UmrIrH'ffi

Jo Greiu
GEOMETRY
By Jo Greig

TUTOR IN A BOOK.
Berkeley, California
Compositor and Design: Jo Greig
Mathematics Editor: James R. Shilleto, Ph.D
Editor: Christine E. McGowan
futwork Ka-Wai Lui
Problems Editor: D. \Tilliam McPhee, Jr.

AII rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any informa-
tion storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher, except for the
inclusion of brief quotations in a review.

International Standard Book Number: 978-0-9786390-2-0

Copyright @ 2006 byJo Greig

Published by
Tutor In a Book'
1476 University Avenue, Suite 100
Berkeley, California 947 02
Contents
r. PoINTS, LINES AND PLANES
Points I
Lines 2
Segments 3
Length and Distance 3
Getting R."dy for Proofs, First Postulate 5
Ryt 5
Planes 5
Postulates and Theorems about Points, Lines and Planes 8

2. ANGLES
Angles 9
Special Pairs ofAngles r3
Postulates and Theorems about Angles r9
Getdng Started with Proofs 20
Properties and How to Use them in Proofs ))
Perpendicular Lines 25
3. LOGIC
If -Then Statements )-7
The Law of Detachment 27
Contrapositives, Converses and Inverses 28
The Law of Syllogism 30
Indirect Proofs 3r
4. PARALLEL LINES
Lines, Thansversals and More Special Pairs of Angles 33
Parallel Lines and Planes 35
Postulates and Theorems about Parallel Lines 36
Proving Lines are Parallel 42
5. TRIANGLES
Tiiangles 44
Exterior Angles of Tiiangles 48
Parts ofTliangles 5r
Congruency and Congruent Figures 52
Congruent Thiangles 53
Postulates and Theorems about Congruent Tliangles 53
Getting Ready for Proofs about Congruent Tiiangles 56
Proving Tliangles are Congruent 57
Hypotenuse Leg Theorem for Right Thiangles Only 58
Using CongruentThiangles to Prove Other Things 60
Perpendicular Bisectors and Angle Bisectors 6t
Isosceles Triangles and the Isosceles Thiangle Theorem 64

lll
6. POLYGONS
Polygons 65
Regular Polygons 66
Finding the Measure of the Interior Angles of Polygons 67
Finding the Measure of the Exterior Angles of Polygons 70
Finding the Measure of the Exterior Angles of Polygons 70

7. QUADRIIAIERALS
Parallelograms 72
Proving the Properties of Paralellograms A Very Close Look At Proofs 73
-
Proving a Quadrilateral Is a Parallelogram 75
Specid Parallelograms Rectangles, Rhombuses and Squares 78
- 82
TLapezoids
Miscellaneous Theorems about Parallel Lines 84
Kites 86

8. INEQUALITIES
Properties of Inequalities 87
The Exterior Angle Inequaliry Theorem 88
Thiangle Inequaliry Theorem 89
Theorems about Inequalities for One Tbiangle 90
teorems about Inequalities for Two Tliangles 93

9. SIMILAR FIGURES
Ratios and Proportions 97
Similarity 99
Postulates and Theorems which Prove Tiiangles Are Similar 103
Similariry Versus Congruency t07
10. RIGHT TRIANGLES
Radicals 108
Radical Rules 109
Geometric Mean 110
Theorems about Special Properties of Right Thiangles 111
The Pythagorean Theorem 115
The Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem and Related Theorems 116
Special RightTliangles - 45"-45"-90" and 30'-60"-90' 120
Tiigonometry r25
Solving Right Thiangles r3r
Practical Applications of Thigonometry t32
r33
Solving General Thiangles
- The Law of Sines, The Law of Cosines 136
Three Important Ideas

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11. CIRCLES
Circle Terms and Definitions r37
Spheres 138
Thngents and Theorems about Thngents r39
Inscribed and Circumscribed Angles, Circles and Polygons 141
Arcs, Central Angles and Semi-Circles 142
Chords 145
Circle Theorems and Proofs 145
Angles and the Arcs They Intercept 150
Putting It All Together - Angles and fucs 158
Segments and Circles r59
12. AREA
Area of Squares 162
fuea of Rectangles 163
Area of Parallelograms 165
Area of Isosceles, Equilateral and General tiangles 169
Putting k All Together - Finding the Area ofTliangles 174
fuea of Rhombuses 175
Area ofThapezoids 177
Area of Regular Polygons 179
Area of Circles, Sectors and Circle Segments t84
Geometric Probability 192
A Simple Counting Argument 195
13. VoLUMEAND AREA OF SOLrD OBJECTS
Prisms r97
Pyramids 204
Cylinders 2tt
Cones 216
Spheres 219
Similar Solids 224
ANSWER SECTION 229
Author's Note I in mathematics for more than 30 years. A good tutor can
have tutored students
-
help a struggling student pass a class that the student might otherwise ftil. A good tutor can help a
strong student do much better in a class than he or she might otherwise do. I have written this book
with the hope of giving all students the advantage of a good tutor. I have attempted to include every
explanation, every drawing, every hint, every memory tool, every problem that students always seem
to struggle with and every bit of enthusiasm that I try hard to impart to my private tutoring students.
Good luckwithTutor in a Book's Geometry! Jo Greig, July 1, 2006

A Note to Parents on How to Use this Book

If the semester is just beginning: The student should read the next dayt assignment in this book
(check in the textbook for the correct topic) prior to each school day. The student should be sure to
do the exercises in this book to reinforce his or her understanding of the topic.

If the school year is well under way and the student is really struggling: He or she needs to start at
the beginning of this book and read through to the point where his or her class is at the present time.
This is important because geometry is sequential and you cannot build understanding on a shalry
foundation. This book is much shorter than a textbook and much more informal and accessible. Be
sure the student reads each section, carefully studies the example problems and then does the exer-
cises. In addition to reinforcing the review and proper learning of the material, doing the exercises
successfully is very empowering to the student. Step-by-step solutions to each exercise with appropri-
ate explanations and illustrations are included in the Answer Section at the back of the book.

If the school year is we[[ under way and the student understands some material: He or she can use
this book like a cookbook, carefully going over the chapters that cover the troublesome topics. How-
ever, rhe student should study any necessary chapters in their entirety, paylng careful attention to the
examples, and complete all exercises in those chapters.

Suggestions for AII Students

Make a fashcard for every symbol, term, definition, theorem, postulate and corollary as each is intro-
duced in your textbook. Memorize the information. Test yourself on your fashcards everyday. Only
use those postulates, theorems, corollaries and definitions that are introduced in your textbook.

Always read your class's next days topic in this book the night before class. Carefully study the example
problems or proofs. Do the related exercises in this book and be sure to check your answers. The time
you spend will end up saving you study time in the long run. In class, try to sit in the front of the
room. Listen to your teachert lecture and take careful notes including the problems done in class.

Carefully read your textbook and do the class work and homework when it is assigned. Dont fall
behind. Geometry cannot be crammed in the night before an exam. Be diligent and stay positive. I ve
had students who received low grades on the first exams but who worked diligently and never gave
up and ended up with As for both semesters.

vl
General Notes to Parents Here are some hints on how to help your child succeed in geometry:
-
If you were good in geometry and are trying to help your son or daughter but are just put offby the
700+ page textbook, this is the book for you. The language is simple and the illustrations and review
charts tie related information together to quickly refresh your memory. The standard problems (in
both senses of the word) complete with fully explained and illustrated solutions are here.

If you didnt like geometry ittprobably better not to mention this to your child. After all, you would
never tell your child how much you hated to read! In fact, doing so gives your child permission to
fail. Instead, encourage your child to follow the many tips in this book, to be respectful to his or her
teacher and to do all required assignments when they are assigned. Always ask to see each days com-
pleted homework. You will be able to tell if each problem was attempted. Meet your child's teacher
and let the teacher know that you support him or her. (Most will sincerely appreciate it).

A major reason that students do poorly in geometry is they dont realize that geometry is like a com-
bination of a foreign language and a mathematics course. Students need to learn the basics (the sym-
bols, how to name an angle, etc. ), and then the vocabulary, all of the theorems and so forth, in order
to be successful. To compound the problem, textbooks give a piece of information one time, then
expect the student to recall the information for the rest of the school year. Some teachers allow stu-
dents to make and refer to notes or theorem sheets, but this is rarely helpful because the student has
no idea where to look or what to look for. Experience has shown, that all of this information needs to
be learned and learned thoroughly. In this book, key information is stated, stressed and restated. You
can help your child by insisting on fashcards and then quizzing him or her on the information.

Regarding proofs, over the years, proofs have gained an unfair reputation for difficulry. However,
proofs follow fairly predictable patterns and once a student learns the patterns and check steps,
proofs become much easier. This book includes dozens of thoroughly explained proofs including
many visuals and tips to help the student recognize and learn the patterns. An interesring fact is that
beginning proofs are very subtle and therefore more difficulu later proofs are actually easier.

Unless your school provides an integrated algebra/geometry course, successful completion of first-
year algebra is the prerequisite for geometry. This is necessary because there is a good deal of algebra
in a geometry course, especially in the second semester. If you want your child to accelerate, ask the
school counselor if the school will allow geometry and second-year algebra to be taken together.

Sometimes, a student feels that he or she just does not click with a particular teacher and/or the
textbook. In my experience, switching teachers is rarely helpful. However, if your school will allow
a change, go ahead, but then insist that your child take a new approach with the course (being very
attentive to this "better" teacher, doing all homework promptly and so forth). As for textbooks, they
do differ in qualiry and sometimes a concept that is perfectly clear to a team of authors is beyond the
reach of a teenager. I have tried to address this issue in this book by using less formal teaching
methods ones that I ve developed over the years and which are teen-age tested and approved.
-
vll
Tirtor in a Book't
GeometqP

Jo Greig

vlll
1. POINTS. L INES AND PLANES
Points are the building blocla of geometry. In fact, all of the objects that we learn about in
geometry are made up of points.

Butwe know a lot about them:

1 h^urA-
Points
') Eachpointb.
3 Points-f
4 \We draw a c
5 Points are
-
.A .C
.B
Lines are important objects in geometry.

G Butwe know a lot about them

l. A line is
are
2. Lines
3.Eacht*
4. Lines have a
.

/d-
of a,
). lo
6. All lines go on forever, that is, infnitely, in two directions.
7. To show that a line is infinite, we pur an arrowhead on each end.

Lines and points together \fle say a line includts or contains the points through which it passes.
- 'We
say the points are on or in or captured by or contained in the line.

Two Ways to Name Lines

1. A line may be named by a single lowercase letter.

d
n oa,o
line n Iine d
2. A line may also be named by using the names (the letters) of any tuto points through which the
line passes, together with a double arrowhead on top of the two letters.

'We
may name the two points in any orderwe choose. Heret an example
The line on the right can be called any of the following:

fr,8e, fr,68,ffi", d
1
QuickReview-,\7heneveryouseethewordlineingeometryitIt
Lines
* The measure of anyline

Answer true or false: A line is defined as a straight, infinite collection of points.

'(paugap lou sr oull v) irsp{ :ra rsuv

Collinear_tf _ ,r-_ . 1, ,. U ll
anyffiTharis, s

Here are the same 3 points

Points L and M are collinear. and the lines which capture
Points L andNare collinear. L M
each pair of collinear points.
Points M and.A/are collinear lr N Since lines are straight, no
Points L, M and l/are not collineer. singb line could capture all
3 points.
Any two points are collinear.
Points D, E and.Fare collinear. F Here are the same 4 points
Points D, G and E are not collinear. and the lines which capture
Points D, G, and F are not collinear. D each collection of collinear
G D
Points D, G, and.Fand E are not collinear. points.

Between
1.G
2.--
-When
problem says that a point is between two points you are being given both conditions.
a
\7hen you are trying to decide if a point is between two points you must check for both conditions.
Here are some examples:

Is S between R and Q? Is Ubetween Vand T? Is X betwe en Y and W ?

'e tT tw'
a
R a o
tYx
a
.9
U
a
V
No. ,S is collinear with R and No. Uis not collinear withVand Yes. Xis collinear with Izand
Qbut S is not in between R Talthough [/is in between 7 WandXis in bet'ween YandW
and Q. and T

2
Segments segment s

A segment is: I
2

The symbol for a segment is the names of the two endpoints (the capital letters in either order) with a
bar over the top. Heret an example:

The segment at right is named AB or BA. B

\What doesABinclude? A

l. AB includes its two endpoints, A and B, and

2. Nl of the points between (collinear with and in between) A and B.
Note that BA includes the same collection of points. That's why AB is the."-. .Br4 .
",
Here are more segments and the symbols that could be used to name them:

D E l/
CD or DC EF or FE F MN or NM
M
Length and Distance

i5
1. The symbol for distance is the names of the two endpoints (the capital +R.S+
F{
letters in either order). So "plairi' RS means the length of the segmenr. R s
RS is R.9 units long!
2. Length is always positive, so its measure, rhar is, the distance between
two points, is always p ositiue. For example, you cannot be minus 5t 6" tall! VW
WV= VW= 4
Sometimes a segment is placed on a number line. 'Ihe distanrs between any rwo points is the number
of units from the first point to the second point. Remember distance isnt about which side of zero
either point is on. Itt about how far you would have to go to get from one point to the other.

Is distance always a whole number? No

A B C D E F I A B
-2 I 0 1 2 3 5 6 -2 1 0 t23aLs56
\-\r-r,
HA=7 PD = 3.5

3
How Do You Find Distance?

Three'ways: -11;1
o 7 2 3 4 ttlf
t. : KL= 5.7 --1.8 = 5.7 +7.8 =7.5 or,
z. KL = 15.7--1.81 = 7.5, or,
a.

Equality and Congruency

A segmentt size is measured by its length. If two segments have the same size, their lengths are equal.
w.Yx aHn l,w=QP
If we say two objects are congruent, we are saying 2 things:
1. Same Shape _-.-r^t,
Same ShaPe
& The symbol for congruency
a is IJ: 6.
2. Same Size \.: Same Size

Yet all segments have the same shape. This means, if two segments have the same length, they are
equal and congruent. In fact, for segments, equaliry and congruence can be used interchangeably:

/"2N, 3 . MN=OP
s .SI = QR
SI= QR
x,5, Ylnrr=xy
'M o P MN=op These (/) mean the
5
W VW=XY
two segments are conBruent'
Midpoints of segments
Segments are finite; they have a beginning and an end. Therefore, segments have a midpoint. In fact,
a segment is the only geometric object that can have a midpoint.

Know your definitions. If a proof gives: -Ay'is the midpoint of FG, you
Afi, are supposed to think and respond with Fltf ffG Other facts are
t ' ffue, but they are not the definition of a midpoint.
= FN=NG
'
Finding a Particular Point and Its Coordinate
ABC DE FGH I
-2 -1 0 t 2 3 4 5 6

tract 4 from 6 (or count 4 units back from 6), which equds 2. Since the number 2 is paired with
point E, themidpoint of IA is E and2 is its coordinate./*
*Note: In this book r,/means, this is the correct answer.
NowYouTryIt-Usingthenumberlineontherightfind: 4 lA A D E f EWry I=I
t. 2. WP 3. EA 4. GA -2-t'.2
-t--t 0 2 3 44.)
.+_5 -15
1
>./
5.The midpoint and the coordinate of the midpoint of HB. Check your answers in the back of the book.

4
Getting Ready for Proofs C
TnB SncrranNr AoorrroN Posrurann:
If B h between (collinear utith and in benaeen) A and C, then
+ BC = AC
use the segment Addition Postulate in 2 *^ylB
1. In a proofwhen you need to show that a segment is equal to the sum of its parts, or that the sum of
its parts is equal to the (entire) segment. Remember, r4,B means the of AlB.
2. In algebra problems like this one: If MO = 24, find x. O 4x+ 6 +2x=24
+6
lr 6x+5=24,6x=18,x=3,1
M
R"yr
-
Point r4 is the endpoint.
Point .B is another point through which this ray passes.
B

l.
2.
3.
A ---->
AB
Using a single arrowhead to name a ray makes sense because the ray goes on forever, but only in one
direction. Here are some more examples of rays and their names:
----> --->
qJ JK orJL. HG.Theendpoint is ll (D
Either is correct
ID DC.'Ihe endpoint
\r \
and both name the same
ray, that is, the same col-
ffi No matterwhichway
the ray itself is going,
/,
in this case) is always
named first and the
lection of Iooints. the arowhead on the arrowhead on the
KL is a difFerent ray. symbol goes to the right. symbol goes to the right.

DprrNrrroN or e Rey:

\\ \ \ \\
\\\ \\ \ \\\

Opposite Rays If 2 rays share a common endpoint, and that endpoint is between (collinear with
-
and in benveen) another point on eaclt ray, the 2 rays are "opposite" rays. Here are some examples:
---->------>
U V VU andVW are .R M LKand LM are
opposite rays. > opposite rays.
NowYou Try It Give the definition of each symbol shown below
--> - e
1.AB 2. AB 3. AB 4. AtB

5
Planes
-

\7e draw figures these to represent namrng with a single capital letter:

Plane R Plane M Plane A

M

Another way to name a plane is by naming any three (or more) non-collinear
points which are included in the plane. For example, in the figure on the
F G
right, plane EFG includes the small rectangle EFGH that we see in the E
drawing, but it goes on forever. Other names for plane EFG are EFGH, K
EFH, FGH, HFG and so on. There are five other planes shown in the
figure. Tiy to name them. It is also important to imagine planes that are
I
not shown, for example, plane HEJK(see Figure 1 below). Tiy to sketch in
plane GHA in Figure 2. F G F G
E
Fig. I K Fig.2 K
I

Finding and Naming the Intersection

Recall that the intersection of two or more objects means the that are shared by the o b ects.
2 lines,
2 possibilities
A line and a A/
plane,
3
<_9 >>
No intersection. Intersect in
I point, U.
#of Name
-Line Shared 2 planes,
poirrl. Description lr,,.r3J.rio, 2 poisibilities.
r 0 The line misses the plane. none
Planes U andV
The line passes through v/ no intersection.
J I the plan6.
The (entire) line is Planes V and'W
t oo t intersection is a line, m.
contained in the plane.

6
Here are some examples of the intersections of points, lines and planes:
C
A
1. Name a line that's not shown. I
Here are a few, fr,fii,ffi, Frt, fr,tE
""d
ffi.
E
2. Vhat is the intersection of planes ABC and DCG? H
(Remember that 3 noncollinear points name and determine a unique plane.) Questions 1-6
\Thenever two planes intersecr, they intersect in a line, in this ."r.,6d.
3. Name the intersection of planes ABCD, DCGH and BCGF.
An intersection means the point(s) shared by all of the named objects. The answer is point C.
Look up at the corner of your room to see another example of this intersection.

4. Name 3 planes that are not shown.

Here are fow ACGE, BCHE, CDEF, ADGF. Recall that ACG narnes the same plane as ACGE.
In fact, any three non-collinear points narne a plane.

5. \Mhat is the intersection of planes ABGH and DCGH?

'Whenever
nvo planes intersect, they intersect in a line, in this ,ur,6fi.
6. \7.hat is the intersectio n of td
and /? \7hat is the intersectio n of ABGH and 1?
The intersection of a point and another object is either the point or nothing. In the case of
tdthrans\Mer is point L In the case of A*GH, theanswer (and the interseltion) is nothing.
Some textbooks and teachers will say @ or { } or the "null set" to describe no intersection.

Segment Bisectors

I a bisectar, that is, they can do the

DsrrNrrroN oF A S

Given AB wirh midpoint M:

R
A B
A 3 B
n

Line n bisecting n"y @ bisecting Plane P bisecting Segment CDbisecting

segment /4,8. segment,,4B. segmenr/,8. segment AB, but not
being bisectedby AB.

7
Postulates and Theorems about Points, Lines and Planes

Your textbook might have a number of postulates and theorems about points, Iines and planes and
it is important that you study, understand and memorize them. As you read the postulates and theo-
rems below, remember that each point is distinct (different) from any other point; each line is distinct
from any other line; each plane is distinct from any other plane.

The following are some of the postulates and theorems that your textbook might include:

Posrurern: Two points determine a (unique) line

Study the drawing. Points A and B which are on opposite corners of the box are
fixed. Lines are straight and cannot move. Only one line can capture both point A
and point.B. Given any two points, one (unique) line is determined.

PosruranB: Through aryt three points there is at least one Plane and through
an! three noncollinear points there is a unique plane.

If three points happen to be on the same line (that is, if they are collinear), then
an infinite number of planes include the line and therefore, the three points. The
figure at right shows three (of the infinite number) of planes going through the
line which contains points A, B and C.

If three points do not lie on the same line (that is, if they not collinear),
are I

then only one plane can capture all three points. The figure at right shows the I H
unique plane through noncollinear points G, H and I.

TnBonnu: Through a line and a point not 0n the line there is a unique phne.
.c A

Choose any rwo points on the line and then visualize the plane through those two
points and the third point which is not on the line. See the 2 figures on the right.

THronsu: If two lines intersect, tlten one and only one plane contains them.

A good way to visualize this theorem is to imagine 2 Pick Up Sticks, cross them and
then imagine a piece of paper that is laid on top of the cross. The paper represents
the unique plane that contains both lines.

"Two points determine a unique line" means two things: that the line exists and that only one such
line exists. Other ways to state these two ideas would be to say one and only one, or exacdy one.

8
2. ANGLES
Angles
\7hat makes an angle?
l. The sides of an angle are 2 rays.
2.'Ihe2 ruys share a common endpoint. F
3. The common endpoint is the aertex of the angle.
--> --->
4. Since the vertex is a point, it is named by a single ray EF
tay ED
capital letter.
5. The angle also includes the infinite "interior
region" bet'ween the rays. i\'' E
vertex

Sometimes a figure will show segments as an angle's sides,

however, we understand that the anglet actual sides are D
rays which go on forever. Nevertheless, rhe lengths of the 10 r4
segments can be important pieces of informarion for the
problem we are solving.
E
vertex
NamingAngles
-
In naming angles, t .

The angle on the Ieft can be called ZABC or /.CBA.

A C
ZABC or ICBA or ZB
ZB would be no confusion
since there as to which
B angle we had in mind.

Look at the angles on the left. \7e could call

C
IABC or ICBA X ZCBD oT ZDBC &
D
any angle lB would be confusing. Similarly,
B
ZABD orZoae d the right most angle could be called ZCBD
or ^^1 L'-^ -- t -, ".^- ^-rt^

2
3
Sometimes your textbook will use numbers to name angles, especially 1
5 4
in complicated figures where many angles are shown.

9
NowYou Try It Give as many correct names as you can for the angles below:
-

I ) 3 4
A C
K
E
I
Y H
F
B

MeasuringAngles

The

\(hat the size of an angle measures is rotation. The vertex of an angle is the
cenrer of the angle. The vertex is the point around which the rotation takes
place. An anglet measure is the amount of rotation around the vertex begin-
ning at one ray (sometimes called the initial rafl) and ending at the other
ray (sometimes called the terminal or terminating ray*).

Angles are measured in degrees. The symbol for degree is '. Each of the
angles at right measures 56". A complete rotation (as in a circle) measures
360".It is traditional in beginning geometry, when the rotation is more than
180', to measure in the other direction. So, all angles studied will be 180" or less.

M
l/ "m" means degree meAsure.
wIABC = 56. This is ZABC.
wIABC is a number. wIABC = 56
IMNO.
This is "plaii'ZABC is the angle itself.
wIMNO = 43 B

* If your textbook uses these terms, remember that it doesn't matter which is the initial ray and which
is the terminal ray. One side of the angle is initial and the other side is terminal (or terminating).

10
Measuring Angles With a Protractor

How To Use a Protractor

Task Measre ZDEF on the right.
Before you start, be sure that your F
protractor is face up. The numbers
should be oriented as shown in the E
figure below.

Step one:

the bottom of the protracor. Center the

circle over the veftex, point 4 of the angle.

Step two:

a Tirrn
the protracror so that rhis up
with the right side of the angle
being careful to keep the circle centered
over the vertex. Now read the measure
on the inside row of numbers where the
second side of the angle .E .rorr., ,h.
protractor (or would cross it if you were
to extend the ray).

ZDEF measures approximately 113".

\When you always

things in a particular way, youte less likely to make mistakes.

11
NowYou Try It Pictures of angles do not always show the points through which the rays pass. In
-
fact, there are many different ways in which your teacher and your textbook might draw and label
angles. Severd of these are shown in the measuring exercises below.

Using a protractor:

1. Measure ZB 4- Measrre Zl I
B
A
5.
Measure IABL.
2. Mexure lH. (Remember, the
vertex is the middle
B C
letter.)
H
3. Measure ZDEF. E 6. Measure ZGHI. G I
F H

PuttingAngles into Categories

Angles are pur into categories based on their sizes. The names of the categories below are used in
problems and it is important that you memorize them.
Acute angle:
Right angle:
Obtuse angle:
Straightangle: #
An For example, an
angle measuring 89.9999" is acute. An angle measuring 90.0001" is obtuse.

NowYou Try It - IdentiS, each of the following as an acute, right, obtuse or straight angle.

1 2 3 4
o
1
90

5 6. 7
180' gg.g'
1

t2
More about Angles C
3 10

31"
I
A
1

Because their degree measure is the same, the four angles above are equal. Angles of equal degree
measure have the same shape (remember, although it's not shown in the figures, the sides of each
angle are rays, and all rays go on forever). Therefore, every angle of say, 31', is the same size.
So for angles, congruence is the same as equality. Therefore, we can write:

ZA =
ZB =
ZC
=
ZD or mZ.A = mZB = rnZC = mZD

tWhen anglCI in figures are marked

with the same number of marks, ir means rhe anglCI are congruenr.

Special Pairs ofAngles

Vertical Angles

One of the few things we can assume in geometry is that lines that appear straight are straight.
'S7henever
two lines cross, two pairs of equal, opposite angles are formed. Pairs of opposite angles
are called uertical angles. Remember, there is no such thing as a verticd, angle, they always come in
pairs. Here are a few examples:

t2 60' 152"
90' 90'
152" 80
140"
40"
90" 90"
740"

In each case, opposite angles are equal, and together, they make a pair of vertical angles.

The Vertical Angle Theorem

*This is often a piece of information that you need in order to solve the problem. All'
T3
More Special Pairs ofAngles

ComplementaryAngles
Complementdry 90"
Two angles whose measures total 90" are clmplementary. The angles may or may not be adjacent
angles or even near each other. Look at lA and lB below. Since their measures total 90", they are
complemenrary angles. \7e say 2 angles are clm?lernentary or that one angle czmPlernenls the other or
that rwo angles are com?lements.In each case we mean the same thing: the two angles add up to 90'.

In the figure on the right, angles MNO P o

ao 39
2
) and ONP are complementary. In this case
B they are also adjacent angles and therefore, 51"
A
we know that ZMNP is a right angle. l'/ M
mzA+mzB-90"
supprementarvAngre' SuPPlgmentary 180"
Two angles whose measures total 180" are supplementary. The angles may or may not be adjacent
angles or even near each other. Look at ZG and lH below. Since their measures total 180", they are
supplementary angles.'We say 2 angles are supplementary or that one angle supplements the other or
thar two angles are supplements.In each case we mean the same thing: the two angles add up to 180".

o In the figure on the right, angles FDE and

mzG + l%zH - 180 EDC are supplementary. In this case,
they are also adjacent o
E
I
26' G angles and, therefore, we F C
154"
know that Z-FDC is a straight angle.
H
*MEMORY HINTS*
Complemenrary and Supplementary sound alike. How do you keep them straight??

Heretoneway: 180
Here's another: Complementary starts a
S= comes before S in the al phabet.
with C, which
90 comes before 180 on the number line.

AB
\
1.-9 180-zoo

t4
More Special Pairs ofAngles

AdjacentAngles

lt ,_.r^f1" "^-;ru
1. The two angles have the same verrex.
2. One of the anglet terminal side is the other angle's initial side. In
other words, they share a common side, and
3. The angles do not overlap.
FiguresI and 2 are examples of pairs of adjacent angles:
ZABC and ICBD ZMNO and ZONP
o
B
C
Fig. 1
M l/ P
Fig.2
Here are3 examples of angles that are NOTadiacent:
I
In Figure 3, ZFGH and IJGInor ad.iacent
are H
angles. The angles share point G as their vertex l
and do not overlap, however, they do not share a G Fig. 3
common side. They are breaking condition 2. F

In Figure 4, Z. KLO (the larger surrounding angle)

and./.MLN are not adjacent angles. They do share a
co{nmon vertex L and they do share a common side
LO
- (which is the same as LN), however, the angles L
overlap. They are breaking condition 3.
If Fis.4
o
In Figure 5, ZABC and ZCDE are nlt adjacent
angles. Although the angles do not overlap, they do A C
not share a common vertex and do not share a
common side since a segment DZ is not includ.ed
----> "f B Fig. 5
in BC. The angles are breaking conditions 1 and 2.
D E
.s7hen
asked if 2 angles are adjacent, be sure to check for all 3 conditions! As,
15
Special Pairs ofAngles continued

Note: Check in the index of your textbook. If "linear pair" and

theorems in linear pairs are not listed, skip this definition.
n'rru-mnrlrnu4"hWUe
wwryjE,@
Here are rwo examples: *Memory Hint: the word line
See
hidden in linear? The initial ray of one
angle and the terminating ray of the
other, form a (straight) [ine.

Pa s l. IABC and (
-->----->
CBD are adjacent angles, and
2. BA and BD are opposite rays.
l.lPqRand ZRQS are adjacent angles, and
.-->----> Therefore,
2.QP and QSare opposite rays. IABC and ICBD form a linear pair
Therefore,
lPQRand IRQS form a linear pair.

IMNO or
Quick Angle Review I
1. er. { Z ONP or
IMNP
I PNO
IPNM
2."&l4-M A
"Plain"ZABC means the angle itself. wIABC is a number. wIABC = 25.
B
C
3

gi OBTT'SE
a,cljlce ht

0' 10" 20" 30" 40" 50" 60" 70'80" 100" 1 10" 120' 130" 140" I 50' 160' 170" 80'

4. Congruent angles are also equal angles. Equal angles are also congruent angles.
lA. = lB.2r
mlA = mlB
5. Special pairs of angles.
Wrtical Angles are formed Complementary Angles Supplementary Angles: Adjacent Angles:
by mo intersecting lines. 2 angles that total 90. 2 angles that total 180 2 angles that have
l. Same vertex.
i.c--"'""]ia.. Y
IEBD
".azra,<.\4
zABC X
and
,+/ ,b I
H
overlap a<L
3. No

tPQRand zRqS s\

t6
Problems Involving Angles

Tips: l. You know that lines are straight so look for them and remember, a straight angle equals 180'.

In Figure 1, there is an angle measuring 147'

and an angle measuring x". Together they make a
xo
straight angle, which we know measures 180" (so
147" 147"
we add this information to the picture, see Fig. 2)
Fig. 1 Fig.2
The next step is to translate the picture inro an
ecuatlon:
I

147 + x= 180
-147 _t47
ot /
x= ))V
/ro In Figure 3, there is an angle measuring (5x -18)'and an angle
o
measuring x'. Together they make a straight angle, which we
(s 8)
know measures 180' (so we add this informarion to the picture).
Fig. 3
Again, the next step is to translare the picture inro an equarion:

(5x-18)+r=180
+18 +18
6x = 198
6x =198
66
n= 33J
2.Lookfor any two lines that cross each other because opposite (vertical) angles are equal.

/ro In Figure 4, since opposite angles are equal, we know that x = 54 t/ . Because
straight angles equal 180" we can form an equarion:
x Fig.4 y+64=180
t = 116l
Since z = y (Y1[, vertical angles are
=),
z = 116l
Translating Figure 5 into equations gives us
Fio( 4a=64,anda=16l
L L6' ) and (3b
58) = 25 -
b -58 -2b +58 -2b +58
b = 58'/
3. Solving word problems: Give algebraic "names" to quantities, then translate words into an equarion.
Find the measure of an angle if the su pplement of the is 7 times the complemenr of the ansle.
\----
180-x -/( 90 lx )
Name ouantides: names to 3. Solve the equation:
' L.t the angle
=x words in the problem into 180-x=7(90-x)
Then the supplement of the angle = 180 - x 180-x=630-7x
correct equation:
And the of the 90-x = 80-x= -x 6x=450, x=75/
17
Now You Try It

1. a. List the 3 conditions for angles to be adjacent. b. Sketch a pair of adjacent angles.
(1)
(2)
(3)

2. Are Zl and Z2 in the figure adjacent angles? If not, why not? Do you know anything else about
these two angles?

I
2

3. Find x, y and z in problems a and b.

a. b

3x ( 4y + 4)"
(22+ 20)"
(3t * 105' 75"
5x
_ ,).

4. Find x and y and z. Think about the relationship between two angles that make up a straight angle.

(5x + 5)" (4x - 5)

(2y +11 (42 -

5. a. An anglet measure is five times the measure of its complement. Find the anglet measure.

b. If the supplement of an angle is 20 more than three times its complement find the anglet measure.

6. Name and define 4 special pairs of angles. Sketch an example of each, naming the angles that
meet the definition.

18
Tnn ANcre AoorrroN Posrur-ern: Ifpoint K lies in tbe interior region of ZlOt
then wIJOK + wZKOL = wZJOL. L

o
Use the Angle Addition Postulate in two ways: K

l. In a proof when you need to show that two adjacent angles equal the larger (surrounding) angle,
or that the larger (surrounding) angle can be broken up and is equal to the sum of the rwo smaller
angles.

C
2. In algebra problems like this one 5x-

Using the figure at right, given wZABC =77", find wZDBC: n(

Since point D is in the interior region of ZABC, the Angle Addition Postulate tells us:

wZ.ABD+wZDBC=wZABC
(3x + 5) + (5x -15) = 77

:b
8r- 1l =77o, 8r =88, x =ll
Now substitute in the value of x: rnzCBD = (5x - 16) = (5(11) -16) = 39 rr
DerrNrrroN oF AN ANcrB Brsncron: An angle bisector is the ra! that diuidrs an
angle into 2 congruent adjacent angles.
T ----> fr i, th. angle
Given RT is the angle bisector of ZQRS, we know that r = 47.t/ bisector of ZGHI.

SuaightAngles in Problems and Proofs _z x ir Note: Angle bisec-

tors are always rays.
--M r/
Given the figure above, you are allowed to assume that ruZMNP = 180". In an algebra rype of
problem, this assumption is enough to allow you ro solve. For example: 158+x=180
,r*" ,P
ffi
But in a proof, if you must show that the two angles are supplemenrary, it takes 2 steps:
x = 22t/

First'Way
- If your textbook gives this second Second \Vry
- If your textbook defines linear pairs
part of the Angle Addition Postulate: and gives this theorem:

If ZMNP is4graight angle and point Angles thatform a linear pair are supplernentar!
O is not on ME then
t/
wZMNO+wZPNO=180. N
Given the above figure, these are the 2 steps you Given the above figure, these are the 2 steps you
should use to show 2 angles are supplemenrary: should use to show 2 angles are supplemenrary:
Statement Reason Statement Reason
l. wIMNO + wZPNO=180. l.Angle I.ZMNOUIPNO are a lin. pr. 1.De[ of lin. pair.
2. ZMNO ETZPNO are suppl. 2. Def, of suppl. 2.ZMNOAIPNO are suppl. 2.2's forminga
angles. lin. pair are suppl.

