closes/
saturates due to the depletion region
○ At this voltage, no current flows in the
drain (ID = 0)
○ Regions of Operations (Assuming N-channel JFET)
■ Pinch-off region:
● Also called Cut-off region for JFET
○ FET is turned OFF/open
● VGS ≫ 0, to drive to Pinch-off
● Drain- source channel resistance (RDS) is at
maximum, thus ID = 0
■ Ohmic region:
● Also called Linear region
○ as input voltage increases, output
current increases
■ JFET: Junction FET ○ JFET will act as a voltage controlled
● N-channel FET: channel is doped with donor resistor
impurities ● Happens when VGS = 0
○ flow of current through the channel is ● Drain current (ID) has a linear response to
negative (electrons, e-) changes in the Drain-source voltage (VDS)
○ P-substate ■ Saturation region
● P-channel FET: channel is doped with ● Also called Active region for JFET
acceptor impurities ○ FET is turned ON/closed
○ Flow of current through the channel is ● Current ID is maximum (flowing from drain
positive (holes) to source)
○ N-substate ○ FET becomes a good conductor
■ MOSFET: Metal-oxide Semiconductor FET ○ ID is controlled by VGS, while VDS has
● Also called Insulated Gate FET (IGFET) little or no effect
● D-MOSFET (Depletion MOSFET), E- ● In saturation, the effective channel length of
MOSFET (Enhancement MOSFET) a MOSFET decreases with increase in drain
voltage (VDS)
○ FET construction ■ Breakdown region
● Happens when VDS is very high which causes
a drastic increase in ID due to breakdown of
drain-source channel
● Cannot control and limit maximum current

■ Main current carrying path between the Source

and the Drain terminals is the channel
● Can be P-channel or N-channel Silicon
● Ohmic electrical connections at Drain and
○ Formulas:
Source
■ Shockley’s Equation (for JFETs): relates diode
■ Gate terminals have a different material type than
current ID to saturation current IDSS
the channel. This forms a Depletion layer with

( )
2
the main channel V GS
● Thus, JFETs are known as Depletion-mode
I D =I DSS 1− where
VP
devices
● Because FETs are voltage-controlled VP = VGS(off): pinch-off voltage
devices, no current flows into the Gate VGS: gate-to-source voltage
(IG=0) IDSS: drain-to-source current at
■ Voltage is applied at the Gate (VGS) to control saturation (maximum)
flow of current (ID). As VGS increases, the ID: drain current
effective width of the channel decreases, thus ID (range from 0: pinch-off
decreases and the channel resistance RDS to IDSS: saturation)
increases ■ V GS=V G−V S=V G −I D RS
● N-channel: VGS must be negative ● In some cases (check the circuit!), VG = 0
● P-channel VGS must be positive since the gate is connected to ground. If
■ Terms: there’s a source, get the thevenin voltage VTH
● IDSS: maximum drain-current (ID) when VGS
 ■ Because JFET has a very large input impedance ● The voltage drop across source resistance
(RG ≈ ∞), Gate current: IG = 0 and ID = IS (RS) provides the biasing voltage VGG on the
2 I DSS V GS V gate, thus no external source is needed
■ gm = (1− ) = gmo (1− GS ) ○ Thus called Self-Bias
|V P| VP VP ● Use KVL around gate-source and drain-
where source loops, and Shockley’s equation to
2 I DSS solve for values
● gmo: gm for VGS = 0 → gmo =
|V P|
■ Derivation of gm: transconductance
gm is the derivative of ID with respect to VGS:
d (I D ) d
gm = = ¿
d (V GS) d (V GS )
V GS 1
¿ 2 I DSS (1− )(0− )
VP VP
1 V GS
¿ 2 I DSS (0− + 0+ 2 )
VP VP ● Characteristic curve: use Shockley’s Eq’n to
2 I DSS V GS plot curve.
¿ (1− )=¿ ● Load-line: Plot the points ID = IDSS/2, and
−V P VP VGS = -(IDSS/2)RS. OR solve for IDQ and VGSQ
2 I DSS V GS
(1− ) ■ Voltage Divider Bias Circuit
|V P| VP ● Applicable to all FETs
Δ V GS 1 ○ if JFET/D-MOSFET: use Shockley’s
■ Channel resistance: R DS = = [

( )
2
Δ I D gm V GS
Equation → I D = I DSS 1−
input VP
]
output ○ if E-MOSFET: use current equation
for E-MOSFETs → I D =
● FET Biasing 2
○ Like BJT, Transistor Biasing is to establish a known k ( V GS −V TH )

( )
Q-point for the FET to work efficiently and produce R2
an undistorted output signal ● By voltage division: V G =V DD .
○ DC Biasing: For DC, replace capacitors with open R 1+ R 2
■ Fixed Bias Circuit This VG provides the biasing for the circuit
● Circuit where there’s a fixed gate voltage ○ No thevenin equivalent circuit
(VGG) thus called Fixed bias ○ R1 resistor facilitates larger adjustments
○ ensures that the VGS is always negative of the DC bias points and permits use of
(if N-channel) or positive (if P-channel) larger valued RS
but no current is drawn from the battery, ● Current across gate resistors:
thus still IG = 0 V DD
● Use KVL around gate-source and drain- I R 1=I R 2= (since IG = 0)
source loops, and Shockley’s equation to R 1+ R 2
solve for values ● Use Voltage division (on Gate side), KVL
around gate-source and drain-source loops to
solve for values

● Characteristic curve: use Shockley’s Eq’n

● Load-line: Horizontal line for VGSQ = -VGG
● Q-point: intersection of the load-line and the
curve

■ Self-Bias Circuit
● Most common method for biasing a JFET
○ Self-biasing of a JFET stabilizes the Q-
point against any change in its
parameters like gm (transconductance)
 ● FET - MOSFET
○ MOSFET: Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FET
■ Operate the same as JFETs but have the Gate
terminal electrically isolated from the conductive
channel (insulating layer is with SiO2)
● Thus also called IGFET: Insulated Gate FET
● Higher input impedances than JFETs (JFETs
have “medium” input impedances)
● Characteristic curve: use Shockley’s Eq’n ■ Unidirectional and voltage-controlled
● Load-line: use KVL equation around gate- ■ Both positive and negative input voltages (VG)
source loop: VGS = VG - IDRS can be applied
then draw the load-line ● Negative input VG: Depletion mode
At VGS = +VG, ID = 0 ● Positive input VG: Enhancement mode
At VGS = 0 , ID = V G /R S
○ Based on this formula, the Q-point can
be altered based on the value of source
resistance (RS) → the greater the RS, the
lower the drain current (ID) and thus a
lower Q-point

■ Feedback Bias Circuit

● Most common circuit for E-MOSFETs
● Note: different characteristic curve equation
○ ID = k(VGS - VGS(Th))2 for E-MOSFET
● From DC equivalent circuit: In Gate-Drain-
Source loop: VGS = VDS since VDG = 0 ○ 2 Type/Modes of Operations of MOSFETs:
(because there is no current entering the gate ■ E-MOSFET (Enhancement Mode/Type)
IG = 0, and the drain is connected to the gate) ● The transistor requires a value of VGS high
○ Thus, VGS = VDS = VDD - IDRD enough to switch the device ON. Thus E-
● Characteristic curve: use current Eq’n for E- MOSFETs are Normally OFF or Normally
MOSFETs: → ID = k(VGS - VGS(Th))2 OPEN switch
○ Note: you must be in 1st quadrant ● brokEn line
● Load-line: use KVL equation around Gate- ● The main factor which differentiates a D-
Drain-Source loop: MOSFET from an E-MOSFET, is the
VGS = VDS = VDD - IDRD absence of channel
at VGS = VDD, ID = 0 ○ The E–MOSFET has no physical
at VGS = 0 , ID = V DD / R D channel from source to drain since the
substrate extends completely to the SiO2
layer
● Current equation for E-MOSFET:
2
I D (on)=k ( V GS−V GS (T h) ) where
VGS(Th): threshold voltage (minimum
gate-to-source voltage that is
needed to turn the device ON)
k: proportionality constant
● If not given: use k = 0.3 mA/V2
○ In Enhancement-mode, VGS > 0, ID
gets higher than IDSS.
● Transconductance (for E-MOSFET): similar
to JFETs, gm is the derivative of ID with
respect to VGS: gm = 2 k (V GS −V GS (T h))

■ Note: In D-MOSFET bias circuits:

● Similar to those used to bias JFETs.
● The only difference is that for D-MOSFETs:
VGS: can be negative or positive
ID: can exceed IDSS
Chapter 7: FET Biasing Explanation
 ■ D-MOSFET
● The transistor requires VGS to switch the
device OFF. Thus, D-MOSFETs are
Normally ON or Normally CLOSED switch
● Same formula as JFETs’ Shockley’s
equation
● soliD line
● Follow Shockley’s equation (JFETs)

( )
2
V GS
I D =I DSS 1−
V GS (OFF )
○ In Depletion-mode, VGS < 0, ID gets
lower than IDSS (until it reaches 0) ● FET Configurations
● D-MOSFET can function in both ○ Common Source
Enhacement-mode and Depletion-mode ■ Most widely used FET configuration
■ Analogous to Common Emitter in BJT
■ Used in Audio frequency amplifiers and in high-
input impedance pre-amps and stages
■ Characteristics:
● Medium input and output impedance
● Inverts the input signal and amplifies it (180o
out-of-phase)
● Medium current gain and voltage gain, high
power gain
● High thermal instability
■ Parameters
● Source is common [usually grounded VS=0]
● Input: Gate (VG), VGS, IG = 0
● Output: Drain (VD>0), VDS, ID

○ Common Gate
■ Analogous to Common Base in BJT
■ Used in high frequency circuits or in impedance
matching circuits where a low input impedance
needs to be matched to a high output impedance
■ Parameters:
● Gate is common [VG=0]
■ Enhancement-only MOSFET ● Input: Source (VS>0), VSG, IS
● Has Enhancement only as its function (since ● Output: Drain (VDG>0), ID
D-MOSFET ■ Characteristics:
can either be ● Low input impedance, High output
in Depletion- impedance
mode or ● Input and output in-phase (0o) → Non-
inverting amplifier
● Input and output in-phase (like common
collector)
● High voltage gain, Low current gain, Low
power gain
Enhancement-mode)
● For E-MOSFET, the substrate extends all the way to the
SiO2 layer, and no channels are doped between the Source
and the Drain
○ Channel is induced in these MOSFETs when we have
VGS > VGS(Th)
 ○ Common Drain
■ Analogous to Common Collector in BJT
● Thus, Common Drain is also called Source
follower/voltage follower because the
Source voltage (output) follows the Gate ○ Cascode Amplifier
voltage (input) ■ amplifier consisting of a Common emitter (CE)
■ Characteristics: input stage that drives a common base (CB)
● high input impedance, low output impedance output stage.
■ advantages include high gain and low noise
● Voltage buffer [voltage gain ≈
■ employed in high frequency sections
1], High current gain, low power
■ Useful in reducing the Miller effect capacitance.
gain
● Input and output in-phase (0o)
■ Parameters:
● Drain is common [VD=0]
● Input: Gate (VG), VGD, IG = 0
● Output: Source (VSD>0), IS

Common Common Common

Source Drain Gate
Low (buffer,
Voltage gain Medium High
less than 1)
Low (buffer,
Current gain Medium High ● Other Special Services/Terms
less than 1)
Power gain High Medium Low ○ Hall effect or Hall-effect
■ A phenomenon where a small voltage is
Input Z Medium High Low
generated across the width of a current-carrying
Output Z Medium Low High conductor due to a presence of an external
180o out of magnetic field
Phase shift 0o 0o
phase ● The small voltage potential is due to the
Power Current Voltage deflection in the straight flow of electrons in
Type of amplifier
Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier the current-carrying conductor by a force
called Lorentz Force
● Cascade/Cascode Amplifiers ● The voltage is in microvolts (μV )thus these
○ Cascade Amplifier devices are usually built with high-gain
■ output of the first transistor is fed as input to the amplifiers
second transistor, whose output is fed as input to ● What is the Hall Effet and How does it work
the third ● Application
■ same amplifier stages (CE) being connected in ○ wheel speed sensors,
serial pattern crankshafts/camshaft position sensors,
■ used for high gain as well as high bandwidth Hall-effect switches, MEMS compasses,
■ main drawback: when several stages is used, gain Proximity sensors
increases but the bandwidth will decrease ■ Hall-effect sensor
● A non-contacting magnetic sensor
● 2 types: analog output or digital output
○ Analog - composed of voltage regulator,
Hall element (prop to magnetic field
strength), and amplfier
■ Used for measuring proximity due
to their continuous linear output

○ Work function
■ The amount of additional photon energy required
to emit an electron from the surface of a metal
■ the minimum energy required by the fastest
electron at 0 K to escape from the metal surface
○ Digital - composed of the devices found ○ Surface barrier
in an Analog Hall-effect sensor, with ■ hinder the guest molecules from entering the
the addition of a Schmitt trigger in order pore space and significantly slow down the mass
to give the digital output states (ON or transfer
OFF) ■ influence the uptake of molecules into porous
■ Schmitt trigger provides hysteresis materials; hence acting as additional mass
or 2 different threshold values transfer resistance at the outer crystal surfaces
■ Example: Hall-effect switches
○ Automation Systems
■ The digitizing technology that uses an electric
field radiated from the tablet and picked up by a
cursor is electrostatic.
 ELEC: Industrial Electronics I
● Power Supplies: Transformers VM
○ Power Supply: Transformer → Rectifier → Filter P . F .= × 100 %
→ Regulator
V RMS
○ Transformer: converts AC voltage/current to Rectifier Efficiency (η):
higher or lower values (DC component of input 2
DC output power I DC R L
is ignored by the transformer) η= = 2 max: 40.6% max: 81.2%
AC input power I RMS (R D + R L )
Where RD: diode resistance
fIN 2fIN
Output frequency Bonus: 3-phase rectifier (output
frequency is still 2fIN )
○ Half-wave rectifier
■ Simplest kind of rectifier (1 diode only)
■ PIV = VM
○ Full-wave rectifier
■ Bridge-type full-wave rectifier
● Most used due to its efficiency and
simplicity
● PIV = VM
○ Formulas (ideal transformers) ■ Center-tapped full-wave rectifier
■ PIN = POUT ● PIV = 2VM
N 1 V 1 I2
= = = 1
N 2 V 2 I1
●
Z
Z2 √
Current is inversely proportional to
number of turns to conserve power in
both sides
○ Some notes on transformers:
■ To improve mutual coupling between
primary and secondary circuit, the magnetic
core must have low reluctance
■ High leakage transformers are of small
Voltage Ampere (Power) rating

