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3-D Object Representation, Geometric Transformations and Viewing Part-1

Content:

1. Color models
2. Different color models
3. Conversion between color models
4. Half toning
5. Animation
6. Animation techniques
7. Key frames
8. Morphing
9. Cell animation
10. Types of animations
11. Applications for computer animation

COLOUR MODELS

COLOUR

Additive Colour: It is obtained by adding together lights of different colors. The absence
of all colors is black while the presence of all colors is white. It works with emitted
light.

Subtractive Colour: It is obtained by subtracting lights of different colors. The absence

of all colors is white while the presence of all colors of black. It works with reflected
light.

COLOUR REPRESENTATION

There are basically three modes of representing color combination on a display:

➢ Palette. An indexed array usually with 256 entries, each three bytes long, representing
the amount of R, G and B to be used to represent the color at the pixel in question.
➢ Hi-Color. Sometimes referred to as “thousands of colors”, uses 16 bits to represent
colors, thus allowing 64K colors to be displayed.

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➢ True-Color. Sometimes referred to as “million of colors”, uses 24 bits (3 bytes) to
represent colors, thus allowing 256*256*256 colors to be displayed.

COLOUR CONCEPT

Some of the key terms used in terminology are:

➢ Shades. Adding a pigment of black colour to some other colour produces a darker
shade.
➢ Tints. Obtained by adding a while pigment to the original colour, making it lighter.
➢ Tones. They are produced by adding both black and white colour pigments

An artist creates a tainting by mixing colour pigments with white and black pigments to
form various shades, tints, and tones, thus, giving the object a more realistic look in
the graphics appearance.

XYZ COLOUR MODEL

The three dimensional picture is represented in computer graphics by the three vectors
X, Y, and Z. The XYZ model represents pictures in additive color space. Any color Ci
is represented by the equation.

Ci = aX + bY + cZ

Where, a, b and c represent the amount of standard primaries required to match Ci

For convenience we normalize the amount in the above equation against luminance (a
+ b + c). Normalized amounts are thus given by the following equation:

an = a/(a + b + c), bn = b/( a + b + c), cn = c/( a + b + c)

With an + bn + cn = 1. Thus, any can be represented with just an and bn which are
called the chromaticity values as they depend on hue and purity only.

To convert from chromaticity co-ordinates (an, bn) back to a specific color in the XYZ
color space. We need an additional piece of information.

a = an/bn b, b = b, c = cn/bn b, where Cn = 1 - an - bn

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COLOR MODELS

A color models is a particular representation of color that is useful for at least one
particular application. The spectrum of light we call color can be characterized in many
ways. Wavelengths, photons, and obscure mathematical equations can characterize the
physical of light. Several color models permit the precise specification of color. Each
model is a different way of representing, characterizing, and categorizing color.

In the computer graphics word, the most common color representation is called RGB
(Red, Green, Blue). Image are represented in terms of their red, green and blue
components. In addition, display screens (the video tubes) have active areas (phosphors)
that emit red, green, and blue light. Combination of red, green and blue dots can
produce simulations of continuous tone color images. The red, green and blue dots are
so small that the eye are brain blend these discrete dots into a continuous tone. A
particular mix of the red, green and blue components of screen area corresponds
directly to the perceived colour of that area.

Another colour representation often used in computer graphics is the HSB Hue,
Saturation and Brightness model. As brightness is often called Value, the term HSV is
also used. Colloquially speaking, hue is the kind of color. For example, red as opposed
to blue or yellow. Saturation is the depth or intensity of color for example, light red as
opposed to dark red. Brightness is the overall amount or lightness of a color.

➢ Hue. The attributes of color perception by means of which a color is judged to be red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, purple, or intermediate between adjacent pairs of these considered in a
closed ring (red purple being an adjacent pair).
➢ Saturation. Attribute of a visual sensation according to which an area appears to exhibit more
or less chromatic color, judged in proportion to its lightness of brightness.
➢ Lightness. (1) The attribute of color perception by which a non-self-luminous body is judged
to reflect more or less light. (2) the attribute by which a perceived color is judged to be
equivalent to one of a series of ranging from black to white.

Another method used to display color in computer graphics is dithering. Dithering is not
a color model but a particular way of using color. Dither patterns are used to increase
the perceived amount of colors on a screen at one time. While a display may be

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capable of displaying only 256 distinct colors, dithering can be used to raise the
perceived number of colors into thousands.