L9
Trrnonru: Complements of the sArne or congruent angles are congruent.

lA and /-B are complementary

(20 +70 =90'/)

+ 90 therefore
B 70"

C + 90 A
Pay attention to the details of
I C and ZB are complementary this theorem:
(20+70=90'/) ZA and lC are congruent
(NOT complementary).

Trrnonrrvr: Supplernents of the same or congruent angles are congrasnt.

ZD and ZE are supplementary

(116+ 64=180'/)

o
116
I 16'
D + 180 D
E 64"
therefore,
F
F 1 16'
116' + 180 Pay attention to the details of
this theorem:
lF and lE are supplementary
ZD and lF are congruent
(115+ 54=180'/)
(NOT supplementary).

Getting Started with Proofs - An Example

Given: lQissupplementary to ZP, mZ.Q = 734 and mlR = 46.

Prove: lR ZP. P R
=
Sketch in the given information. Supplementary is part of the specid of geometry. Think
(< )r.
about its definition and use the definition to Prove ls true.

/
Statements aP Reasons
7. mZQ= 134 and mZR = 46. 1. Given.
2. mZQ+ mlR = 180. 2. Addition Prop. (Added 2 .q
. in Stmt. 1 together.)
3. I
lQand R are supplementary. 3. Definition of supplementary angles. (Stmt. 2).
4. lQ and lP
are supplementary. 4. Given.
5. lR Z-P.
=
5. Supplements of the same angle are congruent.

20
What Is Proof? A proof is a problem in which you are given some information and then asked to
a
reach a certain conclusion (the prove) in a logical way and according to certain rules.

Given: AE = CE, EB = ED
The Two Parts of a Two-Column Proof Prove: CD = AB.
1. The Statements
The statements are where you state your case. The statements conrain information about this particu-
lar problem. Tlte last statement is always the proue!
2.Ihe Reasons
For each statement, you must say why, the reason (the "because"). And in geometry the reasons
are limited to: 1. \W.hat is given 2. Definitions 3. Postulates (and the Properties) 4. Theorems (and
sometimes mini-theorems called Corollaries). Some textbooks will call these by other names such as
conjectures and facts or arguments or rules, but you'll recognize them; they are the reasons that you
are allowed to give in a proof, And remember, you are only allowed to use those that are listed in
your textbook or given byyour teacher!

C'""
Statements Reasons

G
D
efinitions P
T
These are the
(+ Properties)
GooD PoinTs p*,utrtes
of Geometry!
(+ Corollaries)
!.o..ms
\When you're searching for reasons, the GooD PoinTs are where you search.

Thinking Through a Proof

1. Draw a sketch. Add the information from rhe "given".
2.The prove is always true. Make notes as you rry ro figure out why it is true
3. Jot down your reasoning. The path of your thoughts zi the proof.
€r6*il,l,(r*? 4. Add any new information that you were able to figure our ro your sketch.

;$erAr*''oo&
Memorize the definitions, postulates, theorems and corollaries as they are introduced. tff/hat good is
-
a theorem sheet (which some teachers allow) if you have no idea what the theorems are?

- Homework proofs emphasize the postulates, theorems and definitions that were introduced in the
current section; proofs on exams emphasize the new information from the chapter being tested.
- If any defined terms are used in the "biconditionds".
given or prove, you will usually use the definition of the term
as one of the reasons. Definitions are This means that you can use them in 2 ways:
A right angle measures 90". An angle that measures 90' is a right angle. The beginning part of each
sentence is what you have already shown. The ending part is what you are trying to show.

Proofs Versus Other Problems To do a proof you need to know the DPTs so that you can
-
recognize relationships, think logically and name the DPTs that supporr your staremenrs. For other
problems, you need to know the DPTs in order to recognize relationships and form the correct equation(s).

21
The Properties and How to Use Them in Proofs

Use the Equaliry Properties with segment lengths and angle measures since both are real numbers.
AoonroN Pnoponrr or Equeurv: DrvrsroN Pnoprnrv or Equeurr:
lf x = y and A = b,then x a 4 = y + b. Ifx=yandc*0,thenf=*
This property allows you to add two equations MurtrpuceuoN Pnopnnrr or Equer-Irv:
together, left side to left side, right side to right side
lf x =7, then cx = c!.
The Multiplication Properry allows you to
For example:
multiply both sides of an equationby the
IfAB=DEandBC=EE same number.
thenAB+BC=DE+EF D DrsrmsutrvE, PnopERTY:
a(b+c)=Ab+d.c
Remember, AB is a length, that is, a number.
or Equeurr:
SvraNasrRrc Pnopnnrv
SunrnecrroN Propenrv or Equerrv: lf x=!, theny=v.
If x = y and d. = dtthen x - a = ! - a, for example: For example:
If wZABC + ruICBD = wIDBE + wZCBD lf AB = CD, then, CD = AB.
and wZCBD = wICBD (Refexive), Symmetric is also a congruence properry so:
then ruIABC = mlDBE. If lA =
lB, then ZB = Z-A and
'tf
Remember, rnlABCis a number. AE = CD then CD = AB
The last statement of a proof must match the
SussrrrurroN Pnoprnrv or Equaurr: prove exacdy. Use the Symmetric Property
If a = b then either a or b can be substituted for to "fip" an equation if necessary.
the other in any equation. For example, Rrrupxvs Pnoppnrv:
lf AB+BC=DE+EF F
x = xt AB = AB, m/.D = mZD.
andAB+BC=AC, DE+EF=DF Refexive is also a congruence properry, so:
then, AC = DF ZA = ZA, and BC = BC
Before you add or subtract the measure of an
Substitution is calling the same quantiry by a differ- angle or a segment from or to both sides of
ent name. It's as if using the information in the 2nd an equation, stop and say that the measure
line, you went back to the lst line and crossed out the of the object is equal to itself by "Reflexive
quantities, replacing them with their other narnes: Properry". Notice that this creates the second
equation that you need in order to use the
Ni%c'=Di%r Addition or Subtraction Properry.
TneNsrrrys Pnopnnrv:
Equaliry is transitive: lf AB = CD and CD = EF then AB = EF.
Congruence is transitive: lf lA ZB and lB lC then ZA lC.
= = =
Same eye color is transitive: If my eyes are the same color as your eyes and your eyes are the same
color as your mother's eyes then my eyes are the same color as your mother's eyes.

Some characteristics "transfer" and some dont. In proofs, if a quantiry or object is skipped over you
are probably looking at the Tlansitive Property. (CD was skipped over in the equaliry example, /.8 wx
skipped over in the congruency example and you were skipped over in the eye color example.)

Know the properties and know how to use them!

22
DEFINITION
Srcuprvrs vs. ANcrrs
Midpoint of a Segment: The t Angles do not have midpoints.
divides a segment into 2 congruent parts.
DEFINITION DEFINITION n'l
Segment Bisector: A taft plane or seg- Angle Bisector: A ray which divides
ment that intersects a segment at its midpoint. ^tl ,/o
angle into 2 congruentadjacentangles. m
THEOREM THEOREM D
*Midpoint Theorem: *A1gfe Bisector Theorem :
If M is the midpoint ofB, then If BD is the bisector of IABC, then
AM = YIAB and MB = YzAB ZABD I/z/-ABC and I DBC I/zZABC
=
*Only learn and use these theorems if your textbook includes them. =
If they do, pay attention to the
details: The definitions of a midpoint and an angle bisector state the 2 parts are congruent. The theo-
rems state the 2 parts areYz of the whole. Definition5 ) parts =. Theoremr * p".tr@whole.
POSTUTAIE POSTULAIE
Segment Addition Postulate: If B is liSf-;a:,fition
Postulate: If pointK
between A and C then AB + BC = AC. -4C
U" lies in the interior region of ZJOL then-
"4
'

{ nZ.JOK * mZ.tfOL = mlJOL. l

Proofs about Segments
For proofs about segments try the Addition Property rogerher with the Segment Addition Postulate.
Heret an example:
Given: AE = CE, EB = ED. C
Prove: AB = 6P.
D
Before you start, ask yourself, "-Why is the prove true?"
(The prove is always true and figuring out why is what a proof is all about.)
Sketch the figure adding the given information. Now study the figure. If why the prove
is true still isnt obvious to you, try assigning lengths to the segmenrs. For example, let
AE and CE = 2, and EB and ED = 5. Studying the sketch, CD = 7 and AB = 7,so yes,
AB = CD. This is not a proof, but it shows that if the parts are equal, the wholes are equal
and suggests the idea of adding the parts together. The shaded letters are to help you
track the segments: Statements Reasons
l. AE = CE, 1. Given.
the 2 EB = ED,
from
I together 2. AE + EB = CE + ED. 2. Addition Property of Equaliry.
3. AE + EB = AB, CE + ED = CD. 3. Segment Addition Postulate.
Using the Segment AB = CD. 4. Substitution Stmts.2&
tion Post. to the same thing (from Stmt. 2) by a
statement
state that the sum t name (the one determined in Stmt. 3
ls the
the parts equals the the left sides of two equations are equal:
whole. This brings Confused by substitution? c-- - nlrAE + EB =AB,
and CD into the Try remembering when to )tmt''\cr + ED = cD. nD.
use ir, like this:
f.x;5 ;r*,ffi:L;'"' "' t5D>
23
Now You Try It A
Given: AC = EC and AB = ED
Prove: BC = DC B D
C
Study the figure and ask yourself "\(hy is the prove true?" Mark A E
up the sketch with the given information. This proof is asking us to
B
show that if the wholes are equal and one pair of parts are equal, then
the other pair of parts must also be equal. This suggests taking something €egA.tbl,(r*?
SwDIr(rry?
away, or subtraction. And in order to subtract something, we'll need to show that the
whole is equal to its parts and the Segment Addition Postulate does that. As you think about the proof
jot down the properties or facts you will probably use. Check your answer in the back of the book.
Statements Reasons
1. 1

2. 2
3. )
4. 4
5. BC = DC. 5

Proofs aboutAngles
For proofs about angles rry the Addition Property together with the Angle Addition Postulate. Here's
an example: A B

Given: mlBAE = wIABD and ml EAC = wIDBC

Prove: wZ-BAC = m^/.ABC
A

Study the figure. \7e are given thar- 2 pairs of parts are equal and asked to prove
that the wholes are equal. In fact, this proof is logically identical to the proof about
segments onpage23.

Statements Reasons
Proofl
2
l. wIBAE = wABD and 1. Given.

eouatlons from wZEAC = wZDBC.

^l
Statement 1 to

2. wZBAE + wZEAC 2. Addition Properry of Equaliry.

=
wZABD+ mlDBC.
Using the
Post. to state that the AdditionPostulate.
ruZBAE+ nZEAC = mlBAC,3
sum of the parts equals Be Stop This
m IABD + ml DBC = wZABC.
the whole. This brings is about (not )
ml BAC and ml mZBAC =mlABC. 4. Substitution (Stmts. 2 &.3)
into the
the same thing (from Stmt. 2) a
statement
name (the one determined in Stmt. 3)
is al the

24
Perpendicular Lines and Proofs

DrrrNrrroN: Perpendicular lines are lines that intersect to form right angles.
,}(=,X
Tnnonru: If ruo lines form
Given: IABC = ZCBD
congruent adjacent angles, the lines are perpendicular.
X-'X
;;, tr;fi;iz-\JL,) \4 * \A
Proor: lBV ilu\^u
To prove that some object has a particular property, show that the object meers the definition of that
properry. In fact, if you are stuck on a proof you might try working backwards, srarting with the
definition. Below is an example, using arrows to indicate the fow of thought:
The last statemenr
+ e e
is always the p rove CEt AD Def, of perpendicular lines. (r lines form rt. Z's.)
ZABC is a efinition of right angles. (Rt. l 's = 90".)

ruIABC = 90 .....'....-' )

At this point we need to study the problem in order to decide how we can show that ruZABC = 90,
but at least we know what it is that we need to show.

Here's the completed proof going "forwards":

Statements Reasons
l. ZABC= ZCBD, or 1. Given.
wIABC= wZCBD.
2. ruZABC + wZ-CBD =180. 2. Angle Addition Postulate*.
3.2(m/-ABC) = 180. 3. Substitution (Statements lg.D.
4. ryZABC = 90. +srxte it: 4. Division Properry of Equaliry.
5.ZABC it
^right
angle. ;f;jfl +5. Definition oiright (k.Z= 90")
"n$Ls.
6..aE t Ab _:_^ ,_ F. Definition of perpendicular lines.
\ t t',fi'#t',/-
\ g lin., form rt. z's)
The last statement use it /
is always the prove.
* If your text defines linear pairs, do the following steps in place
of Step 2:
Statements Reasons
ZABC and ICBD are a linear pair. Definition of linear pairs.
ZABC and /.CBD are supplementary. Linear pairs are supplementary.
mz.ABC + mlcBD = 180. Definition of supplemenrary.

On an exam, put down something. Never leave a proof blank. At least put in the given and thJ &to'
prove. Never be afraid to try (teachers appreciate effort). If you think you can recall a patrern, try it.
Most Important Tip: Beginning proofs take getting used to and many students find them hard.
This is because you are learning to think in a new way. Proofs will become easier. Be patient!

25
NowYou Try It
1. Given: AB = CD. A D
Prove: AC = DB.

Problems I and,2

2. Given: wIAEB = rnZDEC,

Prove: ruZAEC = mlDEB.

3. Prove the following:

Tnnonsrvr: If nto lines are perpendicuhr they forrn congruent adjacent angles.
Create an appropriate figure and state the given and the Prove.
The theorem ar rhe top of the previous page and this one have a close connection. They are called
"converses". Can you see what the connection is?

Be sure to check in the back of the book to see how you did!

26
 3. LOGIC
Here are some examples of conditional or "if-tlten" statements:
If you live in Malibu, then you live in California.
If this is alternative rock, then it is music.
If you are a soloist in the choir, then you have a good voice.
In symbols we write: If p then q.
p is called the premise (or hypothesis) and q is called the conclusion.
Premise orh ls Conclusion

if you live in Malibu,

this is alternative rock,
you are a soloist in the choit rhen
v-- it
you live in California.
is music.
you have a good voice.

The statements above are examples of true if-then sratemenrs. Look at

Figure l. Since Malibu is in California, you cannor live in Malibu
C
without also living in California. A point cannor be in the small circle A
without also being in the surrounding figure. L
I
\we could also say, "You musr live in california
if you live in Malibu" or %
R
"You live in Malibu, only if you live in california." Even though the phrases N
IA
have been switched around, living in Malibu is still the hypothesis and living ln
California is still the conclusion. Be careful, "onb ,f" actually means "then".
Fig. I
The circles in Figure 2 are an example of a Wnn Diagram, a logical model which
helps us to picture how conditional srarements work. You can see thar any
points in the small circle are automatically in the larger surrounding circle.

Figure 3 demonstrates a parrern. Note that the premise, thar is,

the "if" part of the statemenr, is the petite (smaller) inner
circle. The conclusion, the "then" part, is the larger circle.
Truthvalue of If-Then statements and the Law of Detachment Fig. 3
True: An example of a true if-then sratement is, if x = 2, rhen 2x = 4.In a true
if-then statement, given that the premise, that is, the "if" part of the statement is true, then the con-
clusion, that is, the "then" part of the srarement is also true. This is the Lew oF DETACHMENT.

False: An if-then statement isfalse if you can show that given a rrue premise, that is, given that the
"if"part of the statement is true, there is et)en one example of the conclusion, that is the "then" part of
the statement, being false. Heret an example of a false if-then staremenr:

Statement: If a person is a star, then he or she lives in Hollywood.

Counterexample: Kelly Clarkson lives in Malibu.

Since Kelly Clarkson is a star, (that is, the premise is true) and she does notlive in Hollywood (that is,
the conclusion is not true) Kelly is a counterexample that proves that the if-then staremenr is false.

27
Another example of a false if-then statement:
Statement: 7f xz = 25, then x = 5
Counterexample: x = -5
Since (-5)'= 2J, x = -5 is a valid counterexample and disproves the if-then statement. Notice that
in this case, -5 is the only cowterexample, but one counterexample is all that we need to disprove an
hypothesis.

There are other lo statements that are related to and based an if-then statement:

If-then statement If p, then q First comes the p, then comes the q. P-9
Contrapositive If not !1, then not p.
The positionsof p and q have been swapped
andboth have been negated (made negative). m-s
Converse If ![ then p. The positions of p and q have been swapped. 9-P
Inverse If not p, then not ![ The positions remain the same; both p and
Q havebeen negated
(made negative). @-cD
Example 1.
If-then statement: If you are an Olympic gymnast, then you are an excellent athlete.
Contrapositive: If you are not an excellent athlete, then you are not an Olympic gymnast.
Converse: If you are an excellent athlete, then you are an Olympic gymnast.
Inverse: If you are not an Olympic gymnast, then you are not an excellent athlete.
In this example, the if-then sratement and its contrapositive are both true. The converse is false since
many excellent athletes are not Olympic gymnasts and the inverse is false for the same reason.
Notice that the words "if" and "then" stay put. They are not part of the premise or the conclusion.

Example 2. Example 3.
If-then statement: If x> l, then x> 5 If-then statement: Ifx=7,then2x=14
Contrapositive: lf x)5, thenx}' 1 Contrapositive: If 2x * 14, then x *7
Converse: If x>5, thenr> 1 Converse: lf2x=14,thenx=7
Inverse: Ifxl l, thenx\ 5 Inverse: Ifx*7,then2x*14

In this example, the if-then statement and In this example, the if-then statement, its
its contrapositive are both false, the converse contrapositive, converse and inverse are all
and the inverse are both true. true. In other words allfour statements are true.

Although there seem to be many different combinations of true and false possibilities, in fact, two
pairs of the four conditional statements are logically connected.

28
 f - t hen contra OS I tive
The if-then statement and its contrapositive are loeicallv
() J linked:
both are true or both are false.
If you live in Malibu, then If you dont live in California, rhen
you live in California. T you dont live in Malibu. T

converse lnverse
Tte conuerse of a statement and the inuerse of a sraremenr are logically linked:
both are rrue or both are false.
If yo.u live in California, then If you dont live in Malibu, then you
you live in Malibu. F dont live in California. F
*Memory Hint: Ttte"uerses" are logically linked.

The Venn diagrams of the four statements, togerher with their "Tluth Value" is below:

IF-THEN
If you live in Malibu, then you live in California.
TRUE

CONTRAPOSITIVE
If you dont live in California, then you don't live in Malibu.
Study the figure. Since the conclusion is negated, the
object (you!) is outside the larger circle and therefore could TRUE
not possibly be in the smaller inner circle.

CONVERSE
If you live in California, then you live in Malibu. Since we
can find a counterexample (Hollywood for Maybe you live
example), the statement is false in Malib FALSE

Or maybe you live in

Hollywood.
INVERSE
If you dont live in Malibu, then you dont live in California.
Since we can find a counrerexample, Hollywood, the FALSE
statement is false. you might
live in

29
Tnn Lerurr or SvrroGISM If Hypothesis 1 then C.,onclrston 1.
If C.ondrsion I then Conclusion 2.

Syllogisms are combinations of rwo conditionals in which the conclusion of the first statement is the
hypothesis of the second. Heret an example,

If you live in Malibu, ) th. conclusion of the first

I .rr,.r,,..rt must be the
f hypo,h.sis of the
you live in the United States J second statement.

Lnurr op Synocrsu If both conditionals Are true, then you may conclud.e correctly, that giuen
Hypothesisl, Conclusion 2 is true.

This means that the first hypothesis leads directly to the second conclusion. In symbols we can write:

p * gand q+ 9+ f or more simplyP * f.

rwhich can be combined to form: P *
Using the example above, since both statements Are true, you may conclude that if
you live in Malibu, then you live in the United States.
States
f
Here's the Venn diagram of our example.

NowYou Try It

1. List the four logical conditionals and using symbol shorthand give an example of each. State the
two pairs that are logically connected.

2. Given the statement: If you are in a top band, then you are famous.
a. Form the contraposirive, converse and inverse and state the truth value of each of the 4 statements

b. If your cousin Sally is not famous, what can you conclude about her?
c. If your cousin Sam is famous, what can you conclude about him?

3. Given the statem ent: If * > 16, then x > 4. Form the contrapositive, the converse and the inverse
and determine the truth value of each of the four statements.

4. Explain the terms syllogism and the Law of Syllogism. Give an original example of each.

30
Indirect Proofs

Certain proofs are much easier if done indirectly

Regular Proofs (also called Direct P-ort) \We are given some information (the "given") and asked
-
to prove a certain conclusion (the "prove"). tWe start with the given and add other information based
on theorems, postulates, and definitions until we reach the conclusion.

Indirect Proofs \We are given some information (the "given") and asked to prove a certain conclu-
-
(the "prove").
sion \(/e start by temporarily assuming that the prove (neuer the given) is negative. \We
then add other information based on the GooD PoiriTs until we con-
GooD Poinlls
tradict either the given or some other known fact (the GooD Poirils
Qiven
pefinitions again). Since rhis is impossible, (because the GooD Poinls are true), the
postulates(+ Properties) contradiction shows that our temporary assumprion was false. Therefore,
Jh.o.e-s (+ Corollaries) "the prove" must be true. (Don't worry, indirect proofs are easier than they
sound.)
Heret the pattern for Indirect Proofs:

1. Assume temporarily that the prove is false, this means negare (make negative) rhe proue.
2. Study the problem and figure out the effect that the negarive of the prove has on the problem.
3. Give statements and reasons until you contradict either the given or some other known fact (the
GooD Poinfs again!).
4. State that since something that is true has been contradicted, your temp orary assumprion
must be false and therefore, the prove musr be ffue.

To get started we need to learn how to make the prove negative. Here are some examples:

If the prove is: AB=MN

the negatiue of the prove is: AB+MN
If the prove is: mlC I mlD
the negatiue of the prove is: mZC = mZD

If the prove is: AABD is an isosceles triangle.

the negatiur of the prove is: LABD is not an isosceles triangle.

If the proveis a < b

the negatiue of the prove is a Z b
(You must allow for a to be greater than b or equal to b.)

3t
Heret an example*:

Given: mZA * mZB, and /-A is complementary to lC and ZB is complementary to lD.

Prove: ml C I mlD indirectly using a proof,
"Assume
fus ume tempo mlC= mlD. Since lAis complementary to lC and ZB is complemen-
rary to lD (Given), mZA + mlC = 90 and mZB + mZD = 90 (definition of complementary
angles). Therefore, mlA + mZ C = mZB + mlD (Substitution). Since we have assumed temporar-
ily that mZ C = mZD we can subtract them (Refexive) from the equation. Doing so would mean
mlA = rnlB (Subtraction). But this contradicts the Given which is , so our tem
assumPuon was false, andmlCt mZD 4. Contradict a Good Point.
Restate the
NowYou Try It - Hint, follow the steps. temPorary assumption was false"
Given: mZI#wZJ,
Prove: I I and ZJ are not both right angles. Do the proof indirectly and use a
paragraph proof,

Indirect proofs are a lot like the contrapositive form of an if-then statement. Heret an example:

If-then srarement: If the speed limit is 65 miles per hour and you arrived at a concert which
is 65 miles away in 45 minutes, then you were speeding.
Contrapositive: If you did not speed, then you could not be at a concert which is 65 miles away
if you have been traveling for 45 minutes.
Using an indirect proof prove: Given that the speed limit is 55 miles per hour and that you arrived at
a concert which is 65 miles away in 45 minutes, prove that you have been speeding.
Proof:
First, assume tem?orarily thatyou were not speeding. But if you were not speeding and have trav-
eled for 45 minutes at the top legal speed of 65 miles per hour you should only be 48.75 miles away
(65mph x 45160 hrs). But you are 65 miles away (the Given). Therefore, since we have contradicted
the Given, you must have been speeding!

*Note: For additional examples of Indirect Proofs see page 235 in the Answer Section.

32
4 PAFIAI I FI I INES
Lines, Transversals and More Special Pairs ofAngles

c Eight angles are formed by the

r transversal and the lines it crosses.
I
M*w There are special terms for pairs of
angles in certain relatiue positions.
)-
1

4
2

It is important to understand and rn5 6

rn 8
memorize these terms.
Special Pairs of Angles:
Corresponding Angles Alternate Interior Angles

@enu
ndm.
srynddmnn**r
{mrylp
Corresponding angles dtFH
@
rmnlilnr;frrr. @
*nelnift*af,tlftCtm*) ns.

Look at the 2 angles marked Irook at the 2 angles marked

with a single J.lhe sides of each with the black't's. The sides
Pairs of
angle are formed by the ffans- Pairs of of both angles are formed
Corresponding
versal and one of the lines. Both
Alternate Interior by the tran-sversal and one
Angles
angles are on the same side (the
Angles of th.lines. The angles are
Ieft side in this example) of the on opposite (alternate) sides
transversal and both angles are of the ffansversal within the
above the line that forms one of interior region determined by
its sides. the lines.
Same Side (or *Consecutive) Interior Angles 1{.[ternate Exterior Angles

W*Mor @
@s. Exreruon *inrmahr
Same side interior angles always Alternate exterior angles refer
refer to a pair of angles in par- to a pair of angles.
ticular positions. Look at the 2 angles marked
a black *. The sides
with
Look at the 2 angles marked RrcroN
of each angle is formed by
with the black't. The sides of the transversal and one of
pairs of each angle is formed by the Pairs of the lines. The angles are on
Same Side transversal and one of the lines. Alternate Exterior opposite (alternate) sides of
Interior Angles Both angles are on the same side Angles rhe transversal in the exterior
of the ffansversal and within the regions created by the lines.
interior region between the lines. *lf your textbook does not define alternate
xUse the term your textbook
uses. exterior angles, skip this definition.

33
Consider lines i and j in the illustration below. Lines k and /are transversals from the point of view of
j
lines i and j. However, if we are considering lines k and /, then lines i and are the transversals.

Example: Classify the following pairs of angles as corresponding

angles, alternate interior angles, same side interior angles or none
of these. If the angles do form a special pair, name the lines and
the transversal that form the 2 angles.

l. Z7 and Z9 - Corresponding angles, lines i and j, transversal *.

J
2. ll and 15 - Corresponding angles, lines * and l, transversdT.
3. /5 and Zl3 - Corresponding angles, lines i andj, transversal /. 1,
1

4. ll2 and 113 - Alternate interior angles, lines 2 and l, transversal i. 9

1

5. Zt and Zl2 - Nternate exterior angles, lines i and j, transversal A. t2 5

8
6. Zl and Z8 exterior angles, lines * and l, transversalT.
-Alternate
t5 4
7. Zl2 and 213 - Alternate interior angles, lines I and l, transversal l.
8. Z4 and 110 - Same side interior (or consecutive) angles, lines I
and j, transversal [.

9. 14 and ll3 - None (no transversal is shared by both angles).

lO. Z4 and 26 None (this pair of angles are not in any of the correct relative positions).
-
Now You Try It

Using the figure above, classify the following pairs of angles as corresponding angles, alternate interior
angles, same side interior angles or none of these. If the angles do form one of the listed special pairs,
name the lines and the ffansversal that form the 2 angles.
1. 13 and 17 4. l2 and Z5 7. 27 and 173

2. l4 and 25 5. 23 and Zl0 8.Z4andZl3

3. Z15 and Z6 6. lll and Zl0 9. lll and 18

A Closer Look The angles that make up the special pairs defined on the previous page must both
-
be formed by the same transversal:
./-7 and 22 are not coffesponding angles because their
8 sides are formed by 4 (entirely different) lines.

) Z l0 and Z5 not samc side interior angles because

are
their sides are formed by 4 (entirely different) lines.

34
Parallel Lines
- C
G
Coplanar means that a single plane can caprure both lines. B
Lines that are coplanar in the figure on the right include:
AB andDC, AB and HG, AC and BD, FH andBD.
H
V Non-coplanar, oru iiilin r.*rrroib..ri,"r.a pl^rr! Uy ri",gl.-
Lines that are skew in the figure on the left include:
"
-
MN and W QM andNo, PS and(JV, MP and OT
Do not intersect means that the lines share no points K
L.S.r i" on the- right that do not intersect include:
f3firy.
N""dTi, jfr and KO, IK and MO.
ee o
7fr and,ffi,
M
Lines which meet both conditions (coplanar and do not intersect) are parallel.
Pairs of parallel lines in the figure on the right include: G
B
iB VE Ffi 7B
I

^nd.bd, ^nd,Fd, ^nd,EB, ""di{ I

I

D) H
The symbol for parall.l is ll. For example:
<--)tt € <-->|| € €rr € €rr <:.-----> A
AB II DC, AB II HG, FH II BD, AB II EF.
Segments are considered to be parallel if the lines that include them are parallel. For example:

ZB ll oc, AB ll HG, m ll BD, AB ll EE C

The same number of arrowheads on each of rwo (or more) lines means the lines are parallel.
c m-r>- €ll +>

,ll a
*ll
, n-> AB II DC
€rr€
EA II HD
" "ll,
Arrowheads at the end of lines do not mean the lines are parallel

k?t And never assume that lines are parallel!

Parallelism is transitive. Here's an example: If Fdll Af ,r,d @ llfri th.r, Fd ll ft,

.t U
T
Parallel Planes Planes are Parallel if They Meet Condition: Parallel Planes Do Not Intersect
- 1
B
In the figure on the right: In the,figure on the right, plane
Plane GINK ll tttl,ttG
ABC ll DEE There are no other
parallel planes in the figure.
Plane GHLKIIltl,tw D
Plane HIJGII tu\r Planes may not appear to intersect
even when they do. Planes PRQ a
and SUT do intersect. s

35
Eight AnglesTwo Measures

Interesting things happen when wo parallel lines are cut by a transversal.

Examine the figure at right. As we learned in the prior section, eight angles
are formed. However, because the lines are parallel, the measures of the 4
3
angles are connected.

If the two lines are parallel, any rwo of the eight angles are either equal or 5
6
supplementary. Here are a few examples: 7
8

1
15 9
115 125 125 1
5 1
5 9
5
15"
11 11
125 125

In but only two angle sizes. In fact, in the special case

each of the above figures, there are eight angles
of the transversal being perpendicular to the lines, all 8 angles will measure 90" and be both equal
and supplementary, but this is only in the specid case. Putting the new information together with the
definitions about certain pairs of angles leads to important postulates and theorems.

The figures below show each pair of corresponding angles from the first figure:

15" 11

15" 11
5

It is imporranr ro understand that corresponding angles are equal only if the mro lines
are pardlel.
This means that not all pairs of corresponding angles are equal, only those formed by parallellines.

36
Investigating further, the figures below show each pair of alternate interior angles from the first 6gure.

11

5
15"

Now look at the third special pairs of angles, same side (or consecutive) interior angles. Study the two
drawings. The connection between the angles is different than the connecrion of the previous special
pairs. Each pair of angles is supplementary. Itt importanr to stop and think when using this theorem,
think supplementary, not equal.

1 15'

15'

The figures below show each pair of alternate exterior angles from the first figure.

1 15'

115
5

*Not all textbooks define exterior or state this theorem. Although is true, do not
use any theorem in proofs if your textbook does not state it. (But this onet still a good fact to know!)

Given &rallel lines Givenffirallel Givenprallellines

ffilternate $nterior #ame #ide flnterior
are are are

37
 )tMemory Hints*
This book uses ffi WP*andffi as abbreviations and memory tools. However, on homework
thit your teacher taught you for each postulate and theorem.
and tests, use tfi"e name

Hints for RecognizingN7hich Typ" of Special Pair ofAngles Are in a Problem:

\y/ith corresponding -. ncs \With alternate interior -r!ffN, With same side interior "Qry
"
,.,r't.*-Sl
angles, the lines make;S angles, the lines make, *ffi,ro'
angles, the lines
anF(orllorEorC). "f aZ(orS). "./-- C(or3). r

PROJECT
Draw two parallel lines. Recall that parallel lines hJve the same slope. Then draw a third line (the
rransversal). Using your protractor, carefully measure the eight angles formed. Now, draw a transver-
sal with a different slant. Measure the angles formed. Do your findings agree with our new postulate
and theorems?

Angle measures for first transversal:

Angle measures for second transversal:

Review Equations on Both Sides

-
Solve: 5x+15=2x+75
tff/hat You Do Why You Do It
'Write The Equation.
5x+15=2x+75
2x -2x Subtract 2x from each side. (You are adding the opposite of +2x)
3x+15=75
- 15 -r5 Subtract 15 from each side. (You are adding the op te of + l5)
3x=60
3x =50 Divide by the coefficient of x.
33
x=2Ol Done! (Because we have a single positive x allby
itself on one side of the equation .)

NowYou Try It - Solve for x:

l.7x-5=4x+31 3. 4x + 7 = 5x - 10.5 (The answer is not an
integer.)

2.3x+24=4x-B 4.20x+4=l3x+39

38
Algebra Review- Equations withVariables on Both Sides (continued)
Solve: 4x + l0 = 180 - (2x -10)

\7hat You Do \ThyYou Do It

4x + l0 = 180 - (2x -10) \Write the equation.
4x + l0 = 180 - l(2x) -l (-10) Distribute the formerly "invisible" negative one.
Remember: (-) (*) = - and (-) (-) = *
4x+10=180-2x+10
+2x + 2x Add2x to both sides. (Adding the opposite of -2x).
-10 - 10 Subtract 10. (You are adding the opposite of +10).
6x = 180

6x 180 Divide by the coefficient of x.

66
x = 30t/ Done! (Because we have a single positive x
all by itself on one side of the equation.)

NowYou Try It Solve for x

-
l. 10r+5=180-(4x-7) 2. 180-(2x+3)=6x-3

Putting Algebra to'Work with Parallel Line Problems

Example 1. Solve for x: \Mhat to Do

Study the drawing. The arrowheads tell us
o the lines are parallel. Since the two given
(7x +10
expressions are for corresponding angles (note
that the angles form an {), we can apply PCC and set
the two expressions equal to each other:

(10r - 38 o 7x+10=10x-38
-7x + 38 -7x + 38 Add opposites.
n
48=3x
48 3x Divide by the
Example 2. Solve for z:
33 coefficient of x
16 = xt/ Done.

15 z +10)
rVhat to Do
The lines are parallel and the given expressions
are for same side interior angles (note that they
*ffi
form a f,). PSSIS, tells us the angles are supplementary:
(202 - 5 l5z+10+202-5 = 180 Tirrn English into algebra.
352+5 = 180 Like terms collected.
-5 -5 Adding opposites.
352 = 175 Now divideby coef. of z.
z=5t/ Done.