● Power Supplies: Rectifiers

[See AC Fundamentals]
○ Rectifier: AC → pulsating DC (Rectification:
process of converting AC to pulsating DC)
Half-wave Full-wave
rectifier rectifier ● Power Supplies: Filters
VM VM ○ Filters: removes ripple components away from
RMS value (VRMS) output
2 √2 ■ Filters are used to eliminate undesired high
VM 2V M frequencies (i.e., noise) that are present on
Average/DC value (VDC) AC input lines. Additionally, filters are used
π π on a power supply's output to reduce ripple
Ripple (Vr(rms)) ■ Reducing ripple = changing a half-wave or
V r (rms)=√ V RMS 2−V DC 2 full-wave rectified voltage to a constant
0.386 V M 0.308 V M voltage
VM
V r (rms)= ○ C-filter or capacitor filter
√3 ■ Simplest and most economic filter available;
Ripple factor (R) uses only 1 capacitor
V r (rms) ■ Takes advantage of behavior of capacitor in
r= ×100 % 121 % 48 % AC (short) and DC (open) circuits
V DC ● DC: capacitor is open and DC current
Form factor (F.F.) flows all through load
V RMS ● AC: capacitor is shorted and all AC current
F . F .= ×100 % 157 % 111 % flows through capacitor given that
V DC | X C|≪R L
Peak factor (P.F.) 200% 141%
Half-wave Full-wave Relating RMS voltage and Peak-to-peak voltage: (assumes a
sawtooth output waveform)
V pp V r (p− p ) V r (peak )
V RMS = and V r (rms)= =
2√ 3 2 √3 √3
Peak-to-peak ripple voltage Peak-to-peak ripple voltage:
VM I DC VM I DC
V r ( p− p)= = assum V r ( p− p)= = ass
f R L C fC 2 f R L C 2 fC
ing RLC >> T uming RLC >> T
Combining the two equations
Combining the two equations above:
above: I DC
V r (rms),full −wave= =
I 4 √ 3 fC
V r (rms),h alf −wave = DC
2 √3 fC 2.4 I DC 2.4 V DC
=
C RL C
Ripple factor (with filter):
1 1
r= r=
2 √ 3 f R LC 4 √ 3 f R LC
V r (p− p )
V DC =V M − =V M −V r( peak ) since Vr(peak) = Vr(pp)/2
2
V DC
Relation of VDC and VM to ripple factor r: =1+ √ 3 r
VM
Relating Vr(rms) and VM to ripple factor r:
V r (rms) r
=
VM 1+ √ 3 r

○ RC Filters
■ Enhanced C-filter because a resistor is in
series with capacitor which further reduces
ripple voltage

○ DC operation of RC filter:
' RL
■ V DC = V where
R + RL DC
VDC: DC voltage generateed across C1
V’DC: DC voltage generated across C2 and load
○ AC operation of RC filter
' XC
■ V r (rms) ≈ V
R r (rms)
■ For a full-wave rectifier with ac ripple at 120
1.3
Hz: X C =
1000 C

● Power Supplies: Regulators

○ Voltage regulation: the amount of DC output voltage
that changes over a range of operation.
 ■ Difference of the output voltage under no-load ■ Zener Diode in circuits
condition (full-current) and full-load condition
(reduced current)
V NL −V FL
■ % V . R .= ×100 %
V FL
■ 0% VR: best voltage source because the output
voltage is independent of the current drawn from
the supply
● As long as VTH (computed voltage of zener
diode when removed) is greater than or
equal to VZ, then the diode operates as a
zener diode in the breakdown region
RL
○ V TH = (V )
R L+ R S S
■ If VTH>VZ then VO=VZ (output
○ Regulation in Power supplies: voltages below a voltage)
certain level (e.g. 5V) is dissipated as heat by the V S−V Z
regulator. Anything below that will pass through but ○ I S= =I Z + I L
only at that level R
○ Regulation using Zener Diodes ○ PZ =V Z I Z
■ Can conduct current in both directions ● Variable load resistance:
● Forward Biased: normal diode operation ○ If RL(Min):
● Reverse Biased: voltage regulation RL
○ Thus no diode destruction when PIV is ■ V TH = V =V Z(so to
exceeded R L+ R S S
○ VZ (zener voltage) must be exceeded to meet requirements), thus
conduct current in reverse bias V Z RS
R L(min) =
V S−V Z
○ If RL(Max):
VO VO
R L(max)= =
I L(Min) V S−V Z
−I Z(Max)
RS
IL(Min) = IS - IZ(Max) [KCL]
V S =V Z
IL(Min) = - IZ(Max)
RS
● Variable source resistance:
■ Parameters
○ If RS(Max):
● VF: forward voltage
● VR: reverse voltage
RL
■ V TH = V =V Z (so
● VR(max) = VZ: zener voltage R L + R S (Max ) S
● IZ(max): max. zener current to meet requirements, thus
■ Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown
● Avalanche breakdown: when reverse voltage
exceeds breakdown voltage of device for a
normal diode
R S(max )=R L
( V S −V Z
VZ )
○ If RS(Min):
○ If exceeded, the PN-junction will ■ RS(Min) means IS(Max) but we have
conduct current, caled the leakage IZ(Max) thus
current which is constant IS(Max) = IZ(Max) + IL [KCL]
○ Should be avoided V S −V Z
○ VB, Avalanche (breakdown voltage) > 6V IS(Max) = thus:
○ Positive temperature coefficient: thus an R S( Min)
increase in temp will increase the V −V Z
breakdown voltage VB ■ R S(min)= S
● Zener breakdown: when reverse voltage I Z(max )+ I L❑
approaches/exceeds zener voltage for zener ● Varying voltage source:
diode ○ If VS(Min):
○ Results in dramatic increase in current RL
(like a normal forward-biased diode) but ■ V TH = V =V Z(so to
a steady zener voltage
R L + R S S(min)
○ VB, Zener < 4V meet requirements), thus
○ Negative temperature coefficient: thus
an increase in temp will decrease the
breakdown voltage VB
V S (min)=V Z
( R L+ R S
RL )
 ○ If VS(Max):
■ VS(Max) means IS(Max) but we can’t
have too high IS or the zener diode
will break. Thus:
V S(max )−V Z
I S (max )= =I Z (max) + I L
RL
■ V S (max )=(I Z(max) + I L )R L +V Z
○ Voltage regulation using IC Voltage regulators
● Thyristors/SCR
■ Kinds
○ Industrial Electronics: branch of electronics in charge
● 78 Series: Fixed Positive output voltage
with manufacturing heavy-duty electronics for
● 79 Series: Fixed Negative output voltage
industrial purposes
○ Thyristors Introduction
■ Solid-state semiconductor device with four layers
of alternating P and N materials.
■ Can only conduct current in one direction
■ Acts exclusively as a bistable swith

● LM 317: Adjustable/variable Positive

Voltage regulator
○ The resistors R1 and R2 set the output to
the desired voltage [range 1.2V to 37V]

○
( )
V o =V ref 1+
R2
R1
+ I adj R2
Typical values: Vref = 1.25V
Iadj = 100μA
R = 240Ω
R2 = 500 KΩ
○ Range: 1.2V to 37V
○ Has the highest dissipation

● LM 337: adjustable/variable Negative ■ SCR angles

voltage regulator ● Triggering angle/Firing angle (α)
○ Range: -1.2V to -37V ○ angle at which the SCR gets turned on
■ Configurations and starts conducting
● Series Voltage Regulator: regulator is in ○ angle where the designers apply the gate
series with load and is connected to a pulse to control SCR/Thyristor
feedback circuit to compare the voltages ● Commutation angle/Extinction angle (β)
○ Just use basic DC techniques (KVL, ○ angle at which the SCR gets turned off
KCL, voltage division, etc.) to solve! ○ For AC resistive loads, this angle is at
zero crossings.
● Conduction angle (γ)
○ angle at which the SCR/Thyristor in On
State and experience the current flow

● Shunt voltage regulator: regulator is in

parallel with load ■ Operations:
● Forward Blocking mode
○ VA > 0 but IG = 0
 ○ One of the ‘subtransistors’ is reverse ● Used in isolated circuits (no physical link
biased because of no gate current thus between circuits except air)
the entire thyristor is OFF ■ Light-Activated SCS (LASCS)
● Forward Conducting mode ● An SCS activated by light
○ Anode Voltage (VA) > VFB (forward ● Used in isolated circuits
breakover voltage) and there is a small
gate current IG
■ Forward breakover voltage: voltage
required for the thyristor to start
conducting
■ VFB decreases as gate current IG
increases ● Other PNPN Devices
○ thyristor conducts current in this state as ○ UJT: Unijunction Transistor
long as the holding current is ■ A 3-lead semiconductor device with only one
maintained junction that acts exclusively as an electrically
■ Holding current (Iholding): minimum controlled switch
current required for the ● Not ideal for amplifiers because of non-
thyristor/SCR to sustain conduction linear response
● Reverse Blocking mode ● Used for generating time varying waveforms
○ Produces leakage current Ileakage (its output is used to trigger SCR)
○ Maximum reverse voltage (Vrev, max): ■ Works like a voltage divider except that there is a
max voltage the thyristor will take diode. Once threshold voltage is reached, it starts
without allowing current to pass through conducting
○ Avalanche breakdown: thyristor acts in RB1
reverse bias (broken thyristor) ■ Intrinsic stand-off ratio: η=
■ Turning off thyristor/SCR: R B 1 + RB 2
● Anode current interruption ● Not dependent on biasing thus the stand-off
● Forced Commutation ratio is fixed
○ Putting a voltage across the SCR and ● For UJT: η is typically 0.7
stopping the current from flowing
through
■ Formulas:
2 π
● Conduction time (t)SCR = 2T = =
f ω
T: period
■ Some notes on SCRs:
● Most SCRs can be turned-off by voltage
reversal during negative half-cycle of ac
supply for frequencies up to kHz

○ Types of Thyristors
■ Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs):
● Thyristor that’s optimized for high power
switching
● Highest power load
■ Silicon-Controlled Switch (SCS):
● Thyristor with two gates and optimized for
faster turn off time
■ Characteristic curve:
● Better as a switch than a rectifier
● VP: triggering voltage/peak point voltage
● Has 4 terminals: Anode, Anode Gate, Gate,
(stable)
and Cathode
● IP: peak point emitter current - current which
○ Anode Gate: can be used to turn on/off
triggers the UJT; inversely proportional to
the SCS with the proper voltage levels
VBB (interbase voltage)
■ Silicon-Unilateral Switch (SUS)
○ Low value
■ Silicon-Bilateral Switch (SBS)
● VV: valley point voltage -increases with an
■ Gate Turn Off (GTOs)
increase in VBB
● Thyristor that can be turned on and off using
● IV: valley point current - also increases with
the same gate
an increase in VBB
● However, GTOs can’t handle high power
● Can have negative resistances because of
(no maximum power load)
potentiometer
● Operation:
● Emitter current never exceeds IEO to the left
○ In a GTO, anode current begins to fall
of peak point
when gate current is negative peak at
■ Some notes on UJTs:
time t = storage period ts
■ Light-Activated SCR (LASCR)
● An SCR that can be activated by light
 ● It is recommended to use UJT oscillator for
gate-triggering of thyristors mainly because
it provides sharp firing pulses
● A positive voltage applied to the gate of a
reverse biased SCR increases the reverse
leakage current into the anode

○ PUT: Programmable Unijunction Transistor

■ Construction is similar to a thyristor (SCR) but
the Gate terminal is now connected to the N-
■ Also known as Latching diode
material instead of P-material
● Exceeding the threshold voltage will trigger
■ A device from the thyristor family that has its
the diode to start conducting, but if you go
gate terminal connected to the n-type material
below that voltage after it conducts, the
near the anode
diode may still conduct current so long as
■ Only turns on & starts conducting when the
the current is above the minimum current
forward anode to cathode voltage exceeds the
required to conduct current
applied gate to cathode voltage
● The shockley diode will only turn off if the
VG current goes below the minimum current
■ η PUT =
V BB required to keep the diode on the ON state
● Stand-off ratio now depends on external
resistors (in circuit)

○ Diac
■ Diode that conducts current only after its
breakover voltage has been reached momentarily
■ Diac → “Diode” in AC thus it conducts current
in both directions
■ Construction: 2 anode terminals and n-material
are attached to terminal ends of Diac
● No polarity

■ Characteristic curve is similar to that of UJT

○ SITH: Static Induction Thyristor

■ A 3 terminal, self-controlled device (It is just like
a GTO but it is p-n-n device)
■ A p+ n n+ diode with p+ electrodes
■ normally-ON device (can be switched off as and
when required)
■ will act as a diode when the anode is forward
biased with zero gate-cathode voltage
■ Characteristics:
● In SITH, controlling the negative gate bias
controls the main anode current
● SITH has no reverse blocking capabilities
(as compared to CTs) due to emitter-shorting

○ Shockley Diode
■ Four-layer semiconductor diode (3 PN junctions)
■ Construction is similar to thyristor except
without the Gate terminal
■ Characteristic curve:
● Upper half is similar to that of SCR - once
the voltage exceeds the VBR (forward
breakover voltage), the Diac will start
conducting
○ Breakover voltage is fixed (you don’t
have much control on changing it)
 ● In the negative half-cycle the the Diac will
do the same thing except that the negative
breakover voltage (-VBR) should now be
exceeded

○ Triac
■ “Triode” in AC hence a 3-terminal version of a
Diac (conducts current in either direction)
● Unlike Diac, the breakover voltage of the
Triac can be manipulated through the gate
current
● Thus: Triac combines the advantages of an
SCR (controllable breakover voltage) and
Diac (conducts current in both directions)
● It is the uncontrolled electronic switch ○ Phototransistor
employed in power electronic converters ■ A semiconductor device that detects light and
● Between a Triac and an SCR, a Triac is best adjusts the current flowing between emitter and
suited for controlling power in AC circuits collector according to the level of light it
receives
● Think of it as the base connected to a light-
bulb or LDR (light-dependent resistor)

○ Opto-isolator
■ Electronic component that transfers electric
signals between two isolated circuits by using
light.
● Uses phototransistors, LASCR, LASCS to
do this
● Light signals are unaffected by the other
■ SCR vs TRIAC construction signals around them
● Triacs have 3 terminals also (Gate, Anode1, ■ Prevent high-voltages from affecting the system
Anode 2) but the Gate is connected to an N- receiving the signal
material which connects to a p-material in ● High voltage = high fields which may affect
the triac the output at different parts of the circuit
(e.g. false triggering, false readings , etc.
● Power Electronics 1: DC-to-DC converters
○ Chopper ■ Parallel regulators
■ Static power electronics device which converts ■ Shunt regulators
fixed DC voltage/power to variable DC
voltage/power ● Power Electronics 1: AC-to-DC converters
● Variable: higher/lower rating ○ Power Supply
● Similar to a transformer but this is a circuit ■ Uses diodes in converting AC to DC
■ Works by “chopping” - turning a switch on and ■ See Section on Power Supply
off continuously which controls the voltage ○ Phase Controlled Rectifier (PCR)
coming to the load ■ Converts AC to DC with through the use of
■ Chopper circuit classes Thyristors/SCRs as rectifiers instead of diodes
● Class A chopper: operates at 1st quadrant which grants the advantage of regulating the
○ Buck, Step down output voltage
● Class B chopper: operates at 2nd quadrant ● Output is regulated by adjusting the firing
○ Boost, Step up angle (α) or delay
● Class C chopper: operates at 1st/2nd ■ Types of PCRs
quadrant ● Single-Phase Semi-converters
○ Buck - Boost ○ Combination of 2 thyristors/SCRs and 2
● Class D chopper: operates at 1st/3rd diodes and used to eliminate negative
quadrant voltage occurence at the load
■ Kinds of Chopper circuits ○ You can choose when in the wave you
● Buck Converter - a DC-to-DC power want to start conducting (thanks to the
converter which steps down voltage from SCRs) but not when to stop conducting
input to output (due to diodes)
T on VM
○ V o (ave)= δ (V s -V c h op) = (V s - ○ V o (ave)= (1+cos α )
T π
V c h op) α: firing angle (in radians)
where VO(ave): average output voltage
𝛿 : duty cycle
VS: source voltage
VChop: chopper voltage

● Single-Phase Full-converters
○ Same circuit configuration and formula
as a Single-Phase Semi-converter but
now it consists purely thyristors/SCRs
● Boost Converter - a DC-to-DC power ○ You can choose when in the wave you
converter that steps up voltage from input to want to start/stop conducting because
output circuit is only composed of SCRs
VS VM
○ V o (ave)= ○ V o (ave)= (1+cos α )
1−δ π