Several color models have evolved for use in printing. Printing is color is the act of
putting inks on paper. This action reverse the additive nature of color produced with
light into a subtractive process. A red, green and blue light source will appears white
when combined. Red, green and bluw inks on paper will create a black area.

CMYK. The printing industry and many color computer use the CMYK (cyan, Magenta,
Yellow Black) color model to create full color printed images. This model is also known
as process color. Four inks with a colors cyan, magenta, yellow, and black are combined
using half toning techniques to create the illusion of continuous tone color images. The
perceived subtle nature of colour created by the small dots of CMYK colors is a side
effect of our perception. Take a look at a colour magazine photo with a magnifying
glass. The color of a person’s skin is not really there. The color mixing actually carried
out in our brains.

Spot Color. Spot color printing refers to the use of one, two, three, or more single
distinct colors within the documents. Common uses are to color all section headings a
unique color or to color arrows that point our information.

DIFFERENT COLOR MODELS

RGB COLOR MODEL

In this model the primary colour are red, green, and blue. It is an additive model, in
which adding components produces colors, with white having all colors and black being
the absence of any color. This model is used for active displays such as television and
computer screens. It is usually represented by a unit cube with one corner located at
the origin of a three-dimensional color coordinate system, the axes being labeled R, G,
B and having a range of values [0, 1]. The origin (0, 0, 0) is considered black and the
diagonally opposite corner (1, 1, 1) is called white. The line joining black to white
represents a gray scale and has equal components of R, G, B.

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Vertical of the cube on the axes represent the primary colours i.e. red, green, blue and
remaining vertices represent the complementary colour for each of the primary colours.
Primary colour intensities are added to produce other color. Each colour point within
the cube bound can be represented on triple (R, G B) where values are assigned
within the range from 0 to 1. The magenta vertx is obtained by adding red and blue
vertices. Similarly cyan by adding green and blue. The vertex representing magneta
produces the triplet (1, 0, 1) and white at (1, 1, 1) is the sum of the red, green and
blue vertices.

CMY MODEL

Cyan, magnet and yellow are the secondary color with respect to the primary colors of
red, green and blue. However, in this “subtractive model”, they are the primary colors
and red, green and blue are the secondaries. This model is beneficial for describing
color output to hard-copy devices. Unlike video monitors, which procedure a color pattern
by combining light from the screen phosphors hard-copy devices such as plotters
produce a color picture by coating a paper with color pigments.

It is formed by adding blue and green light. When white light is reflected from cyan
coloured ink, the reflected light must have no red component i.e., red light is absorbed
by the ink.

Magenta ink subtracts green components from incident light and yellow subtracts the
blue component. A unit cube representation of a CYM model.

Here the point origin represents white, where point (1, 1, 1) represents black. All
components of incident light are subtracted. Cube diagonal representing gray

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combination of cyan and magneta producing blue light. While in similar subtractive
process the other colour combinations are obtained.

Printing process with CMY model produces collection of four ink dots, whereas RGB
monitor uses a collection of three phosphor dots. One dot is used for each of the
primary colors (cyan, yellow and magenta) i.e. one dot is black. Since the combination
of 3 primary colours produces a dark gray instead of black, so black must be included.
Some plotters produce the different color combinations by spraying the ink over the
each other and allow them to mix before they dry.

RGB Colour Mode CMY Color Model

Additive colour model Subtractive color model
For computer displays For printed material
Uses light to display color Uses ink to display color
Color result from transmitted light Colors result from reflected light
Red + Green + Blue = White Cyan + Magenta + Yellow = Black

YIQ COLOUR MODEL

The YIQ color model is used in U.S commercial color television Broadcasting and it
therefore closely related to the colour raster graphics. YIQ is a recording of RGB for
transmission efficiency and for downward compatibility with black and white television.
The recorded signal is transmitted using the National Television System Committee
(NTSC) system.

HLS COLOR MODEL

This color model includes color parameters Hue (H), Lightness (L), and Saturation (S),
and in define in the double-hexacone subset of a cylindrical space. Hue is the angle
around the vertical axis of the double hexcone, with red or blue 0o. The color around
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the perimeters occur in the same order is in the CIE diagram when its boundary is
traversed counter-clockwise: red, yellow, green, cyan, blue and magenta.