39
As,
\7hen yousee ,orll think#$€W,B..& %
More Parallel Line Problems
Example:
Solve for x. At first glance, this figure doesnt look like
the figures we've been seeing, however, if
you extend the lines, it does. Now, refer-
Fig. I ring to the 4 methods above, PSSIS tells
Fig.2
us that the 2 angles are supplementary:
2x+7 +x+20 =180
3x+27=180
x = 5lJ
Example:
Solve for x, y and z. The key to this sort of problem is to use one of the methods at the top of
the page to create an equation with one variable. Study the diagram.
PSSIS tells us that the 53" angle must be supplementary to the angle
6x-17)" 53 measuring 6x -17. This means we can form the following equation:
6x-17+53=180
6x = 144
(3 y +28)" (7 z+l)" x=24J
Now solve for7. Since we know that x = 24, we can substitue 24 for x in the original expression.
By PCC and substitution we have: 6(24) - 17 = 3y + 28
127=3y+28
99=31
33 = y'/
And finally, solve for z, alsoby PCC and substitution:
3(33)+28=72+l
127=72+7
126=72
18= zJ
Notice that there were other ways to solve this problem. Also, the problem asked for N'S.*
the$l$ht
the values of x, y and z. Sometimes you might be asked for the measure of each angle
quQi}ion.
Always be careful to answer the question you were asked to answer.

NowYou Try It
1. Solve for a, b and c. 2. Solve for u, u and w.

Qu+5 10

40
Proofs and Parallel Lines

Givenp llq, prove that ll is supplementary to 17.

None of the 4 methods deal with angles in the relative
positions of Zl and 27, so we need to use other
methods to get started. Study Figure l. Vertical V & Z4 6
I a
3 Angle Theorem (VAT) tells us that mll = rnl4 )
a

5 and ml6 = ml7.Itt a good strategy to mark up the

Fig.2
drawing while you're trying to do a proof which we've
done in Figure 2. Studying Figure 2, we know that 24
Fig. 1
and 16 are supplementary 6y PSSIS). But then it follows
afi
that Zl is supplementary to 27 (substitution?). Saying what we have
figured out in a more formal way is what a proof is. First, figure out why
the conclusion is true, then do the proof,

Given: pll q.
Prove: Zl is supplementary to 2.7.
Proofi
Statements Reasons
t. pllq. 1. Given.
2. mll = ml4, m/7 = mZ6. 2. YNf.
3. /.4 is supplementary to 26. 3. PSSIS.
4. mZ4 + mZ6 = 180. 4. Definition of supplementary.
5. mZl + mZ7 = 180. 5. Substitution Properry (Statements 2 A q.
6. ll is supplementary to 27. 6. Definition of supplementary.
'Sf.[ry
Question: couldnt we have substituted right after step 3?
Answer: Substitution is a properry of equaliry and congruence. You cant use substitution with other
types of statements.

NowYou Try It
Given: pllq.
1. Prove: 12 is supplementary to 2.5

1 4
3
6

2. Prove: mZl = ml8 without using PAEAC.

Problems I k- 2.

4r
Proving Lines are Parallel In the previous section, we learned that if 2 parallel lines were cut by a
-
transversal, the pairs of angles which were formed were either congruent and/or supplementary. The
logic sketch for the 4 methods in the previous section look like this:

PAIAC: +

PSSIS: ]|(-ft,'0" pAEAC:

+-#
In each case we start lut knowing that the rwo lines are parallel (the given). Then we can conclude
information about a special pair of angles (the conclusion).

In this section we go backrvards. \fle start out with rwo coplanar lines (about which we know noth-
ing), cut by a transversal. We are given that a particular pair of angles formed are equal or supple-
mentary. Based upon this Act, we conclude that the lines are parallel.

It is enough to know that a single pair of corresponding angles are equal to conclude that the lines are
parallel.

Here is the logic sketch for "CCP" CCP:

-*+
Notice that we start out knowing that a special pair of angles are equal (the given). Then we conclude
that the two lines are parallel (the conclusion).
Here is a comparison of the logic sketches for PCC and its converse, CCP:

Here are 3 other new methods that are the converses of the theorems shown at the top of this page:

*Although this theorem is true, do not use any theorem in proofs, if your textbook does not state it

42
 -:p
\7hen you are doing a proof or a problem about lines and transversals, A$,
$
K ry
*lp
it is important to choose the correct method. In each case, stop and ask
yourself, Am I starting out knowing (being given) that the lines are parallel?
*
*ry If so, you want a method that begins with a p (for parallel). Or, are you being
asked to show (conclude) that the lines are parallel? If so, you want a method
endswith a p (also for parallel). Once you decide which is the right group to choose from, add
additional markings to the figure; this should help you select the correct method within that group.

Here's an example of how to use one of the methods that ends with a p in a proof,
I Given: 12 is supplementary to 28.
Prove: llln.
n I
Since we are being asked to conclude that 2 lines are parallel,
4
1

)1 we definitely want to use one of the new methods (the ones vaT
6 that end with a p). But none of the methods deal with 4
angles in the relative positions of 12 and 28, so we need
to use other methods to get started. Study Figure 1.
Fig. 1 Z l5 AT
The Vertical Angle Theorem (VAT) tells us that
mZ2 = ml3 and mZ8 = mZ5. Since 12 is supplementary to Z-8, l3 Fig.2
must be supplementary to 15.1his, in turn, would prove that the two lines are
parallel by SSISP. As you think about a proof mark up the figure (see Figure 2). Your
"notes" will help you when you do the proof itself.
z3*25 =18A"
Proof:
Statements Reasons
l. 12 is supplementary to 18. 1. Given.
2. ml2 + mZ8 = 180. 2. Definition of supplementary.
3. mZ2 = mZ3 and mZ8 = mZ5. 3. Vertical Angle Theorem.
4. mZ3 + mZ5 = 180. 4. Substitution Properry (Statements 2 e 3).
5. m/3 is supplementary to ml5. 5. Definition of supplementary.
6. tll".
*Note: \fe've
6. ssrsP.*
used "SSISP" but be sure to name all methods in the way that your teacher requires.
Heret an example of a problem that uses the methods in this section and is the geometry version of
aqpe of problem which appears on many exams and standardized tests:
m
Using the figure, find the values of x, y and zthat makep ll n
^nd
*ll o.
Solution: The key to solving problems like this one is to assume that whatever
n condition you are "making" is already ffue. Then, given that the condition is
0 ffue, how does this affect the problem? Given: plln and *ll o,what do we
know? PSSIS tells us that same side interior angles are supplementary. This would mean:
(2x+16)+(x+14) = 180, x+76)+(31'11)=180 3y-ll)+z=180
3x+30 = 180, 2 )+16*3y-ll=3! + 105 = 180 3(25)-11+a=180
3x=l50so x=50 3y=75so!=25Vl z = ll6J

43
5. TRIANGLES
Tnronru: The interior angles of a triangle total 180".

This theorem is easy to prove to yourself. Thke any paper triangle, first cut off the three angles, then
place the points together. The result will be a straight (180) angle. Although this is not a formal proof
it does demonstrate this most basic property of all triangles.

d
^&
Many problems are based on this simple and well-known theorem. Here are a few examples:

l. Find x. Since the three angles total 180, translate the picture into this equation

x+(2x+7)+(3x-31)=180
(3x - 3l)" 6x+7-31=180
6x-24=180
2x+
r 24 +24
6x = 204
6x = -6-
-6- 204

x =34,/
2. Find x The single arc marks on each of the lower angles tell us that the two angles are
equal. Since there are 180" in all triangles, the correct equation will be:

x+x+96=180
2x+96=180
-96 -96
2x= 84
2x-84
22
3. Find the values of athroughf x = 42t/
This is apuzzle problem. A good strategy for this rype of
problem is to find the angles in the same order that the
As,
text has labeled them. Usually this is a good hint about the
logical order in which the problem should be solved.

Letter Reason Equation Answer

Many problems that look complicated arent. AII of the a Straisht l= 180 (180 - r03) 77
angles in the figure above can be found by using: VAI, the b VAI 103
fact that a straight angle measures 180", and the fact that c AnslesofaA= 180 (1 80-lo3-58) t9
the angles of a triangle add up to 180'. Complete the table d
at right by finding d, e andf Be sure to check in the answer e

section at the back of the book to see how you did. f

44
Seeing All the Triangles

Many problems in geometry require careful analysis of figures. Seeing shapes within shapes is a skill
that you will learn with practice.

Lett re-examine the triangle in Example 3 on the previous page

How many triangles are in the figure?

'We'll count them

45
Putting Triangles into Categories
Tiiangles are categorized in two different ways. One way is by the number of sides of equal length
and the other way is by the sizes of the angles of the triangle. Memorize these terms because they will
be used in problems and proofs.

Comparing the Lengths of a Thiangle's Sides

I. If the sides of a triangle are all different lengths, it is a scalene triangle. 7

Here are some examples of scalene triangles
8
16
16
2
7
r3 13.2
r3 r4
8.25
4.875

II. If (at least) two of the sides of a triangle are the same length, it is an isosceles triangle.
Here are some examples of isosceles triangles:
12 l2
SOSCELES
10 10 6.5 20 11 r9
The triangle on the left has three
6.5 equal sides. This meets the defi-
11 10
3 nition of isosceles: at least wo
equal sides.

III. If all three sides of a triangle are equal, the triangle

is an equilateral triangle.
Since equilateral means equal sides, this definition should be easy to remember.
Below are examples of equilateral triangles. Notice that although they are different
sizes, they all look very similar.
1 t6
1l

10 10 11
9
11 r6
9
10

ALOGIC DIAGRAM The entire figure represents all triangles. The dark
gray triangle represents all isosceles triangles which
include all equilateral triangles. All equilateral
triangles are isosceles. Is the converse true?

46
Grouping Triangles by the Size of Their Angles

I. If all the angles in a triangle are less than 90', that is, if all the angles are acute, the triangl e is acute
Think of it as "a cute little triangle". Below are examples of acute triangles. Remember that an angle
may be very close to 90' and still be acute.

10" o u
T
ts

II. If right angle, it is a right triangle. The side opposite the right angle is called the
a triangle has a
hypotenuse of the triangle. The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right triangle. Here are
some examples of right triangles:

This sym means the two legs are perpendicular (r)

R 90"
Perpendicular lines form 90' angles. I
11' G
H
T
Rules for Right tiangles:
1. A right triangle is the only triangle that can have a hypotenuse.
2. Since the three interior angles of a triangle total 180", if one angle measures
90', there is only 90" left for the other two angles to share. Both angles' measures
are positive and together add to 90'. This is why a triangb can ltaue at mlst zne
right angle and, the acute angles of a right niangle are complementary.
3. Never assume a triangle is a right triangle just because it "loola like one".
4. Not all right triangles have two 45" angles. In fact, most dont.

III. If a triangle has an obruse angle, the triangle is an obtuse triangle. Here are some examples of
obtuse triangles
r9 5" 3 OBTUS
o 6"

\!)
Note that a triangle can haae at mlst one obtuse angle. This makes sense because the three angles of a
triangle total 180" and if the obtuse angle uses up more than 90", there are less than 90" left for the
other two angles to share.

+/
Exterior Angles of Triangles

Thiangles and other polygons have interior angles but they also have exterior angles. Here are the
steps to find them:

1. Extend one side of the triangle. 2.'Ihe angle formed by the dashed line
and the triangle is an exterior angle.

Exterior angle
#l

3. Moving in a counter clockrise direction, 4. Again, moving counter clockwise,

extend the next side of the triangle. (Tirrning extend the third side of the triangle and,
the piece of paper around as you work makes once again, measure back to the triangle.
this easier.) The angle formed by the dashed The angle formed by the dashed line and
line and the triangle is another exterior angle, the triangle is the third exterior angle.

Measure back to the

Exterior angle
triangle.
frL1
.t+

Exterior angle
#3
Allowing one at each vertex, each triangle has three exterior angles, which is the same as the number
of its interior angles. By the way, if we had gone in the other direction (clockwise) we would have
ended up with 3 exterior angles having the same measures as those of the exterior angles found above.

Remote Interior Angles

Rcmotc Remote means far away. From the exterior anglet point of view,
lnterior
Anglc
the two interior angles on the other side of the triangle are far
away. That is why they are called remote interior angbs. Itt impor-
Exterior
tant to remember that what is considered a remote interior angle
depends entirely on which exterior angle is being considered.
IntaiorAngflc \ Rcmoclnulor
Exterior
Rcmotc InuiorAnglc Angle #2

Exterior Rcmotc
#7
Andc
IncriorAngh
Rcmoe Intcrior Exterior
Rcmoe Andc Angle #3

48
ExteriorAngle Theorem

\7e already know that

The interior angles of a triangle total 180' and a straight angle measures 180.' a,A\
An exterior angle of a triangle and its adjacent angle
make a straight angle. That is, they total 180". ,/,/ +,/ = 180"

Something interesting happens when we put these ideas together. Study the 3 figures below. Do you
see a pattern? r

1 18"

III
108" 46" 72"
,'1 o

In each case we have:

Two
Remote +
Third Exterior Third
180 + 180
Angles
Angle Angle Angle

Since the right sides of the equations are equal, the left sides must also be equal. This allows us to set
the left sides equal to each other. Notice how our reasoning follows the pattern of a formal proof,

tfl,k
+
ft* = 'i:;,':'. ffi* SUBSTITUTION
PROPERTY

By the reflexive property, the third angle is equal to itself, so we can subtract it from each side of the
above equation and therefore:
Two
Exterior
Remote SUBTRACTION
Angle
Angles PROPERTY

Exrrnron ANcrs TnBonsNa : Tlte rneAsure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of
the measures of the two remote interior angles.

4 ,/\ Notice how perfectly the two

,/ \ remote interior angles fit in the
- -\-& place of the exterio"r angle.

49
Example: Find the measures of ZA, ZB, ZBCA and ZBCD.
Although we could solve this problem in several ways, we will -When
you've
n r.u
use the Exterior Angle Theorem: finished a
8x-18 = (4x-5)+3x problem, As'
(8x - 18) 8x-18 = 7x-5 always go
-7x + 18 -7x +18 back and read the
x =13 question to
mlA=3(13) = 39r/ mlB=4(13) - 5 =47\/ make sure you've
ruZBCA=6(13)+16=94'/ answered the
question(s) that
B A and m/-BCD = 180 - 94 = 86'/
were asked.

Example: Find the measures of ZMON, ZNOE lM and lN.

A straight angle equals 180", which means ruZMON + wZNOP = 180
N (3y + 5) + (51 + 15) = 180 +Start with this equation because
81t + 20 = 180 it has a single variable, 7.
8/=160, !=20
Therefore, ruZMON = 3! + 5 = 3(20) + 5 = 65'/

( 5r* t 5)"
2INOP = 5! + 15 =5(20) + 15 = ll5'/
ZNOP is an exterior angle of L MNO and therefore equal to
..+ the sum of its 2 remote interior angles, ZM and ZN:
P
mZM + mZN = 115
(2x-25)+2x=ll5
4x- 25 = 115, 4x = 140,x =35
mZM = 2x - 25 = 2(35) - 25 = 45'/
mZN = 2x = 2(35) =70'/
NowYou Try It
\(/hen a
Find the measures of ISRQ ISRT ZQand lS. A$,
problem
(Hinc Form a "system" of equations.)
u-6)" gives a hint,
always take it.
.t

a
Vocabulary Checkup Give the definition and sketch an example for each of the following terms
-
1. Scalene triangle. 4. Acute triangle.

2. Obtuse triangle. 5. Right triangle.

3. Equilateral triangle. 6. Isosceles triangle .

50
Parts of Triangles Be Sure to Memorize These Terms!
- ASp
MBomN: A median is a line segrnent that goes from a uertex of a triangh Median -+ Middle
to the middle of the opposite side.
One Thiangle Three Medians
Rules for Medians: -
1. All triangles have three medians.
2. Medians stay insidr the triangle.
3. Each median divides the opposite side into two equal Parts
4. A median does not necessarily divide the triangle into two ll
2

congruent triangles (it depends on the triangle). un2

5. A median does not necessarily divide the vertex angle in

any particular way (it depends on the triangle.)
6. The medians of a triangle are not necessarily equal AE =6
E BD =8
in length (it depends on rhe triangle).
EC =13
7.The 3 medians of a triangle intersect in one point. D

Altitude --- Pelpendicular

Aruruon: An abitude of a triangle is the petpendicular line segment that
goes from a uertex to the line that includes the opposite side.

Rules for Altitudes:

1. All triangles have three altitudes. AAAI:ilr,l,*i:;
2. An altitude doesnt necessarily divide the side into cwo 2 congruent parts
or the triangle into 2 congruent triangles (it depends on the triangle). un2

,6
\When working with altitudes, pay attention to whether the triangle is acute, right or obtuse:

Right Thiangles: Remembering

Acute Tiiangles:
All 3 altitudes are
The two legs of a right The 3 altitudes of a
triangle are right triangle:
that each leg of i$o
F
a right triangle is
in the interior of ular each an altitude, will
the triangle. leg is the altitude to make some problems
the other leg. much easier.

Obtuse Thiangles:
The 3 altitudes of Notice that one
The definition of an altitude is the perpendicular seg-
an obtuse triangle. altitude is inside
ment t0 the line that includes the opposite side. This and two
is necessary for obtuse triangles because an altitude is altitudes are
perpendicular. First extend the side of the triangle and outside the
then draw the altitude to that line. triangle.

51
Theword Congruent

\7hat does it mean for two figures to be congruent? The symbol for congruency is
=.
Pay attention to
the two parts of the symbol:
,., The squiggly sign on top means that the figures have the same shape.
: The equal sign on the bottom means that the figures have the same size.

Putting this together tells us that congruent figures have the same shape and the same size.

If mo figures have the same shape and the same size, it means that one is a perfect copy of the other,
That is, they are exactb alike,

-When
two figures are congruent, their corresponding parts and angles will be equal. But itt
;[so important to orient the figures in the
same way because, when figures are ori-
ented properly, you are less likely to compare
parts and angles that are not corre-
C sponding and are not meant to be set equal to each other. For example, study the
figures on the left. The congruency sign tells us that the two triangles are congru-
ent. However, it is best to take a few seconds to re-draw the second
6gure so that both triangles are oriented similarly. This is especially
B true for figures that are easy to sketch, such as triangles. Be
AD sure to carefully place identifying letters in the correct
positions. See the re-drawn figures on the right. B E
Order Counts
A D
Thiangle ABC is congruent to triangle DEF. In symbols, we write:

\ABCYADEF
This simple congruenrr is giving us 6pieces of information:

ZA=ID IB=IE ZC=IF AB=DE gC=EF CA FD

Now study the order of the original congruence: L(N = A.r^rA Order counts!
---J
By the way, it would be equally correct to say that LBCA= LEFD, LCAB LFDE, LACB
= =LDFE,
LCBA = LFED, LBAC = LEDE and so forth. The important idea is that corresponding parts must
be listed in corresponding positions.

52
Congruent Triangles

A triangle parts: three sides and three angles. tWhen we say wo triangles are congruent, we
has six
mean that each of the six parts of one triangle is equal to the corresponding part of the other triangle.
And remember, order counts.

C F The two triangles on the left are certainly congruent. Each

31 3L corresponding part is equal. Stated in symbols:
25 25
B LABC = LDEF
)7 E
)7
A D \7e know that the above congruence means:

/.A=ID IB=IE IC=IF AB=DE NC=BT CA=FO

A lot of problems in geometry involve trying to figure out if two triangles are congruent. If you can
show that each of the six pairs of corresponding parts are congruent, you've accomplished the task.
However, usually you are not given that much information for a problem and, fortunately, you dont
need to check all six pairs of parts to prove that the triangles are congruent.

There are 4 dffirent metbods you can use to prove that rwo triangles are congruent.

I SSS
=
SroB SrpB SroB CoNGRUENCy PosruranB
If three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides of another niangle, the triangles are congruent.

Side Side Side Congruency Postulate is true because if the sides of two triangles are the same lengths,
it turns out that their corresponding angles are also equal. Since all six parts are congruent, this
means the two triangles are congruent.'Sfhy is this so? Because, if you are given three lengths and
told to make a triangle, there is, at most, one triangle you can make. Heret an example: Given three
segments with lengths 2, 3 and 4 respectively, construct as many triangles as possible:

2 4

You can put the sides in any order, fip the

triangles over, rotate them, it doesnt matter,
w 4

4
4 3

you always get exacdy the same triangle, only

the orientation is different. All of the triangles
on the right are congruent by SSS=.
4
53
"lJsing" SSS= means that if you can show that two triangles have three pairs of congruent sides, you
can state that the triangles are congruent based on SSS = Postulate. Here are some examples of pairs
of triangles that are congruent based on SSS
= 5
t2 t2 \7here is the third
pair of congruent
t2 t2 sides in each figure?
1 13 1 13
+-+
lq parer{s
'say8uern qloq
aPrs uoruruof JrlI :Ja.&\suv

Each letter in SSS = stands for one pair of consruent corresponding sides. Think of it like this: SSS

Itt a goodhabit to check off each letter of

C the postulate as you find the pair of equal
parts that the letter stands for:
AB =DE S,/ BC
A D =EF S,/ CA =FD Sy
Naming the Congruency: Order Counts! You must B 26 26
name the congruency by pairing up congruent parts C
in the two triangles. Choose a path in one triangle t4
34 34
and follow the same path in the other: A
D ACBA = AFED
It to "check offthe letters" on the following postulates and theorems that prove that
also makes sense
triangles are congruent. This is especially true when you are working on complicated proofs.
Adjacent means "right next to each other".If any three adjacent parts of one triangle are congruent ro
three adjacent parts of another triangle, the two triangles are congruent. This fact leads to rwo addi-
tional congruency postulates:

I II SAS !I
Sro E SroB CoNcRUENCY Posrulern
If nro sides andthe included angle of one triangle are czngruent to two sides and the included angle of
anotber niangle, the tu.n triangles are congruent.

Study the figures above. Thiangle I has a side, the adjacent angle and the immediate next side equal
to the corresponding parts of tiangle II. \Mhenever you see this relationship in a problem, you know
that the triangles are congruent by SAS Congruency Postulate. Although it's not part of the name of
the postulate, remember the important word "included". The angle mustbe berween the rwo sides
that make up the congruent pairs (of sides) for this postulate to work. Here are some examples of
pairs of triangles that are congruent based on SAS=:
U
t3 r3 5 I
Each letter in SAS = srands for one pair
t2 t2 of congruent corresponding parts. R T

54
m
ANcrB SroB ANcre CoNcnusNcv Postur-arn ASA=

If two angles and the included side of one triangle are clngruent t0 two angles and the includ.ed side of another
triangle, then the two triangbs are congruent.
Here are some examples of triangles that are congruent by ASA
=:

Mark the second pair

Each letter in ASA= stands for one ofcongruent angles.
pair of congruent corresponding parts

You may have noticed that there is no ln the introducdon to this postulate. And yet it is a
part of the postulate, so it must be important.'S7hy is it missing?

To find out, we need to re-examine the way triangles work. If rwo angles of one triangle are equal to
two angles of a second triangle, what else must be true? Think of it like this: the interior angles of
each triangle total 180". Subtrac the measure of the two angles that are in both triangles and what is
left? For example:

AI ? = 180o - 43"- 36o = 101"

ll ? =180o-43" - 36o = 101"
^
So the third pair of angles are also equal. This leads to the next theorem.

Tnnonru: If tuo angles of two tiangles are equal, the third angles ltaue no choice but to be equal.

It might help you to remember this theorem if you think of it or the no

as the third angle theorem
choice theorem. Now, re-examining our newest postulate, ASA r:, the letters ASA stand for: angle,
adjacent side, adjacent angle in that order. However, given these conditions, we now know that the

bM
third pair of angles are also equal,

MW +
which in turn leads to the fourth method for showing that rwo triangles are congruent.

ry AAS
ANcrr ANcrn Sron CoNcRUENCy TirronBlut: =
If two arugles and a non-includrd sid.e of one *iangle dre congraent to the conesponding two angles and
conesponding non-included side of a second niangle, then the tuto triangbs are clngruent.

55
Here are some examples of triangles that are congruent by AAS :. Notice that the corresponding
non-included sides are congruent.

Each letter in AAS = stands for one

pair of congruent corresponding parts. \Where is the
4
- side?
Matching the Problem to the Correct Theorem - ASA ! and AAS are like first cousins, however,
=
in a proof you need to name the correct theorem, so we'll compare them:

Tiiangle ABC is congruent to DCB based on ASA ! because thatt what's in

B
A
the picture: each triangle has a 62 angle (A y), then side ,BC
(S l), and then a T6 angle (A /). This means, the picture
D we were given and the postulate that we have chosen, match.
C
O tiangle MNO is congruent to triangle POlVbased on AAS
=.
Remembet AAS means equal pairs of: B
P an angle, an adjacent angle and then a side
M Studying the figure, in each triangle we have
N a34" angle, then an 81' angle and then side NO A ASA
D
(a common side), that is, A y A / S /. Being sure that the C
o Yefsus
reason we provide (in this case AAS !) matches the information in AAS
the problem is a very important part of doing proofs correctly. P
Naming the congruency, we could say LMIVO A?Ol/by AAS
= =.
This correctly orders corresponding equal parts and names the correct theorem. N
And now to answer the question: \7hy isn't it important to stress that the side must be included?
Because, if the side is not included, the triangles are still congruent based on AAS = (not ASA =). This is
not true for SAS =. There is no SSA = theorem (because it doesn't work for all triangles which a qeneral
congruency theorem must do). \We will give a counterexample later in the book which disproves ffi .
=

Getting Ready for Proofs about Congruent Triangles

Example: Decide if the two triangles below are congruent. If the triangles are congruent, name the
congruency and state the method which proves they are congruent.
AD
Studying the problem, we see the three pairs of equal sides so we know
1 17 I 17 the triangles are congruent based on SSS
=:
AABC > ADEF
B 7 C E7 F Remember, each lerter of SSS represents one pair of equal corresponding
sides: an oe
=
(ss sc =
EF s(s ca =
ro ss(
56
Proving Triangles are Congruent
To prove triangles are congruent you can use SSS SAS ASA or AAS But to use any of the 4
=, =, =, =.
methods you must first show that pairs of corresponding parts of the triangles are equal.
Recurring Patterns To find pairs of equal angles and sides, always look for:
-
l. Shared sides,2. Vertical angles,3. Information from the parallel line **
methods (especially PAI.ACJ, and, 4.Information from definitions. l*'p
\7hen you've added as much information as you can find, study what you've shown and pick the
right method from the four, the one that matches what you see.

S7hat You Do How You Do It

1. Find pairs of eq :ual Z's and sides 1. By the GooD Poirils.
Mark up the figure. Choose the method that
\What do you see? matches the picture.
2.StateA=A. 2.By SSS, SAS, ASAoTAAS=.

Now You Try It Search the triangles below for additional pairs of equal parts (state your reasons).
-
Then, name the postulate or theorem which proves that the pair of triangles is congruent.

uVu
w
1 2 3 4 5. 6

& @ RS
Iis the midpoint of RV.
Formal Proof Moving to formal proofs is not difficult. Heret an example:
-
P Given: MOIIPQ
""d
tWO
= N.
Prove: LMNO
= AQ /P.
\We need to prove that pairs of parts of the 2 triangles are equal. The
t7
7 prove, in this case LMNO = AQN'4 is always true and conveniendy &$,
lists for us, exacdywhich pairs of parts are equal (lM lQ, IMNO
= =
o Z-QNP, ZO lP and so forth). As to how to prove that the equal parts are
=
a equal, the arrowheads should make us think about the parallel line methods
2 and, in fact, PAIAC tells us: ZM = lQand, ZO = ZP Nso,we were given tttO = pQ
I 17 Herc's the figure marked up to show the congruent parts. Compare the figure to the 4
o congruency methods. \X4rich do you see? The method that matches is ASA=.
t/rt/r/
tM = ZQ ASA MO = PQ ASA tM = lQ ASA
Proof: Statements Reasons
Remember, you cant use
t. MollPa. 1. Given. one of the 4 r methods
2.lMs lQand ZO x lP. 2. PAIAC. unless you've accounted for
,Q. 3. Given. each of the 3 letters in the
3. Mo
=
4. LMNO: AQI/P 4, ASA (Stmts. 2 and 3.) statements of the proof.

57
Now You Try It A
Given: ABIIDE Cis the midpoint of ,4E
"nd
Prove: LACB LECD.
= C
Proof:
tWhen you are given
- Statements Reasons
E
Cis the midpoint of AE, you are
pposed to respond with:
ac=ca e[ ofa

'Ihe 4 methods for establishing congruency work for all triangles. But, for right triangles only, there is
an additional theorem which proves that two (right) triangles are congruent:

N HL
HvporBNusE LEG Tsronrrra :
If the hypotenuse and leg of one right triangle are czngruent t0 the hypotenuse and leg of a second right
triangle, the two triangles are congruent.

HL is the usual abbreviation for this theorem. Flere are some examples of right triangles that are
congruent based on HL:

2 2

8
\Where are the r: \7here are the
hypotenuses ? rg legs?
'aPrs uoluruof, aql :Jaasuv 'aPIs uotuuof, eql :Ja./tasuv

Remember what the name HL stands for Hypotenuse Leg.

-
Rules for using HL:
1. Only use HL for right triangles (only right triangles have hypotenuses).
2. ln a proof, you must be given or show that the triangles are right, in order to use HL
3. \Mhen a proof involves right triangles, try using HL first.
4. 'Ihe two hypotenuses must be equal to each other or you cant use HL.
For example:
These two triangles are congruent but the
congruency is by SAS >, notHL.

58
Now You Try It Hint you are given that
-\Mhen
1 . Given: AA = CA BD L AC . Prove: LABD LCBD gD t AC , you are supposed to
^rd =
B Statements Reasons respond with ZADB is a rt.Zk
ICDB ts a rt.l(Def. of r lines.)

ADC
2. Given: tWO
= PR, ZM = ZP, NO r MO and @ t pA. Prove: LMNO = APQR
l/ Statements Reasons

o
2
M 5 O R 5 P

Quick Review To prove that two triangles are congruent:

-
l. Use one of the 4 Congruency Methods for all triangles:
SSS r:, SAS ri, ASA !:, SAS ry or a fifth, HL, for right triangles only.
2. Use other right triangle congruency theorems only if they are given by your teacher or textbook.

Please note: Do not make up theorems. There are no other congrueng/ theorems that work for all triangles.

.Ways
Not to prove Congruency:

AAA \Mhy not?

These two triangles have three
pairs of equal corresponding
angles and are definitely n
not congtluent. f
SSA \Mhy not ?
These two triangles have equal
pairs of sides, the adjacent
10 8 0
sides and the adjacent 8
*
angles, and yet the triangles are
defi nitely not congruent.

And remember, although we could provide an infinite number of counterexamples in both of these
cases, even one counterexample disproves an hypothesis.

59
Using Congruent Triangles to Prove Other Things Here are 5 important ways in which
-
congruent triangles are used in theorems, problems and proofs. Pay attention to the pattern:

1. Prove triangles are congruent.

2. Use the definition of congruent trianglestoprove other facts.
I. A DnrrNrrroN or CoNcnuBNt TnreNcrrs: CPCT
Corresponding Parts of Congruent Triangles are Congruent
By definition, if 2 triangles are congruent, every corresponding pair of parts of the 2 triangles is
congruent. For example:
t. lA=ZD 4. AB
N
DE
+ 2.lB =lE 5. BC EF
3. YZF
ZC 6. CA
N
FD
A C D FA CD F
This means that if you can show that2 triangles are congruent, you can then state that aryt pair of
corresponding parts of the triangles are congruent, including those that werent mentioned in the
proof of the congruency of ,h. triangles. Heret an example
Given: AC I EC and BC DC.
=
Prove: AA=OE. n r
Proofl o
Statements Reasons
A I. AC O EC, BC = DC. 1. Given.
D 2. ZACB = ZECD. 2.VNf . C
3. AACB AECD. 3. SAS B
= =.
4. AB DE. 4. Corresponding parts of congruent E
=
B triangles are congruent.(CPCT)
E Use
this to

A LACB LECD A
= D
AB>DE D

B
B
F-
E
You cannot use CPCT until AFTER you have proved that the 2 triangles are congruent.
This means that you must first prove A ! A, then you may use CPCT.
Learn the pattern:

WhatYou Do HowYou Do It
1. Find pairs of equal and sides. l. Use the GooD Poinls.
Mark up the figure. Choose the method
=
\What do you see? that matches the picture
2. StateA=A. 2.By SSS,SAS,ASA AAS or HL.
=
3. State side ri side or l> Z 3.By CPCT.

60
II. Proofs Using More Than One Pair of Congruent Triangles.
Given AB= AC, BD = CD
Prove: aE= CE
E
First think through the proofi
The goal is to get one of
I. "See" the pairs of
the pairs of triangles that
triangles that you
think are congruent: include BE^nd Cf f .ll
"into" the proof.
2. Mark up the figure with the 3. Note thar LABD and
given information and anything LACD share parts with B
else you can figure out LABE and LACE.
@O = 1D, Reflexive) E This will help us to E
Studying the figure, we see prove that the larger
that we can prove: C triangles are congruent C
LABD = AACD by SSS
=
5. Now "see" only the
4. Look for parts shared by A
larger triangles,
both pairs of triangles,
AB = AC, (Given) and E AE =,,4E(Reflex- E
ive), so LABE LACE
IBAD ZCAD, (by CPCT). C
= (by SAS
= C
=).
6. Finally, we are ready Note that in these problems, you work your
to state, gE CE by way from one pair of triangles to another pair,
= A E the ones that contain the parts you need to
CPCT.
C pfove are congruent.
Learn the pattern First prove triangles are congruent, then use CPCT
- €
A=A + CPCT ----> A=A CPCT
AABD = AACD IBAD = Z.CAD AABE = AACE BE ! CE
B B

A A E A E
A D A A E

C C
Here's the formal proofi Statements Reasons
1. AB
= 49, BD =
CD. 1. Given.
2. AD P AD. 2. Reflexive Prop.
3. AABD = AACD. 3. SSS (Note, we could have
=. proved LBDE LCDE,
4. /.BAD= ZCAD. 4. CpCT. =
5.8=AE. 5. Refexive. but to do so would have
taken more work.)
6. AABE = AACE, 6. SAS
=.
7. BE = CE, 5. CPCT.

6t
Perpendicular Bisectors and Angle Bisectors P
E
Proofs of these important theorems are exercises on the following page. R
P
E
III. Perpendicular Bisectors N
D
I
c
DerrNrrroN: A perpendicular bisector is a segment, ray or line U
L
A
uhich is perpendicular to a segment at its midpoint.
(Remember, a midpoint divides a segment A B
B
I
S
into 2 congruent pieces.) E
C
T

There arc 2 important theorems about perpendicular bisectors:

Rr I
o
R

TlrBonru: EVERY ?oint on the perpendicukr bisector of a segment

is equidistantfom the endpoints of the segment.
For example, given that segment RS
is a perpendicular bisector of MN,
euery point on RS is equally distant M Ar
from point M and point.A[ For
example point C is 25 units from
point M and 25 units from point N.
And the converse s.
THeoREL,r: Any point that is equidistantfrom the endpoints 0f a segment lies on the
perpendicular bisector of the segment.