○ DC regulators
● Power Electronics 2: Inverters
○ Opposite of rectifiers - changes DC to AC
○ Switchin devices: transistors, diodes, SCRs, SCS
○ Kinds of Inverters
■ Half-bridge Inverter
● Makes use of two switching devices and two
DC power sources to produce AC voltage
and current
○ The two sources are in opposite
polarities and they are switched on or
off when they are needed
○ Only one of the two switching devices
are ON at a time thus creating an AC
signal
Vs
● V o (rms)= , VS: DC source voltage
2
○ Generates less voltage because of the
1/2

● + side of load is attached to switching

devices while the - side is attached to DC
power source
■ Full-bridge Inverter
● Makes use of 4 switching devices and 1 DC
power source to create an AC voltage and
current
○ Allows for more control of the output
because of more switching devices
■ Disadvantage: more switches to
control/synchronize
○ 4 switching devices: when to start/stop
conducting, and when to start/stop the
positive and negative half-cycles
○ SCRs T1 and T3 are on for positive half-
cycle (and can be controlled since they
are SCRs) while T1 and T4 are on for the
negative half-cycle
● V o (rms)=V s
○ Output RMS voltage is always the DC
source voltage

● Power Electronics 2: Regulators in AC [AC-

to-AC converters]
○ Power electronics devices used to drive loads that
need variable or regulated AC power
○ Also called as Cycloconverters (can change phase)
○ Types
■ Half-wave controller
● Controls only half of the AC wave
○ Either positive or negative half-cycle
but not both
● Also called as Single-phase Unidirectional
Controller
● Composed of 1 SCR and 1 diode which
controls the firing angle α

● V o (ave)=0

√
sin 2 α
●
π −α +
2
V o (rms)=V M
2π

● Switch Mode Power Supply

○ Type of power supply that uses semiconductor
switching techniques, rather than linear methods to
provide the required output voltage
■ Linear power supply (LPS): uses diodes and
resistors, simpler, less efficient (~50%)
● See Section on Power Supply: Transformers
VM ■ Switch mode power supply (SMPS): uses
● V o (ave)= (cos α−1)
2π thyristors/SCRs, and other solid-state switches,

√
more complex but more efficient (~96%)
sin 2 α
2 π−α +
● V 2
V o (rms)= M
2 π
■ Full-wave controller
● Controls both half-cycles of the AC wave
● Also called the Single-phase Bidirectional
controller
● Composed of 2 SCRs instead of having a
diode, thus controls the firing angle α

○ LPS vs SMPS:
■ LPS output has less ripple voltage than SMPS
● SMPS uses a lot of switches which are
frequency-dependent thus the ripple
becomes large
■ LPS output is more immune to Electromagnetic
Interference (EMI)
● SMPS switch at high frequencies thus
avoiding EMI
■ SMPS is smaller in size
■ SMPS has greater power handling than LPS
● The components inside are designed for high
voltage/current
 ELEC: Industrial Electronics II
● Feedback systems: Fundamentals ● Voltage is sampled and connected in series
○ Feedback: one in which the output signal is sampled with input signal thus voltages add up (input
and fed back to the input to form an error signal that and feedback signals are voltages)
drives the system ○ Works as a Voltage amplifier
○ This is the electronics side of Feedback/Control V out
Systems (types/applications/etc.) For the mathematics ● Transfer gain: AV =
V¿
such as solving for the Gain H(s) of a system, [See
MATH: Feedback/Control Systems (Math)]
○ Types
■ Positive feedback: the set point and output values
are added together by the controller as the
feedback is “in-phase” with the input
● Also called regenerative feedback
A
● A pos feedback =
1−βA ■ Voltage-shunt feedback
● Effects: ● Also called shunt-shunt feedback
○ Increased gain of the system ● Voltage is sampled and connected in parallel
○ Greater noise and distortion with input signal thus feeding current
○ Narrow bandwidth ○ Works as a Transresistance - ratio of
○ Unstable gain output voltage to input current
■ Negative feedback: the set point and output V out
values are subtracted together by the controller as ● Rm =
the feedback is “out-of-phase” with the input I¿
● Also called degenerative feedback
A
● Negative feedback: A¬feedback =
1+ βA
● Effects:
○ Improves stability (Lower noise and
distortion)
○ Gain desensitization: output signal
becomes less sensitive to small ■ Current-shunt feedback
variations from input signal ● Also called current-current feedback
○ Wider bandwidth ● Current is sampled and connected in
■ Due to lower gain, there is greater parallel/shunt with input signal thus current
frequency response: BW =f R /Q adds up (input and feedback signals are
currents)
■ Bad at higher frequencies
○ Works as a Current Amplifier
(amplifier may turn into oscillator)
○ I/O Impedance modification: Z can be I out
● Ai=
modified to achieve maximum power I¿
transfer ( R L=R TH )

■ Current-series feedback
○ Sampling methods
● Also called series-series feedback
■ Voltage/shunt sampling: connecting the output
● Current is sampled and connected in series
voltage as input to the feedback network
with input signal thus feeding voltage to the
■ Current/series sampling: connecting the output
input
current as input to the feedback network
○ Works as a Transconductance amplifier
○ Mixing methods
■ Shunt or Current mixing: feedback signal is in I out
● G m=
parallel to the input signal thus adding up their V¿
current
■ Series or Voltage mixing: same idea but in
series-voltage
○ Feedback Topology (sampling + mixing
combination)
■ Voltage-series feedback
● Also called voltage-voltage feedback
● Feedback Amplifiers ● Positive feedback: provides path from output
to input
■ Relaxation Oscillators

○ Oscillator Requirements:
■ Barkhausen Criterion
1. The magnitude of the overall gain around
the loop should be unity |β A|=1
● If β A=1, output level is fixed in
amplitude (self-sustained)
○ Some terms: ● If β A <1, the oscillation dies out
Sout ● If β A >1, the osciallion starts to grow
■ Open loop gain: A=¿ to no limit which will cause multiple
S source distortion and noise
S out A 2. The net phase-shift around the loop must be
■ Closed-loop Gain: A= = 0 or a positive integer multiple of 2π radians
S ¿ 1+ βA
● Also called Gain without feedback or 360o
● Use Sin because there is feedback ○ Kinds of Oscillators
Sf ■ LC Oscillators
■ β= - called as feedback ratio 1. Hartley Oscillator - uses two inductive coils
S out with a parallel capacitor to form its
●Part of the output signal that is fed back to resonance tank circuit producing sinusoidal
the input oscillations
● 1+ βA : called as ‘Sacrifice factor’, ○ Used for low frequency region
‘Desensitivity factor’ or ‘feedback factor’ 1
○ f R=
which determines how much gain a system 2 π √ LT C
receives
○ Feed-back topologies
■ For a series connection at input or output, the
resistance is increased by the sacrifice factor
(1+ βA)→ multiply
■ For a parallel/shunt connection at input or output,
the resistance is decreased by the sacrifice factor
(1+ βA) → divide
OUTPUT+INPUT
Feedback Topology Input Impedance 2. Colpitts Oscillator - uses two capacitors in
Output Impedance
series with a parallel inductor to form its
Zo resonance tank circuit producing sinusoidal
Voltage-Series Zi (1+ βA)
increased (1+ βA) oscillations
decreased ○ 2 Capacitors and 1 inductor in parallel
Zi Zo ○ Used in 100kHz to 500MHz
Voltage-Shunt ○ Improved performance in high-
(1+ βA) (1+ βA) frequency region due to the capacitors
decreased decreased
1
Zi ○ f R=
Current-Shunt Z o (1+ βA) 2 π √ L CT
(1+ βA) increased
decreased Ci C o
■ C T =¿
Current-Series Zi (1+ βA) Z o (1+ βA) Ci C o
increased increased

● Feedback: Oscillators
○ Oscillators: electronic circuits that generate
continuous periodic waveform at a precise frequency
■ Uses positive feedback with amplifier
A
■ Oscillator gain: AWF =
1−βA
○ Types of Oscillators
■ Feedback Oscillators 3. Clapp Oscillator - similar to Colpitts
● Amplifier circuit: to sustain oscillation Oscillator, however the single inductor in
● Wave shaping network: to adjust the shape Colpitts is replaced by a series LC-
and frequency of signal connection
○ LC to Resonance ○ 3 Capacitors and 1 inductor
○ RC circuits ○ The LC series improves frequency
○ Crystal oscillators stability (than Colpitts) and eliminates
 transistor parameters on operation of
circuit
1
○ f R=
2 π √ L1 C T
1 1 1 1
■ = + +
Ceq C 1 C2 C 3
2. RC-Phase Shift Oscillator: uses property of
RC filters to cause a phase-shift, and by
using multiple filters, a feedback circuit with
exactly 180o phase shift can be produced
○ In circuit, each stage produces 60o phase
shift
○ Used for low frequency
Rf
○ A=−29 ¿−
Rs
1
4. Armstrong Oscillator - composed by 1 ○ f R=
transformer and 1 capacitor 2 πRC √ 6

■ Crystal Oscillators: a Colpitts oscillator where

■ RC Oscillators inductor is replaced with a crystal
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/oscillator/crystal.html
1. Wien-Bridge Oscillator: Combination of
High-pass filter (series RC) and low-pass
filter (parallel RC) of the same component
values
○ Also called lead-lag oscillator
■ Leading: series RC circuit
■ Lagging: parallel RC circuit

● Also called Pierce-Crystal Oscillators: an

electronic oscillator circuit that uses the
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal
of piezoelectrics to create electricity with a
precise frequency
● Behaves like a series RLC circuit (low-
valued RS and CS and high-valued LS)
○ Called so because the circuit is based on ● Effects
a frequency-selective form of a ○ Has high degree of stability at any
Wheatstone bridge frequency/ least frequency drift
○ Very good stability at its resonant ■ Frequency drift: 0.0001% (1ppm)
frequency fR compared to 0.8% of LC oscillators
○ Operates between 5Hz to 500kHz ○ High Q factor resulting in an accurate
○ Popular as an audio frequency oscillator resonant frequency (Q=20000)
R1 ○ Operates at series or parallel
○ A=3 ¿ 1+
R2 ■ Series-resonant frequency:
1 1
f R= f R=
○
2 π √ R 3 R4 C 1 C 2 2 π √ LsCs
 ■ Parallel-resonant frequency:
1
f R=
2 π √ LsCT
1 1 1
where = +
CT C S C P
● Types of Crysals:
○ Tourmaline
■ Strongest ● Astable Multivibrator using 555 IC
■ least piezoelectricity
■ most expensive
○ Rochelle Salt
■ Greatest piezoelectricity
■ Weakest
t on=0.693(R 1+ R 2)C
○ Quartz t off =0.693(R 2)C
■ Midway between Rochelle Salt and Duty cycle:
Tourmaline t on t on
■ Most common; least expensive δ=¿ ¿
T t on +t off
● Multivibrators
○ Multivibrators: sequential logic circuits that operate
continuously between two distinct states of high and
low
■ Producing square waves (pulse generators) ■ Monostable
■ Composed of 2 stage resistance-coupled ● One stable state only; 1 quasi-stable
amplifier with positive feedback ○ Also called One-shot multivibrator
● Two feedback connections for controlling ● 1 resistor and 1 capacitor as Feedback
the ON and OFF state ● The output is naturally in a Stable state then
by an application of an input trigger, the
output becomes a Quasi-stable/unstable
state. It then returns to the Stable state after a
time delay
○ Stable at zero

○ States of the Multivibrator

■ Stable state - remain in a state unless prompt by a
change (either on or off)
■ Quasi-stable state - temporary stable state
● Remains unchanged for only a certain period
of time
○ Types of Multivibrator
■ Astable
● No stable state
○ Also called Free-running multivibrator ■ Bistable
● Has 2 capacitors as Feedback ● Also called as the Flip-flop multivibrator
● When one transistor in ON, the other is OFF ● The application of an input trigger switches
so the circuit continuously switches between the output from one Stable state to another
the two transistors’ operations depending on Stable state and remains in that state until
RC time constant τ another valid trigger is received
● Continuously switching from one state to the ● Two stable states; no quasi-stable states
other and back to the first without an input ● 2 resistors as Feedback
signal

● Microelectronics Fundamentals
○ Microelectronics - field of electronics that utilizes ○ Integrated circuit (IC): a miniaturized electronic
tiny/micro components to manufacture electronics circuit that has been manufactured in the surface of a
○ History of Microelectronics thin substrate of a semiconductor material
■ 1925: Vacuum Tube Era ■ Also called microcircuit, microchip, Silicon chip,
● Vacuum tubes were used for radios, TV, or chip
telephone equipment, and computers but ■ Consisting mainly of semiconductor devices as
they were expensive, bulky, and fragile, and passive components
energy-hungry ■ integration of multiple tiny MOS/FET transistors
● ARPANet (product of National Defense of into a small chip
US) uses vacuum tubes ● FETs are mostly used because it can act as
■ 1947: Point Contact Transistors both resistor and capacitor (for a circuit)
● Made by Big 3: Walter Brattain, John ● Also because of its small size and fast
Bardeen, and William Shockley (Bell Labs) switching speed
● Marks the start of microelectronics era ■ Advantage: Cost, compactness, high speed, low
■ 1949: BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor power requirement, reliability, ease of
● Made by William Shockley of Bell Labs maintenance, modular construction
■ 1952: Bell Labs patents Transistor Technology ■ Disadvantage:
● Bell Labs technology symposia and ● Inductors are impractical: Devices using ICs
licensing of transistor patents encourages must generally be designed to work w/o
semiconductor development inductors. Fortunately, RC oscillator circuits
■ 1954: Texas Instruments makes moves are capable of doing most things that LC
● Texas Instruments produced the first circuits can do. Thus ICs do not contain
commercially-available silicon transistor inductors
■ 1958: Jack Kilby’s IC ○ ICs need to be small but inductors are
● He produced a microcircuit with both active bulky because of the loops and wounds
and passive components fabricated from but
semiconductor materials (Germanium) ● Megapower is impossible: More power
○ He called it “Solid Circuit” means more heat, but ICs can only handle so
○ Has 2300+ transistors inside of it much heat
● This marks the start of IC era ○ Component Density (Note: the more transistors or
● Jack Kilby gates/chip, the greater the processing power)
○ Father of Integrated Circuits ■ Small Scale Integration (SSI): <12 gates/chip
○ from Texas Instruments as part of RND ■ Medium Scale Integration (MSI): 12-100 gates
team per chip
○ Initially from US Air Force ■ Large Scale Integration (LSI):100-100000 gate
■ 1958: Robert Noyce’s IC per chip
● He produced an IC made up of silicon which ■ Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI): 100,000-
is more thermally stable than Germanium 1M gates per chip
○ 6 months after Jack Kilby’s IC ■ Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI): >1M gates
● Robert Noyce: from Fairchild per chip
Semiconductor (rival of Texas Instruments) ○ Types of ICs
○ Apollo 11’s circuitry is made from ■ Linear/Analog IC
Robert Noyce’s IC which made ● Inputs and outputs can take on range of
Fairchild Semiconductor boom values and output are proportional to input
■ 1965: Moore’s Law ● Used in space, vehicles, radars,
● Moore’s Law: The no of transistors on a oscilloscopes, etc.
microchip doubles every 2 years though the ■ Digital IC
cost of computers is halved/maintained ● Input and output are limited to high (1) and
○ This applies until the year 2018 low (0) only
● Made by Gordon Moore ● Used in microprocessors, computers, digital
■ 1971: Intel 4004 watches, calculators, etc.
● This is the First Microprocessor ■ Mixed IC
● Moore-Noyce created Integrated Electronics ● Combination of analog and digital IC in one
or Intel (Gordon Moore & Robert Noyce) IC
● It has the same capability as a 3000 ft3 ● Used for analog-to-digital conversion and
ENIAC vice versa, or clock/timing ICs
■ 1978: Intel 8086 - first 32 bit Micrprocessor ○ Types of ICs based on manufacturing
○ Note 8086 → x86 processing system ■ Film ICs
(same OS as 32-bit system) ● Passive components (e.g. resistors) are
■ 1989: Intel 486 - First Microprocessor with 1 integrated but the diodes and transistors are
Million transistors
● connected as separate components to form a ● The active, passive and interconnections
single and complete circuit between them are formed on a silicon chip
● Combination of integrated and discrete ● Mono: built on a single crystal
components ● Most common type of IC because of
■ Monolithic ICs reliability and low cost
 ■ Hybrid ICs 4. Dope the silicon wafers with impurity ions (Ion
● Also called multi-chip IC implantation
● More than 1 individual chips are connected ● Mask the wafer using photoresistive layers
on a single chip then bombard the wafer with a beam of ions
○ Active components: diffused transistors 5. Dielectric deposition: add multiple layers of
and diodes dielectric one atomic layer at a time
○ Passive components: diffused resistors ● This reduces leakage current from gate
or capacitors terminal to the channel itself
● Connected by metallized patterns 6. Photolithography: used in microfabrication to
● Used for high-power applications (5-50 W); pattern parts on a thin film or the bulk of a
better performance than monolithic IC substrate/wafer
● also called optical lithography or UV
○ How ICs are made lithography
1. Extract Silicon (Si) from sand then purify it ● uses light to transfer a geometric pattern
● Sand has a high percentage of silica (SiO2) from a photomask/optical mask to a
2. Covert the purified Silicon to molten state by photosensitive (light-sensitive) area on the
Czochralski process substrate
● Czochralski process: a method of crystal ○ where essentially etching/printing of the
growth used to obtain single crystals of circuit for IC happens
semiconductors (e.g. Si, Ge and GaAs), 7. Metal deposition: form a pool of melted metal on
metals (e.g. Pd, Pt, Ag, Au), salts and the surface of a metallic substrate into which
synthetic gemstones metal powder is injected using a gas stream
3. Slicing into Silicon wafers ○ Some ICs
● Cut using diamond sawblades into 12in ■ 7400 IC: has four 2-input NAND gates
diameters ■ 7411 IC: has three 3-input NAND gates
○ Computer Parts
[See ELEC: Microprocessors]
● OP-AMP
○ Op-amp: Operation-Amplifiers
■ 3-terminal linear devices that are used to amplify
signals
■ Used in signal conditioning, filtering, oscillators,
and instrumentation
■ input: (V+, V--) and output Vout
■ ideal for DC