HIS COLOR MODEL

In this model, as in YIQ model, luminance or intensity (I) is decoupled from the color
information, which is described by a Hue channel and a saturation channel. Hue and
saturation of colors respond closely to the way humans perceive color and thus this
model is suited for interactive manipulation of color images where changes occur for
each variable shift that correspond to what the operator expects.

CONVERSIONS BETWEEN COLOR MODELS

a. Conversion from RCB to CMY Model

Subtract each RGB primary value from white, where white is represented in the RGB
system as unit column vector.

b. Conversion from CMY to RGB

Where, black is represented in the CMY System as unit column vector.

c. Conversion from RGB to YIQ

Based on NTSC standard RGB.

d. Conversion from YIQ to RGB

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e. conversion between HIS and RGB Models
Conversion between RGB and HIS is somewhat more complicated. Colors is HIS are
defined with respect to normalized RGB values as.
1
1 = (𝑅 + 𝐺 + 𝐵)
3

1
[(𝑅 − 𝐺) + (𝑅 − 𝐵)]
𝐻 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
[ 2 ]
[(𝑅 − 𝐺)2 + (𝑅 − 𝐵)(𝐺 − 𝐵)1/2 ]
3
𝑆 =1− [min(𝑅, 𝐺, 𝐵)]
(𝑅 + 𝐺 + 𝑏)

HALFTONING
It is the process of printing continuous tone image (with multiple level of gray or color)
in newspaper, magazines and books using a bi-level printer. In case of black & white
printing one cannot directly print lots of shades of grapy using only pure black ink on
a printing press. Actually, it creates a dot pattern by exposing a negative through a
fine screen (a halftone screnn) onto a photosensitive printing plate. The size of the dots
varies depending on the fineness of the screen and the length of exposure. Where
image is light the dots are small and where the image is dark the dots are large.
The dots fuse together both on the paper and in our eye to give a convincing illusion
of continuous tones. Such printed images made up of a series of varying sire and
varying density dots in a specific pattern ot simulate the look of continuous tones are
commonly known as halftones.
Similarly color halftones are actually made up of series of dots in cyan, magenta, yellow
and black (CYMK) that fools the eye into seeing the millions of colors that make up
the original image.
In computer graphics, Digital halftoning is adopted to simulate the traditional halftoning
process. In this process an image is decomposed into a grib of halftone cells. Each
such cell treated as a megapixel is a small two-dimensional array of actual pixels. The
number and pattern of pixels turned on or off in them determine the gray value of the
resulting picture element. The more number of off pixels in a halftone cell, the darker
the cell appears.

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Basics of animation

Traditional and historical methods for production of animation

We have studied transformation involved in computer graphics but you might not have
noticed that all transformations are related to space and not to time, lies the basic
difference between animation and graphics. The difference is animation puts to
graphics, the dimension of time, which vastly increases the amount of information to
be transmitted, so some methods are used to handle this huge information and these
process are known as animation methods.

First method: Artist builds a succession of cartoon frames, which are then combined
into a film.

Second method: The physical models are positioned to the image to be recorded. On
completion model shifts to the next image for recording and this process is continued.
The historical approach of animation has classified computer animation into two main
categories:

a) Computer- accommodate animation refers to 2D systems that computerize traditional

animation process. The technique used is interpolation between key shapes which is
only algorithm use of the computer in the production of this type of animation
equation, curve morphing, image morphing.

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b) Computer generated animation is animation presented via film or video, Which is
based on the concept of persistence of vision because the eye-brain assembles a
sequence of images and interprets them as a continuous movement and if the rate of
change of pictures is quite fast then it induce the sensation of continuous motion.

This motion features for computer- generated animation is further divided into 2
categories:
Low level technique: Techniques used to fully control the motion of any graphic object
in any animation scene, such techniques are also referred as motion techniques
because we can specify the motion of any graphic object in scene, techniques like
interpolation, approximation etc., are used in motion specification of any graphic object.
They are used when animator usually has a fairly specific idea of the exact motion
then he or she wants.

High level techniques: Techniques used to describe general motion behavior of any
graphic object, these techniques are algorithm or models used to generate a motion
using a set of rules or constraints. The animator builds the rules of the model, or
chooses an appropriate algorithm, and selects initial values or boundary values. The
system is set into motion and the motion of the objects is handled by the algorithm or
model, this approaches often rely on fairly sophisticated computation such as vector
algebra and numerical technique and others.