For example, since Wis equally dis-

tant from points A and B, W lies on *
the perpendicular bisector of AB. A A
IV. Angle Bisectors
DrrrNrrroN: An angle bisector is a ray that diuidrs an angle into two congruent adjacent angles

There are 2 important theorems about angle bisectors:

For example, since
Ti.rnoRErrr: If apoint is on the bisector of an anglr, s ZRSU ZTSU,
=
then the point is equidistant*from the sidts of the angb. 32 Uis equally distant
from SR and ST.
And the converse:
For example, since
Tnr,onnrra If a point is equidistant*from the ooint Uis eouallv
s L L-----S J
sides of an angle, then the point lies on the bisector
distant from .lR
---->
of the angle. and SI
ZRSU
=
ITSU.
*Remember, the distance from a line to a point not on the line, means the J- distance:
Fp
62
NowYou Try It Every proof on this page can be done using
- To Prove 7$Congruent

congruent triangles and/or the definition of congruency. SSS, SAS, ASA, AAS
=
& HL for rt N's only.
/ ^ l. Co.-onparts.
ll t z.Vertical angles.
Nl o :. Information from parallel line
V f merhods (especially PAIAC).
4. Information from definitions.

1. Given: AC EC and Statements Reasons

=
ZBAC ZDEC. = B
Prove: AA
=
Of .

2. Given: FH IO, HI t GK
and
=JH, GI=
IFHG z 4HK. I Statements Reasons

Prove: ec=lf.

3. Given: P is on the perpendicular

G IK
bisector of @-R. P Statements Reasons
Prove: PQ= PR.
Hint-\7hen you are given that
Pis on the r bisector of Qn-&
respond with: QS = RS, ,rrd
as R

I
ZQSP is a rt. (Def. of r bis.)
4. Given: SU = SV Statements Reasons

Prove: S lies on the perpendicular

bisector of UV.

U I
I
V
a
5. Given: )zlies on the bisector
of llWZ, YWI)(W, V/ Statements Reasons
X
YZ TXZ.
Prove: YW = YZ.
Hint-'!7hen you are given that
Izlies on the bisector of ZWXZ,
respond with: ZIFXY = ZZY
(Def of Z bis.) Statements Reasons
W
6. Given: YW = YZ, yW tXW,
ardyZLXZ.
Prove: ZIX/XY =
ZZXY.

63
Using Congruent Thiangles continued
-
V. Theorems about Isosceles Triangles
A triangle with at least two equal
. . Become an expert with isosceles
)
a

sides is an isosceles triangle. The

triangles. They are a powerful
Atp tool in geometry! A 4
angle between two equal sides is
called the uertex angle.
Isosceles tiangle ABC

Pay special attention to the technique used to prove the next theorem. By drawing the altitude from the
vertex angle of the isosceles triangle, we divide the original triangle into 2 congruent right uiangles.

Trrn IsoscELES TRTANGLE Tnponnu: * ITT

If a triangle has two congruent sides, the angles opposite those sides are also congruent.
Although we call it ITI you must call each theorem by the name given by your teacher or textbook.
To prove ITT use congruent triangles:

C
Given
ADB
of altitude
ADB
Reflexive

+
kD B A DD
CPCT
B

Trrs CoNVERsE oF rrrB IsoscELEs TRIANGLE TrrponEkr:

If a triangb has two congruent angles, the sides opposite those angles are also congruent,
To prove this theorem use congruent triangles:

Given Def. of altitude Refexive AAS CPCT

B ADD D B

Name the right theorem! If slldes are congruent, itt IffT. 4\. -->
If aB8gles are congruent, itt the CoBf,verse of ITT. +
'Working with Isosceles Triangles

Due to the symmetry of isosceles triangles, segment CD (which

is drawn from the vertex angle) is an altitude, a median and
an angle bisector. And segment CD divides LABC into
A D B 2 congruent right niangles. Right triangles are easy to
Isosceles Tiiangle ABC
work with so knowing this will help you to solveA DD B
with AC = BC
many different types of problems

As, See an IsoscelesTliangle + -Ih'nk 2 congruent right triangles. +

Equrranrxer Tnreucrrs 3 TnBonsN,Is

- :

€ €
l. Equikteral triangles are equiangular.
2. Equiangular tiangles are equilateral.
3. Each angle of an equikteral triangle equab 60".

64
6. POLYGONS

These are polygons: These are not polygons:

Er*w

Polygons are: 1. Closed figures.

2.Made up of (straight, line) segments.
3. The segments intersect at their endpoints (they are not allowed to cross
one another).
4. Each segment must intersect with exactly two other segments.

'$7hen
you see a figure, you are expected to know whether or not it is a polryon.

Polygons come in 2 varieties, cont)ex and non-conuex (also called concaue). You are expected to know
the difFerence berween the two types. Heret how:

ConvexorNon-Convex? Imaginewrapping arubberbandaroundapolygon. If therubberband

touches every one of the polygon's vertices, then the polygon is conuex.To demonstrate, we will test
each of the six from above

aex

coruaex

Although you do need to be able to recognize a non-convex polygon, geometry problems are usually
about convex polygons. tWhen a problem uses the word polygon, assume it's convex unless the figure
or given information tells you it's non-convex.

Naming Polygons B
D
Polygons are named by their consecutive vertices which E
are points, and points are named by capital letters. A Z
The letters are usually named in alphabetical order. Polygon ABCDEF Polygon XYZ Polygon PQRS

65
Special Names for Special Polygons

You are responsible for memorizing these terms as well as any additional ones that your teacher or
textbook think are important:

Number
Name Example
of Sides
)a Tliangle
4 Quadrilateral
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
8 Octagon
10 Decagon
72 Dodecagon

n-gofis: Another way to name polygons is "number of sides -gon". For example, a triangle is a
3-gon, an octagon is an 8-gon and, speaking in general, we say an"n-gori', which means a polygon
with an unstated number of sides. Remember, "z" stands for the number of sides.

Diagonals of a Polygon: A diagaonal of a polygon is a segment All the diagonals

that goes from one vertex to a non-adjacent (not next to) vertex. of a pentagon.

DpprNrrroN oF A Rp,cuun PorycoN: A polygon with equal sides and

equal angles is called a regular polygon.lhar is, a regular polygon is both
eq ui latera I and e qu i angu lar.

Here are some examples of regular polygons:

.l
20 t4 1 )
24 I 6 l 4
0 I 1
)
24 24
r6
t4 14 I 11
73 3
16 I 4
3
t3 1l
Note that if a triangle is either equiangular or equilateral, then it is both. That is, it is regular. This is
not true about any other polygon. For example, shown below are polygons that are equiangular or
equilateral but not both (and not regtiar): 2
42 I 7
90' I B 5
50'1t
t9 t9 1 17
2
90' 1 8
5
17

66
Finding the Sum of the Interior Angles of Polygons

The three interior angles of any triangle add up to I7e can use this fact to figure out the
formula for the sum of the measures of the lntenor angles of polygons.
Since the interior angles
Beginning with Drawing a diagonal
of each triangle add up to
divides the q 180"
a quadrilaterd: 180", the interior angles
eral into two triangles. of the quadrilateral must
total: 2x180'=360".
In the example above, we used an oddly shaped quadrilateral, but we would have had the same result
with any quadrilateral
Since the interior angles
Drawing the diagonals 180"
Now we'll try a of each triangle add up to
from a single vertex
pentagon: 180', the interior angles
divides the pentagon
of the pentagon must total:
into three triangles.
3x180"=540".

Since the interior angles

Drawing the diagonals of each triangle add up to
Now we'lI choose from a single vertex 180", the interior angles of
a hexagon:
divides the hexagon the hexagon must total:
into four triangles 4 x 180' =720".
Heret the pattern: Each increase in the number of sides produces one additional triangle, which adds
180" to the total measure of the polygont interior angles. Heret a table organizing our findings:

Number of Number of
Total of
Calculation Interior
Sides Tiiangles
Ansles
I IxiUO 180
2 2x180 360
1 3x180 740
Finish the last four rows ( 4 4x 180 720
7
of the table. It will help
you to understand and 9
remember the pattern. 10

In mathematics, we like to use formulas that are concise and correct for all possible cases. And a
formula should include a variable to represent the quantiry that is changing from case to case. In
our example, it is the number of sides of the polygon that is changing. Notice that the number of
triangles is always 2 less than the number of sides. So the correct formula is:
(number of sides -2) (180)
Letting n stand for the number of sides, the formula becomes

(n - 2) (180) = the sum of the measures of the interior ofa with n sides.

67
Heret an example: Find the sum of the measures of the interior angles of a dodecagon

A dodecagon is 12 sided, so n = 12.

(n - 2)(180) = the sum of the measure of its interior angles.

t2
(/- 2)(180) = (10)(180) = 1800'\,/
B C
)o
Heret another example: Find the sum of the interior angles of rectangle ABCD:
D
A
A rectangle is a quadrilateral (4 sided), so n = 4 Since the sides
are peqpendicular
(n - 2)(180) = the sum of the measure of its interior angles. (which means they
meet to form 90'
4B C
(n - 2)(t80) = (tr- 2)(180) = (2)(1so) =, 360"'/ angles), we can
D confirm our solu-
tion: 4x90 = 360
Heret an example of how the formula (n - 2)(180) might be used in a problem:
x
Find the measure of ZM,IN,ZO,ZP and lQ o 6 o
x+ 13)" (7x+
rl=5
Step l. Count the number of sides (find n).
Step 2. Use the formula (n - 2)(l8q
= ()
- 2)(r8o) = (3)(180) = 540.
Step 3. Since 540 is the total sum of the interior angles, set the angles equal to 540:
5x + (8x + 4) + 6x + (7x + 13) + (7x + 13) = 540
Step 4. Collect like terms and solve for x:
34x+30=540,34x=510, x=15 Af,,
Step 5. Go back and read the question and answer the question you were asked,o ,rr?-Bt'
ZM = 6x, =6(15) =90'/, lN = 8x + 4= 8(15) + 4 = 124'/, Z.O= 6(15) =90'/,
ZP=7x+3= 7(15)+13= 118
'/,andlQ=7x+13= 7(15)+13= 118/.
NowYou Try It

l. Find the total sum of the measure of the interior angles of a 100-gon

2. Find the measure of the smallest and largest angle of polygon PQRSTUVW.
R.t
(1 13)"
06' (9x+ T
0xff l1
P U
Y 02x+
W V

68
Going Backwards: Finding z W'hen you Knowthe Sum of the Interior Angles

Example: How many sides does a polygon have if the interior angles @al1440"?

In this problem, the answer to (n - 2)(180) is given. So set (n

- 2)(180) equal to the answer:
(n-2)(180)=t440
Carefully distribute each term of the expression (n - 2):
n(180) - 2(180)= t440
l80n-360=1440
Balance the equation: + 360 + 360
l80n = 1800
l0
Divide bvJ the coefrcient
JJ of n: !fin -fiOA
W-W
n=10

Finding the Measure of One InteriorAngle of a Regular Polygon

Remember that the word regular means equal sides and equal angles. Since the
angles are equal, divide the total measure of the interior angles by the number
of angles to find the measure of a single angle.

Heret a compact formula to find the value of 1 interior angle of a regular polygon (n-2)r80
n

Heret an example: Find the measure of each interior angle of a regular pentagon

First, find the total of the measures of the interior angles (5 -Z) 180 = 540
Then divide the total by the number of angles:
ff=rca"
The following example combines two concepts:
How large is one interior angle of a regular polygon if the sum of its interior angles is 1800?

In this problem, the answer to (n - 2)(180) is given, so set (n - 2)(180) equal to the answer:
(n-2)(180) = 1800
l80n - 360 = 1800, l80n = 1800 + 360
l80n=2160,n=12
Since n = 12, and the polygon (which we now know is a dodecagon) is regular, we know that the 12
angles share the 1800'equally, which means the measure of each angle is: ,iry
= 150.r/

NowYou Try It - If the sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon isl260, find the measure of
one exterior angle of the polygon.

69
Exterior Angles of Polygons

Quick Review - Exterior angles of a polygon are formed by extending a side of the polygon. Start
with one side, extend it and measure back to the polygon. If you need more than one exterior angle,
work your way around the polygon in one direction. Draw only one exterior angle for each vertex.

Exterior angle Exterior angle

#1=747" #2=t23'
Exterior angle
#3=90
ForAll Polygons:
nlm ber of sides = zumber of interior angles = number of exterior angles
0 SIDES ARE EQUAL

For Regular Polygons: rNrunroR ANGLEs ARE EeuAL

@
@nxrrruon ANGLES ARE EqUAL
Finding the Sum of the ExteriorAngles

The interior angles of a triangle total 180". The exterior angles of the triangle above total:

147"+123"+ 90" = 360"

The interior angles of a quadrilateral rctal (n - 2)180, or (4-2)180 = 360". Butwhat about the
exterior angles? Here's an example: r

10
r 88o

74" + 107" +91" + 88" = 360"

So the exterior angles of the above quadrilateral total 360'.

The interior angles of a pentagon total (5 - Z1 x 180 = 540" . Checking the exterior angles:

57"+ 99" + 42+ 95" + 67" = 360"

So the sum of the exterior angles of the pentagon above equals 360".

In fact, the sum of the exterior angles of any polygon is always 360"1
Note: As z increases, the sum of the interior angles u But, as n increases,
the sum of the exterior angles stays the same.
nt t
then interiorZ rr'rm
nl I
thrn exterior sum= 360o

70
Tnnonrrr: 7be Sum of the Exterior Angles of a Polygon = 360"

The above theorem is especially helpful with problems involving regular polygons.
Since the exterior angles of a regularpolygon are equal, they share the 360' equally:

360" exterior , 369"

n - rhe measure of one
tr'.
^;;f;;i;",r"s"iiip-ity[i'i, angle'*,of a regular polygon , ='

An understanding of exterior angles can help solve many polygon problems. Here are some examples:

1. An exterior angle of a regular polygon measures 30". Find the measure of an interior angle.
a single vertex of the polygon drawing in the exrerior angle.
sAS,{*Sk.rch
t ' Since the interior angle is supplementary to the adjacent exrerior angle:
30'+xo=180"
x = l50r/
2. An exterior angle of a regular polygon measures 30'. How many sides does the polygon have?
Since the sum of the exterior angles of a polygon is always 360', and since all of the exrerior angles of
a regular polygon are equal, the 350" is shared equally among the exterior angles. So, if each exterior
angle is 30'the polygon has:

= 12 sidesr/
#
3. An interior angle of a regular polygon measures 140'. How many sides does the polygon have?
Sketch a single vertex of the polygon drawing in the interior angle. Since the interior angle is supple-
mentary to the adjacent exterior angle:
140"+x"=180"
x=40 xo
Since the sum of the exterior angles of a polygon is always 360', and since all of the exrerior angles of
a regular polygon are equal, the 360' is shared equally among the exterior an ifeach exterior
angle is 40" the polygon has:
= 9 sidesr/
Now You Try It
W
1. If an exterior angle of a regular polygon measures 72",what is the total measure of the interior
angles of the polygon?

2.If the interior angles of a regular polygon total 1520", find the measure of one exrerior angle.

3. Polygon ABCDEFGH is regular. Find the measure of lI.

71
7. Quadrilateral
Parallelograms
B C
Like all quadrilaterals, parallelograms are named by their vertices. The
symbol for a parallelogram is E. The figure at right is EABCD.

4 F^rrrYou Need To Know About Parallelograms: A D

1. DrrrNrtroN: Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.
8
2. TrrBonrvr: Both pairs of opposite sidrs are equal.
3. Tnronnu: Both pairs of opposite angles are equal.
4. TnsoR-Elur: The diagonals diuid.e each other in half ffi
-What
Thke a close look at the last theorem. Diagonals of parallelograms arent necessarily equal. is
rrue is that the diagonals break each other in half, that is, they bisect each other.

a certain type of object, we say those

Properties
- In mathematics, when things are true about
things are the ?ro?erties of that object. The definition is not a property, the definition is what defines
the object. The theorems are the properties of the object. Given a parallelogram (a quadrilateral with
rwo pairs of parallel sides), the other three facts (the properties) are always true.

In a problem, you will know a figure is a parallelogram either from the 6gure itselfl or by the word
parallelogram or by the symbol o.

Remember, if a figure is a parallelogram, you know a lot about it. Always think
"b"ut}r*
4 facts and add any information to the figure to show those facts that are connected to a
problem. For example: @
Given EMNOP, on the left, we can add the
information shown on the right to the original figure
M|OPMIOP
How did we figure out that ZM and ZO = 50"? There are two ways: l. Like all quadrilaterals, the
interior angles of z MNOP add up to 350" (Remember, (n- 2)180). This tells us that ZM and
lOtogether share 100' (360" - 130" - 130" = 100").Since opposite angles of parallelograms are
tWhen a transversal cuts two pardlel lines,
equal, lO and lM must both equal 50'. 2. **--/
uinssls,samesideinterior",gl.,aresupplementary.ffirao.
4fi, So, consecutive angles of a parallelogram are supplementary!
NowYou T"yIt
Given EGHIJ on the right, add the correct measurements for the following:
I
wIGHI HG HI
ruZ.HIJ ruZ.HGJ GI G

7')
Proving the Properties of Parallelograms A Detailed Look at Proof
-
If a quadrilateral two pairs of parallel sides, the other parallelogram properties are always presenr.
has
And since those properties were given as theorems, we must be able to prove each of them based only
on the figuret two pairs of parallel sides. Lett investigate:

\7e will "use" congruent triangles to prove all three theorems

.t T
Given: ERSTU.
Prove: The opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruenr.
R
For the given figure we need to prove that S?
=
W and 57 = RU. u

'We T
will begin by drawing diagonal nf (FiS. 1). Our reason is,
two points determine a line.

Fig.
U
Since Sf ll
AUand S? llTu,our rransversal theorems should .o*
1

to mind. There are no angles on the outside of the figure so we

should think about alternate interior angles. Studying Figure l:
ruISTR = wZURT and m ISRT = wIUTR by PAIAC (Fig. 2).
T
Studying Fig.2, we see that the diagonal creares 2 triangles. If
the triangles are congruent, we'll have our "prove". That is:
R Fig.2
U
.9R
=
TU andS7 = nU Ay CPCT.

But in order to prove congruency wernust use one of the four

triangle congruency methods. Since RZ is a side common ro
2 both triangles, we can state that it is equal to itself by the Refex-
ive Property and mark it. Now, comparing Fig. 3 to the four R U
3 Fig.3
congruency methods, we see that ARIS LTRU by ASA
= =.
4 T
Having proved that the two lrrr"g]S are congruent, we can T
now say that SR TU and S7= RU because corresponding
=
parts of congruent triangles are congruent (CPCT) (Fig. a).
R Fig.4 U

Remember, you must first prove the triangles are congruent.

@m_ cpcT
--+Then you may use CPCT.

PAIAC will help solve many parallelogram proofs and problems.

73
Given: DRSTU. Prove: Opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent. s T

'We
need to prove ruITSR = ruZR(JT and ruZSRU = ruZSTU. Using the R U
same reasoning (the same steps) that we used in the previous proof we arrive at ARIS = LTRU,
which proves that ml6R = mlRUTby CPCT This completes one-half of the proof. Continuing
with the steps of the previous proof we also found that:
mZffit = wZWIR and
ZUtrf = wZSE'N,
The addition properry of equaliry allows us to add the left sides of two equations U
R
and set them equal to the sum of the right sides of the two equations:

mlWt +mZURi =mZ$W+m anm

Keeping in mind that rs to mISRU = we the two pieces of each

angle to make the which SRUand ISTU

s T .T T
T T
+ = +
R R U R R U
R
U
mlSffi,jt + mlUR'J = wZSRU mlWR + ml$iW = wISTU
The reason for the last statement is the Angle Addition Postulate. And finally, since we have already
shown that the left sides of the above two equations are equal, we can state that the right sides must
also be equal, mlSR[J = mlSTU, by the Substitution Property. Notice that we also could have com-
pleted the last half of the proof by simply arguing that since mZTSR = ruIRUT that is, one pair of
opposite angles were proved equal in an arbitrary parallelogram, any pair of opposite angles are equal.

NowYou Try It
Supply the reasons to prove the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
C
Given: E ABCD. Prove: ^BD bisects AC; AC bisects BD.
Statements Reasons
A
I. D ABCD. 1.
.,
2. IAEB = IDEC.
^:f81',
nym' 4.t. BCllao'AEllDC.
AE oC. =
3.
4.
5. IDBA= ZCDB. 5.

LAEB = LCED.
6. 6.

A Kffi' 7. AE = EC; BE = ED. 7.

, -rv?.vc 8. E is the midpoin t of AZ; E is

"'t\r--, the midpoint of BD.
8.

zB>S&iY,c 9. BDbisects AZ; AT bisects BD. 9.

74
Proving a Quadrilateral is a Parallelogram AVery Close Look at Proof
-
A quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides is, by definition, But if certain other
a parallelogram.
conditions are met, could a quadrilateral be a parallelogram even though we aren't given that the
sides are parallel? Notice that we are going backwards, we are starting with a quadrilateral and asking,
is the figure a parallelogram?
\Mhat if we are given a quadrilateral with two pairs of equal opposite sides? l/ o
Is the figure a parallelogram and, if so, can we prove it? That is, can we prove that both
pairs of opposite sides are parallel as well as being equal? M P
Fig. I
If we are going to prove that lines are parallel, we'll need the
transversal theorems since they are our only theorems that deal
s with parallel lines. But which of the rwo groups of transversal
tr theorems do we want?'We need to get the order right. That
is, given certain conditions, we want to be able to prove that
?
pairs of lines are parallel. Recall that the transversal theorems
2 =180o z
that endwith a "p" are the ones that do this. Now we need to
findout exactly which one of the group we need.

The angles in Fig. 1 are in the interior of the figure, which makes CCP unlikely; the
problem gives no angle measures which eliminates SSISP This leaves CAIAB
which says that if mo lines are cut by a transversal and alternate interior angles
P
are congruent, then the lines are parallel. Diagonal UO 1fig.2) serves as a Fig.2
transversal. Looking at Fig. 2, we see that we have created two triangles, and that
they share MO . We mark MO eqtal to itself by the Reflexive Properry (Fig. 3).
o

Figure 3 has rwo triangles that are congruent (by SSS and, therefore, three P
=) Fig. 3
pairs of corresponding angles congruent by CPCT (Fig. 4). a NMO ZPOM
=
tells us MN ll ro Ay CAIAP. lNoM lPMo tells us ,n/o ll Mp, also by
= o
CAIAP These two statements prove that MNOP is a parallelogram based on rhe
definition of a parallelogram, a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides.
P
Fig.4
Here is the theorem we just proved:
Tnsonrn: A quadrilateral with two pairs of equal opposite sides is a parallelogram.

Here are two examples

18 1

_+
7-->7 7
18 r8
Remember, once a theorem is given, you can use it in any subsequent (later) proofs.
&ff,

75
There are 3 other sets of conditions that guarantee that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Trrnoruu: If both pairs of opposite angles of a quadrilateral are +
congruent the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Given: Quadrilateral GHIJwith mlG = mll and mZH = ml]
Prove: GHU is a parallelogram. G
Statements Reasons
\. mlG = mll and m/.H = mZJ. 1. Given.
2. mZG + mZI + mZH + mlJ = 360". 2. Z's of a quadrilateral total360".
3. Z(nZG) + 2( mZH) = 360"; 3. Substitution Properry of Equaliry
2(mlG) * 2( *ln = 350'.
4. mlG + mZH = 180'; mlG + mlJ = 180'. 4. Division Property of Equality.
5. qll rur; GH ll tr 5. ssISP.
6. GHIJ is a parallelogram. 6. Definition of a parallelogram.

Now You Try It For the next two theorems, we've given the statements; fill in the reasons.
-
Trrnoruu: If both diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect eachother ----->
the quadrilateral is a parallelogram
B
Given: Quadrilateral ABCD with AE = EC and BE = ED.
Prove: ABCD is a parallelogram. A D
Statements Reasons
t. AE = {C, ar =
ro. 1.

2. IBEA = ICED; IAED = IBEC. 2.

3. LAEB = LCED; LBEC = LDEA. 3.
4. AE = DC, AD = BC. 4.
5. ABCD is a parallelogram. 5.

Throns\a: If one pair of opposite quadrilateral are congruent

sides of a ----->
and parallel, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

Special Note: Be careful with this theorem.

130"
For this theorem to work, the same pair of sides B
50'
must be both congruent and parallel. 9

Given: Quadrilate ral MNOP with MN = pO and MN ll pO.

Prove: MNOP is a parallelogram. o
Statements Reasons
1. Construrt MO. 1. Two points determine a line
z. MNllPo. 2.
a
3. INMO = IPOM. ).
4. MN = PO. 4.
5. tWO
=
tWO. 5
5. LMNO = LOPM. 6.
7. NO = UP. 7.
B. MNOP is a parallelogram 8.

76
NowYou Try It
- For problems I - 4, find any parallelograms in the drawings. Be sure to thor-
oughly explain your conclusions.
,O B
R
1 2 3.e 4
72
2
A
IL Z
Y UT

5. Find the values (5y+30)' 6. Find the values of a

B)" (a+9)
of x and y that make (9x-28)' and b that make FGHI
MNOP a parallelogram Qt +2)" a parallelogram.
P Gb -4)
M (b* 12)

Quick Review- Properties of Parallelograms

If you're given a parallelogram, heret what you're supposed to know about the figure:
1. Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel

+
C 2. Both pairs of opposite sides are congruent. 'ii";
A D
D ABCD 3. Both pairs of opposite angles are equal

4. The diagonals break each other in half.

Remember, whenever you see the E symbol, you know all of the above facts. Another fact about
parallelograms, is that same side interior (consecutive) angles always add up to 180".

W'hen is a Quadrilateral a Parallelogram?

If you can show euen zne of the following conditions, /ou have proved that the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram. If you're given a quadrilateral that satisfies euen one of the following conditions you are
supposed to know that the quadrilateral is a parallelogram

If
l. Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel or
2. Both pairs of opposite sides are congruenr ar
3. Both pairs of opposite angles are eqlal or
E 4. Both diagonals bisect each other ar
5. One pair of opposite sides are both equal and parallel,
then
the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

77
Special Parallelograms

The following figures are parallelograms, and it's important to remember that they have all of the
properties of parallelograms, but they also have special properties that are all their own. First we'll
define them:
m
rln DrrrNrrroN oF A RrcreNcrn A rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles.

ffi-55-
b
DBrrNruoN oF A Rnol,rsus: A rhombus is a quadrilateral with four congruent sides.
Note: The word rhombus has two plural forms, rhombuses and rhombi (rhornbT)
uffiu DrrrNrrroN oF A Squeru: A square is a quadrilateral with four congruent sides and

6 four right angles.

Based on their definitions, it is easy to prove that squares, rectangles and rhombi are parallelograms

Use (one of) these theorems: --+ ---->

The logic diagram below shows the relationship between the three special parallelograms:

All squares are rectangles.

Not all rectangles are squares.
All squares are rhombi.
Not all rhombi are squares.

Remember, euery figure in the drawing has

all of the properties of parallelograms.

Rectangles
ThBonru: The diagonak of a rectangle are equal.
Given: Rectangle GHfl. Prove: Ct Al I
= ---->
Statements Reasons
1 Construct Ct U il 1. Two points determine a line. G G
HG = IJ, 2. Opposite sides of a D=
GI=HJ
2
) . GJ=GJ.
a
3. Reflexive. H
4 . ZIGH rs rt., IGJI is rt 4. Definition of a rectangle N

5 . wIJGH = mlGJI. 5. All right angles xre =.

G
6. LIGH = LGI. 6 SAS
=. Sketch the triangles separately
7 . GI=H] 7. CPCT.
Here is an important rheorem about right triangles, which follows from the previous theorem:
ThBonBv: In a right the midpoint of the hypotenuse is each aertex.
Many simple calculation
AB=CD
problems are based yg "*
f
2 N's form a rectangle. Diagonals are equal. Diag. ol /-/ blsect. x=5 on this theorem. Jt'P
-1.

78
Rhombuses

THBonBu:7he diagonals of a rhombus are ?erpendicular. ---->

Proof:
The proof of this theorem demonstrates why knowing your definitions and properties is so important
in geometry. It is also an example of using congruent triangles and then CPCT in a proof
C
Given: Rhombus ABCD.
Prove: BO L AZ. Fig. I
A D
Looking at Fig. I above, we might not have any idea how to begin, excepr we see four triangles in the
drawing. Now we'll add some knowledge to the picture:
B
C
By its definition, a rhombus has four congruenr sides:
Fig.2
A B
Since a rhombus is a parallelogram, the
diagonals must bisect each other (Properry of a D): Fig. 3
A D
Studying Fig. 3, clearly the four triangles are congruenr by SSS
=.

Our goal is to show nO t AZ, and there are theorems which show rwo lines are perpendicular.
However, itt probably easier, especially on an exam, to use the definition of perpendicular lines: rwo
lines that intersect to form right angles. So we have to figure our a way to show that the cenrer angles
are right.

\Working on IAEB and ICEB, we see straight IAEC, which we know equals 180'. Since
the two triangles are congruent, CPCT tells us that ZAEB > ZCEB.If the measures B
of rwo equal angles total 180' (either as a linear pair or using the Angle Addition
E
Postulate, depending on which method your rext uses), then each angle must
measure 90'by the division properry of equaliry. If an angle equals 90", it is a right angle
(definition of right angles), which then proves that the diagonals are perpendicular (the definition of
perpendicular lines). QED (which means what was to have been proven is proved)!

TuBonnn: The angles of a rhombus dre bisected by its diagonak. +

Here's the proof for two pairs of angles. The same argument proves rhe pairs of are equal
Given: Rhombus MNOP. Prove: ZQMN = ZqMP and IMNQ= IONQ
Statements Reasons
l. MNOP is a rhombus. 1. Given. o
2.MN=NO=OP=PM. 2. Definition of a rhombus.
l.tWQ = OQ, lrQ = rQ. f
3. Diagonals ol e l_J blsect .r.htth.r.
-1.
4. LMNQ= LMPQ AOI/Q. 4. SSS
= =.
5. IQMN= /.QMP, /MNQ= ZONQ. 5. CPCT.

79
Due to the symmetry of rhombuses, there are other facts that your textbook may introduce as
theorems. For example:

A rhombus is divided into 4 congruent rigbt triangles by its diagonals.

If 2 consecutiue (right next to each other) sides of a parallelogram are congruent,

the figure is a rhombus. (Which property of parallelograms proves this?)

+ 5

5
Notice that the 4 angles of a rhombus aren't necessarily equal, itt the sides that are equal:
If the angles are equal as well, then the figure is a square.

Squares The definition of a square is a quadrilateral with 4 congruent sides and 4 right angles
-
So a square is both a rectangle and a rhombus! Everything that is true about a rectangle is true
about a square and everything that is true about a rhombus is true about a square. The square is
the ultimate parallelogram!

Be sure you know the information in the chart below:

Putting It All Together - Special Parallelograms

RncreNcrr Fecrs:
1. 4 (=) right angles. E-H 4 Opposite sides are s.
2. Diagonals are =GC = BD). A 5 Opposite sid.r rre ll.
3. Diagonals bisecteach other. 6 If a Ehasl right angle, it will
(So all 4 halves are equal.) have 4 right angles (and it's a rectangle!).

RnoMsus Fecrs:
1. 4 congruent sides. 5. OPPosite angles are rr.
2. Diagonals are r 5. Diagonals bisect each other.
3. Diagonals bisect the angles. ffi 7. Opposite rid.r rr.ll
4. Diagonals form 4 = right triangles 8. A E with2 consec.
=
sides is a rhombus.

Squenn Fecrs:
1. 4 congruent sides. 5. Diagonals form 4=righttrirngles. X
. 4 (congruent) right angles. B_C 6. Diagonals bisect the rt.l's, into 45"2's.ffi
Diagonals are congrurnt (AC BD) ,X, 7. Diagonals bisect (f,k'fl each other.ffi
=
. Diagonals are r. X 8. Opposite sides are ll. u

80
Now You Try It
1. Find the perimeter of 2. a. Find x, ! and z in D FGHI.
DABCD, wIAED B
5 b. LGEF triangle?
and ruZEAD. =which
A
F

t t/
3. Given: E JKLM, 4. Find the perimeter of
find NM. square MNOP, wZMQN,
mlPOQand name any triangles
I that are congruent rc LOQP. P o

The diagonals divide any parallelogram into 2 pairs of congruent triangles. Heret why:

II
rw
r!

ry by SSS.
Opposite sides of aE are
E
and, diagonals of a ! by SSS.
=
bisect each other.

The diagonals divide a rltombus into 4congruent right triangles. Heret why:

II
rw r! .\J

4 rt. A ! by SSS (or HL)

All sides of a rhombus are .
=
Diagonals of any ^E bisect each
other. Diagonals of a rhombus are I.

81
Trapezoids

Quick Review - A quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon. Quad means four and lateral means
side, so it makes sense that a quadrilateral is a four (straight) sided figure. It's easy to figure out that
the interior angles of a quadrilateral total 360". To do this we can use the formula for polygons,
(" - 2) 180' or (4 - 2) 180" = 360". However, itt better just to memorize this important fact:
The interior angles of a quadrilateral total 360".

DErrNrnoN: ,4 napezoid is a quadrihteral with exactly one pair ofparallel sides.

One pair of base

The parts of
a trapezoid:
t
L ne pair of base
"rrgl.J
Bases of Trapezoids A base of auapezoid is one of b
- t.
its parallel sides. It doesnt mafter whether the base is b The bases are the
e
on the side or on the top. If it's a base, itt one of the parallel sides
parallel sides, if it's a parallel side, itt a base. e

Like all polygons, a trapezoid is named by its vertices. Many texts use the small trapezoid figure a
to indicate a trapezoid. Here are some examples of the different ways trapezoids may be oresented in
'12
problems C rhe D,MNOP
The
figuqe
figure
on the right. on the
on the
right. right.
11

In the fourth figure, the same side interior angles between the top and bottom sides of the figure are
supplementary, which means (by SSISP) that the top and bottom sides are parallel. Since the ll sides
are unequal (which means the figure is not a parallelogram), the figure is a trapezoid.

DBrrNrrroN: An trapezoid is a traPezoid with both legs congruent.

isosceles
Many of the trapezoids you work with in geometry are isosceles trapezoids.
Note: the bases of avapezoid can never be equd. \Why not?
(1uur3o1a11ercd e eq PFo./rr 1r uaql esnrcag)

Tunonrvr: The base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are congruent. ------)

This lrq uals this

Base angles come in pairs. Each trapezoid has 2 pairs of base angles. Each
1 4 pair shares one of the bases. Notice how the top side of the trapezoid, a
base, is a side of both of the | 32" angles. Therefore, the 132" angles
make up one pair of base angles of this trapezoid . The pair of 48"
\tirz equals this Z/ angles are the other pair of base angles.

82
Median of a Trapezoid

A trapezoid with exacdy 2 parallel sides called the bases.

is a quadrilateral %

The two non-parallel sides of a trapezoid are called the legs.