○ Ideal op-amp vs Practical op-amp (LM741)

Ideal Op-amp Practical Op-amp

Finite (~105)
Open-loop gain AOpen ∞ 100 dB
Input Impedance Zi ∞ Very high (>1MΩ)
Very low (10-
Output Impedance Zo 0
100Ω)
Input current Iin 0 Very small (~mA)
Input offset voltage
0 <10 mV
Voffset
Input offset current Ioffset 0 <300 nA
Limited (~1 Mhz)
Bandwidth ∞ (depends on f)
Gain bandwidth product
∞ Finite (~0-20 Hz)
f
Unity gain frequency
Phase shift 0 Depends on f
V
0-100
Slew Rate ∞ μs
Depends on f
Noise 0 Low (~uV)
Perfect ~0.1% non-
Linearity
linearity linearity
Temperature sensitivity ■ Input bias current: DC current required by the
0 Very low (~uV/oC)
(V/oC) inputs of the amplifier to properly operate the
Power consumption 0 Low (~mW) first stage of amplification
CMRR ∞ Finite (>60 dB) ● The average of both input currents in the
Finite differential amplifier
PSRR ∞ 120db (+supply) I B1+ I B2
110db(-supply) ● I ¿(bias )=
2
■ Input Offset current
○ Specs terms: ● Difference in input bias currents, expressed
■ Common-mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) as an absolute value
● ratio of the powers of the differential gain
over the common-mode gain, measured in ● I OS=|I B 1−I B 2| → think of solving the
positive decibels (thus the 20-log rule) bandwidth of a frequency plot, only this time

| |
A differential it’s currents
○ CMRR=20 log I ¿(off )
A commonmode ○ I B 1∧I B 2 =I ¿(bias) ±
2
● The higher, the better (∞ for ○ The midpoint of IB1 and IB2 is the input
ideal op-amp) thus Acm must be as bias current, and the range of IB1 and IB2
low as possible to reduce noise is the input offset current
● Note: VC: common mode voltage
ACVC: noise voltage
■ Output voltage:
● For ideal op-amp: V o =A d ¿
● For practical op-amp: V o =A d ¿
○ Ad: differential gain,
○ Acm: common-mode gain (finite value
for practical op-amps)
■ Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR)
● ratio of the change in supply voltage to the ■ Input offset voltage: differential DC voltage
equivalent (differential) output voltage it required between the op-amp inputs to force the
produces differential output (V+-V-) to 0 V
● ability to reject noise or ripple occurring at ● Also defined as the input voltage that would
the input side due to the change in input produce the same output error voltage in a
offset voltage with respect to the change in perfect differential amplifier
power supply voltage V error
○ ● V offset =
Ad

( )
2 2
ΔV Supply A V ■ Maximum peak-to-peak (MPP): maximum peak-
PSRR (dB)=10 lo g 10 2
dB
ΔV Out to-peak output of the amplifier without clipping
(twice the supply voltage)
ΔV ¿(offset ) Ideal: MPP=2V CC =2 V EE
○ PSRR= (if unitless)
VS Real:
■ Slew-rate: maximum rate of voltage change that MPP=2(V CC −0.7 V )=2(V EE−0.7 V )
can be generated by the op-amp’s output ■ Unity gain frequency/Unity gain Bandwidth
circuitry ● Frequency of a signal at which the voltage
Δ V o A CL V ¿ gain is 1.
● Slew rate = = =2 π f max V p ● GBP= Aopen−loop f cutoff where
Δt Δt
where GBP: Gain-Bandwidth Product
○ fmax: highest undistorted frequency
○ VP: peak value of output sine wave ○ Operational Amplifier (Basic Parts)
■ Differential Amplifier: V ¿ =V d =V +¿−V −¿¿ ¿
■ Voltage Amplifier: A V ¿ =V o
 ■ Push-pull Amplifier −¿ −¿−0
V
● A power amplifier that is used to supply V out − ¿= V ¿→
high power to the load. It consists of 2
Rf Ri
transistors in which one is NPN and another Rf −¿¿
is PNP. One transistor pushes the output on V out =(1+ )V
Ri
a positive half-cycle and the other pulls on a
I+ = 0. Using KCL:
negative half cycle. +¿ +¿ +¿
○ Ideal op-amp analysis (golden rules) V V V
V 1− ¿ + V 2− ¿ + V 3− ¿
■ I −¿=0 ¿ and I +¿=0 ¿ R1 R2 R3
■ V −¿=V =0
¿ (inverting
and non-inverting input are
+ ¿¿

internally shorted for ideal op-amp) V 1 V 2 V 3 V +¿ V

+¿
+ + = ¿+ ¿+
○ Op-amp basic circuits R1 R2 R3 R1 R2
■ Op-amp: Single Ended Input +¿
V
● Input on positive end: V o =+ A d V i ¿
R3
● Input on negative end: V o =−A d V i
V1 V2 V3 +¿ ¿ 1 1
■ Op-amp: Double Ended Input + + =V ( + +
● 0o phase shift between Vd and Vout (but R1 R2 R3 R1 R2
possible to have phase shift when V2>V1) 1
● V o =A d V d = Ad ¿ R3
)
■ Op-amp: Common-mode Operation
● Same voltage is applied at both terminals
V1 V2 V3 1
+ + = V +¿ ¿( )
● Ideally, two inputs are equally amplified R1 R2 R3 RT
● Ideally, output should be zero (0), hence the
CMRR
● If there is an output, it will be due to noise
(common mode voltage)
+¿ ¿
V = RT + +
(
V1 V2 V3
R1 R 2 R 3 )
Since V- = V+:
■ Voltage-follower

■
● ACL=1 → Vo = Vin
Summing amplifier (adder op-amp)
V out =¿ (1 +
Rf
Ri (
) RT
V 1 V 2 V3
+ +
R1 R2 R3 )
● The sum between the voltages is amplified
● Inverting Summer:
Vo R
=- f
If one input only: ACL =
V¿ R¿
V V V
(
ACL=¿ - R f 1 + 2 + 3
R1 R2 R3 )
If there is a series resistor along the non-
inverting input (such as the image above),
use Superposition theorem:
+¿ ¿
V = V1¿
■ Subtractor Op-amp amplifier
● The difference between the voltages is
amplified
V
● Non-inverting Summer: ● By voltage division:
(
+¿=
R2
R1+ R 2)V 2¿

If one input only: ACL=

Vo
V¿
= 1+
Rf
R¿ ( ) ○
−V o −R f
If V1 > V2: ACL=
V¿
=
Ra ❑
−R f
■ V o =(V 1−V 2)
Ra
−V o Rf
○ If V2 > V1: ACL= =1+
V¿ Ra ❑

■ V o =(V 1−V 2)
(
R 2 −R f
R1 + R2 Ra )
Use KCL: I- = 0 thus IRf = IRi ■ Schmitt Trigger
● circuit that adds hysteresis to the input-
output transition threshold with the help of
positive feedback
 ○ Hysteresis: two different threshold ○ Take the integral of the input, then
voltage levels for rising and falling edge divide by negative RC
(Vth+ and Vth-) ● We use a capacitor for the feedback mainly
○ Hysteresis is desirable in Schmitt for the steady state error to be made zero.
Trigger because it prevents noise from Until Voutput does not match with Vreference, the
causing false triggering capacitor charges or discharges to change
● Essentially a a Bi-stable Multivibrator: its output voltage value so as to match load
output remains in either states indefinitely. voltage value with reference voltage
For the output to change state, the input ■ Op-amp Differentiator: Output is proportional to
signal must change (or trigger) appropriately the change in applied voltage
● the feedback occurs on a resistor and the in-
series element is a capacitor (High-pass)
● Effects:
○ Input Square wave becomes spikes
○ Input Triangular wave becomes
rectangular
○ Input Sine wave becomes cosine wave

■ Op-amp Integrator
● The feedback occurs on a capacitor and the
● V o =− ( ddtV ) R C
i
f

○ Take the derivative of the input, then

in-series element is the resistor (Low-pass) multiply by negative RC
t
−1 −1
● V o= ∫
Rf C 0
❑V i dt =
jω R f C
V¿
● Tests and Measurements: DC/AC Meters
○ DC Meters
■ Measure current and voltage of DC circuits
■ D’Arsonval’s Movement or Galvanometer
● Also known as Permanent Magnet Moving
Coil (PMMC)
● a current sensing mechanism which is used
in DC Ammeter, Ohmmeter and Voltmeter
● Only works in DC measurements: PMMC
measures avarage value. Since avarage value
of AC is zero, PMMC’s meter pointer does
not move (especially in high frequencies)
● an electromagnetic device that contains a
coil rotating on a jeweled bearing mount
[See Electromagnetics section]

■ Ammeter
● Measures current in series (in a cut)
● An ammeter only has a range of values it
can read for a circuit
○ Anything greater than this and the
ammeter will break
● Can be made using a galvanometer in
parallel with a low resistance (Ammeter
shunt)
● Ammeter Shunt: a resistor RSh in parallel
with the meter which increases the
maximum current that the ammeter can take
○ It allows for measurement of a wide
range of currents
○ The lower the shunt resistance RSh, the
the greater the range of the ammeter
readings, but the more sensitive the
ammeter becomes
Rm
○ R s h=
m−1

● Ayrton Shunt:
○ uses a manual selector to choose the
appropriate resistor network
■ Used for ammeters with various
levels of sensitivity (while still
having a large range of values)
● Ideal ammeter is…
○ Zero resistance
○ High sensitivity
○ Ayron shunt with a wide range of values
■ Voltmeter R¿
● Measures voltage in parallel ○ Deflection factor: D=
R¿ + R U
● Has a resistor in series which limits the
amount of current passing through RIN: input resistance
RU: unknown/measured resistance
■ Measured from left-to-right, thus
the greater the measured resistance,
the less deflection
● D=1: short-circuit (no resistor
added)
● D=0: open circuit (probes are
not connected)
● Some notes
● Voltage goes directly to PMMC (RM) ○ The ff. may cause a major error in an
● Ideal Voltmeter has… ohmmeter reading:
○ Infinite input impedance (so no current ■ A small voltage between points
comes through) or large internal under test.
resistance ■ A slight change in switchable
○ High sensitivity internal resistance, or
● Some notes: ■ A slight error in range switch
○ When troubleshooting with an ammeter selection
or voltmeter, start with the highest scale ■ A small change in the resistance to
and adjust down to a lower scale be measured will NOT cause a
■ Meters have logarithmic scale. major error in an ohmmeter reading
Thus values have greater difference
in the last ⅓ of the scale than in the
first ⅓ of the scale.
■ The pointer is most accurate in the
last one-third of the scale.
○ VU Meter: Volume Unit meter
■ Also called Standard Volume
indicator (SVI)
■ A VU meter is essentially a
voltmeter calibrated to give a
reading of 0VU when fed with a ● Loading Error: error in measurement caused
sine wave tone by the meter exerting extra load into the
■ a device displaying a representation circuit it’s attempting to measure
of the signal level in audio
equipment ○ AC Meters
■ Measures sound, decibels, power ■ AC Voltmeters
● Measures AC voltage using a DC voltmeter
■ Ohmmeter by using a rectifier (half-wave or full-wave)
● Measures resistance and measuring the ripple
● Basic Ohmmeter circuit: ○ Since voltage cannot go directly to
○ When a resistance is measured, the PMMC
current will vary
○ Varying the potentiometer can be done
to get a more accurate reading on the
resistance

● Peak-detector circuits
○ AC voltmeters that detect the peak
● Ohmmeter markings: value of an AC sinusoidal wave
○ Rightmost side: No resistor is added to ■ Uses only a diode and a capacitor
ohmmeter circuit: 0Ω (short circuit) ■ Negative peak can be obtained by
○ Midscale: resistor is equal to reversing the direction of the diode
potentiometer inside
○ Leftmost side: no current
gets through: ∞ ohms (open
circuit)
 ● The meter movement in an illumination
meter measures current
■ Logic Probe: best for checking a TTL logic
circuit (not DMM or Voltmeter)
■ The general approach used by automated
computer test equipment is providing a standard
○ Used for large AC signals stimulus to each portion of the computer and
○ Simple peak detectors have voltage verifying the response and repeating for all parts
drops. To accurately measure the peak, of the system under test
use a precision rectifier (super diode) as
it behaves as an ideal diode ○ Safety protocols
■ Voltmeter and Ammeter
● Shorting the terminals of a VOM (voltmeter)
can cause burns, fire, or an explosion
■ When measuring high voltages with a voltmeter,
ensure that the voltmeter and leads are rated for
use at the voltages to be measured
■ When repairing circuit board assemblies, it is
most important to wear safety goggles
○ Digital Multimeter ■ When soldering or working with CMOS
■ a test instrument used to measure electrical electronics products or equipment, a wrist strap
values including voltage, current and resistance must have less than 100,000 Ω of resistance to
■ include functions enabling measurement of prevent static electricity
capacitance, frequency, continuity (with a buzzer ■ Preferred method of cleaning solder from plated
to facilitate easy measurements when looking at through circuit board holes: using a vacuum
the circuit board), temperature, and transistor device
functionalities ●
■ ½ digit on a DMM: a partial extended accuracy
on lower part of the range
● It is NOT a smaller physical readout on the
left side of the display
○ Electrostatic Meter
■ measure voltage, field, and charge without
transferring the static charge to the instrument
● sense the presence of a charge on the surface
of an object
● eliminate the need to modify parameters due
to changing loads
■ Advantage: it can detect AC voltages