Isn’t it shocking that the computer animation has been around as long as computer
graphics which is used to create realistic elements which are intermixed with the live
action to produce animation. The developed way of animation is building basis of
computer general animation system and are widely used now a days by different
companies like, Disney, MGM, warner bros, etc., to produce realistic 3D animation
using various animation tools.

After having some briefings about the overall topic of animation, now let us go to its
detail. Firstly we define computer animation which is a time-based phenomenon that

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covers any change of appearance or any visual effect with respect to the time domain,
which includes motion i.e. positional change time-varying changes in shape, color,
transparency and even changes of the rendering technique.

Definition
A phenomenon for imparting visual changes in any scene according to any time
sequence, the visual changes could be incorporated through translation of object,
scaling of object, surface texture etc.

Note: It is noted that computer animation can be generated by changing camera

parameters such as its position, orientation, focal length etc. plus changes in the light
effects and other parameters associated with illumination and rendering can produce
computer animation too.

Traditional Animation Techniques

Before the arrival of computer animation, all animation was done by hand, which
includes an enormous amount of work. You can have an idea of work by considering
that each second of animation film contains 24 frames then , one can imagine the
amount of work in creating even the shortest of animated films. Before, creating any
animation the first step is to design the concerned storyboard which the first sight of
what a cartoon or a piece of animation is going to look like. It appears as a series of
strip comics, with individual drawings of story lines, scenes, characters, their emotions
and other major part of movie.

Key frames
After a storyboard has been laid out, the senior artists go and draw the major frames
of the animation. These major frames are frames in which a lot of change take place.
They are the key points of the animation. Later, a bunch of junior artist draw in the
frames in between. This way, the work load is distributed and controlled by the key
frames. By doing work this way, the time in which an animation can be produced is

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cut dramatically, depending on the number of people working on the object. Work can
done continuously by some people, thus cutting down the time needed to get a final
product out.

Cell Animation
Creating an animation using this process, every character is drawn on a separate
piece of transparent paper. A background is exhausted on a separate piece of opaque
paper. When it comes to shooting animation, the different characters are overlaid on
top of the background in each frame. This method also saves time in that the artist do
not have to draw in entire frames, but rather just the parts that need to change such
as individual characters, even separate parts of a characters body are placed on
separate pieces transparent paper.

These traditional techniques were extended to the era of computer animation

techniques and hence different animation systems are evolved. We can not say which
technique is better because different techniques are used in different situations. In fact
all these animation techniques are great, but they are most useful when all of them
are used together. It would not help out much if it wasn’t for key frames and being
able to distribute the workload across many people.

Frame animation non- interactive animation rectangular shape(cartoon movies)

It is an “internal” animation process i.e., it is animation inside a rectangular frame. It is
close to cartoon movies: a sequence of frames that follow each other at a fast rate,
fast enough to convey fluent motion. It is typically pre- compiled and non- interactive.
The frame is typically rectangular and non-transparent.
Sprite animation interactive, may be non-rectangular(computer games)
In easy form it is a 2D graphic object that shifts across display. It often can have
transparent areas. They are not restricted to rectangular shapes. It lends itself well to
be interactive. The position of every sprite is handled by the user or by an application
program. It is called “external” animation. We refer to animated objects as “animobs”.

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Types of Animation Systems
We have studied that sequencing of animation is useful in developing any animation.
This sequencing is high or low “same in all animation systems”. Before taking
measures to the types of animation in the next section, let us study the types of
animation systems.

Key Frame Systems

This technique is for low-level motion control. These systems comprise languages
which are designed simply to generate the in-betweens from the user- specified key
frames.

Note: From above discussion it is notify that in this system in-between frames can be
generated from the specification of two or more key frames, and among them we can
place the motion path of the object under consideration by describing its kinematics
description as a set of spline curves. For complex scenes we can distribute frames
into separate components is called cells. In these complex scenes, we can interpolate
the position of individual objects between any two times. And in this interval the
complex objects in the scene may suffer from various transformations like the shape or
size of object may change overtime, etc., or the entire object change to some other
object. These transformations in a key frame system lead to morphing, zooming, partial
motion, planning(i.e., shifting of background to give the illusion that the camera seems
to follow the moving object, so that the background seems to be in motion), etc.

Morphing
Modification of object shapes from one form to another is called morphing. The
method can be applied to any motion or transition involving a change in shape.