DnrINIuoN: Zbe median of a trapezoid is the segrnent tltat connects the midpoints of the legs.
Here are some examples 33
B C
e
8 d
F i
e
n

median EF D
Tnronru: 7be length of the median of a napezoid is equal to the aaerage length of its bases.

hare [

base 2 M 2
4fi,
MM= hare n .]).,
2
Know where
each value goes! 3&=
+22
2
28
2
=uJ

Example Solve for x. 3. Use "fraction busters" to

- M= lhllrbase2 cancel the 2 in the denominator
)
2s+4 1. Know where each value goes! zhz=7x+to\2
5 \ 2l
x*
5 2 24 = 7x + 10, 14 =7x
2. Collect like terms: 12 7x+10
5x+ =
2
x=2r/

TneonsM: Tlte median of a trapezoid is parallel to the bases.

Example
- Given isosceles trapezoid
O
MN)P with median QR, frnd wZNMP and r.
The base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are equal. Therefore,
ZNMP is also equal to (2x - 20)".Since rhe median of a trapezoid
is parallel to its bases, PCC tells us thar ruINMP equals ruZNQR
#
p So, ruZNMP = 48/and2x -20 = 48,2x = 68, x = iq.'/

83
Now You Try It

l.ls ABCD a trapezoid? 2. Given D,MNOP with bases 3. Given GHIJ, find u and u.

C ,A/O and MP, frnd x and y.

N o
A
M

4. Given aUVWXwith 5. Given a QRSI find r. 6. Given aIJKL with median MN,
median YZ, find a, b and c.
26
R 3x+B .t find z.
10
(3r+B)
7x+2 I
(4a -
2b+16

Other Parallel Line Theorems

The median of a trapezoid equals hare n harez
+

But what happens to rhe median when the top base of a trapezoid gets smaller and smaller?

20 20 20 20
12+20 8+20 28 1/. 4+20 24 1.
22 =2 =16
22 22 ry=T=ro
Trrsonru The segrnent connecting the midpoints of tuo sides of a triangle is:
1. Half as hng as the third side, and
DE = YzAC
2. Parallel to the third side. +
DE II AC
A A
For triangles, this special segment is called a midsegmentbecause a median of a triangle is
something else:

Examples using the new theorem:

1. Find x and y. 2. Find a and b.

Since PQ joins the midpoints of
two sides of AMNO, PQis Yz as Study L FHJ.
long as and ll to th. third side, The new theorem tells us that a = 12. Now
M ! =14,
MO.lherefore, and study aEGIK. Since a is the median of a
28 o byPCC, x=55.'/
EGIK, 12 = (6+ b) *2, 24 = 5 + b, b = 18./

B4
Now You Try It
1. Find z and rnl DEC. 2. Solve for x, y and mZ HJI.
B

l5x-2
A
F L

Segment Lengths and Parallel Lines

the distance between two parallel lines is the perpendicular distance.

Trreonura: If 3 or more parallel lines cut offequal segments on A transuersal, they are the sarne
distance dpart. If 3 or more ?arallel lines are the sAme distance apart, they cut off
equal segments on all transaersall

9 5

9 5

on even one transversal, the lines are the 9S

off congruent segmenfr on eaeryl transversal.

Example 1. Find ea.

3ll AllO \7hen you see 3 or more parallel lines

Since the lines cut
offequal parts on one
- * in a problem, think of this theorem.
7w-2 transversal, they cut off
equal parts on the other
Example 2. Find x. Since the 3 ll 1i.,., .r,
4w+/ offequal parts on line m,
transversal, so set the
they cut offequal parts
two expressions equal: 7
on line n, so 3x = 6, and
7w-2=4w+7, x=2.t/
3w=9, ut=3. I
Now You Try It
l. Given A = b, find z. 2.Tre three lines in the figure
are equally far apart. Solve for 3t -7
x and y. (Hint: Think about 2x +4
+12 which segment equals which
segmenr.)

B5
KITES If your geometry course doesn't include kites,
wanr to skip this

A kite is a 4-sided with exactly two pairs of consecutive congruent sides. Here are some
examples: 6. 5
3
7 7
)
a

4
8

Kites have interesting properties that we can discover by using what we know about congruent and
isosceles triangles. \We'll investigate using the first figure:

7 7 7 7

Add the longer The longer diagonal By CPCT, the angles between the
diagonal, which will divides the kite into rwo unequal sides are equal and the
always be between the congruent triangles by angles between the equal sides are
pairs of equal sides. SSS bisected.
=.

7 7 7 7

Now add the shorter The shorter The longer diagonal

diagonal, which will diagonal divides the divides each isosceles
always be between the kite into two triangle into two con-
pairs of unequal sides. isosceles triangles. gruent right triangles.

Facts about kites: l. The opposite sides are never equal.

2.The angles berween the equal sides are never equal.
3. The diagonals are never equal.
4. the diagonals are perpendicular.
5. The longer diagonal bisects the shorter diagonal.

86
8. INEOUALITI S
In most problems, we work with equalities, that is, expressions that are equal to each other or figures
that are congruent to each other. This section deals with geometric objects rhat are not equal to each
other. The goal is to compare two (or more) objects and to figure out which is larger.

Properties of Inequalities

Here are the Properties of Inequalities that are used most often in geometry:

I. lf a > b and. c> d, then a + c > b + d.

Here are some examples:

1)8, 3 and 2 =2,so 8 + 2 > 3 + 2.

2) 5, 2 and4 > 3,so 5 + 4 > 2 + 3.
3) AB > CD, BC =BCso AB + BC > CD + BC.
ABCD
4) MN > Ptrland NO > l\/Qso MN + NO > PN + NQ.

a
l/
P o
5) *Zl > mZ3 and mZZ = m/2, so mZ.l + rn./.2 > ml3 + mZ2.

ll. lf a > b and, b, c, then a > c.

Here's an example:

If EF > FG and FG > GH, then EF > GH,

E F GH

III. If a = b+ cand b > Oand c > 0, then a > b and. a > c,

(The whole thing is bigger than either one of its parts.)
Here are some examples:

1) l0 =2+ 8 so l0 >2and l0 > 8.

2) IK = IJ + JK (Seg. Add. Post.), so
IK > IJ and IK > JK. Il K
C
3) lf ml ABD = wZABC + wZCBD (Angle Add. Post.),
then rnZ ABD > mZ. ABC and mZ ABD > mlCBD.
B

87
An Important Theorem Used in Many Inequality Problems
Exterior Angle
Quick Review - An exterior angle of a triangle is formed by extending a side
of a triangle and measuring back to the triangle.

Exrnnron ANcrB TnsoRErur: The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of
the measures of the ttt)o remote interior angles.

Sum ofTwo
Exterior
Exterior Remote Interior
Remote Interior Angles Angle
Angle Angles

1 08" 46" + 62"

Now, recall Properry III of Inequalities:

If a = b + c, and b > 0 and c > O, then a > b and A > c.
(The whole thing is bigger than either one of its parts.)

Using the previous problem, 108'= 46" + 62", so 108" > 45" and 108" > 62'.

The above properry leads to a theorem, which is the key to solving many inequaliry problems:
Exrnnron ANcrB INrquerrry Tnnoner\a: TVtemeasure of an exterilr angle of a triangle is larger than
tlte measure of either of the two remote interior angles.

B
IDCB is an exterior angle of LABC.

For the reason in a proof,, write:

ruIDCB > mlA "Exterior Angle Inequality Theoreni'
wIDCB > mlB
-G (If you dont say Inequaliry, itt wrong!)
A C D
l/
tffhen you're doing inequaliry problems, always look for the exterior
angles in the figure. For example, in the figure on the right, 13 is an
exterior angle of LNPO and Z4 is an exterior angle of LNPM.
o

NowYou Try It 1. How many exterior angles are named in the figure? List them.
Can you find any exterior angles that are shown but not named?

2. Using the Exterior Angle Inequaliry Theorem, list as many

inequalities as you can.

Problems 1-3 3.If ml3 > ml4 (never assume that it is based on the drawing)
what else can you conclude?

88
Triangle Inequality Theorem
7 5
You cant make a triangle with sides of just any lengths. Heret an example
t6
No matter how fat we make the figure, the two smaller sides just arent long 6
enough to meet and form a triangle. This is so because in order to make a 16
triangle, the sum of the rwo smaller sides must be larger than the third side.

TnreucrB INrqueuryTnnon-nu In a triangle, the sum of the lengths of the two smaller sides is
larger than the length of the third side.

There are 2 types of Thiangle Inequaliry problems:

lst Type of Problem Given three lengths, can you make a triangle?
-
To check: l. Add the two smaller lengths together.
2. Is their sum than the largest length?

Examples Can you make a triangle with the given 3 lengths?

-
No{ L-:2 5, 3 and 2? No. 2 +3 = 5 and 5 is not larger than 6.
2,6 and 4? No. 2+4 / (. "Equal to" isn't good enough. The sum must be larger!
2, 4.01and 6? Yes. 2+4.01 = 6.01 which is larger than 6. (Even .01 larger is enough.)
, 3 and 5.8 ? Yes. 3+3 6 and 6 is larger than 5.8
Isosceles , 5 and 5 ? Yes. 2+5 = 7 and 7 is larger than !.
Equilateral , 4 and 4? Yes. 4+4 = 8 and 8 is larger than 4. (Any equilateral triangle "works".)

Gm2nd,TypeofProblem-Giventhelengthsof2sidesofa)
'
ffi*'u ,riangle, find i.e lower and upper
limits of the length of the third side.J
I i
.length of third side < 3
Example
- If the lengths of rwo sides of a triangle are 9 and 4, find<lengthof
the lower and upper limits of the
lengthof thethirdside: 9-4<lengthofthirdside< 9+4, so 5 thirdside< 13',/

Herek the Big ( (p

Atr' formula* Number - *H:,
Length of Third Side Number

Example - lf 3 sidesof atriangle are6.3,8 anda findnumbers aandlsuch that: a <x < b
8-6.3<x<8+5.3 1.7<x<14.3 a=1.7t/,b=14.3,/
Now You Try It
1. Can you make a triangle with sides equal to a) 4,4 and 8? b) 4.01, 1 and 3? c) 2,7.9 and 6?

2.Three sides of atriangle are5,5 andx. Find numbers aand Dsuch thata <x < b.

*\7hy does the formula work? See the Answer Section for a complete explanation.

B9
Inequalities for ONE Triangle

As the size of an angle increases, the sides of the angle move further apart. And, as the sides of an
angle move further apart, the size of the angle increases.

1" 85"

This idea leads to 2 theorems, heret the first one

THnonnu: Within a singh triangle, if one side is larger than a second side, then the angle
opposite the first side is larger than the angle opposite the secorud sidz.

Here's an example:
Since Of , nn Zf > lD
D F
In other words, in a triangle, a bigger side
is opposite a bigger angle,
w4l.(
and a smaller side is opposite a smaller angle.

Use the above theorem when you are given or \7ith these problems it-s a

can figure out how the sizes of two (or more) sides
good idea to -rrk un,h.fifip
sides and ansles.
of a triangle compare and you're trying to find out
@ x^ndrfol uig, f stands for
how the sizes of the angles opposite those sides comPare small and M stands for medium.

Example: Find the largest angle in the triangle below.

Important Matltematics Note :
Physical quantities (like the side of
x
,,\ a triangle, for example) are positive,
so the expression x - 2 must be
positive. This tells us that r is
x+3 positive and in fact that x > 2.
Step l. Label the sides of the Step 2. Label the angles oppo- Step 3. Studying the figure in
triangle. site the sides Step 2, we see that:

lr
st
\
x 12 is the largest angle in the
triangle.
x+ 3 x 3

The converse of this theorem is also true: As the sides of an angle move further apart, the larger the
angle becomes. This idea leads to the second theorem.

90
Tnnonsu: Within a singh triangle, if one angle is larger than a second angle, then the side
oPPosite the first angle is larger than the side opposite the second angh.
E

F Since lD>lF, EF > DE F

Notice that EF is not the largesr side in
the triangle but it islarger thanDE. This
is all that the theorem is claiming.

Use this theorem when you can compare the sizes of angles in a triangle and you're

asked to compare the lengths of its sides.

Remember
- Use the 1st theorem when you have information about the sides. T* 4
Use the 2nd theorem when you have information about the angles. ;-\ * S
Example: Put the side lengths
Since we are given the sizes of the
of the two triangles at right in
angles and we are asked to compare
order from smallest to largest. C
A the lengths of the sides, we should
use the second theorem.

D
Step l. Figure out how Step 2. \Tithin each triangle, mark the
big the third angles are in angles to indicate their relative sizes
A
each triangle and add that then mark the sides opposite each
information to the figure. angle with the corresponding letter.

B
Step 3. Now study the drawing. Since the Confused? Think of it like this:
biggest side of ADCB, is the same size as the The biggest side in LDCB is BD,
smallest side of ADr4,B, we are able to put the but BD is the smallest side of
side lengths of the two triangles in order : 60'
LDAB. This means that the other
BC .OC.BO.en.AD'/ sides of ADr4B are all larger than
every side of ADCB.

Example: Find the largest Step 1. This is an isosceles triangle, so mark

side of triangleTW ZT and Z-Vequal (by ITT). This means ZV is
also equal to 58" and Z Uis equal to:
V
180"-58"-58" = 64"
Step 2. Add the angle measures and markings
showing ZU is the largest angle. This means that
V 77 must be the largest side of the triangle. ,/ V

9r
Here is another example of the use of these theorems:
Given: MN = PN = OP.
Prove: Ol/is the largest side of APIVO and ON > MN.
Proof:
1. ll - 13, 25 = 16.* (ITT)
*Note: Although MN PN OP, ll and 13
= =
are not necessarily equal to ZS ana, Z-e .
M P o M P

2. 24 > Z2 and Z4 > 11. (Ext. Zlneq. Thm.)

3. Z4 > 13. (Subst. since lt = 13, Step l.)
4. 23 > 15 and 13 > 15. (Ext. Z Ineq. Thm.)

5. 14 > Z5 and 14 > 26. (Tlansitive Properry of Ineq. Steps 3&4.)

6. ON is the largest side of APIVO k -

(From Step 5 and the 2nd theorem in this section
-Within ffi
a single triangle, the largest angle is opposite the largest side.) $?o
7. Zl > 16. (Subst. Steps l&4.)
8. ON > MN. (\Within a single triangle, LMNO,
a larger angle is opposite a larger side.)
o

Check List for Inequality Proofs

l. Look for isosceles triangles.Mark opposite angles equal. 4 -A
2. Look for exterior angles. They help you put the angles in size otdrr.l,
>Z 4, t>Ze
3. Combine what you learned in Steps I A 2.If 25 > Z3 then 25 >26 and so forth.

A$, 4. Lookat ofthe indiuidual trianglesin the problem and try

each 4\* 4
to apply one of the two theorems in this section €/'\ * {#
For example, in the above proof there are 3 separate trianghs,
and each needs to be checked.

Now You Try It P M

Given: BD =BC list everything you can

discover about the angles, sides and triangles
in the figure below:

E D

92
Inequalities for 2 Triangles

Even when two triangles are not congruent, if they have certain parts in common, we can make
comparisons of some of their other parts.

71 22 1 27

The triangles above have two equal sides and an unequal included angle. (The included angle in this
case, is the angle between the sides measuring l5 and 24.) As the size of the included angle increases,
the length of the opposite side also increases. This idea leads to the following theorem:

word " has to be

there or itt not correct

SroB crn Srpn INnquerrrv Turonsu (Thn HrNcr Turonrvr): SAS

If two pairs of sides of two niangles are equal and the included angle of the first triangle is smaller
than the included angle of the second triarugle, then the third side of the frst triangle is smaller than
the third side of the second triangle.

i:\
,i
Sound Conftrsing? Read on.
=>= {,}
SAS Ineq.
-Vhat we know: Each of the two St in SAS Ineq. tVhat we find out (the conclusion):
stands for one pair of congruent sides. The A stands \Mhich of the sides opposite the unequal
for one pair of unequal included angles. angles is larger and which is smaller.

B E B AB <DE E
3 ) r3 3
#

At2 D12F At2 D12

H HI >KL

#
L
G I
W< XY
2
t2 T 2
t2
Y +
V V
U X U X

93
Look at the previous theorem from another point of view: the triangles below have two equal sides
but their third sidrs are unequal. As the length of the third side increases, the size of the opposite
angle also increases.

1
t5

This idea leads to the following theorem: word " has to be

there or itt not correct

Sros SroB Sron INnquerrrv TuBoruu: sss

If ruto sides of one triarugle are equal to ttt)o sides of another niangle and the third side of the frst
triangle is smaller than the third side of the second triangle, then the angle opposite the third side of
the frst triangh is smaller than the angle opposite the third side of the second niangle.

Sound confr,.,gt Read on.

o
==;
SSS Ineq.

tWhat we know: Each of the first two \What we find out (the conclusion):
S's in SSS Ineq. stands for one pair of \,Mhich of the angles opposite the
congruent sides. The third S stands for unequal sides is larger and which is
one pair of unequalsides. smaller.
A A
ID> IA
I t7 t9 t7 1 r7 19 t7
-+ t
F9 E C7B F EC B

zN<lQ
1 I
o o
P +
1
1

a a
IT<IW
T T
+ U

94
\Uflhich Theorem To Use SAS Ineq. or SSS Ineq. ???
- L _L ___ t&S,
In proofs and on some exam problems you need to know __-L:which ofc these two theorems is the
right one for the problem you're doing. You decide based on the information that is coming into the
problem (the given), together with any information that you are able to add. Herek how.

Use SAS Ineq. If you know (or can figure Use SSS Ineq. If you know (or can figure
- -
out) information about wo pairs of sides and out) information about three pairs of sides,
the included unequal angles. rwo pairs equal, one pair unequal.
BE A

3 r3 I r7 19 7

A12CD12F B7C E9F

26
H r9
I
P
I

G
r9
l t4
a
'What information comes out of each theorem
- ???

SAS Ineq. Ineq. Glls

us which of the angles opposite
-Tells us which of the sides opposite
SSS
-
the unequal angles is larger and which is smaller. the unequal sides larger and which is smaller.
is
BE
3 3 I 17 1 17 IA<ZD
AB <DE
CE F
A12CD t2 F 7
26
9
,A/
H t9 P
I t4
GH<JI lN<zQ
26
G
r9 M
r4 a
,S
I I os
s us
n "1
n
,S s
.t

SAS Ineq SSSI""q

95
Example:

Given: DE = 8, EG =12, ZCGF = 60",lFGH = 84 , CD

o
CG GH.
-What
else can you discover? C
G
First, re-sketch pairs of triangles for
D which you might be able to apply
F
the SAS Ineq. or the SSS Ineq. C
E Fis.2
theorems. Then, add the given
information and any other infor-
mation you can figure out. q
H
++
t2
D 8 Fig. I

We have the right combination 'We

have the right combi-
of information about the two nation of information about q
triangles in Fig. 1, to use the SSS the two triangles in Fig. 2, to
r€ Ineq. theorem. And remember,
SSS Ineq. tells us which of the angles
use SAS Ineq. theorem. And
remember, SAS Ineq. tells us which of
opposite the unequal sides is larger and which the sides opposite the unequal angles
is smaller: is larger and which is smaller:

Since DE < EG, I DCE < Z ECG. \/ Since ZCGF < /.FGH, CF < FH. r/

Now You Try It

O For problems 1-3, use the figure at left and state what you can conclude:

l.If ZNPO = 93o, and P is the midpoint of OM.

P
2. If NPis a segment bisector of OM and I MPN = 91".

3.If NO = tUtW and OP < PM.

Prob. 1-3
4. Given: WV < XY and IVX
=
W
Prove: ZIY/XV < Z XYZ.
X

V/ Y Z
V
Prob.4

96
9. SITVIILAR FIGURES
An understanding of ratios and the properties of proportions is required for the study of similar figures.
Ratios
\7e create a ratio when we compare two numbers using division. For example: 7+ 4

Although you might not realize it, you think in terms of ratios everyday. For example, when you
notice that for every $4 you have, you are spending $1 on fast food, you are realizingthat the cost
ratio of fast food to all of your purchases is 1 to 4, that is, you are spending one fourth of your money
on fast food.
The ways in which your text will indicate a ratio are:

l+4 1
114 four" four" l:4
4
"one to "one is to
t These all mean a ratio of 1 to 4

Usually ratios are written as fractions and reduced to "simplest forni' which means that we have
removed all common factors: 1
k 1

),6 4
4
A ratio can have rnore than two terms. tWhen this is the case, we use the "colon" form, for example:
lz2:7 which means the three ratios, l:2,2:7 and 7:7
Proportions

If rwo ratios are equal, we can create an equation called a proportionz t2 24

'We have
t =
; 24
-=- 36
special vocabulary for the terms of a proportion:
extreme mean "'a 7, "-"'"i"r" ""r= 7
mean extreme ^b
"rQ, (,* "?=k ""; *{,"*"
You can do lots of interesting things with proportions, some of which will surprise you.
Note: For each transformation, we've gone back and started out with theffiform of the proportion
ac t2 24
Given: -=-
hd 24
-=- 36
Means Extremes Property: ad bc t(4) = 2(2) 2(5) = 3(4)

FIip (invert) the ratios: t

\bv
!:7\
\dL a
b
!c
24
t2
3
1 4
6

d.-C a b 2 2
Swap the means: -6:E
t_
c 7
1

2 4 Z
=3
5

extremes: !"X t 4 2 6 4
Swap the
b\_d 4b = a 1 1 3 2

Bring up the denominator:

a+b c+d l+2 2+4 2+3 4 +6
b d 2 4 3 6
Add them up: A+C a l+2 31 2+4 62
b+d b 2+4623+693
97
In problems in which you are asked to decide if proportions are equivalent, compare the given proportion
to the original, and figure out what was Then ask yourself if the properties of proportion were
followed. original
u I
Example: If x z which of the following are equivalenr proportions?
a')Y= I 'S7.hat
happened? The denominators got swapped. None of the properties of proportion
z x include swapping denominators. Conclusion: No, this is not an equivalent proportion.

b.) 1/) x 'What

happened? (Remember to go back and compare to the original proportion.)
v z The means got swapped. Swapping the means is a property of proportions.
Conclusion: Yes, this is an equivalent proportion.

Here's another type of proportion problem:

lfy=J r \D*X
tnen-=. ) \7hat happened? The denominator of the w+x v+z /
J rl
XZ x left side was "brought up" so you have to xz --v
-

do the same thing to the right side.

Now You Try It

1. Name the 6 properties of proportion and give an example of each.

(1) (2)

(3) (4)

(5) (6)

If one ratio changed and

Z.tf 4lrl = + which of the following are equivalenr proportions? AP the other ratio stayed the
same, the answer is: No, it is

a.)
i=; b.) h
g
J
i
,.)
i
-o
= 4,
x
an equivalent propotion.

3.rf xz =t
10
then L
) 4.) rf = then, -O^
T i ; ,= ?

98
Similarity
Set Designers for rock shows spend a lot of time and money drawing and building scale models before
construction of the actual set is ever begun. Models help the designers
make sure that the set will have more than enough room for the artists to
perform as well as room for the correct placement of the acoustical, light-
ing and special effects equipment. g
g
F
0 5
Scale models are smaller but are otherwise exact copies of the full sized 8:

project which they represent. Since the measurements of every part of the t
model are "in proportion" to every corresponding measurement of the real
project, the designers can improve and adjust the model and know that when they build the actual set,
it will look and work as planned.

Scale models and their life size counterparts are perfect examples of similar objects.

-Mhat
Similar objects have the same shape but are not necessarily the same size. is it that gives objects
the same shape? The answer to this question leads to the definition of similar objects:

DBrrNrrroN or Srvrrr-eRrry: 1. Corresponding angles are congruent and

2. Corresponding sides are "in proltortion".

The symbol for similarity is: - 9 H

C
B G
Polygon ABCD is similar to polygon FGHI.
4 6
A
10'" 15
In symbols write: ABCD - FGHI F
D t2
Similar Objects have
Exactly the Same Shape!
I
Note that itis not the segments and not the angles that are similar. ;1 -*_
It is thepair offguresthat are similar to ,arh oihrr. JTIp

A Close Look: 'Ihe

figures are simila, (- when:
3
Ideas in Corresponding angles arecongruentZ=Z and,
1
in proportion
Definition Corresponding sides are
+* = #'
99
'W'hat
you Need to Know about Similarity Problems

l. In Proportion: 9
C
B G
The corresponding sides of similar figures are in propzrtion
4
which means the ratios of the lengths of corresponding sides
A
10^.,5 15
are the same. Each ratio reduces to the same fraction.
F
461082 D
69 15 t2 3 t2
2. Scale Factor: I
The scalefactor of two similar figures is the (reduced) ratio of the corresponding sides.
-
- The scale factor of the figures above is, J3 or 2:3 (say "2 to 3" when reading either one).
9

AP Once you've figured out the scale factor, write it on the figures: , F

Remember, only figures that are similar have a scale factor

-
3. The Order of the Scale Factor "Small to Big" or "Big to Small":
-
- In the example above, the first figure (read left to right or up to down) was the smaller
figure and the second figure, the bigger; therefore, the ratio for this particular problem is
"small to big", so the scale factor is "small to big" that is Z or 2:3.
) 1-6
7
Note: If you say i or "3 to 2" itt wrong! \af 2

-il7hen "big
rt\ 3
f,,
V

you first start the problem, notice, is it "small to big" or to small", and then,
-
follow the same order in your answer.

4.-Ihe Order of the Similarity

- Order Counts:
- FGHI Can you tell what information this similarity is giving?
Lt#gjl
IBCD

Four angle congurencies: ZA=ZF ZB=IG lC=lH lD=ZI

&
An extended proportion: AB BC CD DA
FG GH
-=-=-
HI IF

3 9
Segments Divided Proportionally W X
This means 2 or more segments that are divided so y 2 6
Z
a
) 2 1

that the ratio of the lengths of their parts is the same 9 6 5

WX and YZ are diuided proportionally.

100
Find the Scale Factor Solve the Problem
-
B
R s 4
Example 1. Given QRSI - MNOP find x, y, and z. o
t4 v ^,, x 5

l. In this problem, the bigger figure was given first, of P

Step so the order T
the ratio will be big to small, that is,' ++
small
a
Step 2. Study the pair of figures and find 2 corresponding sides for which lengths are giuen.In this case,
RT and l/O.

Step 3. Using the given lengths, RS = 8 and NO = 4, frnd the scale factor of the two figures. That
means the ratio of the corresponding sides, being careful to keep the correct order (big to small):
R.t82
NO41
4
Step 4.Because the figures are similar, the scale factor equals the ratio
v 5 of each (and every) pair of corresponding sides. Therefore, we can use the
14 -x scale factor to solve for all of the missing lengths:

Think "big is to small as 14 is to x". 214 Cross multiply: 2(x) = (lxl4)

lx a
/*
zz
-=-
x= /V
l:4

-J

2 v Cross multiply: 2(5) = (r)(y)

Think "big is to small as 7 is to 5" 1 5
l0=ll
Think "big is to small a is to 3"
)q
Cross multiply: 2(3) = (t)(z)
as
r3 6 = zr/

In the next example, the key to the solution is knowing that corresponding sides are in proportion

Example 2. GivenJKLM- NOPQfindOP.

3x+3 2x+2
Since the two figures are similar, we are able to form
3x- x+
the following proportion:
M l/a
lK KL Now cross multiply:
NO OP (3* - 3)(2x + 2) = (x+3)(3x+3)
3x-3 3x +3 6*-5=3*+l2x+9
x+3 2x +2
3*-l2x-15=0
Now factor:(3x + 3)(x - 5) -0
This would make (3x+3)=0, -5)=0
negative!(& OPAKL=0) x = 5, so OP = 2(5)+2 = 12
^a\ '/
101
Example 3. Given ABCD - EFGH find x, y and z. HxE
This example is similar to Example 1, (the scale 5

factor is the key to solving) but these two figures are 3 D

7.5
oriented differently. Therefore, itt a good idea to re-sketch one of them.
Step l. Re-sketch figure EFGHby simply drawing
a second larger copy of ABCD. (Since they Step 3. Comparing figure
are similar, they have the same shape.) and the sketched
Step I find 2 g sides
7.5
Step 2. Following the given, ABCD -EFGH, for which the lengths
q
we know that E goes where the-,4 is and,F are given:
w
goes where the ^B is, etc. Then carefully AB=4andEF=5.
X E ++ In this problem, the small figure
transfer the lengths and the variables
(x and y) to the same positions as Step 2 was given first. This means that
in the original figure. For example, x is the order for this problem is "small
berween H and E, and y goes between G and H. to big" so the ,.rll fr.to r is:
t
Step 4. Now that we know the scale 4z (4)(7., = 3o = (5)(r), z= 6'/
factor, we can proceed as in the first 5 7.5
example, but using "small is to big..." 4 8
(4)(y) = (5)(8) = 40, y=10'/
Since the two figures are turned the )- !
same way, it's easy to set up the three
X -;4 3
(4)(*) = (5)(3) = 15, x=3.75'/
equations correctly. ) x

Now You Try It

1. \Write four congruencies and the extended proportion given by this similarity: MNOP * QRSTI

2.The two quadrilaterals shown below are similar Remember to re-sketch figure GHIJ by simply
G 21 drawing a second smaller copy of ABCD.
J D
I r
2 C t2
t 9
B
a. Name two similar quadrilaterals. b. CBAD is similar to what quadrilateral?

c. tMhat is the scale factor of the two figures? d. Find r, s, and t.

r02
Proving Triangles are Similar 3 Shortcuts
-
How do we know if two triangles are similar? One way is to use the definition of similar polygons,
we can check to see if corresponding angles are equal and corresponding sides are in proportion. But
that means finding 12 measurements. Here are three "shortcuts" that you can use to find out if rwo
triangles are similar. Remember, there arent any other shortcuts. Besides finding and comparing all
12 measurements, these are the only ways to show that two triangles are similar:

1S

1S

I . ANcrr ANcrn Srurrenrry Posrurats congruence.

AA-
If two niangles haue 2 pairs of congruent angles then the two triangles are similar.
Notice that by the definition of similariry this means that each pair of corresponding sides of the two
triangles are in proportion.

Remember, each A in AA- stands for onepair of congruent corresponding angles, ii-.
Here's an example of how to use AA- 5 o
A/
Given LMNO and AABC, name a similariry and find n and c c
3.75
Starting with LMNO, we are given two of the angles so we should n
'W.ith
solve for the third: 180'- 80'- 40" = 60". this information, we A
see that the two triangles have two pairs of congruent angles which
)
a

Fig. I
means they are similar by the AA- Postulate.
M
5
o C Here's how to re-sketch LABC so that itt
oriented like LMNO:
80' & 3
1. Draw a smaller copy of LMNO. (Since the two triangles
50"
are similar they have the same shape, but LABC is smaller.)
5 n 3J5 2. First add the angle measures (copy them from LMNO)
do and then the vertex letters and finally the lengths.
40
Now itt write down or "name"
easy to a similarity. Heret one
M Fig.2 correct answer: AMNO - LBAC.
Studying the rwo figures, find the two corresponding sides for which lengths are given, NO and AC.
Now form the scale factor of the two figures j, noting that the order is "big to small" and writing
the scale factor on the figures. Since the scale factor equals the ratio of each pair of corresponding
sides, we can use the scale factor to create correct proportions and solve for the missing lengths:

Z = T,
(5)(r) = (3)(7.5) = 22.5, c = 4.5,/ and 23 = 3.75
=L, 6)0.75) = 18.75 = 3n, n = 6.25\/

103
II. sron Sron SIullenrrv TnBonsNI d SAS -
If two triangles haue 2 pairs of sides which are in
B A E D
pro?ortion and the included angles are congruent,
then the tuto triangles are similar. a=b,ZC=ZF, LBCA-LEFD
de
Notice that each S in SAS - stands for a ratio of two corresponding sides which must
equal the ratio of a second pair (the second S) of corresponding sides.

Here are some examples of pairs of triangles that are similar by SAS-.

5
2 4
4 3 8
4
6 10
8
1
2
2 4 41 10_ 5
36 82 84
The congruent angles must be the ones that are "wedged in between" the two pairs of sides that are in
proportion. That is, the congruent angles are the included angles.
P Here is an example of how to use SAS-Theorem.
10
Find two similar triangles in the figure on the left:
l2
8 Step 1. Studying the figure, we see t2
a
ZNOM = IQOP by the Vertical Angle Theorem, 8

5 so mark them equal.

Step 2. At this point, we only know that the triangles have a single
pair of congruent angles, so we can't use AA- and therefore, it makes sense to ,ry.S3S.-Jheorem.
Looking at the figure, it seems natural to try to create the following proportion: )! i +
But when simplified, the rwo ratios are not equal,
* r*. The other possibiliry Ji., *.*rU , I
* *E

Always compare the smaller number in the first figure to the smaller number in the
^&e second, and the larger number in the first figure to the larger number in the second. A
ratro ratro
Since the ratios are equal (which means they form a proportion), the two triangles are similar. SAS-
Step 3. To write down or "name" the similariry follow the ord.er of the l>l
correct propor,ior,l2
l5 N( = LN1M - LQza
=
8 Tb '" e; Y3 and'

\i)7hen you use SAS -

the vertices of the included angles will I Included ZO, segments:
'l appear in the names of the segments that form the proportion. I Noqouopo
r04
III. Sro, SroB Sros SwrrrarurrTnronnu E SSS-
If two triangleshaue 3 pairs of sides which are in
proportion, tlten the two triangles are simikr.
A
AB BC CA
DE EF FD rdiHatiHnio
Notice that each S in SSS- stands for a ratio of rwo corresponding sides: SSS-
Remember, dl 3 of the ratios must be equal!
The scale factor of the two triangles is the ratio of a pair of corresponding sides, reduced to its lowest
terms. Here are two examples of pairs of triangles that are similar by SSS-.

r5 17.5 9 6 I0 I2
20
20
15
t2 9 9 10.5 12 t0 15 9 I5 1 8

scale factor = 5
t2
18 ,."1e f"cto, = 4)
10.5 3
17.5

To test if triangles are similar by SSS- form the following ratios and reduce. All 3 must be equal:

smallest side A1 ] medium side A1 ] long.rt side Al

smallest side A2 medium side A2 longest side 42

A
15 B
Example.
2t
l. Are the two triangles at right similar? C
Form the ratios and test to see if they form a proportion (i.e. are the ratios equal ?) I I
* #*
Since each ratio reduces ,o sides are proportional and the triangles are similar Uyffi-
l,the
2. \flrite down the similarity in the problem above.