○ Other devices
■ Oscilloscope
● The oscilloscope is used to display electrical
signals in the time domain
● CANNOT measure velocity of light with the
aid of a light emitting diode
● CANNOT measure energy
■ Spectrum Analyzer
● Spectrum analyzer is used to display
electrical signals in the frequency domain
■ A typical frequency counter is usually accurate to
6 digits or more.
● It has a digital readout
■ Thermocouple: Gets warm when current flows
through it
■ Utility meter: a device that measures the amount
of electric energy consumed by a residence, a
business, or an electrically powered device
● A utility meter’s motor speed works directly
from the number of watts being used at the
time
● Utility meter readout unit: Energy
■ Illumination meter
● Also called Lux/Light meters
○ Used to measure amount of light
● Tests and Measurements: DC/AC Bridges ● A modified Wheatstone bridge used for
○ DC Bridges: used for measuring the unknown finding resistances below 1Ω
electrical resistance ○ Because of the low resistance value, it
■ Notes on DC Bridges: takes into consideration the resistance of
● Bridge circuits rely on rely on sensitive null- the leads that connect the elements
voltage meters to compare 2 voltages for ● Makes use of a movable lead placed at an
equality arbitrary location
○ To achieve balance: the detector current
R1 R3
must be 0 or =
R2 R4
■ Wheatstone Bridge
● Bridge network that could be used to find
small changes in resistance
● Uses 2 resistors, a potentiometer, and the
element to be detected

○ Loop tests for locating Earth Faults in Underground

cables (Loop Tests for Locating Faults in Underground Cables)
■ Murray Loop
● Uses potentiometers

R1 R3
● Bridge balance: = or R1 R 4 =R 2 R3
R2 R4
○ Vo = 0 (element to be detected)
● Note: if there is a degree of uncertainty for
the resistances (e.g. R1 = 500 ± 0.5% Ω), the ● Operation:
percentage limiting error for the unknown ○ Forms a Wheatstone Bridge from the
resistance will be the sum of percentages of wires (Faulty cable, Sound cable,
the known resistances Galvanometer, potentiometers)
○ E.g. The known resistances are correct ○ When the bridge is balanced (such that
to ± 0.2%. Accuracy of unknown the galvanometer reading is 0) by
resistance: ± 0.6% (just multiple by 3) adjusting the potentiometers R1 and R2:
■ Slide-Wire Bridge
R1 Rg+ Ry
● Also used for finding unknown resistances ■ = or
but using high precision resistors and R2 Rx
resistive wires R 1+ R 2 R g + R y + R x
● Called so because it makes use of a sliding =
contact connected to a resistive wire R2 Rx
● Operation: ■ If r is the resistance of each cable,
○ As the sliding contact is moved, the then we get R x + R y + Rg =2r
voltage within the wire is changed (due R2
to division of voltage) ● R x= (2 r )
○ The variation is done until the bridge is R 1+ R 2
balanced, which can be used to measure ■ Since the resistance is proportional
the resistance (in terms of the ratio with to the length of the cable:
the precision resistor) R2
● L x= (2 l)
R1 + R2
○ When the bridge is balanced, the ratio
between the potentiometer values R1
and R2 are noted and turned to finding
the distance of the Earth fault (Lx)
■ Varley Loop
● Same operation as the Murray loop but uses
fixed resistors for R1, R2. A potentiometer S1
is inserted in the Faulty cable

■ Kelvin Bridge
 ● Uses a capacitor in parallel with a
potentiometer on the opposite side of the
RL-series
○ In the diagram: Z1 Z x =Z2 Z 3

● Operation:
○ Switch K is initially connected to 1
(GND) then the potentiometer S1 is
adjusted such that the meter reading is
R1 Rg+ Ry
0. Thus, =
R 2 R x+ S 1
■ If we let R3=R g + R y, then ■ Hays Bridge
● Also called Opposite Angle Bridge
R (R + R )−R1 S 1
R x= 2 3 x ● Used to find inductance and resistance in
R 1+ R 2 coils and for coils where resistance take up
○ When K is switched to position 2 and only a small part and has a Q-factor greater
the bridge is balanced by varying S than 10
(assume a value S2), then ○ If Q>10, then the circuit has a high
■ R1 S 2=R2 ( R3 + R x ) inductance and low resistance
● preferred for the measurement of inductance
○ If we put this in the first equation (when
having high Q-factor
K was in position 1), then we have
R1 ● In the diagram: Z1 Z x =Z2 Z 3
■ R x= ( S −S ) and
R 1+ R 2 1 2
Rx
■ L x= where r is the resistance of
r
the cable per meter
○ AC Bridges: AC BRIDGE
■ Introduction to AC Bridges:
● All AC Bridges are similar in construction to
Wheatstone Bridge
● Note: Impedance in AC is complex ■ Wien Bridge
● Balanced bridge: Product of opposite ● Used for measuring capacitors or for
branches (with respect to the detector) detecting frequencies
should be equal ● Resonant frequency is set by the capacitance
■ R ± jX (positive X: inductive, and resistance values in the circuit
negative X: capacitive) ○ In the diagram: Z1 Z 4=Z 2 Z3
○ Sum of Phase angles of opposite legs is
constant: θ1 +θ 4=θ2 +θ 3
■ Similar Angle Bridge
● Also known as Capacitance Comparison
Bridge
● Bridge network used to measure the
capacitance of a capacitive circuit
○ Involves a series-RC on the opposite
side of the capacitor we are measuring
○ In the diagram: Z1 Z x =Z2 Z 3

■ Radio-frequency Bridge (RF Bridge)

● Used for computing the impedance of
capacitors and inductors at high frequencies
○ Radio frequencies → high frequencies

■ Maxwell Bridge
● Used to find the value of unknown
inductance
 ● Energy Conversion: DC Generators
■ Schering Bridge ○ Energy Conversion: change in energy from one form
● Used for measuring capacitors and their to another
insulating properties when the phase angle is ■ Also called Enercon (ENERgy COnversion) (see
nearly 90o (almost purely reactive, Energy Conversion: DC/AC Motors for the parts
capacitive, inductive and almost no of a motor)
resistance) ○ DC Generators: convert mechanical energy to
electricity in the form of DC current
■ Works based on principle of Faraday’s law
■ The conductor is present within a closed lane; the
induced current will flow in the lane and in the
DC generator, field coils will generate an emf as
well as the armature conductors are turnd into the
field. Thus, an electromagnetic induced emf will
be generated within the armature’s conductor and
the path of induced current, provided by
Fleming’s right-hand-rule.
2 pΦNZ
○ Notes on Bridges ○ emf = [both for motors/generators]
■ Bridges can measure Resistance, Resistance & c
Capacitance, and Resistance & Inductance. ■ Z: no of conductors
However, it cannot measure all 3 parameters at ■ Φ: flux per pole
the same time ■ N: no. of rotations (rev/s)
■ P: no. of PAIRS of poles
■ c: no. of parallel paths through the winding
between positive and negative brushes
(dependent upon winding type)
● Lap winding: clap = 2p
Wave winding: cwave = 2
○ Armature winding classifications
■ Lap-winding: winding in which successive coils
overlap each other;
Lap Winding Simplex and Duplex Lap Winding
● the finishing end of one coil is connected to
one commutator segment and the starting
end of the next coil situated under the same
pole and connected with same commutator
segment
○ clap = 2p (p: no of pairs of poles)
● Advantages and disadvantages:
○ Used in applications of high current and
low voltage (E.g. dynamo, welding
generator machine)
■ Parallel coils/paths = higher
operating current
○ Less emf compared to wave winding.
To give same emf, it requires more
windings which will cost more
○ less efficient utilization of space in the
armature slots

● Types
○ Type 1: Simple Lap Winding: the
number of parallel path between the
brushes is equal to the number of poles
○ Type 2: Duplex Lap Winding: the
number of parallel path between the
brushes is twice the number of poles
 to be possible
Y =±m
C
Commutator
m = 1: simple lap winding Y C =2(always)
Pitch (YC)
m=2: duplex lap winding

○ DC Generators’ classification based on Method of

Field Excitation
■ Field Excitation: process of generating a
magnetic field by means of an electric current
● Current coming from armature winding
■ Wave-winding: the final end of one armature coil going to shunt resistor and load
is linked with the beginning end of the next ■ Separately-Excited Generator:
armature coil (same polarity) forming a “wave” ● Field winding is supplied from a separate
and avoiding overlapping power source called the Exciter which is
● Also called series winding separate from the armature circuit
○ cwave = 2 (always) ● Not commonly used because of high cost
● No need for equalizer rings required for because of the additional power source
dissymmetry in pole structure or uneven flux ● E=V + I a R a
per pole because of equal parallel path’s emf ○ Ia: armature current
● Advantages and disadvantages: ○ Ra: armature resistance
○ In this winding, only 2 brushes are ○ V: load voltage
required but more parallel brushes can
be added to make it equal to the no. of
poles. If one or more brushes set poor
contacts with the commutator,
satisfactory operation is still possible
○ Wave winding cannot be used in the
machines having higher current rating
because it only has two parallel paths
■ Lap winding is used for that
● Types:
○ Progressive Winding: If after one round
of the armature, the coil falls in a slot on ■ Self-Excited
the right to its starting slot ● Shunt-Wound Generator
■ Retrogressive Winding: If after one round of ○ Field winding is connected in parallel
the armature, the coil falls in a slot to the left with armature winding thus the full
to its starting slot voltage is applied across the field
winding
■ Large number of turns and high
resistance
○ Using KCL: I a=I + I f where IF: field
winding current; I: load current,
○ Using KVL at outer loop::
■ Formulas of lap winding and wave winding E=V + I a R a

● Series-Wound Generator
○ Field winding is connected in series
with armature winding thus the full
Lap winding Wave winding current is carried by the field winding
Resultant ○ Using KCL: I a=I =I f
Y R=Y B−Y F =2m Y R=Y B +Y F
Pitch (YP) ○ Using KVL: E=V + I (R a + Rf )
Average Pitch Y B +Y F Z Y B +Y F Z ±2
(YA) Y A= =Y P= Y A = =
2 P 2 P
Must always be an
integer for the winding
 ● Ia2Ra: armature losses
● IfV: shunt winding losses
● C: iron, friction, and windage losses

● Energy Conversion: AC Generators

○ AC Generator:
■ Also known as Alternator
■ Converts mechanical energy (DC) to electricity
● Compound in the form of AC current (E.g. sinusoids)
○ Long Shunt Generator ○ Recall parts of DC motors:
■ Shunt field winding is parallel with ■ Stator: stationary component
the combination of the series of ● Rotates the rotor
field winding and armature winding ■ Rotor: rotating component
■ Using KCL: I a=I + I f ■ Armature: part in which the voltage is induced
■ Using KVL: E=V + I a (Ra + R s) ■ Field magnets: part of a generator that produces
where Rs: resistance of the field the magnetic field
winding in series with the armature ○ Types of AC Generators
winding ■ Rotating Armature
● The stator is the Field while the Rotor is the
armature
● Usually used in DC generator systems
■ Rotating Field
● The stator is the armature while the Rotor is
the Armature
● Most common type of AC generator used in
the industry
○ Types of Rotors based on physical qualities
Salient pole rotor vs. non-salient pole rotor
○ Short-Shunt Generator
■ Shunt Field winding is parallel to
the armature winding only while
the Series winding is in series with
the load
■ By KCL: I a=I + I f
■ By KVL on the right loop:
E=V + I a R a+ I Rs (note the
current direction)

Cylindrical rotor Salient-pole rotor

Cylindrical in shape having Consists of large number of
parallel slots on it to place rotor projected poles (or salient poles)
winding mounted on a magnetic wheel
Small diameter, longer axial Larger diameter, shorter axial
length length
Used in high speed electrical Used in low speed electrical
machines (~1500-3000 RPM) machines (~100-1500 RPM)
○ Voltage Regulation Number of poles: 2-4 Number of poles: 4-60
■ Voltage regulation: Percentage rise in the generally need damper windings to
terminal/load voltage of the generator when the Damper windings not needed prevent rotor oscillations during
regulator load is removed operation
● Important factor for DC Generators Flux distribution is sinusoidal
Poorer flux distribution: generated
● See Regulators section under Power Supply and hence gives better emf
emf waveform is not as good
V NL −V FL waveform
● % V . R .= ×100 % Used in nuclear, gas and
V FL thermal power plants
Mostly used in hydro power plants
○ Generator Efficiency ■ Some notes:
■ η= ( )
Po u t
P¿
× 100 %
● Cylindrical rotor: also called Non-salient
type pole rotor or Drum rotor
■ Formulas:
■ If Pin accounts for even the lost power in the ● As the rotor speed gets lower, more number
VI of poles are required to attain the required
generator, we have: η= 2
VI + I R a+ I f V +C
a
frequency
 N pS NP S ● consists of loop windings (generally on a
○ f = =( )( ) (frequency is core), the windings being electrically
120 2 60 connected to the commutator
proportional to number of poles) ○ The armature windings conduct AC
■ NP: no of poles even on DC machines, due to the
Np: poles relating to AC commutator action or due to electronic
(2 poles would be 1 peak and commutation, as in brushless DC
1 trough) motors
■ S: speed of the rotor ● DC motors will have more than two poles
S/60: nth revolution per minute (three is a very common number). In
(1 min = 60 seconds) particular, this avoids "dead spots" in the
■ f: frequency [Hz or cycles/second] commutator and ensure a continuous spin in
● Emf generated: dependent upon frequency the rotor
○ emf =4 fΦZ
f: frequency [Hz] ○ Types of Armature:
Z: no. of conductors Types of Lap and Wave Windings
Φ: flux per pole [Wb] ■ Gramme Ring Winding

● Energy Conversion: DC/AC Motors

○ Electric motor: machine that converts electrical
energy to mechanical energy (opposite of DC/AC
generators)
■ “Whenever a current-carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force”
■ Direction: Fleming’s Right hand rule ● Wire is wound around the outer and inner
Magnitude: F=BIlsinθ [See Electromagnetic surfaces alternately of a cylindrical or
Induction/Electromagnetism Basics] ring-shaped core
○ Introduction: Parts of a DC Motor ● Simpler because there is no crossing of
How does an Electric Motor work? (DC Motor) conductors in the winding
● very little voltage induced thus not widely
used
● Repairs and maintenance are very costly
● Insulation of winding is much difficult
■ Drum Wound Winding

■ Stator
● the stationary part of the motor -- this
includes the motor casing, as well as two or
more permanent magnet pole pieces
○ External magnetic fields is usually
produced by high-strength permanent ● Conductors are placed in slots over the
magnets drum-shaped armature surface and
○ “Stat”or → Stationary connected to one another by front and back
■ Field Magnets: part of a generator that produces connections at coil ends
the magnetic field ● Parts can be preformed and insulated thus
● Part of the stator less cost
■ Axle: center of rotation ● Voltage induced is larged because each
■ Brushes winding placed on the armature slots
■ Commutator: a ring attachment, connected to surrounds the entire core
the armature of a motor or generator, through ○ DC Motors
which electrical connection is made and which ■ Types of DC Motors by their Field Excitation
ensures that the current flows as DC ● Note: The DC Motor circuits are the same
● Connects to the brush contact which circuits as the Separately Excited Generator,
connects to the supply except the current is now flowing into the
● Its purpose is to change the direction of the mechanical part/ Armature device (Ia)
current to the rotor as it spins (to ensure DC instead of flowing out of the Armature
flow) device
■ Rotor/Armature: ● Separately Excited Motor
● the component of an electric machine which ○ The presence of a separate DC Supply
rotates and carries AC as the Exciter makes it much costlier
○ “Rot”or → Rotates ○ By KVL: Eb =V −I a R a where
● Produces the EMF Eb: back emf [unit: V]
 V: load voltage [unit: V]
Ia: armature current [unit: A]
Ra: armature resistance [unit: Ω]