Types of Animations
Procedural animation: This animation is used to generate real time animation, which
allows a more diverse series of actions to happen. These actions can generated using
some predefined animation procedures are used to define movement over time. There

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might be procedures that uses the laws of physics or animator-generated methods.
Some example of this is collision which is an activity that is the result of some other
action, for example throwing a ball which hits another object and causes the second
object to move: simulating particle systems (smokes water etc.) hair and for dynamics.
In computer video games it is often used for simple things like players head rotation
to look around, etc.

Representational Animation: This uses stochastic processes(a stochastic process can

be considered as a random function). This randomness could be in time or space
variable of function, the randomness in time leads to stochastic animation to control
groups of objects, such as in particle systems. Examples are fireworks, fire, waterfalls,
etc., or speech audio signal, medical data ECG,BP, etc., or random walk.

Behavioral animation: Used to control the motion of many objects automatically

.Objects or “actors” are given rules about how they react to their environment . The
primary difference is in the objects being animated , instead of simply procedurally
controlling the position of tiny objects. This type of animation as generally used to
animate flocks, school, herds and crowds.

Applications for computer animation

Some applications in different domains are:
Entertainment: Games, advertising, film , television, video, multimedia are some of the
entertainment fields in which computer animation has wide-contribution, the topic is
self-explanatory as you all are exposed to the usage of animation in these fields from
yor day to day life programs on television, computers etc.

Film: computer animation has become regular and popular in special effects. Movies
such as “Jurassic park” and “ The Abyss” have brought computer animation to a new
level in their films. Scale models are fast and cost effective method of creating large
alien scenes. But animation has done just as well in animating fire, smoke, humans,
explosions and heads made out of water.

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A major part in integrating live film and the computer animation is to make absolutely
sure that the scale and perspective of the animations are right. The scale is important
to making the animation believable. The animators go through a great deal of work to
make sure this is right. Usually computer animation is only used when the scene
needed would be impossible or very difficult to create without it.

Television: Computer animation plays a great role in television . most of the titles on
the television programs, news casts, and commercials, are done with computer
animation. In the past, when computers were not a part of the process, animations
were done with live-video, cell animation, scale models and character generators. Now,
with the advent of computers, special programs could be used.

Computer animation has simplified the making of television program titles, because of
the versatility of computer generated animations, almost anything is possible. An
animator can have a totally computer generated animation or have an animation with
live video integrates, or even live video with animation integrated. Computer animation
has advantaged the media also desires. With computer animation, professional
animators can use pre-made templates to create animation for broadcasting with in
minutes of receiving the news.

Video: Everyone heard of animated cartoons. There is new era of cartoons emerging
on television. Computer animated cartoons can be generated faster than cell animated
ones. This is because, the animator does not have to draw every single frame, but
only has to create a key frame using, which the computer generates the in-between
frames.
Sometimes computer animation looks more realistic. Sometimes, it is even possible to
create computer animations that looks realistic so that a person might not be able to
tell, if it is real or not by simple looking at it, but this requires, enormous team effort.

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Low level techniques High level technique

It provide aid to the animator in precisely It is used to describe general motion behavior.
specifying the motion. It includes techniques such This technique are algorithms or models used to
as shape interpolation, algorithms which help the generate a motion using a set of rules or
animator fill in the details of the motion. The constraints. The animator set up the rules of the
animator has fairly specific idea of the exact model or chooses an appropriate algorithm, and
motion that he or she wants. selects initial values or boundary values. The
system is then set into motion of the objects is
controlled by the algorithm or model. This
approach often relies on fairly sophisticated
computation such as vector algebra and
numerical techniques and other.

Cel animation Key frames

When creating an animation using this method, After a storyboard has been laid out, the senior
each character is drawn a separate piece of artist go and draw the major frames of the
transparent paper. A background is also drawn on animation. These major frames are frames in
a separate piece of opaque paper. Then, when it which a lot of change take place. They are the key
comes to shooting the animation, the different points of the animation. Later, a bunch of junior
characters are overlaid on top of the background artists draw in the frames in between and
in each frame. This method also saves time in controlled by the key frames. By doing work this
that the artists do not have to draw in entire way, the time in which an animation can be
frames, but rather just the parts that need to produced is cut dramatically, depending on the
change such as individual characters. Even number of people working on the project. Work
separate parts of a characters body are placed on can be done continuously by many people, thus
separate pieces of transparent paper. cutting down on the time needed to get the final
product out.

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