Re-sketch the second triangle, orienting it (turning it)

like the first. To do this, simply draw a larger copy of A 15B
the first triangle, then correctly transfer the lengths 2t
and then the letters to the new sketch.
l5 B 20 P
A
Now it's easy to name the similariry. Start with one
{ &
2l
triangle, choose a starting point and path; then choose the 2tr
corresponding starting point and path in the second triangle. One correct answer is: LACB - LFED

105
 \When you are asked to show 2 tn an gles are similar , show one of the followin b'
o.

l. AA- These are the 3 ways in which you prove

2. SAS - triangles are similar in a proof or a problem.
3. SSS - {
Here are some things to look for when you're trying to show one of the above:

1. The parallel symbok 2. Intersecting lines 3. Common (shared) parts

{ U

#
0 T

5
W V
or )suvir
rlt$rf
\ s
To help find
shared parts,
10 draw the As
separately. W
ZXis in U
both As.

Now You Try It

In problem s l- 4, decide if the two triangles are similar. If they are similar, explain why and name the
similariry. If not, explain why not.
l.H2. 6 K )
a

X
L
1 W

F l/ V
1 U
P
5. Using the figures below, name two 6. Using the figure below,
4 a P
similar triangles and find g and i. prove: AC AE
BC - BD

106
 SimilarityVersus Congruenq Know the Difference!
-
Similarity and Congruency Theory sound the same....but they are completely different!!!

Congruency ry Similaritl -
AA- A

# B

No such theorem in congruency

Given lA= ZD and lB = ZE
because it doesn't work!
then LABC - LDEF.

'Ihe ratios of the

SAS TJ
'Ihe hngths SAS - lengths of 2 pairs
L
a of 2 pairs of I of corresponding
correspond- sides are equal and
I the included angles
12
P R ing sides are
l1 are congruent.
ll s
equal and
t6
.^/ the included
SAS angles are
congruent. 0
15
ON = QS, ZN = lS, .A/P
=
SR H K 2
LNOP
=
ASQR Given ZH = ZK and since u_fr
%-w
LHII - LKLM 33
the ratios of
the lengths
SSS the lengths
SSS " of 3 pairs of
of 3 pairs of Y
B E correspo nding
corresponding t2
6 sides are equal.
sides are equal 0 nztfurtaiuaio
9 9
U X SSS -
t2 2 \Y/ 1

A D Z
4 4 AB DE BC=EF CA= FD Each of the ratios reduces toVz:
7'l zr_
t4- ).62
w '2
zr
C F 2
LABC =
LDEF AWUV - AZXY

107
 RADICALS
Multiplyin g and Simplifying Radical Exp ress io nr#," Check with your teacher to see if
you are required to simplify radicals.

What You Do WhyYou Do It

Example 1. (4)(5)= 20 Number times the number.

Example 2. (^b(O= Radical times the radical. (^b(^6) =

^fr8 ^6)
Since 18 (the number under the radical sign) is not prime,
=@Q)(3)
break it down into its factors.
='MWU Study the factors. Two of a kind? Yes.

= 3Jz-)effi\ Cross out both twins, zrue escapes outside x afactor

V
=30 Done!

Example 3. (4",fr) (5) = ZOfj Number times the number. Since 3, the number under the
radical sign, can't be broken down into smaller factors, we're
done!

Example 4. @6J6)=zoJ6 Number times the number.

=2TJQ)O) Since 6, the number under the radical sign, is not prime,
break it down into its factors. Since no factor appears two
times (no twins), the radical cant be reduced.
=20\re Re-multiply the "orphans" together. \Ve're done!

Example 5. @^b 6\/6 ) = 2o\fr Number times the number, radical times the radical.
=20 Now reduce 18, the number under the radical sign. (See
Example 2, above.)
= 2}o)fi = 6O..n Done! Be sure to notice that 3 is a factor (so multiply).
Example 6. (4)(2Ji4) =8t54 Number times the number.

(2)(3)(3)(3) Since 54 (the number under the radical sign) is not prime,
break it down into its factors.
=\JWN) Study the factors. Two of a kind? Yes! Note that we are look-
ingfor pairs of factors (twins). The third 3 is an orphan.
=(8) Cross out both twins, one escapes outside as a factor.

= 24..rc Multiply the factors together, re-multiply the "orphans".

Done!

*Important Matbematics Note: The rules on these two pages work for positive numbers only. In
second year algebra, you will learn different rules for negative numbers under the radical sign.

108
RADICAL RULES You are not finished with a radical until you have obeyed these 3 Rules:
-
Rule l. No perfect square factors (that is, equal factors,) left under the radical sign.
\7e were working on this rule on the previous page.
Example: it not finished. \Vhy not?
^E
Because \E = (2)(16) and 16 is a perfect square.
= ",M = Donet
Or, break 4 down:
^/n
=
^/fz@*1P. 4tp, Oither method works.
^/T @)^E =

Rule 2. No radicals in the denominator.

rl
txample:
' --:-
2^/5
is not finished.'\fhy not?

Because --!--- 6r, a radicd, in the denominator.

Z^/ 5 ^6,
Any radical dmes itself equals the number under the radical. (^fr)(^fr ) = x).
For example, (6)(",5 ) = 5. Use this idea to "rationalize the denominaror":

1=1 5
- 21,5 6- Done! (kt okay to have a
2rB z6 5 (5)= 10
radical in the numerator.)
Note: A number divided by itself equals 1; this is why we can multiply by (#)
Rule 3. No fractions under the radical sign.
F;-
l3
Example: is not finished. Vhy not?
V,s
Because
rT is a fraction under a radical sign
Vu
A fraction under a radical sign can be broken up into rwo parrs, the num-
erator and the denominator:
^rT_ J'
-----: Now rationalize the denominator.
Rationalizino V 15 - tlts
the dznomina?or,

Arr
,E l-l=
-it
^/B ,B Done! (Its okay to have
^/B \,8 ) 5 a radical in the numerator.)
-

Radical Talk- "Radical 2", 'Rad 2", "Root 2","Ttte square root of 2" all mean the same thing: 1fi,

NowYou Try It Complete the indicated operation and if necessary simplify (finish) the
- following radical expressions.

),.@QrtE) 2. U\fr) \tfr) 3

3
4
IT
4,/5 V,r

109
10. RIGHT TRIANGLES
Geometric Mean
In order to study right triangles, you need to know about a special number which lies beween two
positive numbers called the geometric mean.
For example, 8 is the geometric mean between 4 and 16 ,,,1 ,,9,,,,,,'f,,,,
,1 "'l"'!',b""'l")'o
The geomerric mean is easy to find, let x = the geometric mean between 4 and 16,
then form the proportion:

; = Now cross-multiply, x2 = 64, and solve: x = 8.

;6
*""" %"
The Geometric Mran always appears ton'4 !:;'. Learn the pattern.
fr1$o z umes ln tne equatlonl
=
ae{"
.l"S
Examples: 1.) Find the geometric mean between 2 and 10.

...".f= ?3r"- c ros s -^H square root

iui :T^' ::?:r);::"i:ff Your teacher will tell
rr",." Note: "=" means "is approximately".
you which form of
the answer to use.

2.) Find x if 9 is the geometric mean between x and 27

-<^

t'd'x 9'a;ot' Cross multiplying, 27x = (9)(9) = 81

G*9 27.o$
q3;'* Dividing both sides by 27, x = 3.
"t*qcu-

Quick Review - In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse.
The hypotenuse is always the longest side of the triangle.
R 90' ALTITUDE ------->
I PERPENDICULAR
G An ahitude of a triangle is theprrpendicular line segmen t that
H from a vertex to the line that includes the opposite side.
T Here are the three altitudes of a right triangle
Hypotenuse

The altitude we are interested in is O, the perpendicular segmentfrom the right angle
to the hypotenuse. This altitude divides the triangle in interesting ways:

Tsnonru : When the altitude is drawn fiom the right angle to the hypotenuse of a right triangle,
the two triangles that are formed are similar to the original niangle and similar to each other.

l/
AMNO - AMPN P
AMNO - ANPO
M
AMPN * ANPO o o
P

110
 Here's an explanation of the previous theorem
- In triangle ABC, altitude BD divides
the original triangle into two smaller triangles each of which has one right angle and
one acute angle which it shares with the original triangle:
A
D B

Since ZABC
=
IADB, and lA= ZA, A
LABC - LADB by AA-.
D
B D
Since IABC = ZBDC, and lC = ZC,
LABC - LBDC byAA-. A B
D C

Since IADB = ZBDC, and ZABD = ZBCD, ,\,

LADB - LBDC by AA-. B B
\When a problem asks "Ar4^BCis similar to which triangle"
you are being asked to list the vertices
of the other triangle in the correct (corresponding) order. For example, using the triangles above, if
asked, "LDBC is similar to what triangle?" the correct answer would be either LBAC or A,DAB.
If asked to "Name 3 similar ffiangles", one correct answer would be LABC - LADB * LBDC,
another would be LBAC * LDAB * LDBC.
Since similar figures have the same shape, you can draw rwo smaller versions of the original A$,
triangle oriented (turned) like the original triangle and carefully place each letter on the correct
vertex. Then itt easy to "name three similar ffiangles."

NowYou Try It- Given igfu LGHIwith altitudr- Hl drawn from the right angle, draw the 2
smaller triangles oriented in the same way x LGHI, carefully label the vertices of the rwo smaller
triangles, and name three pairs of similar triangles. Remember, order counts!
G I 1

2
3
H I
Similar triangles have three pairs of corresponding congruent angles. So it makes sense rhar:
B B

IfA A 6c A B

then A
B B
Similarity transfers. Similariry is a perfect example of the Thansitive Property !

111
Trrnonsvr; In a right triangle, the length of the ahitudzfrom the right angle to the hypotenuse
is the geometric rnenn between the tulo segments of the hypotenuse.

Heret an example:
2 4
4 8
) 8

Pay attention to which value goes where:

The geometnc mean always

appears 2 times in the equation!

Here are some of the ways you can use this theorem:

1. Find the length of altitude l/P. 2. Find the length of segment DC

4NP B
46=-DC
NP9 5
cross multiply: cross multiply:
4(9) = NP' 4(DC) = 6(6)
36 = NP2 I
Xocl _)6
-x.
M P o l8 =.'frP' A 4D C x
6=NP'/ DC =91

Pay close attention to:

which part goes where in the equation:

Hypot.
1 Part of Altitude to Hypot.
Altitude to Hypot Other Part of Hypot.

3. Find x. x-4 x-2

x-2 X +2
cross multiply:
(x - a)(x + 2) = (x - 2)(x - 2)
x-2
x2-2x-8=x2-4x+4
2x=12
x-4 X+2 x = 6r/
And remember, the geometric mean
dways appears 2 times in the equation!

tt2
Turonnu: In a right triangle, when you draw the ahitude frorn the right angle to the hypotenuse, the hngth
of each leg is the geometric mean between the entire hypotenuse and the part of the hypotenuse neurest the leg.

This theorem has tvr/o parrs, the left leg case and the right leg case:

The Left Leg Case

s-- oooooooooo
00000000000
Pay close attention to:
which part goes where in the equation:
Left Part of Hypot. Left Les
Left Leg (Whole)Hypotenuse

B
Example:
t5
AD AB
AB AC
A9 D C 9 t5
5-t 15 25
Since both sides reduce to , the fractions are equal.
f
Here are some of the ways you can use this theorem:

1. Find the length of leg MN. 2. Find the length of segment DC.
l/ B

2 I

M P 9 o 4D C

4+9 4+DC
You need the (whole) hypotenuse. You need the (whole) hypotenuse.
4 _uN 4 _2^fr
MN 13 Cross 2\fr 4 + DC
cross multiplyin g: 4(13) = MN2 multiplyin g: 4(4 + Dq = QJ-n)Q\fr)
52 = MN2 t6 + 4DC = (2)(2)(t3) = 52

^8. =JW 4DC = 36

(2)(2)(t3 -) JG = l,tN DC = 9'/
^/E = /
MN=2 7.2

tt3
 The Right Leg Case
xxxxxxxxxxxxx

xxxxxxxxxxxxx

Pay close attention to

which pzrrt goes where in the equation:
Right Part of Hypot. fusht Les
Right Leg (VholefHypoienuse
Example: B

20 DC BC
BC AC
r6 20
AD\6C 20 25
Since both sides reduce to
f th. fractions are equal

Here are some of the ways you can use this theorem:
-25
1. Find the length of leg OAl. 2. Find the length of segment PO.

9oN r/ Po - 3^fr
oN t3 JB
3JB 4+ Po
Cross multiply: Cross multiply:
9(r3) = ON' Po@ + Po) = 3JB 3Jt3
M 4P
M P o 117 = ON2
w 4+PO
O 4PO + PO2 = 13113)(r3)
pOz + 4pO - ll7 =0

You need the You need the

(po*13)(Po-9)=o
)(3)(13) = ON
(whole) h @O* 13)=0 PO= Y{r
hypotenuse. oN = 3^fr = lo.g r/ (PO-9)=0 ,O=.r9
An eq ua t10n with a
q uadra trc term P02 \. A physical quantity is
a linear term: 4PO, and a
positive so, PO = -13
It constant: -117, needs to be
Now You Try is impossible!
factored into 2 binomials.
d
l. Based on the figure at left, 2. Based on the figure below,
a
fill in the blanks below: find AC, AB, DB and CB:
b A3 D 9 C

a is the oseometric mean between and

/ is the oseometric mean between and
r is the oseometric mean beween and

t14
THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
If th€n (I^df + WZY = fi{yrpomrusef
ts

In a right triarugle, the square of the hlpotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two legs.

Here are some examples:

30
25
5 t0
3
t6
34 24
4

32 + 42= 162 + 302 = 342 102 + 242 =

9 +16 =25\/ 256 +900 = 11 100 + 57 676
'/

til[hat you need to know about the Pythagorean Theorem:

l. The length of the hypotenuse always sits all by itself on one side of the equation.
2.Ihe hypotenuse right angle and is always the longest side.
is opposite the
3. This theorem only works for right triangles. Remember, only right triangles have
hypotenuses.
4. You must square each length individually:

(I-ql)'z + [-@)2 = (Hypmenuse)2 3

ha 32 + 4 =5', 9 +16=25 ,l
Example
Find yi
f = (Z^Bq'
(2y)' * In each case, rhe entire term is squared.
2\fr !' = (2)' (\f0-)'--\
2'f * The exponent 2 is applied to each member.
2y 4f f = (+)(lO) .
* (J-lO1'= 30 since (^6)r= x, is true for any number.
5v' = W24 Divide both sides by 5, the coefficient of72.
5 _-7
we -t/7 =18 Thke the square root of each side.
to ? Because
- 24=0 has a I = ^@X2)(3) Break 24 downinto its factors looking for two of a kind.
dratic term (f! I = 28)tZ)@(3) Cancel both rwins, one escapes as a factor.
a constant (-24),
no linear term, for
y = Z^/e t/ Re-multiplying the "orphans", 2 and,3 together, equals 6.

r15
 Distance Form uses Pythagorean Theorem (*s,7)
find the distance between two points lr)
Hypotenuse= +

- *r)' + (y2- yt)z

Ar- t,)
d= 10 - (- 6))'z+ (7- (- 5))'
d= 16)2 + (r2)'z
d= + 144 , -5) 6,
2 -xr )
d.=J4oo Sr)
,'Xl)
d =20'/ Since the coordinates of the points are integers, +{,@)2=Hypomruse
we can also place the points on a grid, count the
boxes and use the rean Theorem 6)2+(12)2 =d=20t/
CoNvrnsB oF THE PvtHeconreN Tnnonru L--

If (Side f)2 + (Side2)'z = (Irngestside)2 then

In a triangle, tf the sum of the squares of the tuto smaller sidcs is equal to tlte squdre ts
of the krgest side, the triangle is right.

Use this theorem to decide if a triangle right triangle. Remember, only right triangles have a hypotenuse.
ls a
That's why we cant call the longest side the hypotenuse until we're sure that the triangle is right. Remember,
always test! It "looks like" or "doesn't look like" a right triangle isn't good enough.
6
Triangle QRS has sides QR = 6, RS = 10, and SQ = 8. Is triangle QRS a right triangle?
1. Put the square of the largestnumber on the right side of a testequation.
a
o
A test equation means we are not sure if the cwo sides are equal, so we test -!- 102
to see if it is an equation.
2.Putthe sum of the squares of the two smaller numbers on the left side 62 * g' ?- 102
of the test equation.
3. Now do the math and check: 36 + 64 = 100 r/
Since (Side)2 + (Side)2 = (LongestSide)2 we know that QR.S is a right triangle.

Here are some more examples

Is triangle DEFright?
B Is triangle,,4 BC right? E
Does 6) 0
Does a
15
92+122{s 6 62*92L lo2
9
8l +144-225'/ 36 +81 #100
D 9 So triangle MNO can't be
At2c So triangle ABC mast
right triangle.
be a
a right triangle.
Now You Try It
1. Find z in the right triangle below 2. Is triangle PQR a right triangle? Explain.

3z-2
a
2z+2 4
3
P 2 R

116
In the Inequality Chapter, we learned that in a triangle, the bigger the angle, the bigger the side
opposite the angle. This is true because as the size of an angle increases, the sides of the angle move
further apart.

And conversely, the bigger the side opposite an angle, the bigger the angle

Putting these ideas together with the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem leads to some interesting
conclusions about all triangles. Heret an example:

Given triangle EFG with sides equal to 4,5, and 9, what can we conclude? \We know that ZFis the
largest angle, followed in size by ZG and then ZE. ZF certainly looks obtuse but can we be sure
that it is? Lett compare the lengths of the sides using the idea of the
6 4 converse of the Pphagorean Theorem.

9
42 + 623 9' No, 42 + 62 = 52, 92= 81 so 42 * 62 . 92

\What does this mean? If ZFwere a right angle then the length of the side opposite it would have to
b, N 7 .2. But EG = 9, which is larger ihan 7 .2. Therefore ZF mtst b.1"rg.r than a right angle;
^/y
that is, ZF is obtuse.

Tnronmr: (Sidel)'z+ (Side2)2 < (Iongestsil")' +

Ifthe sum of the sqaares of the lengths of the two smaller sides of a triangh is smaller than the
square of the length of the krgest sidc, then the niangb is obtuse.

Here's another example: Is the triangle below a right triangle?

5.0001
rs 32 + q' ! 6.0001)2 no, 32 + 42 = 25, (5.0001)i = 25.00100001,
so the triangle at left is obtuse!
3 4

tt7
NowYouTrylt-Given: a2+ F <C Prove: LABcisobtuse.
Hints: Construct LTW with right lV legs a and &. Now recall the Tiiangle Inequaliry Theorems!
Statements Reasons
a
U
A C d

T b V

\7hat if the sum of the two smaller sides in a triangle is larger than the square of the largest side?
'We
For example, given triangle HIJ with sides equal to 5,7, and 8, what can we conclude?
know that ZI is the largest angle, followed in size by Z.J andthen ZH. Lett compare
the lengths of the sides using the idea of the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem:
8 T _")
5'+7':82 No, 52 +72 =74, 82 =64 so 52 + 72 > 82
\What does this mean? If ZIwere a right angle then the length of the side opposite it would have to
be 1fu x 8.6 but HJ = 8, which is smaller than 8.6 and therefo re, ZI must be smaller than a right
angle, that is, lI
is acute. But /-I is the largest angle in the triangle, so if ZI is acute then the other
mo (smaller) angles must also be acute, and therefore the triangle is acute.

TneoREr,r: (SilelF + (Side2)2 > (Iongestside)' + acute

If the sum of the squares of the lengths of the tuo smaller sid.es of a triangle xs than the
square of the length of the longest sidr, then the tiangle is acute.

Put the previous rwo theorems together with the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem to decide
whether a rriangle is acute, right or obtuse, (providing you know the lengths of the sides). Heret
how:
1. Put the square of the longest length on the right
side of a test eqruation.
2. Put the sum of the squares of the two smaller (Sidelf + (Side2)2
lengths on the left side of the test equation. ft"*sa.r
3. Do the math and compare:

If the left side is smaller, then the triangle is obtuse. (Side1)2 + (Sile2)2 (rngesdidd'z

If the left side is larger, then the triangle is acute. (Sidel)2 + (Side2)2 (Irngesdide)'z

If the left side equals the right side, then the triangle is right. (Sidel)'z + (Side2)2 = (Inngesdide) 2
Here's a memory hint
you may find helpful. <obtuse acute> = right uiangle
118
Example
- Decide whether triangles with sides of the following lengths are acute, right or obtuse.
Remember to put the largest number by itself on the right side of a resr equation.

a. Tiiangle ABC with sides equal to 6, 12 and7. b. tiangle MNO with sides equal to 8, 9 and7.

62 +72? 1.22 36 + 49 =85 <144 82+72?92 64+49=113>81

The left side is smaller, triangle ABC is obtuse. The left side is larger, triangle MNO is acure.
6
NowYou T"y It Is triangle BCD acute, right or obtuse? Prove it
- 8
7
A

Putting IIAII Together

".":" o$"..
l. Gpourrnrc MpeN: The number between two other numbers such that'L {s* 4 = !'": ""o-*L*.,o
alwavs appears
t"f.""',,r'.'.tfiL".,
b#"
2. Tnronnu: -when the altitude is drawn to the hypotenus. ,rirngle, the
"i; ritfih,
two triangles that are formed are similar to the original triangle and to each

X
y other. That is, 3 similar triangles are formed.
And remember, re-orient the smaller triangles to correctly name three similar triangles.
W

X
[\;IM, W

X Y
X

Z
Awxy - Awzx Lwxv- LxZy Awzx - Lxzy
3. Tnrorulu: In a right triangle, the altitude to the hypotenuse is the geometric mean between
the two segments of the hypotenuse. % Altitude to Hypot.
It AltitudetoHyp.r --
o&eehrtE}{ypm"
4. Trreonru: In a right triangle, when you draw the altitude to the hypotenuse,
each leg is the
geometric mean beween the entire hypotenuse and the part of the hypotenuse nearest the leg.

Pa* af Hyp,u*, Left Ri$hcFa*ofHyp*r, Risht Lee

Left Leg - Eere@s --TtghtI*g- -- W&&Eryp@se
5. Tnronsu: In a right triangle, the square of the FRrH ---+ (Lgl),+org'f -fiIypouruse),
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two legs.

5. THeonsr"r: If the sum of the squares of the two smaller sides of a triangle is less than the
square of the larger side, then the triangle is obtuse. (sidel)2+ (Siderf < grngs{Side)2 --->

7. Tnponnu: If the sum of the squares of the two smaller sides of a triangle is greater than the
square of the larger side, then the triangle is acute. (Sider)2+ (side2)2 ) fl-orgediide)2 ---->

8. THponru: If the sum of the squares of the two smaller sides of a triangle is equal to the
of the side, then the ls t. (Sidel)2+ (Si&2)2 = 0ongesdi#)2 ----> HN
119
Special Right Thiangles Two kinds of right triangles occur so often in math problems that they
-
are called "special" right triangles.

I. 45"- 45"-90" Thiangles

TnEonrrr: The length of the hypotenuse of a 45"- 45"- 90" triangle equals the length x ^n
of a leg multiplied by^/,
x
Proof;
Given:
A45'.- 45"-90" L The converse of ITT Let x = leg length By the Pythagorean Theorem
x
x2+x2 = (hypotenuse)2
2x2 = (hypotenuse)2
X
= (hypotenuse)2
^f2*'
*Jl = hypotenuse,,/

Here are some examples of 45"-45"-90'triangles

4
3

r.8rt
3
) o 40
4 1

(=4.2) ,rcw" (=5.7)

(= r.4)
I
(=3.2)

^[Z
it approxima rcly 1.4 so multiplying a number by Jl, is like multiplying the number by 1 .4.
The " = " symbol means "equals approximately'' which means that the number has been rounded off.

This drawing is the model you use

x
to solve 45"-45"-90' triangles.
It's important to memorize it.
x

Example 1. tl * Draw the model so that The model shows us thatT is equal to
J*tP it is oriented (turned) the length of one of the legs times 14.
FindT: 4 )
a

like the problem.

r = G^[3) (Jr)
x
4.,h
! = 4(^f3) (Jr)- 4(J2$)
x t = 4^/6 = 9.8'/

120
Example 2. Solve for a.
x
x
raw the model so that it is oriented
(turned) like the problem.

@Co-p"re the problem to the model,

8 is in the same position as *rt, 8 = *Jl @solrr. for r.
so set 8 equal to *^fi, 8

^n
l^b.\
T
".1! Divide both sides bylD.
Rationalize the denominator

a tit
8
x Recall th^t (,8) (Jl) = z
4
\4
\
=fi
aJz =x
@Study the problem. X= 4^/,
x
x

@rrrr.. a is inthe same position as x, A= ,c, 4rt

that is, d = = 5.66 r/
Example 3. A diagonal divides Draw the 45'-45' Since 5 is the length of
AS,
4t' a square into two a leg (and in the same
Find the length of a -90" model so
congruent 45"-45"-90" that it is oriented position as r), the
diagonal of the square
triangles. like the problem. diagonal equals 5.,/,
below.

5 5 5 x 5

x1p, 5tD = l.ol

5 5

Now You Try It

1. Find the length of a diagonal of the 2. Find the length of a
square below. side and the perimeter
of the square below.

72r
II. 30"-60"-90" Triangles

Tnronnu: In a 30"- 60"- 90" niangle, ,f * it tbe length of the sidt opposhe the 30o angle,
the side opposite the 60" angh equab x1ft and the side opposite the 90" anglz equab 2x. x

x^ff
How do you prove a theorem like this one? Heret one way:

Given: 30'- 60'-90'4' The midpoint of a hypotenuse is equally

distant from each Yertex.

By ITT A have 180" Equiangular A

Yzc are equilateral

c b
b
Yz Yzc r/zc Vzc t/zc Yz c
Yzc

a a
a a Since Yzc = A,
c= 2at/

Since Yzc = A By Pythagorean Theorem:

Yz r/zc a (Yrb)' = a2- (r/za)'
Yt b2 = a2- r/t az
b Yz b r/z Yab2 = 3/a az
By ITT The side opposite the 30o bz =3a2
angle isYz the hypotenuse b =at6I

Here are some examples of 30'-60"-90" triangles and remembrr, is approximately l.73,so multi-
plnng a number by is hke multiplying nirmber by 1.73. ^fr
^E "

t2.4
6.2

(=3.46)
2 2.6 6.2^fr (=10.74)
fi, G1.73)
1
t.3 ,fr
1
(=2.25)

t22
 This drawing the model triangle you use to solve 30"-50"-90" problems.
is
-^- R.-.*ber the t0"- 60"-90" triangle has they'l in the model.
90
xfi It's important to carefully memorize the model triangle.

You need to draw the model correctly. But how do

you remember which length is across from which angle?

the smallesrside is across from the smallest angle.

2x 'Ihe middle sized side is across from the middle sized
x angle.
the biggest side is across from the biggest angle.

€
*^f;
(=1.73 x)

Size Order Angle Side Opposite

Small 300 x
Medium 60" 1.73x
Big 900 2x

Example 1.
ODr"* the 30'- 60"-90" model so that it
Solve for a. is oriented (turned) like the problem.
2x
a

@l itin the same position as *^fi to

set Tequal to *^,f3

@ 7=xtb Solve for x

7 - *^8, Divide both sides bVlB
18 .rA
7 Rationalize the denominator.

^R
ffi x
Recall th"t @Qfl) = 3
Your teacher
M = x = ar/ StudYthe figures, a ir in the same will tell you
which form
asxrsoA =x = z!1
3
4.04 of the answer
3 to use.

r23
Example 2. Find x and y
Draw the model triangle so that it is Size Order Angle Side Opp
oriented like the problem and, since r Small 30o w
is used in the problem, use a different Medium *^E
600
4\/, *^/3 2w variable in
the model. \(/e used "2u".
Big 90" 2w
90" @
v w 4\/1 *^rE 4^f,. setequal ,o *^fr.
4J1 uy,E
@ Compare the problem to the model. 6 -ffi Divide both sides bV
^E
40, the only length given, is in the MIA w Rationalize the denominator.
same position as *1fi so, Jt wl
set 40
equal ,o *rt. 4) a
= u) = y z 3.27 1/
f
You can't divide 3 into 5 .
Think of the "/-"symbol as
protecting the number inside.

** zw=4+)=(+)(+)=Y and.2lt)=x, soff= fi -

)
=6.53r/
fitrp
JL; I .I
Io solve a ngnt triangle problem that contains more than one triangle, the key is to begin with
the triangle which gives you enough information ro get srarred, and then to work your way over ro
the other triangle(s). Add any additional values to your sketch, as you find them.

Example. FindT and z.

The lower triangle is
30"
a righr, isosceles tri- @ SinceT is also a side of
angle which means it is the upper triangle, we
45" - 45" -90'. This gives have enough information
us enough information 2rt to find z.
to find7.
@ Compare the problemt @ Comparing the problem's
\lower triangle to the *-upper triangle to the
45"-90" rnodel. - 60'- 90' model, we
x
leg =^,6, so
2^r5 y',/30"
,r, that 2.,R = *Ji so
! = (6 )68) =.[2 x
x =2, 2x = 4rand
z=4t/
!={r=2\R =3.46r/ *^5
NowYou Try It
Find a

124
TRIGONOMETRY (or "Trig" for short) E

B E
If rwo angles of one triangle are equal to two
angles of another triangle, then the triangles are
similar. Therefore, the third pair of angles are also
I AC
+
equal and the ratio of each pair of corresponding AC D
sides is the same.
D
AB BC CA
F DE EF FD
B B

Heret an example using numbers: I 4t B I 4 8

+A C
A 3C )
D F

s t\-
6F 6

=
Er= x,
f0'2
The properties of proportion lead to ayery important connection: The ratio of the lengths of any
two sides of triangle I is the same as the ratio of the lengths of the corresponding sides of triangle II.
BC4 EF ga CA3FD \3 BC4 ,F_\4
-
CA3FD \: AB 5 DE }qt AB5 5 DE -l\5
Let's Review tWe started
out knowing only that angles A and D are equal (both equal 53" in this
-
particular case) and that angles Cand Fare equal (both are right angles).'We ended up knowing
that each ratio of the lengths of two sides of the first triangle equals the ratio of the corresponding
sides of the second triangle.

tU7'hy isthis Important? Thigonometry is based on the fact that the value of the ratio of the lengths
of two particular sides of a right triangle depends only on the size of the acute angle. The ratio does
not depend on the lengths of the sides. Your scientific calculator is able to compute all of these
ratios! (More about finding them later.)

Right triangles occur in nature, in our homes and in buildings, and in all sorts of scientific and
practical situations. Here's an example of what you can do using trigonometry:

The local video store had a contest offering ayear of free rentals to whoever could most
accurately guess the height of the giant slide at the water slide park. Two geometry
students "found the right triangle" in the problem. The angle that the foot of the
slide makes with the ground is approximately 53". The distance from the foot of
the slide to a point on the ground beneath the platformis 46 feet. The stu- )
a
dents knew that the ratio of the length of the leg opposite a53" angle to the
adjacent leg is always (r.. th. triangles above). So they created the
f
following proportion, Cross multiplying and solving, the
+ =
+
students found that ? = 67.3' and won the contest . And that's trig! fi, 90"

r25
Trigonometric Functions

The value of a trig function is a ratio determined by the measure of the acute angle and by the spe-
cific combination of sides that forms the ratio. \7e use certain names for the sides of the triangle and
when you're first learning trigonometry itt a good idea to label the sides with the correct names.

To find lA\ trigfunctions, first B To find I B's trig functions,

circle lA and then label the sides of first circle Z B and then
the triangle from ZA's point label the sides of the triangle
of view: from Z.B's point of view: A
C C
Step l. The side that ZA Step 1. The side that lB
doesn't touch is opposite lA, \ doesn't touch is opposite I B,
so label it "opposite". so label ir "opposite".
-l--
A ryyrtvte C
C
Step 2. Next,
label the Step 2. Next,
label the
hypotenuse of the triangle.
rt B hypotenuse of the triangle.
Remember, the hypotenuse -\ Remember, the hypotenuse
is always across from the is always across from the
-+-
right angle. right angle. A
C C

Step 3. Label the last side B Step 3. Label the last side
\
-\ a
\
ddj acent. Adjacent means -\ adj acent. Adjacent means
"next to". The adjacent side
\ "next to". The adjacent side \
-t- 5
is "next to" lA. is "next to" Z B, A 0'rrt*v
-F
C C

Quick Review First identify the correct angle and then label the sides from that anglet point
- of
view. Be sure to label the sides in this order: l. opposite , 2. hypotenuse, 3. adjacent.

Three Trig Functions You Need to Learn:

1. Sine, pronounced sign (like 2. Cosine, abbreviated cos 3. Thngent, abbreviated tan
a sign on the wall) and abbrevi- (pronounced like coas\but
ated sin (also pronounced sign): without the t):

. ,
cln /
-
length of opposite leg
adc/-
, Iength of adjacent leg
t^6 /
, length of opposite leg
length of hypotenuse length of hypotenuse length of adjacent leg

126
Learning the Trigonometric Functions
S
o
H
A good memory helper is: C
A
which is pronounced "sew-cah-toe'-ali'
H
T
o
A s
sin equals opposite ouer hypotenuse lt{ o
tcl)Llsf H
These are the
C The 3 trig
definitions of the
cos equals adjacent ouer hypotenuse *{ent A ratios in
3 trigonometric
p{}lenuse H compact form.
ratios:
T
tan equals opposite ouer adjacent le o
.)r .'t!t-
A
Tips 1. Notice the order: For example, sin is equal to
the length of the opposite side divided by (over) the
length of the hypotenuse.
2. Be sure to carefully memorize the correct spelling
of SOHCAHTOA.
3. \Mhen you're doing a trig problem always jot
aSOHCAHTOA down on your paper and always TrigEro
Ewrite it vertically.
14. As
soon as you get your trig exam, write down
SOHCAHTOA on your paper. /ZZ
&s,
SOHCAHTOA Tells Us Vhich Trig Function to Choose and How to Use It!
Exam 2. Find tu @ Label the Z.
Example 1. Findx: I I
@Label the @Th. problem is
tflangle. giving the opposite

@Th. problem gives the length of the hypotenuse

and asks us to find the length of the adjacent side. Studing
sohcahtoa we see that only 1 trig function includes hypot-
enuse and adjacent and that's cah, the cosine function.

cah, we can no* 6ffirlso shows us how

itti Oqn":ring
, solve for x, the unknown. *to set up the equation @

hi/ correctly: l!hUt;,

@Set up the equation: ,^n 28 = *
H OS.t up the equation: cos 51" - x lE$ioren-N

@From your calcu l^ror*rt#ffi *L

@Fro- ro,rr."r..rlatorx: e*- # pL
@Uake the left side a ratio 1 .63 x @Vake the left side a ru1is1 ff
whichcreatesaproportion.J r - 1o
@Cror. multiply: (rl8 x (.53)ta
(1)x x (.63)10
@ Cro.r multiply: @Di"ide by .53, done: 15.l x wt/
@Do.,.' x x 6.3t/ *See ne*t
page for detailed calculator instructions.

t27
Finding Trig Ratios with Scientific Calculators

A trig ratio belongs to a particular sized angle.

Because of this, people have made tables of the trig
ratios and calculator manufacturers have added keys on all scientific calculators which will calculate
each trig ratio for any given angle. Your calculator can also find the angle (!) if you enter the value
and name of the trig ratio.