■ By KVL: Eb =V −I a R a−I R s
■ By KCL: I =I a + I f
■ Speed Regulation:
● The percentage rise in the speed of the motor
when the mechanical load is removed
■ Self-Excited Motor ● Important factor for DC motors

( )
● Shunt Wound Motor N NL −N FL
● By KVL: Eb =V −I a R a ○ % N reg =¿ x 100%
N FL
where
N: speed (FL: full load, NL: no load)
○ AC Motors
■ Synchronous Motor vs Asynchronous Motor
● Asynchronous: also called Induction Motor
Synchronous Motor Asynchronous Motor
Type of Single Excited
Doubly Excited Machine
Excitation Machine
armature winding is
energized from an AC stator winding is
Supply
● Series Wound Motor source and its field energized from an
System
○ Entire Armature current is equal thus it winding from a DC AC source.
creates faster speed (for the motor) source
■ Thus, high initial torque for DC 120 f
Rotor Sr =S s = Nr< N S
Series motor Speed Sr p
○ By KCL: I =I a (no load RPM)
○ By KVL: Eb =V −I ( Ra + R s) Needs additional power Does not need
Additional
source to initially rotate additional power
power
the motor to NS (not self- source (self-starting
source
starting) torque)
Slip rings
Required Not required
and brushes
Cost More costly Less Costly
Motor
Speed with Constant speed all Decreases with
respect to throughout increasing load
load
can be operated with operates only at a
● Compound Motor lagging and leading lagging power factor;
Operation
○ Long Shunt Motor power by changing its which becomes
■ By KCL: I =I f + I a excitation poorer at high loads
■ BY KVL on right loop: can be used for power
factor correction in used for driving
Eb =V −I a (R a+ R s )
Usage addition to supplying mechanical loads
torque to drive only
mechanical loads
Efficiency More efficient Less efficient
■ AC Motors based on Induction Motor types (note
that these are both Asynchronous motors)
Single-phase Induction 3-phase Induction
motor motor
Supply Single-phase supply 3-phase supply
Starting
Low High
torque
○ Short Shunt Motor Power
Low High
factor
 Repairs Easy to repair Difficult to repair ■ For the same size, the single-phase induction
Simple in construction, Complex in motors develop about 50% of the output as that
Cost and of three phase induction motors
reliable and economical construction and
construction ● Thus they are less efficient
(less costly) coxstly
Efficiency ● Thus they are less reliable
Less efficient More efficient ■ The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional
(η)
Mostly used in domestic to back emf and is inversely proportional to flux
Mostly used in Eb 1
Application appliances (e.g. grinders,
industrial processes per pole. Because Eb = V - I → Sr ∝ ∝
fans, compressors) Φ I
 ELEC: Industrial Electronics III
● Filters: Introduction ■ Usually the combination of the magnitude plot
○ Filters: circuits capable of passing (or amplifying) (frequency) and the phase plot (phase shift)
certain frequencies while attenuating other ■ Separated into 2 areas:
frequencies ● Pass-band: frequency range which ar
■ can extract important frequencies from signals unaltered or receive little to no attenuation
that also contain undesirable or irrelevant ○ Also represents the Bandwidth of the
frequencies signal
■ Filters can also affect the phase of the signal ● Stop-band: frequency range that are greatly
(i.e.g phase shift) attenuated
■ Used in the following areas: ■ Cut-off point fC
● Radio comms: Filters enable radio receivers ● Also called Corner frequency or Breakpoint
to only "see" the desired signal while frequency or -3dB point
rejecting all other signal ● Frequency point wherein R=X C resulting
● Power supplies (see Power Supplies: Filter) to a gain of -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) or
● Audio electronics: A crossover network is a 70.7% of the input signal value
network of filters used to channel low- ○ Thus the output is not half of the input
frequency audio to woofers, mid-range signal
frequencies to midrange speakers, and high-
frequency sounds to tweeters ● Low-pass Filter (LPF)
● Analog-to-digital conversion: Filters are ○ Low-pass filter (LPF)
placed in front of an ADC input to minimize ■ Passes frequencies lower than its cutoff
aliasing frequency fC and attenuates/stops frequencies
○ Kinds of Filters higher than it
■ Passive filters: ■ Also called high-cut filter, treble-cut filter (audio
● Includes only passive components: resistor, applications)
capacitor, inductors, etc. and have no ■ Output is obtained across:
amplifying components ● For RC: across capacitor (As f increases, XC
● the output signal has a smaller amplitude gets lower so no signal passes)
than its corresponding input signal because ● For RL: across resistor (As f increases, XL
of the passive design (i.e. gain is less than increases, so greater voltage is across L and
unity) no voltage is across R at high f)
○ this is for all passive RC filters ○ Passive RC Low-pass filter
● Most responsive to frequencies ranging from ■ Made using simple RC for low frequency
100Hz-300MHz applications (f < 100kHz) and made using RLC
● At lower frequencies, the inductance or circuits for high frequency applications (f >
capacitance would have to be quite large 100kHz)
● upper-frequency limit is due to the effect of
parasitic capacitances and inductances
■ Active filters:
● uses active components (op-amps,
transistors etc.) thus having amplifying
components
● in addition to resistors and capacitors, but
not inductors)

■ Bode Plot characteristics:

● Gain is nearly flat for low frequencies and
○ Bode Plot: all of the input signal is passed directly to
■ graph of the frequency response of a system
 the output, resulting in a gain of nearly 1
until it reaches fC
○ The reactance of the capacitor is high at
low frequencies and blocks any current
flow through the capacitor
● After fC, the gain decreases to zero at a slope
of -20dB/ Decade or (-6dB/Octave) “roll-
off”.
○ The angle of the slope, this -20dB/ ○ Active Low-pass filter
Decade roll-off will always be the same ■ Combines a basic RC low-pass filter with an Op-
for any RC combination. amp to amplify while filtering signals
1 ■ Active LPF with Voltage follower
● Cutoff frequency: f c = (0→ fC)
2 πRC ● Since voltage follower, the DC gain is unity
● Phase-shift: (1) as opposed to passive RC filter with DC
−1 −1
Φ=tan (2 πfRC )=tan (ωτ ) gain of less than unity
○ Because of the capacitor, the voltage
lags behind the input signal as the
frequency gets higher
○ At the -3dB point, there is a phase shift
of -45o
th
○ Second-to-n Order Low-Pass filter
■ low pass filters cascaded together resulting to nth
order filter with a roll-off slope of
dB ● the op-amps’ high input impedance prevents
n ×−20 excessive loading on the filters output
decade
● The op-amps’ low output impedance
● At 2nd order: slope is −40 dB/decade
prevents the filters cut-off frequency point
● Used in applications where the angle of the from being affected by changes in the
slope may not be enough to remove an impedance of the load
unwanted signal ○ Gives good stability to circuit
■ as the order of the filter increases, the gain and ■ Active LPF with Amplification
accuracy of the final filter declines
R2
● 2nd-order filter Corner Frequency: ● DC gain: A F =1+
1 R1
f c= ● Same frequency response as that of a passive
2 π √ R 1 R2 C 1 C 2
RC filter
● Voltage gain:
R2
1+
AF R1
AV = =

√ ( ) √ ( )
2 2
f f
1+ 1+
○ RC Integrator
fc fc
■ essentially a Low-pass filter circuit operating in where f: input frequency
the time domain that converts a square wave fC: cutoff frequency
“step” response input signal into its integral: a V out
triangular shaped waveform output ○ At very low frequency f<fC: ≃ AF
■ Output is formed due to the capacitor’ charges
V¿
and discharges V out A F
○ At cut-off frequency: f=fC: =
■ if τ =RC is is long compared to the time period V ¿ √2
T of the input, the output will be triangular in V out
shape ○ At very high frequency f<fC: > AF
● the higher the input frequency the lower will V¿
be the output amplitude compared to that of ■ after ƒC the gain decreases at a
the input constant rate as the frequency
■ Can be made using Op-amps (active filter) or increases (when the frequency is
simple RC filters (passive) so long as the input is increased tenfold [one decade], the
a square-wave voltage gain is divided by 10)
 1
■ Cut-off frequency: f c= (fC→ ∞)
2 πRC
● In practice, the filter response does not
extend to infinity but is limited by the
electrical characteristics of the components
used
■ Phase-shift:

Φ=tan−1 (
1
2 πfRC
)=tan−1
1
ωτ ( )
● Phase angle of the output leads that of the
input as the frequency gets higher
● Phase shift is equal to +45o at frequency ƒC

○ Second Order Active Low-pass filter

R2
■ AV =1+
R1
1
■ f c ,2 nd order =
2 π √R3 R4C1C2

○ Second-to-nth Order Low-Pass filter

● High-Pass Filter (HPF) ■ high pass filters cascaded together resulting to nth
○ High-pass filter (HPF)
order filter with a roll-off slope of
■ Passes frequencies higher than its cutoff
frequency fC and attenuates/stops frequencies dB
n ×+20
lower than it decade
■ Also called high-cut filter, treble-cut filter (audio ● At 2nd order: slope is 40 dB/decade
applications) ● Used in applications where the angle of the
■ Output is obtained across: slope may not be enough to remove an
● For RC: across resistor (As f increases, XC unwanted signal
gets lower so greater voltage is across R) ■ as the order of the filter increases, the gain and
● For RL: across inductor (As f increases, XL accuracy of the final filter declines
increases, so greater voltage is across L) ● 2nd-order filter Corner Frequency:
○ Passive RC High-pass filter: Bode Plot 1
Characteristics f c=
■ signal is attenuated or damped at low frequencies 2 π √ R 1 R2 C 1 C 2
with the output increasing at +20dB/Decade
(6dB/Octave) until the frequency reaches the cut-
off point ƒC where R = XC
● As the reactance of the capacitor decreases
as the frequency gets higher, the voltage
received by the output terminal (resistor)
will increase thus resulting to a straight line
at high frequencies
● The angle of the slope is +20dB/ Decade ○ RC Differentiator
roll-off (always the same for any RC ■ essentially a high-pass filter circuit operating in
combination) until it reaches fC the time domain that converts a square wave
● output voltage amplitude is 70.7% of the “step” response input signal into its derivative:
input signal value or -3dB (20 log pulses or spikes
(Vout/Vin)) of the input value
 ■ Each cycle of the square wave input waveform ■ The gain increases at 20dB/decade
produces two spikes at the output, one positive until fC is reached
and one negative and whose amplitude is equal V out A F
to that of the input ○ At cut-off frequency: f=fC: =
● The rate of decay of the spikes depends upon V ¿ √2
the time constant: τ =RC ○ At very high frequency f<fC:
■ As the frequency increases, the output pulses V out
≃ AF
resemble more and more the shape of the input V¿
signal ■ after ƒC all frequencies are pass
band frequencies until the closed
loop bandwidth of the op-amp is
reached

○ Active High-pass Filter

■ Combines a basic RC high-pass filter with an
Op-amp to amplify while filtering signals
■ Technically, there is no such thing as Active
High-pass filter
● Passive HPF: infinite frequency response,
Active HPF: limited by the open-loop
characteristics or bandwidth of the Op-amp
○ the maximum frequency response of an
Op-amp is limited to the Bandwidth
product or open loop voltage gain AV of
the Op-amp giving it a bandwidth
limitation
○ E.g. uA741 Op-amp: the gain reduces
until it reaches unity gain, (0dB) or its
“transition frequency” ft which is about
1MHz ○ Second Order Active High-pass filter
R2
■ AV =1+
R1
1
■ f c ,2 nd order =
2 π √R3 R4C1C2

■ Active HPF with Voltage follower: Since voltage

follower, the DC gain is unity (1) as opposed to
passive RC filter with DC gain of less than unity
■ Active HPF with Amplification
R2
● A F =1+
R1 ○ Cascading Active High-pass Filters
■ Formed by cascading together first and second-

● AV =
V out
=
AF
( f )
f
C
order filters only
■ Even-order: consists of only second-order filters

√ (f )
V¿ 2 Odd-order: consists of 1 first-order filter at the
f beginning then fill the remaining with second-
1+
C
order filters
where f: input frequency ■ As the order of the filter increases so to does its
fC: cutoff frequency accuray: the difference between the actual stop
band response and the theoretical stop band
V out response also increases
○ At very low frequency f<fC: < AF
V¿
 ○ The cut-off or corner frequency of the
LPF is higher than the cut-off frequency
of the HPF
● The output continues at maximum gain until
the higher cutoff frequency fH is reached
where the output decreases at a rate of -
20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) attenuating any
high frequency signals
● Resonant Peak:
○ Point of maximum output gain and the
geometric mean of the two -3dB points
○ f R =√ f L × f H
1
● Band-pass filter (BPF) ● Cut-off frequencies: f=
○ Band-pass filter (BPF) 2 πRC
■ passes frequencies signals within a certain ● Phase-shift: Since 2nd-order circuit, the
band/spread/range of frequencies without phase-shift will be twice that of the low-pass
distorting the input signal or introducing extra or high-pass filter alone (180o)
noise ○ Since the first subcircuit is a high-pass
● band of frequencies: Bandwidth filter, the phase angle of the output
signal leads that of the input by +90o up
○ BW =f H −f L (higher and lower
to the resonant frequency fR where the
frequency cut-offs) phase shift is 0o [in-phase]
● can be used to isolate or filter out certain ○ Phase shift lags behind the input by -90o
frequencies that lie within a particular band as the output frequency increases
or range of frequencies because the 2nd subcircuit is a low-pass
filter
○ Passive Band-pass filter ○ Buffering Individual Filter Stages
■ can be made by connecting together a low pass ● In practice, the input reactance of the high-
filter with a high pass filter pass subcircuit would affect the frequency
● High-pass filter first then low-pass filter, so response of the low-pass subcircuit
the output is obtained across the capacitor of (components connected in series or parallel)
the low-pass filter and vice versa
● Thus they are 2nd-order filters because of ● Thus a buffer can be used to isolate the two
the presence of two reactive components subcircuits

○ Band-pass Filter → Multiplier

○ Active Band-pass Filter
■

■ Bode-plot characteristics:
● signal is attenuated at low frequencies with
the output increasing at a slope of
+20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the lower
cutoff frequency fL is reached
 ■ In the picture above: this is a Band-Pass Filter
(even if the low-pass filter and high-pass filter
segments are not easily seen) ○ Band-stop filter → Divider
● BPF: output is taken across the resistor ○ Active Band-stop filter
● This is a Series RLC circuit

● Band-stop filter (BSF)

○ Band-stop filter (BSF)
■ Also called Notch filter or Band-reject filter
■ blocks and rejects frequencies that lie between its
two cut-off frequency points passes all those
frequencies either side of this range
○ Passive Band-stop filter ● Other kinds of Filters
■ Can be made by a Parallel tank LC circuit in ○ Butterworth Filter:
series with a resistor, where the output is taken ■ an active filter characterized by a constant-gain
across the resistor (flat response) across the mid-band of the circuit,
and a 20 dB/decade roll-off rate for each pole
contained in the circuit
○ Chebyshev Filter
○ Bessel Filter

● Microprocessors ○ Arithmetic operations (+,-,*,÷)