Study your calculator. If the words sin, cos and tan appear on neighboring keys (@ @@ ),
you have a scientific calculator. Find the @ or @ key and choose degree mode (itt the
default value). Now to find the trigonometric ratios: Most scientific calculators find trigo-
nometric ratios in one of two ways. Test your calculator to see which way it works:

lst W'ay: Enter 30 (for a 30"angle) and then press the sin key. If your calculator displays .5
then this is how your calculator works: First enter the size of the angle (30 in our exam-
ple) and then press the key of the particular trig ratio that you wish to find (sin in our o@@
example).

2nd W'ay: Press the sin key, then enter 30 (for a 30'angle) and then press the equal key. If
your calculator displays .5 then this is how your calculator works: Press the key of the
particular trig ratio you wish to find (sin in our example) and then enter the size of
the angle (30 in our example) and then press the equal sign.
@@@ct
Important Note How many decimal places of the trig ratio should you
-
use? lJse the number that your teacher tells you to use. Some teachers prefer
two, some prefer four. Regardless, the methods you use will be the same.

Going Backwards Finding the Angle'W'hen You Know the Trig Ratio
-
If you know the value of one of the trig ratios of an angle, your calculator can tell you
the size of the angle. You have to enter: 1. The name of the trig ratio you have, and2.Its value
Most scientific calculators work in one of two ways. Test yours to see which way it works:

lst \$Vay: Enter .5, press the 2nd (or Shift or Inv) key and then the sin key. If your calcu-
lator displays 30 then this is how your calculator works: First enter the measure of the
trig ratio (.5 i., our example,) then press the 2nd (or Shift or Inv) key, then the key for c @@@
the particular trig ratio you have entered (sin in our example). The measure of the angle which corre-
sponds to that information should appear.

2nd Way: Press the 2nd (or Shift or Inv) key, then the sin key and then .5, then press enter. If your
calculator displays 30 then this is how your calculator works: First press the 2nd (or Shift or
Inv) key, then the key for the trig ratio you are going to enter (sin in our example), then
enter the measure of the trig ratio (.5 in our example) and then press equal. The mea- @@C6; g
sure of the angle corresponding to that information appears.

t28
If none of the calculator methods shown on page 128 work, you need to find the directions that came
with your calculator to see if you have a scientific calculator and if so, how to calculate trig ratios. If
you do not have a scientific calculatot your textbook should have a table of trig ratios that you can use.

Why are Your Answers Slighdy Different Than the BoolCs? Most trigonometric ratios are irrational
(not simple fractions) and must be rounded off. Also, different calculators use different methods to
calculate trigonometric ratios so minor differences in answers are common.

Here are more examples of common trigonometry problems:

Example 1. Find x and y.
1
ar
\v Elol Find 7: o oH Find-/ox:
S
X
O Cir.l. the angle that you are I C
sin 36" =
LHI
+ aA] COS rO = l0
golng to use as your polnt
x
A
H
T
".5ir'calculanr
from vour
lHl
T
"from.gt'
vour talculator

of reference. o
A
**-3fx S- o
A *Y3€x
x
10
@L"b.l the triangle from that 1 mahe the left side a ratio mahe the left side a ratio

anglet point of view .5g4

rl0
v .$:,-
--I-
x
@ 10
oos multiply cross multiply
(1)y * (.59)10 (1)x r (.81)10
y x 5.9,/ x x 8.1J
*Example 2. @ Pi"d the hypotenuse: @ fina the adjacent:
I
O fi"d the lengths of the legs and tst sin 37" = -4-
hvp
tan)/ = a(r) s
lol g
an altitude of the triangle at tHl
C
A
"rrr' calculator
from vour r--l

k
right.
B
T
H
an-*x 4 H
o
@ Si.r.. rhis is an isosceles triangle,
A
make the lePid€ /1 ratio make trJ€
,..,"oJ .E]
left std? a ratto

the altitudefrom the uertex __/

./>
'60 * 4
angle to the base creates two 1 hyp
4
1-;tr
congruent right triangles, so cross mubipllt cros mubiply

choose that altitude. B (.60)bp x (r)4 (.t)adj x (l)4

diuide both sides by .6O diuide both sides b1t.75
(.60)hyp (1)4 (.75)adi (1)4
@ Here are the two newly
created triangles. Since .60 ^r .60 .75 ^J .75

they are congruent, we * 6.66 adj x 5.33

I
hyp
4
only need to work with @ Th.r.fore, each leg of
one of them.
the isosceles triangle 6 -66
is approximately
@ H.r. is the left triangle
6.65 units long and
labeled from the 37" angle's
the altitude from the vertex angle to the
point of view.
base is approximately 5.33 units long.r,/
You can always divide an isosceles triangle into two congruent right triangles using the merhod*
shown in Example 2. Becomr- rrryrritwith this method and with isosceles t.iarigl.r. N,
^r
t29
Example 3. Find the measure ZA. t9
This is a "going baclovards" B r3
B
lol
sl sinZA= 5 co@@@
problem. Choose the trig r3 C
r3 or
5 5
ratio that includes the two C
A
H
T sin ZA ev .38 @@oo@
o /-A = 22.5"'/
sides you were given. A

Frequently Asked Questions :

1. \Mhat if the pro blem asks for 2 different sides?
S
r.fl o
First use one trig function, H
Frnd w and z in the l8l/
figure at right.
I u then the other. (AIso 1 wct
ET
I
see Example I on the H
o T
1
previous page.) o o
z L A ,
To find w use sin 51' = ft To find z use cos 51" = l0Z
2.'W'hat if a problem gives 2 angles?
Findy in the figure Choose either angle, being careful to label the sides of the triangle
below. from that anglet point of view.
Using the 39'angle as our Now using the 5l' angle as
point of reference: our point o f reference:
0
sin.39" = # cos 51" =J10
1 .o, 0 .63 0
v @-t
I -10
sa*-tr
---r -J-
^r l0
.S7'hichever
y x 5.3,/ ), * 6.3'/ Y
angle you chose, the answer will come out correctly!
A$, Learn the connections between the trigonometric functions. The sin of one of the acure angles
is the cos of the other acute angle. The tan of one acute angle is the reciprocal of the tan of the other
acuteangle. Thetan=* forany l angleandmostimportantly, sin2l +cos2Z = l forany l angle.
Here's an example: l5
sin 28" o
S 8
o sin52"o
H r7 t7
C
I A
1

t
8 H
T cos62"N 8 cos 28" * 15 8

o t7 t7
rrr A
tan62" o f.*".,pnocer>t?.fl 28" x 8
15
t5 15
289 Prove that this
64
sin262" + cos2 62" = (,un)\C"y = ffi * 289 289
= 1 so, sinz 62" + cosz 62" I works for the
28" angle.

Rationalizinq
Radical rules and trigonometry: ,/the denomina?or

7 sin27"= 2= = 2
("9 '
/^ft ^B
v 2 2^/5 2,/5 rA<sl 5
2,/ n 2^5
cos27"= ftY)
*gr,;,7^gJ#) QO) 5

4 tbe denomtnalor

130
 Ne* Trr* "Solving" a triangle means finding the measurements of all the sides and angles.
If you know how to solve a triangle, you can answer any question about the triangle

How to Solve

GIVEN FINDING SIDES FINDING ANGLES

Ifyou know Use Pythagorean Theorem to find Use trig (go backwards, use the 2nd
two sides: the third side: key) to find one angle:
i B
B B coslA- 3
fl.2 5
5 T
32+*=52 l/x53" o
5 5 x *=15,x=4 5 4
To find the other angle:
A
C
A C A CA C ZB=90"-53"x37'
3 3 A Solved!
Ifyou know Use trig to find one Find the other To find the other angle: B
one side and missins side: side with tng:
s^a
one angle: o tan 53" = BC
H B cos53'- 3
AB or u,se
T ZB = 90"- 53" = 37'
5 4

ffiv .50 3 Pythagorean: A C

T
o
A
tln^r 32 +(BC)2x52
A Solved!
A C A C ABx5 (BC)2 xl6
3 3 BCx4
Remember, if one acute angle is 30", 45, or 50", you can use the special right triangle formulas ortrigto
solve for the missins sides.

NowYou Try It
1. Find x ar,.d !. 2. Find the measure of angle M. 3. Find the length of
the base of the triangle.
8

v
l2 4
M
4

4 Solve triangle ABC. 5. Solve triangle V/XY.

A

C Yz

B 4Y4 Y
I-earn your trig! Lots of problems for the rest of the school year depend on trigonometry. [f
'
Think of trigori-.try *h.n.rer you are given a right triangle or an iror..l., triingle. laup

r3t
 Practical Applications of Trigonometry Finding the Right Triangle in the Problem
-
Angle of Elevation andAngle of Depression Problems Example:
the horizon
Z of elevatioll = Z of depression
give one angle, some give the other.
( Depression goes down
?
Elevation goes up.)
).
the Note: the horizon and landi ng
the ground are parallel strip *
8 mi.
Something a towet
building, -a tree, a
The jet's angle of descent (depression) is 43"
a -r
<ffiry person,awall,aledge,
and its current air position is 8 miles east of
the landing strip. How high is the jet flying?
; or the distance to the
anele of ground from a plane. 43 Now use trig: S
y'eleiation Find the triangle o
in the problem tan43" = x H

&-
C
8 A
x H
the or the sea Zdepression x m
lol
lelevttion I 8
nl
Example: The angle of eleva- 8 x x 7.44 mi./
tion of the sun is 34".Two
vertical walls are 8 ft. apart Example:
and the shorter one is 10 ft.
tall. Find the height of the

)
taller wall.
Let x = the height of
x
"'.... the taller wall,and
10'
"'... / = the adj. side
"'..of the small tree stands
the up straigh t
8
surveyor sights the top of the tree,
First, we solve the triangle we
can solve, in this case, the obtaining an angle of elevation of 3l'. The
smaller triangle, since surveyor is 6 feet tall and is standing 15 feet
we are given one side and from the base of the tree. How tall is the
v can find an acute angle.
Lety = the side S
Find the triangle o
of the triangle.
+ H
S
o tan34" = C
H in the pro J- A
C
A
H
.fu"
--T-- -
io -/ -N l/.ct'
n, LL'/ !
tan 31o =
t5
H
m
lol
m
lol
! B'+ 1 '= 22.9' ,^fon" v E]
E] Now that we know the adjacent side of the 1 t5
can solve for x: _15 yav9 !+6=x
x x 15.3J
6 9+6=15
xx15ft.
t32
Solving General Triangles

A "general triangle" means any kind of triangle, scalene, isosceles, equilateral, acute, right,
obtuse, any kind of triangle.
I
E Labeling a General Tliangle
A triangle has 6 parts:
D 3 angles and 3 sides. H
IJse a capitd letter to name each angle.
1.

Use the same letter, but in lower case, for the side opposite each angle

-t
Even if your geometry course doesnt include the
The Law Of Sines
Law Of Sines, it is an easy method and worrh learning.
For all triangles, the following relationship works:
Notice that each ratio is
c sinlA-sinZB-sinZC formed by dividing the sine
abc of an angle by the length of
C a the side opposite that angle.
A sin 41'
t2 - -
Example: sin 78' sin 61'
8 10.6
c
B 10.6 .98 .66 .87

C
12
a ff".}s2,/ffx.082 / # x.082,/

Use the Law of Sines to solve a triangle when you have 3 pieces of information and ar leasr 2 pieces
are apair, that is, an angle and the side opposite that angle. (If you have a side and the
other 2 angles, then you can find the third angle and make a pair.)
SolveARST] Finding s: Finding mlT. mlT = 180 - mlR - mlS = 64'/
sin 66' - sin 50' r: sin 66" - sin54"
Findinse10t
10r
t
,i3L"
l0r
*& &*
10t
*@
.90 t
.9
1 r
.91 .77 .91 .90 .5
J

cross
to*,
mubip$t
10^r t
toss mubiply
J

(10).11" (.91)s, sx 8.5rl x (.91)t, t x 9.9t/

(10).qO A Solved!
Be Careful! Itt But the Sdf of the angle. Thatt why it's the Law of Sines.
In some problems you will sine of an angle, go backwards (@@) to find the angle itself.
Ifan Angle is Obtuse: The meaning of a trig ratio of an obtuse angle is explained in Algebra II courses.
For now, if you have a sin ratio and know an angle must be obtuse (d + F < cz), take the angle measure
your calculator is showing and subtract it from 180. The answer will be the anglet correct measure.
Note: The Law of Sines is a good choice for solving right triangle problems because you frt^
can always make a pair. M*y students find the Law of Sines easier than trigonometry. ft'P

t33
Law of Cosines If your course doesnt include the Law Cosines,
ro best to this
a
Law of Cosines: The square of one side of a triangle A2 =b2+P-2bc(cosA)
B
is related as shown, to the other two sides and the b2 =A2+F-2ac(cosB)
b included angle of the triangle.
c
c2 = 42 + b2 - 2ab(cos Q
Learn the p attern which each of the 3 equations follows:

Use the Law of Cosines to solve a triangle when you do not have a pair, that is, an angle and the
side opposite that angle. (In other words, if you have SSS or SAS, start offwith the Law of Cosines.)
Example: B Solve LABC. The given information (SAS) does not include a pair
c and therefore, we must start offwith the Law of Cosines. Of the 3
A forms of the equation, we need to choose the one for which two of
the given lengths are on the right side of the equation. In the case
b
of LABC we have /.A, side b and side r. Therefore, we'll use the first
form of the equatio n; A2 = b2 + P - 2bc(cos A)
azx(142) + (11'z) -2(14)(11)
.85
(@r
,
the square root oJ
r,a\ a2x196+l2l-(308)(.85)=3t7-261.8=55.2
c A N 7.4J
In a single triangle, never use the Law of Cosines more than
b once. After the first step, you will have a pair (an angle and the ANI,
side that . Then use the Law of Sines (itt easier).

Finding mZC: sin-3-2" sinlC Finding mZB:

/.+
=
r-1-- mZB = 180 -mZA-m./-Cx95.8'/
.53
gia-tr - sinZC
5.8"
7'4 11
c

(7.4)sinlC = (.53)11, sinZC x.79 A

.2"
CAGD@@ b
To find mZC, *zC x 52.2",/
@@caoE A Solved!

lWhat if there are no letters? 1

4 Question:
A 4
Answer: You add the letters and get started. 2
A2 = b2 + P-2bc(cosA) * (142) = (212) + (10) - 2(21)(10)(cos,4)
X .82 x cosA, mZ.Ax34.8"t/
\What if the letters arent ABC?
Question:
Answer: Follow the pattern, putting the 2 given sides on one side of the equation.
x
d2=
Y

134
NowYou Try It

In problems 1-5, name a method that could be used to solve each triangle, then solve the triangle
1.x 2 3 4
a J r
t2 3
,1W
R t
M

5.a 6 The lightbeam falls 100 ft from

the bottom of the li ghthouse. If
b the lighthouse is 70 ft. tall,
c
"-. .what is the angle of
depression of the
A '...lightbeam?
\

Putting
Together itAll
tigonometric Functions - The value of a trigonometric function is a ratio determined by the mea-
sure of the acute angle and the specific combination of sides that forms the ratio. Name the sides of
the triangle from the acute angle's point of view: B
From Z. Ns or From lB's
point of view: point of view:,
Al
la/
0er1 rrrtev
These are the definitions Choose the ratio that Your calculator can find any trig You can find the
of the trig ratios: names the side you ratio for any angle. angle if you enter
know and the side Sohcahtoa tells you how to the value and name
_ length of opposite leg you want to know:
^z^ ./ create the equatio n correcd yi of the trig ratio:
length of'hypotenuse lSlm=
s S
length ofadjacent leg o lohqry o
cosZ= H tst x lHbp@s H
length ofhypotenuse C lol
oX
n
lel
A lul
32 tHl
-^^ ./ _ length of opposite leg H
T
C
oa@ 8
x T @@o@ct
length of adjacent leg H o
o T or 8 A or
A
?ooae x o 4?,4J c!t@@
"Solving" a triangle means finding all of the missing measuremenrs.
A "general triangle" means any kind of triangle. B d
Law Of Sines: sinlA - sinZB _ sinlC L
These 2 Laws work for C
any-kind of triangle.
abc
Law of Cosines: e/2 = ) b2

135
The Essentials - Be an Expert atThese 3 Methods:
-When
1. The Pythagorean Theorem you have a right triangle and the lengths of 2 sides are
-
Theorem to find the length of the third side.
given, use the Pythagorean

A
Example: Given LABC, frnd CB.
(l-qtF + [-@l = (Ilpotenusef
Remember, the hypotenuse always goes all
23 by itself on the right side of the equation.
232 + CB2=252
CBz=625-529=96
CB CB = 4.\/6 * 9.8 r/

2. Using the Law of Sines for Right Triangles -\When you have a right triangle and the
measures of one side and either acute angle is given, you can use the Law of Sines to find the missing
lengths of the sides of the triangle. Note that the sin of 90" is I (which is easy to remember).

D Example: Given LDEF, frnd DF and FE.

sin 67" sin 90'
DF - 25 ZD = 90"- 67" = 23"
sinlA-sinZB - sinlC .92 .39 1.0
b L
abc 1.0
Arr-ff sffitr Aa3tr
-ffiFE*25
DF* 25
B (.92)25 x (\.O)DF=DF (.39)25N(1.0)FE=FE
C a FE 23xDFl 9.8 * FE'/
3. Solving IsoscelesTriangles It doesnt matter which side(s) of the triangle and/or which
-
angle you are given, dways solve an Isosceles Thiangle by drawing the altitude from the vertex angle
to the base. This will divide the triangle into two congruent right triangles.
Example:
Step 1. Draw the Step 2. The I Step 3. Use
Solve the Law of
altitude from the altitude divides
LIKL. vertex angle (the LIKL into 2 s Sines (or
25
angle between the right triangles. trig) to solve
2 equal sides) to one of the
=
the base right triangles.
L K L K K L MM
\7hat if youre given the vertex angle andlor the non-equal side? Use the same method, remembering
that you are dividing both the vertex angle and the non-equal side in half when you create the two
congruent right triangles.

And remember, if you need to know an

Example:
sinlB=#N.92
angle and you have two sides of a right 23
OOA@@or lB
Find ZB. x 67"'/
triangle, go baclovards using the 2nd key. C @@ooae
t36
11 CIRCLES
'SThatYou
Need to KnowAbout Circles

1. A circle is made up of all of the points in a plane that are equally far away from a given
point called the center.

circle
Thken together, the equally distant points form
the curved figure that we call a circle. Its center

2.The distance from the center to the circle is called the radius of the circle.

The radius of The radius of

this circle is 5 this circle is 7.

Any segment (a part of a line) that goes from the center to the circle is also called a radius.
If you know where the center of a circle is, you can always add a radius wherever you need one.
Each of the segments Each of the segments
shown is a radius and shown is a radius and
each is equal to 5. each is equal to 7.

The plural of radius is radii (which is pronounced ray-d-i) or radiuses.

'*A very important

All radii of a circle are equal. +- fact about circles;k
3. Circles are named by their centers which are points, and points are named by a single capital letter.

This is circle H This is circle O. This is circle A.

In each of the figures above, we are being given the location of the center. Always look for the dot (.).
4. Most textbooks use a small circle with a dot in the center as the symbol for a circle: O
Using the circle symbol we would call the above three circles O H, O O, and O A.

5. Here are terms associated with circles CHono A line segment

- whose endpoiruts are both
on the circle.
DreirtrrBn. A chord that passes through tlte center
-
of a circle. A diameter is the longest chord in a circle.
SrcaNr A line that includ.es a chord of the circle.
-
ThNcrNr A line which passes through only one
-
point of a circle, 0r lne of its rays 0r segments uthich
includes that point.
point of PorNr or ThNcrNcy
tangency -7he single point shared by a
circle and a tangent.

137
'WhatYou Need to KnowAbout Circles (continued)

6. AII circles have the same shape and therefore all circles are similar.

7. Dr,prNrrroN: Congruent circles haue congruent radii.

Of course congruent circles also have congruent diameters and ,!

congruent circumferences, but if you're asked to prove that circles

are congruent, show that their radii are congruent. The radius of OMrg the radius of Otr
.o, OMi. congruent to OII

8. DruNrrtoN: Concentric circles are circles hauing the same center.

Think of the center as the bulls eye of a target.

Four concentric circles

Spheres

DnrrNrrroN A sphere is the collection ofpoints in space that are equallyfar autay
fom a giuen point called its center.

Spheres are a part of our everyday lives, for example tennis balls, soccer
,rl
balls, and basketballs. All of the terms that we use with circles can also be
used with spheres. Heret an example: If a tennis ball were inside a soccer
ball which in turn were inside a basketball and if we arranged them so that
all three balls had the same center, then they would be concentric spheres.

NowYou Try It
B C
Study the illustration on the right and identify each object. (Hint, some A
are duplicates and for this exercise, objects that appear tangent are tangent.)

A G
B H
C I
D I K
E K
F L
L
Be sure to check in the answer section at the back of the book to see how you did!

138
AII About Tangents

point of
tngents through a single point of a circle because the tangent is
pass tangency
straight and the circle is curved and pulls away from the tangent on each
side of the point of tangency.

Note: Although tangents are lines, we are usually interested in only a portion of the tangent. Because
of this, we refer to tangenr segments and tangent rals as rangenrs.

TnBonru: A tangent is perpendicular to a radius or diameter drawn to the point of tangency.

point of If you know that a line is a rangenr -
-
,/ tangency and if there is a radius o, di"-Et.r.1f$,
drawn to the point of tangency,
add the perpendicular sign (-r). If no radius
or diameter is drawn but the cenrer is
draw in a radius and then add the perpen-
dicular sign.
The above theorem leads to a second theorem which is used in many problems:

Tnnonru: If two tangents to a circle are drawnfrom the same external point, the tangent
segments are congruent.
My students named this the
B Clown Hat Theorem.
\Thenever you see two tan-
gents drawn from the same
external point, always mark
the wo rangenrs as equal.jtfp

C AB AC
'We
can prove this theorem using congruenr triangles.
Given: AB and AC are tangent to circle D.
Prove: AB = AC.

Statements
C
l. AB andAC are tangent to circle D. l. Given.
2. Drau, radii from D to B&.C. 2. Two points determine a line.
3. DBTAA UOC tAC. 3. Thngents are J- to a radius drawn ro rhe point of tangency.
4. ZDBA A ZDCA are rt. angles. 4. Perpendicular lines meet ro form rt. angles.
5. IDBA= IDCA. 5. All right angles are congruenr.
6. DB = DC. 6. AII radii of a circle are congruent.
7. DA= DA. 7. Refexive Properry of Equaliry.
8. LDBA A LDCA are rt. A's. 8. A triangle with a rt. Z is a rt. A.
9. LDBA = LDCA. 9. HL.
10. AB AC. 10 CPCT.
=

r39
\We know that a radius drawn to the point of tangency is perpendicular to the tangent. The converse
is also true.

Turoruu: If a radius is perpendicular at its outer endpoint to a line in the plane of a circle, then the line
is tangent to the circle.

Hypothesis (the "if") Conclusion (the "then')

A A

The outer endpoint of the radius is the

point of tangency of AB'
More Tangents
A circle can be rangenr ro another circle. Thngent circles are tangent to the same line and share the
same point of tangency.

Externally Internallv point of

Tangent' 2 \flays ----------+ fxngent'
CirZles ' CirZl.t -
tangency
--

Lines can also be tangent ro two non-adjacent (not next to eachother) circles

Common Common
Externd __ 2 \Mays Internal
Thngent
Thngent

Internal or External?? If the common tangent crosses a segment connecting the centers, it's internal.

Two common One common Two common

external tangents internal tangent internal tangents

Now You Try It

t2
l. Find x. 2. Explain what you know about AB?

140
Inscribed and Circumscribed Scribe means to write, inscribed means "wrirren upon". Inscribed
-
and circumscribed are important terms in geometry; be sure that you understand what they mean.

Inscribed Angles The uertex of an insribed angle lies on (is written upon) the circle
-
F
ZGHI is insideOP
IDEF is inscribed in eA. This means but Z-GHI is not
the vertex of IDEF, point E, lies on OA. an inscribed angle,
because its vertex
does not lie on circle P.

One Picture, Two Descriptions: Inscribed Polygons Circumscribing Circles

l/ -
LMNO is inscribed inOB, which means
OB LMNO. This means that
circumscribes

all three vertices of LMNO lie onOB. each vertex of MNO lies on OB. (That is,
LMNO is inscribed in O^8.)
o
M* ,n S/,
A polygon is inscribed in a circle if euery vertex of the polygon lies on the circle. The
circle is said to circumscribe the polygon.
In the case above, each statemenr describes the illustration. Some problems
will describe it one way, some problems will describe it the other way.

The quadrilateral on the left is inside the circle but it is not inscribed in
the circle because not all of its vertices are lying on the circle.

One Picture, Tko Descriptions: Inscribed Circles Circumscribing Polygons

points of
-
A B circle is insmibed in a polygonif euery
points of side of the polygon is tangent ro the circle.
tangency
The polygon is said to circumscribe the circle.
C
OWis inscribed in hexagon ABCDEF.
Hexagon ABCDEF is circumsmibed aboutOW:
E D
The circle on the right is insidc the polygon but it is
Each side of hexagon ABCDEF not inscribed in the polygon because each side of the
is tangent to OlYl polygon is not tangent ro the circle. The polygon is
not circumsribing the circle for the same reason.

Recall: Given: OWis inscribed

Thngents drawn from the same A Given that
exterior point are congruent. the circle on I
So, if you know that icircle is the right is 5x
insribed in a polygon (or that the C inscribed:
polygon circumsmib,rr the circle), 5x=10,x=2
you know that the segments are 2y=8,!=4
tangents and therefore equal. E z=3 2y )-
141
Quick Review \7e know that a circle is made up of all of the points in a a circle
- 6.
plane that are equally far away from a given point called the center.
tts center

an arc
Arcs
DerrNruoN oF AN Anc: An unbroken colbction ofpoints on a circb, is called an arc,

Think of an arc as a piece of the circle's circumference.

arcAB
An arc is named by its endpoints. B

The symbol for an arc is ^. For example, arc AB is written iE.

\Mhen naming an arc,.it doesnt matter which endpoi+t aPPears

first. For example, ABis the same x BA and AB = BA.

\(hen we say the measure of an arc we are referring to the

amount of rotation around the center of the circle. Rotation
is measured in degrees. One complete revolution is 360". This
means that an entire circle measures 360".

Here are some examples of arcs and their measures:

L35
00
3
F
K
60"

*ED =90 *6F = 30 mJK = 60 *fft = t35

Notice that just as with angles, z stands for "measure of". The "measure of" an arc is always
referring,o , d.gr.. -."r,ri. and when a problem says find *iE the answer is a number.

Central Angles
.When the vertex of an angle is placed at the center of a circle, the sides of the angle intercept the circle
and determine, or "cut off', an arc. This kind of angle is called a central angle. Here are four examples:

35
30 \
o

mzzoD=*ED=go m lroc = rnGF --lo m ZJIK = mKJ =60 mZtvtot = mML = t35

r42
Two Arcs Not One
- Minor Arcs, Major Arcs
Study the circle on the left. We know that points P and 85"
Q are the endpoints of an arc which measures 75. But
points P and Q are also the endpoints of the remaining
P piece of the circle which musr measure:
P
75 360" -75" =285"
a This means that any rwo points on a circle determine
a
tLUo arcs, not one, and that the sides of a central angle
intercept tluo arcs, not one.

The measure of a MINORARC is defined The measure of a MAJORARC is equal to

to be the measure of its central angle. 360 minus the measure of its minor arc.
Minor Arc < 180o Major Arc > 180o

To name a major arc a third point is added between the endpoints of the arc and all three points
(this means all three capital letters) are included in its name:
FMA is a major arc. The measure of FMQis 360 -75 = 285 andis written * fMd = 285.
95"

major arc m PMQ = 285

minor ar, *Q=75

a
The endpoints of the major arc are the first and last letters in the major arct name. I!4ogr', matter
which point appears first and which appears last, for example Pt tQ is the same as QUP
F
D
Semicircles
- If two points are at the outer endpoints of a diameter, the points
divide the circle into two semicircles. A semicircle measures 180" and is named
with three points, that is, threeletters. Problems can indicate that a figure includes lg0"
a semicircle in lots of different ways, a few of which are shown below. Beneath
^
semicircle DEF
each figure, one of the semicircles formed (there are two in each figure) is named. m DEF = 180
Given diameter GH
-
U v C
M
G H
A
w
semicircle UVW semicircle IEe semicircle Glll semicircle MPN

The endpoints of the semicircle are the first and last letters in the semicircle's name. It doesnt marter
which point appears first and which appears last, for example 0W is the same as ffi.

r43
CongruentArcs
the2 Requirements for Arcs to be Congruent:
two arcs must have the same measure.
1. The
2.-Ihe two arcs must be in the same or in congruent circles

60" B

l/
l s
57" 57"
K T M

JK=IH Si=frN
1. Both arcs measu re 57.J 1 . Both meas 38 .'/
1. Both arcs measu re 60.J
2. Both arcs are in the same circle. r/ 2.-Ihecircles are congru..r,./ 2 o oF( uneq radii.){,
(Circles with radii are
= =.)

Since the measure of a minor arc is the measure of its central angle, equal
minor arcs in the same or congruent circles have congruent central angles.
__>
THsoRENa: Congruent Arcs haue congruent centrAl angles.

Conversely, by the same reasoning, two congruent central angles in

the same or congruent circles have congruent arcs. --+
TrreoREIrI: Congruent centrdl angles ltaue congruent Arcs.

The connection between arcs and central angles will be the key to solving many problems. Here are
two examples.
E Find r: VAI,
By Findy: The marks "/" tell us that
IEOD = ZFOG so the two arcs are equal. Since the
Fd ED.Therefore, we equal arcs are in the same circle,
=
can set the arcs' measures their central angles are equal.
F equal to each other to solve. Therefore, we can set their values
(x+60)" G x+60=4x equal to each other and solve.
-x -x 2y=y+24
2o6Q = 3.r
& &
-! -y
y =24J
20=x/
NowYou T"y It
1. FindT: 2. Find z: 3. \What can you_
conclude abowAB
+20f
and DEt Explain.
!"
4x"

144
Arcs and Their Chords
130"
A chord is a line segment whose endpoints are both on a particular circle. FG is a chord
of circle O. FG determines ("cuts off') two arcs, a 130" arc and a 230" arc. However,
when we say the "arc of the chord" we mean the minor (smaller) arc. G
230"
a chord
130" &
its arc

"The same or congruent circles" You will see this phrase in many theorems about circles. \What
-
the phrase means is that the theorem applies to (works in) a single circle and that the theorem also
applies to (works in) two or more circles, providing that the rwo circles are congruent, thar is, that
the radii of the two circles are congruenr.

Circles are symmetrical. Because of this, a chord of a fixed length will determine
5
("cut off") the same size arc in a particular circle regardless of where the chord is
placed. Imagine the chord being moved around the circle. fu long as it remains 69"
a chord (as long as both of its endpoints lie on rhe circle) the arc of the chord will
be the same size.
68"

Tneonrrvr: In the sAme or in congruent circles congruent arcs ltaue congruent chords.

In the same circle In congruent circles:

A 00" A 100"
V Y
B _.> B _->
C
100"
C
100'
U
wl',
If iE =
6 then AB
=
CO. If mji = *f? th* UV
=
XV.

The converse of the above theorem is also true:

Tnnonpvr: In the snrne or in congruent circles congruent chords haue congruent arcs.
In the same circle: In congruent circles:
E E
o --> Fa!

n/
P P
If OP = MN then OP
=
MN If EF = CA thrn *EF = mGR.

t45
 theorems are easy to prove.'We'll use the most imPortant
Proving Circle Theorems
- The lastaretwoequal, and congruent triangles:
fact about circles, all radii of a circle

Prove In the same circle, congruent arcs have congruent chords. B

-
Given: *iB = meD.
C
Prove: en =
CD.
Statements Reasons
l. mAB = mCD. l. Given.

2. Draw radii from R B 2. Two points determine a line.

to points A, B, C A D.
Li_
3. RA=RB= RC=RD. 3. All radii of a O are .,.

4. wZARB = mAB, 4. Measure of a central Z equals the arc

wICRD = mCD. it intercepts.

5. wZARB = wZCRD. 5. Substitution. (Statements 1A4.)

6. LRBA LRCD 6. SAS Thm.

= =

7. AB= CD
@- 7. Corresp. parts of
=
A are
=
(CPCT)

To show that congruent chords have congruent arcs, the reasoning is very similar:

Mark the congruent chords as congruent ("Given"). Then by adding the

congruent radii as above, we can see that the two triangles are congruent by SSS
=.

Therefore, the central angles are congruent by CPCT.

Finally the arcs are equal because the measure of an arc is equal to the measure of
the central angle that intercepts it. S-
To prove the two theorems for two or more congruent circles, we would use the definition of
congruenr circles, that is, congruent circles have congruent radii. This would lead to congruent
triangles and then to the same reasoning as above.

\Uhen doing proofs about circles, a good general strategy is:

I * 1.) Draw in congruent radii. Add other known facts
fittp z.i St".. the resJting triangles are congruent.
3.) Us. CPCT to reach or to help reach the conclusion.

t46
 TnBonnu: In the sarne or congruent circles, congruent chord"r are equally distarut
NrtrYl
from the center of the circle(s).

wz6N L In the same circle: In congruent circles:

lar\Ml\tfi E E

D D
H I
tfOP=eQ and Gn = 1k,

A A
G
If ,48 =
ED, then RC > RF.
then P1
= QL
You Try It Using the drawings below hints, prove the above theorem for a single circle.
- as
Hint To:xplain constructing
E E E - AD
F F F F altitudes and BD, say:'Ihru
apoint not on a line, there is e*acdy
G G G one linet- to the given line.

Statements Reasons

The converse of the last theorem is also true.

THnonsIvt: In the same or congruent circles, chords which are equally distantfrom the center are conryent.
In congruent circles:
In the same circle:
P
B

o o

IfOC=OG andCD=GH,

IfSQ=RQ then OP NM.

=

then AB =
EF.

147
Putting it all Together - Problems involving circles and chords follow certain patterns. Here are a
few of them
Find x:
o o
94"
'ffhen r"dii AtP
5 form two sides of
a triangle, the tri-
angle is isosceles.
Draw radii All radii of a circle A central angle equals
are congruent. the arc it intercepts.
rst
lol
vertex
ts
A
5 H
T
o
A
calculator knows 0'v?0't-v
x rhx this number 'Vz x
Isosceles triangles can always If you know the sizes of one n 47"= Vzx
)
be divided into two congruent acute angle and one side of
right triangles by drawing the a right triangle, you can find
.nNt4)
altitude from the vertex angle the sizes of the other sides Cross multiply
.73 o Yzx
and multiply both
using trigonometry (or the sides by two t5
Law of Sines). x x 731
In the above problem, if we had been given the size of the chord we would have used the same tech-
nique to find the length of the radius.

In the following problem, we are given the radius and the perpendicular distance from the center to a
chord. The problem is asking for the measure of the arc of the chord.