○ Microprocessor: Micro (small) + Processor ○ Logic operations (NOR,NOT,OR,XOR)
(something that processes data) ○ Bit-shifting operation
■ A programmable, multipurpose, clock-driven, ● Also provides single bit overview of results
register-based electronic device that reads binary called flags.
instructions, accepts binary data as input and
processes data according to these instructions
and provides result as output
■ Involved with the 4th Generation of computers
■ A processor is the heart of a computer system
■ Microprocessor: input voltages to tell what the
microprocessor will do, and output voltages to
control and external circuit 2. Control Unit
○ Parts of a Processor ● Informs all 3: ALU, the computer’s main
Memory, and the I/O devices, on how to
respond to the command that have been sent
to the processor
● Controls the flow of data and instructions
within the computer
● Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle
■ Registers
● Just a collection of flip-flops (sequential
○ Recall that a flip-flop only stores 1 bit.
A collection of flip-flops can store a
series of bits resulting to a register
● Registers are storage areas inside the μ-
processor
○ Once the ALU is done with the
1. ALU: Arithmetic Logic Unit
operation, the output is stored in a
● Performs all processes related to arithmetic
register
and logic operations that need to be done on
○ Volatile memory: Data is stored in the
instruction words
register until the power supplies are
● Has 2 or more inputs (can be 4 bit, 3 bit, etc.
removed either by an equipment fault,
depending on the ALU)
or if the system is switched off
● Has Operation code which tells what the
ALU will do - this comes from the
instruction set
 ■ Control signals: ○ The pre-program in a ROM is called
● Clock pin - “firmware”
synchronizes μ- ○ ROM can be accessed, in whole or in
processor any part, but not written over
● Enable - turns the ● PROM: Programmable ROM
register ON or ○ Can program but can’t delete the data
OFF; active low ○ Once the PROMs are programmed, you
● Read/Write - reads can’t reprogram it anymore and you
date from the have to buy a new PROM
register, or write ● EPROM: Erasable PROM
on it (active low on Write) ○ a PROM but you can erase the data
● Some types of registers: once you’ve programmed it (very
○ Shift register: data is shifted from one convenient)
flip-flop to the next each time the clock- ○ It is more difficult to rewrite data in an
pulse occurs EPROM than in a RAM
○ Rotate register: data from the output is ○ Kinds:
fed back into the start (cyclic data) ■ UVPROM: Ultraviolet PROM
○ Other type of registers ● use UV light to erase the data
3. Memory: Stores bulk of data or information. It ● You shine UV light on the little
has 2 Types: slit in the middle of the
● Random Access Memory (volatile) UVPROM to remove the data
● Read-Only Memory (non-volatile) ■ EEPROM: Electrically Erasable
PROM
■ RAM: Random access memory ● uses electrical pulses to remove
● Also called Read/Write memory data; e.g. we can just press
● Volatile memory Delete button to remove data
● The data can be addressed/selected from ■ Similar configuration to SRAM:
anywhere in the array ● Same configuration for all
Static RAM Dynamic RAM (DRAM) types of ROM
Composed of passive components (i.e. ● 2 A address locations
Composed of transistors
capacitors)
● Organization: 2 A × D (“by”)
Holds its values so long as its power is Holds data values for only a few
on fraction of a second ● Capacity: actually multiply
Matrix of data
Array of data CAS: Column address strobe ○ Types of Architecture of Microprocessors:
RAS: Row address strobe ■ Von-Neumann Architecture
Low power consumption ● There is a common bus for data and
More expensive and larger
Cheaper price instruction bus
Slow access ○ Data and instruction cannot be
Must be refreshed periodically because transferred at the same time (i.e. traffic)
Very fast
capacitor cell loses its charge (needs ● Same physical memory address is used for
memory refresh) instruction and data
Locations: 2 A ● 2 clock cycles are required to execute a
Locations: 22 A single instruction
A: no. of address pins in RAM
● Used in Microprocessors, Personal
Organization: 2 A × D Organization: 22 A × D computers and small PCs
D: no. of bits in data line Note: × is “by” not multiply ■ Harvard Architecture
Capacity: actually multiply Capacity: actually multiply ● Separate buses for transferring data and
A
2 × D (in bits)
2A
2 × D (in bits) instructions (i.e. can be transferred at the
same time)
● Separate physical memory address is used
for instruction and data
● An instruction is executed in a single clock
cycle
● Used in microcontrollers, signal processing
○ Basic Microprocessor system
■ Clock: controls the operation of the μ-processor
● Faster clock pulse = faster μ-processor
■ Bus: collection of conductors providing a similar
function
■ ROM: Read-only memory ● Data Bus: 2-way bus
● Also called nonvolatile memory ● Address Bus: 1-way only (from
● Used to store information on a more-or-less microprocessor to memory or other devices)
permanent basis (thus you can’t write data, ○ Consists of control PIN 21 to 28
programs, files in ROMs) ○ 16 bits in length
 ○ Lower address bus lines (AD0-AD7) are
called “Line number”
● Control Bus: Other necessary connections
such as Chip select, Read/Write pins

■ Peripherals: device used to put information into

or get info out of the computer
● I/O devices are devices that provide the
means for the computer to communicate
with the user or other computers
● E.g. Computer peripherals: Mouse,
keyboard, Monitor, Printer, Speakers ○ Instructions Sets
■ Input/Output Interface ■ CISC: Complex Instruction Set Computers
● used to synchronize the operating speed of ● Primary goal of CISC architecture is to
CPU with respect to I/O devices complete a task in as few lines of assembly
○ One who talks for the microprocessor to as possible
the peripherals ● Instructions are stacked so few lines only;
● Selects the input-output device which is ● Less registers; Variable length Instructions
appropriate for the interpretation of the ● Emphasize on the hardware to optimize the
input-output device instruction set
○ e.g. if we click on the mouse, the μ- ● E.g. AMD Ryzen
processor knows the command is from ■ RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computers
the mouse ● RISC processors only use simple
● Converts Serial-Parallel or Digital-Analog instructions that can be executed within 1
signals clock cycle
● Types: ● There are more registers in a RISC to
○ Transmit: allows data to be writen to accommodate for the more instructions ‘in
output device breakdown’
○ Receive: allows data to be received to ● Fixed length instructions
an input device ● E.g. Apple A13
○ Status: provides information about the
current state of the device, including the
controller
○ Control: Allows a program to send
commands to the controller and to
change its settings
● Input/Output ports:
○ Port-mapped I/O
■ I/O devices are mapped into a
separate address space
■ Different set of signal lines
○ Memory-mapped I/O
■ I/O devices are mapped into the ○ How does the μ-processor system work?
system memory map (‘Special Assume an instruction: Send the number 25H
address’) along with RAM and which is in the ROM and store it in the RAM at
ROM address 2500H
■ Normal memory access instructions 1. The μ-processor has to collect the instruction
○ E.g. of I/O ports: USB port, HDMI, from an address in the ROM (Fetch). It does
VGA, Ethernet port, Serial port, etc. this by putting the address onto the Address
bus
○ The Address is applied to the address
decoder, the ROM, and the RAM.; but
all 3 are switched off at the moment
2. When the logic gates w/in the the address
Decoder responds to the input from the
 address bus (i.e. decoder has already Heart of computer system Heart of embedded system
Decoded that the address is in the ROM),
the result will be that the ROM is switch ON ■ Microcontrollers has internal memory, μ-
and the other 2 are kept off. processors only has ALU and Control Unit and
○ Control Unit will turn on the Chip some registers
Select located in ROM, so ROM will ● Intel I7: microprocessor
turn ON ● M1 (Apple): microprocessor
○ ROM: “Go to address F600H (example ● Rasperry pi: microcontroller (actually it’s a
lang) and read the number stored in this microcomputer because we can load an OS
address!” ← this but in Op-code such as Linux
3. In response to this instruction, the μ- ● Arduino Uno: microcontroller
processor puts the address F600H onto the
address bus (Execute) ○ Others
○ μ-processor will then see what the ■ Block statement: set of statements to be
Control Unit will turn on executed; consists of several statements enclosed
4. The address decoder applies this number to by the keywords “BEGIN” and “END”
its logic gates and this results in the Chip ● The action specified by the statements
Select of the ROM to turn ON again begins when the simulation is launched, and
5. The ROM chip accepts the address F600H the statements are executed Sequentially:
into its row/column decoders and then puts left to right, top to bottom, by a simulator in
the number 25H onto the data bus order to provide the input to the circuit
○ This number is temporarily stored in the
μ-processor
6. The μ-processor then puts the number
2500H onto the address bus and the address
decoder puts a signal on the Chip Select of
the RAM chip to switch ON
7. The number 25H is now safely stored in the
RAM chip and will remain there until it is
over-written with new info or the power is
switched off

○ Languages
■ High-Level language: program statements are
NOT closely related to the internal
characteristics of the computer
● E.g. coding languages (Python, C++, etc.),
Assembly Language (JMP, BRK, etc.)
■ Low-Level language: program statements closely
related to internal characteristics of computer
● Machine Code/Binary language (1s and 0s)

○ Microcontrollers
■ A single Integrated circuit (IC) that is
typically used for a specific application and
designed to implement certain tasks
○ Microprocessors vs Microcontrollers:
Microprocessor: memory and I/O output
component is connected
externally
Microcontroller: memory and I/O output
component is connected
internally
Microprocessor Microcontroller
Connected externally Connected internally
High cost Cheaper
(due to requirement of extra (components are readily available
components) in the controller)
High Power consumption and
Less power consumption
dissipation
Clock speed: above 1 GHz 20 MHz−120 MHz
Have integrated Math Coprocessor No math coprocessors
(can easily do float-point (needs softwares to perform float-
calculations) point calculations)
Intended for general applications Made for specific applications
● Electronic Control Systems
● Galvanometers to Ammeter and Voltmeter
○ Galvanometer to Ammeter
■ https://circuitglobe.com/galvanometer.html
■ Connect a low resistance (called shunt resistor) in parallel with the galvanometer
○ Galvanometer to Voltmeter
■

● Motor speed control systems

● Solid State Services
● Welding systems/high frequency heating
● Transducers
● Robotic principles
● Bioelectrical principles
● Instrumentation and control
● Servomechanism
 ELEC: Digital Electronics (Digicomms)
● Number Systems and Representation ■ Subtraction:
○ Digital Electronics: study of digital signals and the ● Borrows are used instead of carries
devices that produce them ○ Note: 0-1 = 1 (borrow 1)
○ Number Systems: Decimal, Binary, Octal, ● Borrow rules:
Hexadecimal ○ When you borrow from preceding digit,
■ [Decimal: 0-9], [Octal: 0-7], [Hexadecimal: 0-F], a 0 becomes 10, and the preceding digit
[Binary: 0 and 1 only] 1 becomes 0.
■ Groupings: ○ When you borrow a 1 from 10, it
● Group of 8 bits: Byte becomes 1 since 102-12 = 210-110 = 1
Range: 0-255 (000000002 to ○ When the digits to the right of the
111111112), resulting to 28 = 256 preceding digit are consecutive 0s,
combinations borrow one at a time (only give to the
● Group of 2 bits: Dibits next digit).
● Group of 3 bits: Tribits
● Group of 4 bits: Nibble
■ Base Conversion
● [Caltech] MODE: SETUP → 4: BASE IN
● Convert to Decimal (10)
101102 → 24+22+21 = 2210
11001.11 → 24+23+20+2-1+2-2 = 25.7510
● Convert to Hexadecimal (16): group in 4
○ digits after the radix point will group ■ Multiplication: same as decimal process
themselves ■ Division (shifting decimal points)
101102 → 00012 | 01102 ○ Complements
20 | 22+21 = 1616 ■ Diminished radix complement (r-1’s
11001.112 → 00012 | 10012 | 11002 complement)
20 | 23+20 | 23+22 ● Decimal system: 9’s complement
= 19.C16 ○ Invert the digits such that the sum will
● Convert to Octal: group in 3 be 9 for each digit
11001.112 → 0112 | 0012 | 1102 ○ E.g. 9’s complement of 4257:
21+20 | 20 | 22+21 9999 - 4257 = 5742
= 31.68 ● Binary system: 1’s complement
● Convert to Base-N ○ 1’s complement: just invert the digits (1
○ If N is a multiple of 2: Group the binary become 0 and vice-versa)
equivalent of the number into log2N and ■ Radix complement (r’s complement)
convert each group ● Decimal system: 10’s complement
E.g. 110012 → Base 4 ○ Perform 9’s complement then add 1 to
Base 4 means range of output the LSB (least significant bit)
is 0-3 only ● Binary system: 2’s complement:
Groupings: log24 = 2 ○ perform 1’s complement then add 1 to
012 | 102 | 012 the LSB
= 1214 ○ Signed Numbers in Binary:
○ If N is NOT a multiple of 2: convert the ■ Signed bits is in Most Significant Bit (MSB)
number to decimal then continuously ● Positive: 0 and negative: 1
divide the number by the base until the ■ Signed Magnitude Representation
quotient is 0. Get the remainder in each ● Simply place a 0 or 1 to MSB to indicate if
division and read upwards positive or negative then the remaining bits
E.g. 1011100112 → Base 11 indicate the magnitude
1011100112 → 37110 ● E.g. 00011010 = 2610
8 10010011 = -1910
371 ÷ 11 = 33
11 ■ 1’s complement representation
0 ● Just invert all the bits (1 become 0 and vice-
33 ÷ 11 = 3 versa), including the sign bit
11 ● For an n-bit number N, the 1’s complement
3 is (2¿¿ n−1)−N ¿
3 ÷ 11 = 0
11 ■ 2’s complement representation
= 30811 ● Perform 1’s complement representation then
○ Simple Operations add 1
■ Addition ● For an n-bit number N, the 1’s complement
● Just take note of carries and the range of is (2¿¿ n−1)−N +1 ¿
values the Base-N can take
● Radix point should line up for both numbers
 x +( y + z ) x ∙( y ∙ z)
Associative Law
¿(x + y )+ z ¿(x ∙ y)∙ z
De Morgan’s Law (x + y )'=x ' y ' (xy )' =x ' + y '
Absorption x + xy=x x ∙( x+ y )=x
Absorption - 2 x + x ' y =x+ y x ∙( x '+ y)=xy
xy + yz + x ' z (x + y )∙( y + z )∙(x '+ z )
Consensus
¿ xy + x ' z ¿(x + y )∙(x ' + z )
■ Duality: all Boolean expressions have logical
duals
● Can be done by replacing + with • (and vice-
versa), and replace 0 with 1 (and vice-versa)
which will show the dual of the expression
● Leave the variables unchanged
○ Truth Table: table used in logic which sets out the
○ Subtraction using Complements functional values of logical expressions on each of
■ 1’s complement subtraction their functional arguments
■ 2’s complement subtraction ■ # of rows: 2n where n is the number of input
variables, counting from 0 to 2n-1
● Coding Techniques ■ Sum of Product (Minterms)
○ BCD: Binary Coded Decimal ● Minterms: where output F is HIGH or 1
○ 2421 ● Use Summation symbol (Σ)
○ XS3: Excess-3 ■ Product of Sum (Maxterms)
○ 8421 ● Maxterms: where output F is LOW or 0
○ ASCII Code ● Use Pi Notation symbol (π)
○ Gray Code ○ Karnaugh Map (K-map): a method of simplifying
○ Error-Correcting Codes: Parity Codes Boolean expressions
■ input variables must be
● Logic (Laws) sequenced according to
Gray code in order for K-
○ Boolean Algebra: algebra wherein the values are only
map to work
True (1) or False (0)
● for 2-variable input:
■ Created by George Boole
00, 01, 11, 10
■ Truth Table: table used in logic which sets out
■ Don’t care conditions (use
the functional values of logical expressions on
X in K-map)
each of their functional arguments
○ Logic Gates
■ Any logic function that is expressible as a truth
■ Buffer, Inverter, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR,
table can be written in Boolean Algebra using
XNOR
“AND”, “OR” and “NOT”
● Universal Logic Gates: NAND & NOR

● Logic System
○ 2 Types: Combinational Logic and Sequential Logic
○ Combinational Logic Circuits
■ Output is based purely on the combination of its
input (memoryless)
■ Half-adder: adds 2 numbers and produces a Sum
bit and a Carry bit as the output
■ Boolean Postulates/Laws:
Postulate/Law Using OR (+) Using AND (•)
Structure is closed Structure is closed with
Closure
with respect to + respect to •
Commutative x + y= y + x x ∙ y= y ∙ x
x ∙( y+ z) x +( y ∙ z)
Distributive
¿(x ∙ y)+(x ∙ z) ¿(x + y )∙(x+ z )
Complementary x + x '=1 x ∙ x '=0
Idempotent Law x + x=x x ∙ x=x
Annulment Law or
Domination Law
x +1=1 x ∙ 0=0 ■ Full-adder: A half-adder device with a Carry-in
Identity Law x +0=x x ∙ 1=x (cin) as input aside from the 2 numbers added
Involution Law or
Double Negation
(x ' )'=x or ¬¬ x=x
 ■ Decoder: takes binary input and converts it to
decimal output
■ Full Subtactor: a combinational circuit that
performs subtraction involving three bits, namely
A (minuend), B (subtrahend), and Bin (borrow-in)
It produces two outputs: D (difference) and Bout
(borrow out)

■ Multiplexer (MUX): allows one of several

analog/digital input signals to be selected and
transmitted to the output over a single medium
● Output: Q = abA + abB + abC + abD where
a and b: are the control bits (can be
a,a’,b,b’)
■ Binary Parallel Adder: circuit for adding binary
A,B,C,D: inputs
numbers with multiple bit
● Use K-map to solve output
● consists of various Full-adders in parallel

■ BCD Adder: 4-bit binary adder that can add two

4-bit numbers having a BCD format
■ Demultiplexer (DEMUX): takes a single input
line and routes it to one of several digital output
lines
● Pick output A,B,C,D based on the control
pins a and b

■ Code Converter: converts the information into its

appropriate code
● E.g. LM7447 (BCD to 7-segment display):
takes Binary-coded Decimal (BCD) inputs
and generates the 7 output lines for the 7-
segment LED

● E.g. LM74184: BCD-to-Binary Converter

■ Encoder: converts decimal input to binary value ■ Comparator: compares the magnitude of 2 binary
digits
● Only gives one of 3 outputs (A>B, A=B, or
A<B)
 ● JK Flip-flop (JK: Jack Kilby) a gated SR
Flip-flop that solves the invalid condition
where both S and R are 1
J K Clk Q
0 0 ↑ Q0 (No change)
0 1 ↑ 0
○ Sequential Logic Circuits 1 0 ↑ 1
■ Output is based on input and also on the past 1 1 ↑ Ǭ0 (toggle)
outputs of the logic device (memory)
■ Types:
● Synchronous Sequential: changes in the state
of memory elements are synchronized by a
clock signal
● Asynchronous Sequential: memory elements
and output values change states whenever
there is a change in input value (i.e. not
necessarily with the clock pulse)
○ Also called Self-timed circuits ● D Flip-flop: Output state follows the state of
○ Notes: the D-input (↑: rising edge of clock)
■ Remember that binary is read from right to left ○ Why not just go for a buffer? Because
(LSB to MSB), whilst the counter output is left for a D Flip-flop, it will wait for the
to right. clock cycle before it gets the data
Clk D Q Description
● Logic Devices ↑ 0 0 Reset (Q=0)
○ Latch vs Flip-flops ↑ 1 1 Set (Q=1)
■ Flip-flops: clock-triggered
■ Latch: level-triggered, outputs instantly change
only when inputs change
○ Flip flops: circuit with 2 stable states and can be used
to store state information
■ Building blocks in storing memory
■ Types ● T Flip-flop: Output state toggles each time a
● SR (Set-Reset) Flip-flop clock transition occurs
○ Logic 1 on Set will Set (Q=1) ○ Similar to Inverter but it only toggles
Logic 1 on Reset will Reset (Q=0) during a clock cycle
○ Recall: Flip-flops are with CLK input, Clk T Q Description
but they are essentially Latches ↑ 0 1 Set (Q=1)
○ 2 cross-coupled NOR gate (NOR Latch ↑ 1 0 Reset (Q=0)
if latch) or 2 cross-coupled NAND gate
(NAND Latch if latch)
S R Q Ǭ
0 0 No change
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 Invalid ● Master-slave Flip-flop: combination of 2 JK
Flip-flops in a series configuration with the
slave having an inverted clock pulse
○ The basis for shift registers (since the
Slave follows what the Master says)

● RST Flip-flop: An RS Flip-flop with a third

toggle that enables/disables the RS inputs
 ● A variation of the BCD counter where it has
○ Shift Registers: group of flip flops connected in an AND gate at the end which resets the
series, sharing the same clock, used to store multiple circuit when both Q1 (21=2) and Q3 (23=8)
bits of data are High (which results to 10).

■ The bits stored in such registers can be made to

move within the registers and in/out of the
registers by applying clock pulses
● Shift left registers
● Shift right registers
■ 4 Types ■ Binary Ripple Counter: counter which either
● Serial In Serial Out (SISO) increases/decreases count when a clock pulse is
● Serial In Parallel Out (SIPO) applied
● Parallel In Serial Out (PISO) ● Thus it’s a bidirectional counter
● Parallel In Parallel Out (PIPO)
■ Bidirectional shift registers: capable of shifting ■ Ring Counter: output of the last flip flop is again
the data either right or left depending on the fed back to the input of the first flip flop, thus the
mode selected. name ring counter
● High: Shift right, Low: Shift left ● In the circuit below, the data will repeat
every 4 clock cycles since there are 4 flip-
flops
● generally used because it is self-decoding.
No extra decoding circuit is needed to
determine what state the counter is in

○ Counters: a sequential logic circuit that has a clock

input signal and a group of output signals that
■ Johnson Counter: inverted output of the last flip
represent an integer "counts" value
flop is again fed back to the input of the first flip
■ Can also be shift registers in which the outputs
flop
are connected back to the inputs in order to
● Also known as Twisted ring counters
produce particular sequences
● An n-stage Johnson counter yields a count
■ BCD Counter: special type of digital counter
sequence of 2n different states, thus also
which can count through the decimal numbers on
known as a mod-2n counter
the application of a clock signal
● Advantage: only needs n number of flip-
● 0 to 9 then resets back to 0
flops compared to the ring counter to
circulate a given data to generate a sequence
of 2n states
● A Comparison Between Ring and Johnson
Counters Indicates That

● State Machines
○ State Machines: a mathematical abstraction used to
design algorithms. It reads a set of inputs and changes
to a different state based on those inputs.
■ Modulo Counter (MOD counter): counter where ■ 2 Kinds: Mealy and Moore machines
you can set the total number of output states ○ Mealy Machine: output depends on both present state
● counter that resets at a chosen number and current input
S Input S’ Output
S0 1 S1 0
S0 0 S2 0
S1 1 S0 0
S1 0 S2 1
S2 1 S1 0
S2 0 S2 0

■ Decade Counter: counting circuit designed to

count to 10
 ○ Moore Machine: output depends only on the current ■ Propagation Delay: measure of relative speed of
state. It does not depend on the current input. the logic circuit
● If there is no transition of logic (i.e. 0→0, or
1→1), you will still consider the propagation
delay.
t p , LH +t p , HL
● t p ,ave =¿ × no . of gates
2
where
Binary String Ouput
tp,LH: delay time going from low-to-high
1100 C
tp,HL: delay time going from high-to-low
1001 D
total t p , LH
0100 C ● t p , LH ,( per gate) =¿
0011 A no . of gates
1110 B total t p ,HL
1010 C ● t p , HL,( per gate) =¿
no . of gates
■ Power Dissipation: amount of power that an IC
● Logic Families drains from its power supply
○ Parameters when choosing a Logic Family:
I CCH + I CCL
■ Logic Level ● I CC (ave) =¿ where
● Positive Logic: input signal has a voltage 2
level MORE POSITIVE than 0 state ICCH: current drawn at high level
● Negative Logic: input signal has a voltage ICCL: current drawn at low level
level MORE NEGATIVE than 0 state ● P D (ave) per gate =I CC (ave) V CC
■ Fan Out: maximum number of standard logic
inputs that an output can drive reliably ○ Logic Families: different circuit configurations and
● Depends on the current sourcing capability production technologies used during the production
of the output of digital ICs
I OH ■ Transistor Logic Families (Bipolar Transistor
● High Logic: FanOu t H =¿
II H Technologies)
● Saturated Logic Families
output current
○ ON - Saturation Mode
input current ○ OFF - Cutoff Mode
I OL ● Non-saturated Logic Families
● Low Logic: FanOu t L =¿ ○ ON - Active Mode
I IL
○ OFF - Cutoff Mode
output current ■ MOS Logic Families (Unipolar Transistor
input current Technology)
○ Whichever is lower of the 2 formulas
above is the maximum fan out of a logic ○ RTL: Resistor-Transistor Logic
gate ■ Part of Saturated Logic Families
■ Noise Margin (NM): maximum noise voltage ■ Resistor as input network, and Transistor (BJT)
added to input signal that doesn’t cause an as switching devices)
undesirable change in the output ■ In common use before
● Low state NM: N M L =V IL - V OL (in-out) ICs were developed
■ Features: First logic
● High state NM: N M H =V OH - V IH (out-
family, require
in) minimum no. of
○ Whichever is lower between NML and transistors
NMH is the noise margin of the gate ■ Limitation: Low speed,
● Logic swing: V LS=V OH - V OL (high-low) high power dissipation,
● Transition width: V TW =V IH -V IL (high- Low Fan Out and poor
low) noise immunity
● Fan Out: the number of other logic gates that
can be powered by 1 logic gate (best is the
CMOS for Fan Out)
○ DTL: Diode-Transistor Logic ● Used in very high frequency applications
■ Part of Saturated Logic ● No noise spikes, Large Fan Out
Families ■ Limitations:
■ Use Diodes and Transistors ● Requires large silicon area
● Diode network ● high power dissipation (high cost)
function as logic gating ● Inconvenient voltage levels
■ Input is fed to diodes ● Low Noise margins
followed by transistor at
output side
●
■ Features:
● First circuit designed into an IC
● Very small size, high reliability, low price
● Greater Fan out and improvide noise margin
■ Limitation: high propagation delay, no low and
constant output impedance in both states

○ HTL: High Threshold Logic

■ Variation of DTL
■ Makes use of Zener
diodes
■ Limitation: high power ○ N-Channel MOSFET (NMOS)
consumption, high ■ constructed with the n-type
propagation delay source and drain and a p-type
substrate
○ TTL: Transistor-Transistor ■ Carriers: electrons
Logic ■ Symbol: arrow going in or no
■ Part of Saturated Logic hole at gate
Families ● Source connected to GND
■ Use all Transistor totem ● Drain connected to output
pole output ■ If VG=HIGH: NMOS ON
● The function of diodes If VG=LOW: NMOS OFF
in DTL is performed ● “ON” → saturation
by multi-emitter “OFF” → ohmic/triode
transistor at input region
■ Voltage range for TTL device operating at 5.0V ■ faster than PMOS because
● Logic 1 or High: 2.0 - 5.5V electrons (the charge carriers in NMOS) travel
● Low 0 or Low: 0 - 0.8V twice as fast as holes
■ Features: ■ NMOS ICs is smaller than PMOS ICs
● fast switching time and larger fan out ● NMOS can deliver half of the impedance
● Reduced silicon chip area delivered by a PMOS
● Easy to interface with other logic families
■ Limitation: large current spike when switching
from low to high, and Less noise immunity
(~0.4V)

○ STTL: Schottky Transistor-Transistor Logic

○ P-Channel MOSFET (PMOS)
■ constructed with the p-type
source and drain and an n-type
substrate
■ Carriers: holes
■ Symbol: arrow going out or with
hole at gate
● Source connected to output
● Drain connected to +VDD
■ Opposite operation as NMOS:
○ ECL: Emitter-Coupled Logic If VG=LOW: PMOS ON
■ Part of Non-saturated Logic Families If VG=HIGH: PMOS OFF
■ Compliments the output thus eliminating the ■ less susceptible to interference
need for an inverter than NMOS
● Logic 1: -0.8V ■ The fan-out of MOS-logic gates
● Logic 0: -1.7V is higher than that of TTL gates because of its
■ Features: low output impedance
● Lowest propagation delay out of all logic
families (fastest)
 ○ CMOS: Complementary MOSFET
■ Uses both N-MOSFET and P-MOSFET
■ Advantage of CMOS over NMOS: both low-high
and high-low output transitions are fast since the
ON-state (PMOS) pull-up transistors are in
contrast to the load resistors in NMOS logic have
a low resistance ■ 3 classifications:
■ uses less energy to operate at the same output ● Class A: has 1 transistor set to remain ON
and produces less noise during operation always
■ Switches slower than TTL (2-3 times slower) ○ Minimum distortion, highest linearity
■ Uses less power than TTL ○ Efficiency: η ≈ 30%
■ Less costlier ○ The stages of the Class A amplifier
■ Smaller allows the same amount of load current
(IL) to flow through it even when there
is not input signal connected, therefore
large heatsinks are needed for the output
transistors
● Class B: the actual Push-Pull Amplifier
○ Efficiency: η ≈ 78.5%
○ biased in such a way that each transistor
will work on one half cycle of the input
waveform
○ suffers from Crossover Distortion on
■ Most basic application of CMOS: Inverter zero crossings (0V)
● Class AB
○ method to remove that crossover
distortion in Class B amplifier by using
diodes for biasing
○ By adding the diode, transistors are
biased in slightly conducting state even
when no signal is present at base
terminal
○ Totem pole: a configuration in TTL circuit, where a
one transistor is stacked onto another transistor
similar to a totem-pole
■ Similar to a push-pull amplifier but uses only
NPN transistors
● since NPN transistors are easier to make,
and support higher current for a given size
than PNP transistors
■ A TTL totem-pole circuit is designed so that the
output transistors are never on together
■ Totem-pole vs Push-pull:
● The amount of current that it can
sink/source: Totem Pole output will
● Others sink/source less current then a Push-Pull
○ Push-pull amplifier: amplifier which is used to supply output
high power to the load. ● Output voltage: Totem Pole is a 5V DC
■ The output stage of a push-pull amplifier consists signal only (since it’s a TTL circuit
of 2 identical BJTs or MOSFETs: one NPN and configuration), whereas the Push-pull will
one PNP transistors stacked together follow the input voltage
■ One transistor pushes the output on positive half
cycle (source current through load) and other
pulls on negative half cycle (sinking current
through load), thus called as Push-Pull Amplifier
■ Has better performance and lower distortion
compared to single-transistor amplifiers
● commonly used in situations where low
distortion, high efficiency and high output
power are required
 ● Sample Problems to note
○ A logic probe is placed on the output of a gate and the
display indicator is dim. A pulser is used on each of
the input terminals, but the output indication does not
change. → the output of the gate appears to be open

● Comparison of Logic
Paramenter RTL DTL HTL TTL ECL MOS CMOS
Basic Gate NOR NAND NAND NAND OR-NOR NAND NOR-NAND
Fan Out 5 8 10 10-20 25 20 20-50
Power Dissipation per Gate 12 mW 8-12 mW 55 mW 10-22 mW 40-55 mW 0.2-10 mW 0.025-1.01 mW
Noise Immunity Medium Good Excellent Very Good Poor Medium Very Good
Propagation Delay 12 nS 30 nS 4 nS 10 nS 1-2 nS 300 nS 70 nS
Clock Rate 8 MHz 72 MHz 4 MHz 35 MHz 60+ MHz 2 MHz 10 MHz
Speed * Power 144 300 ~ 100 100 60 70
Noise Margin 0.4 V 0.2 V 3V
Number of Functions High Fairly High Medium Very High High Low Low