FindT:
Yzy" Y2

5
5
5

0-rrttv
The vertex angle of the cosr/zy = 1- =.8
Draw radii 5
isosceles triangle equals
to endpoints
./" (the arct measure). The
C@@@or@l@O@E
of the chord.
isosceles triangle is divided
(All radii of a both
into two congruent right Vzy x 36.9
O are =.) sides by 2
triangles, so the vertex y x73.8 '/
angle is divided into two
equal parts.
In the previous problem we divided the isosceles triangle into two right triangles which were
congruent (by HL).

5 5
5 4= 4

CPCT tells us that the altitude divided the chord and the verrex angle in half. This leads ro the
following theorem:

Tnnonru: A diameter (or radiu, that is perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord and its arc.

------+

This theorem is easy to prove. First draw radii to the endpoints of the chord. Since all radii of a circle
are equal, we have again formed an isosceles triangle which we can divide into rwo congruent right
triangles. Thiangle LADC LBDC (by HL). CPCT tells us that AD DB, that is, thai the chord is
= =
bisected. (Definition of a segment bisector. Definition of a midpoint.)

C C C C C

B
A D BA DD
by
MM
HL
B AD
by CP CT
D B

Similarly wIACD = wZBCD (also by CPCT), and since the

A
measure of an arc is the measure of the central angle which
intercepts it, we know that *,[E = mEE. This proves that CE-
E
is bisecting.,4B.
B
NowYou Try It
l. Find the
xo
2.The radius of
length of a circle Wis 4, find r.
diameter of ll0'
circle C.
Angles and The Arcs They Intercept

rWhen the vertex of an angle is placed at the center of a circle, the sides of the angle intercept the circle
and determine (cut off) an arc. This kind of angle is called a central angle. A central angle and the minor
arc it intercepts, or cuts ofi are equal.

DnrrNrrroN: The measure of a minor arc equals the measure of its central angle.
5
00
)
a
K
F L
D

m ZEOD = mfr = 90 lFoG = mGF = 30 ruIJOK = *jr = eo mlloM = *fr =135

\When the vertex of an angle lies on a circle and the sides of the angle are chords of the circle, the
angle is called an inscribed angle.

INscnrnBoANcmTHronnu: 1. An arc equab two times its inscribingangle. 1=yrff

rr .-r^^.
rtere are some examptes:
2. An inscribed angle
o =
1/z the arc it intercepts.

E 35
30L I
G I 60"

F
M
mZrpc=45,mEG =90 mlGHt=t5,mGI =lo mZryr= 30, mIK = 60 rn ltllN = ur.r, *119 =135

\When you do inscribed angle

Afi' problems always stop and think l the anglle is smallller

A
the arc is bigger
Zl, 12, 2.3 and 14 are inscribed
angles in the same circle. Since
If more than one inscribed angle
intercept the same arc, the angles
.J ,rrgl. intercepts IB, the for,u
angles are equal.
must be equal.
mZl=mZ2=mZ3=mZ-4

'What
Example l. Find the measure of ZCEF. Example 2. can you decide about
F LCDG and LFEG?
Inscribed angles ZCDF and ZCEFboth
Inscribed angles ZDCE and I.EFDboth
intercept G to the angles must be equal.
Setting their measures equal to each other:
intercept fr
to the two angles are equal.
Since ICDF andlCEF both intercept
x+30=3x,2x=30, D eF,they are also equal. Therefore, by the
x=15
ruZCEF = 3x = 45 r/
AA- Postulate: A,CDG - LFEG. '/
The sides of an inscribed angle are lines which include chords of the circle. fu a chord gets smaller
and smaller its limit is a tangent.

The chord and the tangent in the fourth drawing above form an angle, and the measure of the
angle formed is equal to Yz the measure of the arc of the chord. This is an example of drawing a
conclusion by taking a limit.

TnBonru: Zhe angleforrned by a chord and a tangent equab one half the rnedsure I -r/z Arc
of the arc of the chord.

Here are two examples:

If we know that BC is
tangent
9.A
to the circle
and that mAB * 8O
then we also know
that wIABC = 40.

If we know that EF is
tangent to the circle
and that wZDEF = 70
E
then we also know that
D
-ffi * l{0.

I + It's important ro notice that in order to use the last theorem, G

Ittp a problem must tell you or you musr be able to figure out,
t?tr
that a line segment is tangent. For example, in the figure on
the right, we know norhing about the measure of IGHI because we
dont know (and can never assume) that segme n HI is tangent to
the circle. HI
 Quick Review
ANcr.s LocerroN or VEnrnx .Srnp..s Z r.ATroNsHrp ro Anc(s)
CrNrnel ANGLE CENTER OF THE CIRCLE 2 neorr
INscnrseo ANGLE ON THE CIRCLE 2 crronos Vz

Cuono/TeNGENT ON THE CIRCLE l crroRo, lreNcBNr Y2

Now You Try It

1. Given the angle and arc measgss A

shown_lr the figure and that BA Always try to
and DC are tangents, find all of answer this AIf,
the numbered measurements. (The kind of problem
point at Z4 is the center of the circle in numerical order.
1
I Usually the numbers
in the figure.)
are arranged in a way
to lead you logically
through the problem.
1

_>
2. Given BC is tangent to the circle at right,
*iE = (4x + 32)" and ruIABC = (x + 30)",
find r.

A
 'When solving angle and arc
problems, always ask yourself, 'where is the uertex of the angb?"
Afit
More Angles and the Arcs They Intercept

So far we have studied angles with the vertex in the center of the circle and on the circle itself. Now
we will learn about angles with vertices somewhere inside the circle, but not necessarily at the center.
Heret an example:

A B
Z.l and 12 arc formed by the intersection of two chords of the circle.

Although 4 arcs are formed, for this problem we will focus on,IE ard ED .

Notice that mll 22

by the Vertical Angle Theorem. Therefore, if we find
-- m
the measure of one angle, we are finding the measure of the other.

Heret the connection that ll and Z2 have to the intercepted

^ro,
iE and, ED,

mtt-mt2=@P
This means that each angle is equal to the average of the two intercepted arcs.

TnnonBrra: If two chords intersect in a circle, the angles formed equal the auerage 2 = Arc+Arc
of the tu.to intercepted arcs. 2
49" B
Example 1. Find mZ2

mll - mZ-2 - 48 +72=-;=6oJ

120
2

E 72"

40"
Example 2. Find mZ7. ^/ Note that: mZl - mZ2 - 180 -ZMLN
wZMLN = 40 +78 118
22 = = 59

mll-180-59=721,/
P 78"
Itt important to know the connection benveen the measurements of the angles and arcs. Some
problems will put all three in different variable expressions. An example of a variable expression is
(3x +5). You need to memorize the formulas and know where each vdue goes:

Example 3. Solve for r.

I = @P
Use the relationshi p:
x)" Substitute in the given expressions: 5r+10 = (3r+4) + (8*)
2
(5x+ l0)"
(3x+4)" (5x+ l0) (3x+4) + (8r)
Form a proportion
t2
Cross multiply: 2(5 x +10) = l((3x + 4) + (8rc))

Distribute: l0r+ 20=3x+4+8x

Combine like terms 10r+20=llx+4

Solveforr x=l6t/
Some problems will give the angle and one of the arcs and ask you to find the missingarc.
Here's an example:

Example 4. Solve for r.

Use the relationship: I =
frc*G
2

Substitute in the given expressions: 52 = 38+x

)
38' 6z\ 38+ x
xo Form a proportion:
t2
Cross multiply: 6Z)Z=1(38+r)

Distribute 104 = 38 +x

Solve for x x = 66t/

NorYs Try It
1. Find x. 2. Find *5d
3x+6

(2 x+l 4)" 2x+4

81'

B
Angles and the Arcs they Intercept (continued)

Quick Review

e) CENTRAL ANGLE CENTER OF THE CIRCLE 2 RADII

SD INSCRIBED ANGLE ON THE CIRCLE 2 CHORDS Y2

cuono/reNcENr
ry ON THE CIRCLE lCHORD, lTANGENT Y2

INTERSECTION OF INTERIOR
T\7O CHORDS OF THE CIRCLE PARTS OF CHORDS fr*fr
-----z--
Angles \With Vertices Outside the Circle
- So far, we have studied angles with the vertex ar rhe
center of the circle, on the circle itself and with vertices somewhere in the interior of the circle. Now
we will learn about angles with vertices outsidc the circle. Here's an example:

The vertex of Zl is outsidc the circle.

The sides of ll
are two secants, however, they could also be a
secant and a tangent, or two tangents.

Although ll divides the circle into four arcs, we are interested in

the arcs farthest from and closest to /.1.

The arc farthest from the angle will always be bigger than the arc
closest to the angle. The arcs are labeled accordingly.

Here's the connection that the size of the angle has to the intercepted arcs.

mtt= 6i-Gi
2

TrrsoREN,I: The angle formed by hao secnnts, A secAnt and a tdngent, or tuo tangents,
Z 6D sa
equab one half the dffirence of the larger intercepted arc minus the srnaller 2

For example:

B
/D 88-40 48 at
= _ 22 = _=l4v
88" t
mz_E

C
D
If the sides of the angle are a tangent and a secant, the problem works in the same way:

I Big - Sml
2

150" P mtP=12!J9=+=35,/

Now with variables, solve for r. o

Use the relationship: Z = Bis - Sml

2

Substitute in the given expressions: 22 124-x

2

Form a proportion: 22 124-x 124"

1 2

Cross multiply: 2(22) = l(124 - x)

Distribute: 44 = 124 - x
Solve for x: x = 80 t/
The Two Tangent Case
- If the sides of the angle are two tangents, the connection between the
angle and the arcs is the same, but the arcs have a special connection with each other. The two arcs
make one complete circle which means that their measures will always add up to 360'.

+ 360"

156
Heret an example of a two tangent problem:
B

Given tangents AB and.AD, and mZA =56, find *6D, *6C0.

^nd
A C
Let mED = lc, then *6eD = 350 - x.

Use the relationship: Z - Biq - Sml D

2
B
Substitute in the expressions: 56 = (3,60 - r) - (x)
2

Make the left side a ratio: 55 =

- (360-x\-(x\ A C
I 2

Cross Multiply: 2(56) = 1((360 - r) - (r))

D
Distribute,combineliketerms: ll2 =360 - x- x =360-2x
After Subtracting360: -248 = -2r Now divide by ?2).
(Remember, (-) * (-) = *)
Alr'
If the problem gives you
124=x the measure of the angle, let the
smaller (nearest) x1s = ,c, then
So mED = !24 ud, mEeD = 360 - 124 = 236 \/ the bigger (farthest awa,
arc=(360-x).

NowYou T"y It

1. Find the value of r in the figure on the right:

(8r+20)"
(2x+4)"
(4 x- 2)"

2. Given tangents AlTd CD and mlD = 70, A

frnd rn AC, and m ABC.

B
C

Be sure to check in the back of the book to see how you did!
 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER ANGLES & ARCS
-
Remember! \fhen solving angle and arc problems, ask yourself,,
4fi, "where is the vertex?"
The angle measureb
The location of the vertexs relationship to the arc
1 10' measufe:

The vertex of ZAOB is at the center of the circle. B

wIAOB=mAB=110

10'

The vertex of /.ACB is on the circle. I

B 2
C
nZACB = 55, miE = 110

M
The vertex of ZMNO is olr the circle. I
2

^/
nZMNO = 50, mfrN = rco
D
40"

The vertex of lACBis somewhere inside the circle. B E Arc fArc

2
120
A
mzBCA= *fu**58
) - 160 - 80
2

C Bi.s - Sml
The vertex of IABC is somewhere outside the circle. )
52" Note: "Big" is alway the arc
D A farthest awayfrom the angle
B
178" - 74"
- 104" - <z)o
2--)/'

ffi
2

And remember, if the sides of the angle are two

tangents, the two arcs form one complete circle
and total 360". e+) 360"
Segments and Circles

Chord Segments
- \7h.en trnro chords of a circle intersect, each chord is divided into nlro parts. The
lengths of the parts of one chord have a connection with the lengths of the parts of the other chord.
The connection is due to the symmetry of circles. Study the figures; can you discover the pattern?
C
Y
o
1

Z
A
B

IY
P
D
AB=14andDC=16 MN= gand OP=12 WX= 16and YZ=8
-Ihe the produa of the parts of each
product of the parts of each the product of rhe parts of each
chord are equal. chord are equal. chord are equal.
(6X8) = 48 (4)(5) = 20 (3x5) = 15
(4)(t2) = 48{ (10X2) = 2ol (15X1) = 151

TneoREr*r: If t*o chords intersea in a circle, the product of each chord's segrnents are equal.

(a)(b) = (c)(A
Heret an example that uses the above theorem:

Find x.
(x- Since the products of each chord's parts are equal, set
them equd to each other:
(x - 3)(x + 3) = (4)(4) Now, foil and distribute.
x2- 3x + 3x - 9= 16 Now, collect like terms.
x2 - 9 = t6 Add 9 to each side.
25
x2 = Thke the square root of each side.

x =5r/ Done!
NowYou Try It
. Findy 2. Find the length of
the shorter chord.

..--.
-$l
Secant and Tangent Segments

Because of the symmetry of circles, there is a connection between the lengths of secant parts and/or
tangents when both objects start from the same point outside of the circle. First, hereb a review of
some circle terms:
Chord - A line segrnent whose endpoints are
both on the circle.
Secant A line that includrs a chord.
-
Tangent A line (ray or segment) that passes
-
through only one point of a circb.

B
8
Two Secant Case

Notice that secant segements

AB and AC both stariatpoint A C
l0
,4 outside of the circle.

(BX') = (10)(4)
(whole segment) (outer part) = (whole segment) (outer part)

These problems are easy as long as you pay attention to the details of the rule:

(10

(5) (6) (8x3 0x6) (8)(5) = (lox4) /

-lr1.go -)
 Example
x
Find x.
6

caretutty follow the rute: (whole segmentXoutupard

- fuhole segmendfuutu pan)

Substitute in the given expressions: (4x + 2x) (4x) = (5x + 6) (6) Now distribute.
16* + 8* = 30x + 36 Now, move all terms to the left side
24* -30x -36= 0 Divide out the common factor, 6.
4f - 5x - 6= 0 Now, factor the equation.
(4x + 3) (x - 2) = 0 Use the zero product property.
(4x+3) =0, * = -N Physicalquantitiesarepositive
(*-2)=0, *=2\/ Done!

One Secant and One Tangent Case 4

(e)(4) = (G)',
(whole segment) (outer part) - (tangent)2
tUfhy's that? A tangent has no inner part, which means the outer
part and the whole segment are the same. So square the length!
And recall: You know the two tangent case of course!

Now You Try It

1. Find r. 2. MP is a tangent. FindT and z. 3. Find AB.
A 10.8

M E
8
2 o 4.5 C
z
12. AREA
Squares
8

A square is a polygon with 4 equal sides and 4 right angles 8 8

8
If the side of a square is s units long, its perimeter is 4s. 90" 9oo J

r
\7hat's a perimeter? Perimeter 8 8

is a "linear" measurement. The 900 g00

J J
perimeter is the total of the 8

lengths of the sides of a figure. Think of a Person walking

Think of starting at one corner when you are working wiih I I

of the figure and walking all Perimeters. 8l ls

J

theway around until you get I P=J+J+J+S=45

back to your starting point.
I

The distance you've walked is -E-

P= 8+8+8+8=32
theperimeterofthefigure.
If the side of a square is s units long, its area is s . s = s2

-Vhen J
we say area, we mean surface 8
area. Area answers questions such 90" g00
as, how much paint do you need to
8 8 J J
cover a surface, or how much grass
seed do you need to seed a lawn. Area g0" g0"
is a square measurement. The answer 8
should be in square units, for example, J
square inches or square centimeters.
However, if no unit is given in the A= 8 .8 =64un2 A J-2

problem, sometimes the unit is left out

in the answer.

Example 1. Example 2.
Given square ABCD Given square PQRS
C with area = 81. a R
with area = 49.
Find the length of a side. Find the length of PR.

Use the formula A = J2 P .t Use the formula A = s2

and substitute in the given
a p and substitute in the given:
81 = s2 49=s2so7=s
A D Now, take the square root 7 Use Pythagorean Theorem:
of both sides: 72+72 = (PR)2, 98 = (PR)2
9=st/ P .t =PR so PR=7t/i*9.9/
7 ^08
162
Rectangles

A rectangle is a quadrilateral with 4 right angles. A rectangle has two pairs of equal sides. Squares are
rectangles with four equal sides. This means that a square is a "special case" of a rectangle.

The perimeter of a rectangle with base b and height h is 2b + 2h

b
10

8 8
h h

l0
b
p = 2(10) + 2(8) = 20 + 16 = 36 P=2b+2h
The area of a rectangle with base b and height h is b. h that is, bh.
b
10

8 8
h h

10
b
A = (10X8) = 80 un2 A= bh
Example l. Example 2.

Given a rectangle with base 75 and The area of a rectangle is 450. The base
height 50, find the perimeter, area is twice as long as the height. Find the Sometimes a A.*
and diagonal. length of a diagonal of thl rectangle. problem like JtttP
Draw a rectangle. Example 2 is given
Sketch the rectangle, Letx=theheight, as a ratio problem:

adding the given then 2x = the base. "The ratio of the base
information. Add the names of the f to the height is 2:1".
75 sides to the drawing. In all problems of
Perimeter = 2(75)+2(50)= 250 this rype, lou must
Area = (75)60)=3750 Since A = bh su??b the x's,2x:1x.
2x
450 = (2x)x This sort of problem
By the Pythagorean 450 = 2x2 appears on college
Theorem, the diago- 225 = x2 apdtude tests.
50
nal squared must 15=x,30=2x
equal the sum of: By the Pythagorean Theorem,
the diagonal squared equals
502 +752 = 8125,
so, rhe diagonal is: (15)2 + (30)2 =ll25 3o2x
l{tts=25^lB=90.14'/ so, rhe diagonal is:
^l-ttZ5 =15\5 = fi.54'/
163
Example 3.

The area of a rectangle is 96. The

3. Area = (base)(height)
ratio of the base to the height is
95=(2x)(3x)=6x2 /2
2:3. Find the base, the height, the 16=x2, x=4.
perimeter and the diagonal of the g
base = 8 r,/ height = 12 t/
rectangle.
perimeter = 8 + 8 + 12 + 12 = 40t/

l. Draw a rectangle that By the Pythagorean Theorem,

roughly matches the (diagonal)2 = (8)' + (12)'z 2
given information. (diagonal)2 =64+144
6
(diagonal)2 = 208-_
2.1he ratio is 2:3,
diagonal =4\fi3 = 74.4J
you supply the x's,
2x:3x. Now, mark up x
In problems like Example 3 that ask for
the drawing, showing several pieces of information, always
all the information that be sure to go.back and check
you know. tnat youve glven all or tne
4fi,
requested answers:
b"r. r,/ height r/ pe.i-e t , t/ diagonal r,/

4
Example 4

40
I steP'
Find the area of the figure at right. by
5
Do these problems steP
4 Another way to
A good strategy for solving this kind of problem is to break the divide the figure.
figure into rectangular pieces:
Mark up the drawing, dividing the figure into rectangles.
Label each rectangle. rz4
Find the missing dimensions:
Findr: 40 =x+ x+ ll +5, 40 =2x+ 16, 24=2x, x=12 t
FindT: ! = 4 +10 + 8 + 24 = 45, y = \$ 4 /2
Now find the area of each rectangle:
" 4+10
4
Ar, @)(12) = 48 lln Q4)(r2) = 168
1
4+10+B 24

[ :_l,' (22)(11) = 242

\MholeFigure=Rectangles
46
5 (46)(5) = 230
46
5

/+ 2+3+4 =48 + 168 +242+230=688,/

164
Parallelograms

Quick Review lfhen you see the word or the symbol for a parallelogram, heret what you're
- about the figure:
supposed to know

1. Both pairs of opposite sides are parallel.

B C 2. Both pairs of opposite sides are congruent.

D
--+
A
D ABCD 3. Both pairs of opposite angles are equal.

4.'Ihe diagonals break each other in half.

Remember, whenever you see the E

symbol you know all of the above facts about the figure.
An extra fact about parallelograms: same side interior (consecutive) angles always add up to 180',
that is, they are supplementary.

Altitudes of Parallelograms

An altitude of a parallelogram is the (r) distance between a side and the line that includes the
opposite side.lhe length of the altitude is the height. Since the altitude is r, we have to say "the
line that includes" the opposite side. Heret why:

I
Fig. 1 Fig.2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5

The important thing is the perpendiculariry. In figures 3,4, and 5, a (r) altitude cannot be drawn
from the top side to the opposite side within the figure. So extend the opposite side to show the line
of which it is a part, and then draw in the altitude. Remember, each side of a parallelogram is a seg-
ment and every segment is just a small part of an infinite line.

Since opposite sides are parallel, the distance between them is always the same. This means that it
doesnt matter where the altitude is drawn. the length of every altitude drawn from a side (or the line
which includes the side) to the opposite side (or the line which includes the opposite side) is always
the same.

t2 t2
:Wit r65
5
H
Since each parallelogram has two pairs of parallel sides, each parallelogram has two dtitudes. Here
are some examples:

Finding the Area of a Parallelogram

'W'e
know that the area of a rectangle is A = (base) X (height).
'We
can use this fact to find the area of a parallelogram.
Slide the right
triangle over
Draw an Note the
and you have a
lrlven l-l altitude. right triangle. rectangle!

How do we know the triangle

will fit perfecdy?? Because
opposite sides of a parallelogram
are congruent and parallel. The
triangles are congruent by HL.

Since we know that the area of a rectangle is

A=(base)X(height)
b
d h

The area of a parallelogram must be

A = (base) \ (height to thatbase)

b
Example 1. Find the area of the parallelogram below.

o=x o=x
12 R= (base) \ (height @ thatbase) = (12)(4) =48\/
166
 Example 2. Given parallelogramABCD, findr. B C

,{ = (base) \ (height to that base) t2

6

A=(8)(6)=48 A 8D
B
Now, since the area of the parallelogram doesn't change:
A = 48 = (12) (x) The (other) base times the
4 height to thatbxe. A

48 (W (x)
x=4 (8X6) = (12)(x)
tzw
Example 3. Find the area of parallelogram MNOP.
M22 l/

The problem is giving us both bases but neither height. Since

28
finding the area requires a height, there must be a way to find one
with the given information. Because the problem gives an angle
measure, we should think abour using trigonometry (or specid P o
triangles or the Law of Sines) to find the height. M22 ff
Draw an altitude from M and label the point of intersection R.
28 28
ConstructingMR creates right triangle MRP and because opposite
sides of a parallelograrn are equd, we know that MP = 28. Since
the problem gave us mZP = 60o, we can solve the triangle for MR.
P RO
Finding MR wingspecial triangles: Finding MR using trigonometry:

The 30-60-90 guide The trigonometry

triangle. guide triangle. B tst

2x *fi 28 -F
El
A
H
T
t4 o
x ^fr OR d4/O?el C A
P R
MR .866 MR
P 14 R 28
--T- 28
cdculator knows
number
MR = (r4)(^fr)= (t4)(r.732) =243 tr MR = (.856)(28) * 24.3 /
M22Ir
Putting it all together:
28
24.3
4 = (base) )( (height to thatbxe)
A= (22)(24.3) * 534.6t/ P o
t67
NowYou T"y It V

1. Find the perimeter of square UVWX.

1

U X
2. The area of a rectangle is 180. The ratio of the base to the height is 4:5. Find the perimeter
and the diagond of the rectangle.

r4

3. Find the area of the figure on the right. t6

50

20
6
I
4. Find the area of parallelogram GHIJ. 20
10

G12 I

C
5. Given parallelogram ABCD, find x.
x 20

A t2D

6. Find the area of pardlelogram PQRS a18R

11

PM.S

168
Triangles

A triangle is Yz of a parallelogram. Here ate some examples:

Because a triangle isYz of aparallelogram, it makes sense that the area of a triangle is Nrfe*

1 [(base) t (height @ tbat base)] = (base) X (height to rlar base)

7x * fn,
2 2 etuq,e ,.. X
_yd\

2
E
The height is the length of the altitude. The F
altitude to a base is the (r) distance from the B
opposite vertex to the line D
that includes the base. All triangles have 3 altitudes. Here are the altitudes
of an acute, right and obtuse triangle.
Example 1. Find the area of the triangle on the right.

A=
+(15)(4) =30,/
<-15
Example 2. Find the area of triangle ABC.
A
A
2
.M (\Mrong way.)

5 t2 B
A= (20) (5) = 5o ,/ (tught way!) 20
+ C

A Special Formula for the Area of Risht Triansles Onlv

The two legs of a right triangle are
_ (Leg) X(Leg)
perpendicular. This means ^ "2
that each leg is the altitude
to the other leg.
Example l.Find the area of triangle MNO. Example 2. Find the area of riangle FED E
There is no perpendicular symbol (l ) and
the problem does not say that triangle
I
_ (Leg)X(Leg) 5 FED is a right triangle. 'We can use the 8
,,o-
^
-- 2 M converse of the Pythagorean Theorem
t2 to test the triangle to see if it is a right
triangle:
F6D
+ gz ]
Ro= (5Xtz) =30,/ I 62 tO,
35+54= 100r/
Since FED is a right triangle, we can use the special
formula: oo= -GlL = 24 J

t69
All,fl:::xtffi,*"n
Finding the Area of Isosceles and Equilateral Triangles
A triangle with at least two equal sides is an isosceles triangle.
A triangle with three equal sides is an equilateral triangle.

Draw an altitude between two equal sides of each triangle

Each triangle is divided into 2 congruent right triangles

(Leg) X (Leg)
To find the area of a right triangle only we can use the special formula: Au =
2
Example 1. Find the area of the isosceles triangle below.

t4
10

t4
10 10

77
10
x
M 7

The given Draw the altitude The altitude divides the By Pythagorean Theorem:
triangle. between the equd sides. original triangle into x2 +72 = 102
two ! right triangles. x2= 100 - 49 = 5l
*=
^/fl.
(Leg) X (Leg)
.,F 10 1**
2
A= _T
7\F
X/
/_
t^/st =
7 A\=
7\5 = 50\/
") Since the area of each right triangle
Finding the area of one of is only half the area of the original
the = right triangles. isosceles triangle, we need to
multiply by two.

170
Example 2. Find the area of the given triangle.

Step 1. Step 2.

I 5 N

The given. Draw the altitude The altitude divides the

benveen the equd sides. origind triangle into trro
congruent right triangles.
Step 3. Step 4.

If you lEnow the size of one Wb need to find the

acute angle and one side of a lengttrs of the legs
right triangl", yo,r can find t}e of the triangle, that
r5
lengths of the other sides using is, the opposite and
trigonometry'. (You can also use adjacent sides.
the Iaw of Sines. Be sure to see
F-xample 3 on the next page.)

Step 5.
Find "opposite". Find "adiacent".
sin 56" - rff cos 56" =
orl,',
t5 15
1 2.4
.829
tPt
559 d+ v

15 15 +
e
.829 t?y .559 o/,*
-------1+

I 15 1 15
ryy o 12.4 \/ **lt 5.4\/

Step 6.

t2.4 ^,
k5@ Step 7.

15 15
v
52.1 lo//.2
+
A*ry*52.tt/
A* 52.1X2 o 104.2 Done !

Since one right triangle is only

half the area of the original
uiangle, multiply by nvo.

t7t
Example 3. Find the area of the given triangle using the Law of Sines.

Step I Step 2.

I 7 1 7
I 7

The altitude divides the

The given Draw the altitude
beween the equal sides
original triangle into two
congruent right triangles.

Step 3. Step 4.

If you know the size of one acute To find its area, we need
angle and one side of a right to find the lengths of the
7 t7
triangle, you can always find the legs of the triangle. Label
Iengths of the other sides using the sides and angles of
the Law of Sines. (You can also the triangle. C
use trigonometry. See Example 2
on the previous page.)

Step 5.

Find the length of leg CB: Find the length of legAC:

sin 32" - sin 90" sln 8' - sin 290"
CB 17 L7 AC 17 17

.53 1.0 .85 1.0

An-iT si*40P- Arr-5{ si*90r
CB*V C
AC 17
C
(.53)17 CB(1.0) (.85)17 N AC(1.0)
^r
9.01 n, CB r/ 14.5 NAC /
Step 6. Step 7.
Since one right
o _ (Leg)X(Leg) triangle is only
/4.5 17 ^2 half the area of I t7
the original tri-
/30.5J
As g2f!1) *653J angle, multiply
9.0/ by two. A"65.3X2*130.5 Done !

tVhat if the problem had given the length of the

Question:
base? Answer: You're half done. Use trig or another method
tan32 = -4
9.01

to find the length of the altitude from the vertex angle and 9.01
then you ll have the two legs that you need to find the area. adj
18.02 / adj *t 4.5
172
Ileron's Formula for Finding the Area of a Triangle If your teacher doesnt require you
to know Heront Formula, you may
want to skip this page.
If you know the lengths of all three sides of any triangle, you can find its area. First we need to learn a
new term:

SsNdrpBRrN{ETER: The semiperimeter of a triangle with sides a, b, and c is

S
a+b+c
2
That is, one half of the perimeter of a figure. S is the symbol for semiperimeter. c

Here are nvo examples:

Find the semiperimeter of the triangle below. Find the semiperimeter of the triangle below.

8 0

12

Semiperimet€r = t = &*4 = = rt Semiperimet€r = 5 = 5'2 +16 + 8 = I9:2 = 9.6

* 22

HnroN's Fonrvrure: Zhe area of a triangb with sides a b and c is

a
A= (S-a)(S-D)(S-r) Heront Formula
is not as scary as
All'
c it loola and is very easyto
use once you get used to it!
Here are nvo examples:

Find the area of the triangle below Find the area of the triangle below

8 0

12

Semiperimeter = S = 8+10+12
2
=*=rt Semiperimeter- 5- 5'2+-6+8 =ry =9.6
A= (S- aXS- rXS- r) A= (S-aXS-&)(S-c)
A= 5 15 - 8Xl5- 10 15-1 A=
A= 5(7)(5)(3) =^,ffi = 39.7 \/ A= .6(4.4)(3.6)(1.6) = .t1243.3 =15.6 t/
173
 Putting it All Together The Area of Triangles
-
Finding the Area ofAny Triangle

A=| tG"..) \ (height to that base)l

(base) \ (height to that base)
2

(14) (5)
= (14)(5) = 35 or A - = 35\/
^ + 2

14>

Finding the Area of Right Triangles Only

l/
(Lee) X (Leg)
r2 A _ (5)(12) _ n /
A- 5
2
2

r3 o
Finding the Area of Isosceles and Equilateral Triangles
Draw an altitude between two equal sides, dividing the triangle into two congruent right triangles.
Use the Pphagorean Theorem or trig (or the l-aw of Sines) to find the lengths of the legs of one right tri-
angle. Then use the formula for finding the area of a right triangle. Remember to multiply by 2 at the end.
st sin
lol
J/" = IW
t4
I 14 l t4 1 N 4
&
t4 ts
A
,ff = 11.8
H
v
+
T
o cos 57" = */"i
57" 57"
e
A t4
6ooent */,5 = 7.6
(Leg) X (Leg)
l 1.8 14 A=
2 I r4
44.8 44.8 A=44.8X2 =59.6\/
A_(11.8)(7.6) =44.8 57
2
7.6

Finding the Area of Any Triangle if You Know the Lengths of All Three Sides

Step l. Find the semiperimeter, which means one half of the perimeter of a figure: g = a+b+c
2
Step 2. Use Heront formula: A S(S-a)(S-b)(S-c)

1
7 _12+7 +9 = 28 A= 4(14 -7)(14-e)(t4-12)
S
2 2
=14
4 5 980 = 31.3

174
The Area of a Rhombus

Rhombus Review 6

6 Rhombus - A parallelogram (^ll7)with 4 equal sides.

+ The diagonals of a rhombus are I.

Diagonals of any Ebisect each other.

+ ,\, Diagonals divide a rhombus into 4congruent right A.

Finding theArea of a Rhombus

Let one diagonal = d, Irt the other The diagonals bisect

diagonal = d each other.

(Leg) t*lr*l- (d,xd,)

dl
d2
2
d2
2 d1
Area of I right triangle - (Les) X228 -
2 T
4Y rt There arc 4 iright triangles in the rhomb us: {
2 d2 "ry
2
(d'Xd')
C Area of a rhombus -
i=--
B
Example 1. Find the area
(d)z(d,
of rhombus ABCD.
D
tuea ofa rhombus = = ry =
+ = 35\/
A

t75
Example 2. Find the area of rhombus QRSZ

R .R R
10 0 10

l0 10 10
a a

l0 .t 10 s 10

0 0 .t 0
T T T multiffi by 4?
The given figure. Draw in the other By Pythagorean Theorem YES!
diagonal. x2+62=102
y'=
ll ^
-
(d,xd.)
2
100 -36=64
*=^@=g o _ (rz)(re) _- D2 = 96 \/
rr= 2 -
2

Now You Try It

1. The measure of each side of the equilateral triangle on the right is 5. Find the area of
the triangle.

2. Find the area of the rhombus below. (Hint, draw the diagonals, which divide the rhombus into
four congruent right triangles, then use trigonometry.)
6

3. Find the area of triangle ABC. 13.6

l0

l1
Be sure to check in the back of the book to see how you did! C

176
The Area of a Trapezoid

Thapezoid Review
I
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with exactb 2 parallel sides, called the bases.
The two non-parallel sides of a uapeznid are called the legs.
)
The median of a trapezoid connects the midpoints of the legs and is parallel to the two bases
The length of the median equals the average of the two bases:
1

median basel+base2
2
2
An kosceles trapezoidhx 2 equal legs. ('Ihe bases can never be equal. \Why Not?)
'urerSolalerrd e eq ppo a tr 'emer;g

'Ihe Isosceles Tiapezoid

base anghs of an isosceles trapezoid are equal.
b,
A
Since the bases are parallel, the (r) distance between them is the same everywhere. h
II
The distance between the bases is called the height of the trapezoid. o
D
h
t
Y
Finding the Area of a Trapezoid b2

A trapezoid is one half of a parallelogram. Heret why,

rotate the put them_together,
Given a make a 2nd figure & vou have a
trapezoid copy 180' paiallelogra-

-> + +

Knowing this leads to the formula for the area of a trapezoid:

rotare rhe put them,together,
Given a make a 2nd figure c' Youihave a
trapezoid coPy 186. Parallelogram
br b1 +

+ .-> '+ A-= (h)(b,+ br)

b2 b2 b2 br+ b2

Since a trapezoid is Yz of a parallelogram, one formula for the area of a trapezoid ls

br

Area of atrapezoid =
f {r)G,*u,).. (D (!ry)
(br+bz) b2
Since the median - 2
we can form a second equation:
Area of a tapezoid = (h)(median)
Since different problems give different information, itt important to memorize formulas.

177
Here are some examples

Example 1. Find the area of the trapezoid. Example 2. Find the area of the trapezoid.
10
A=(h) (b, + br) A=(h) (b, + bJ
2 2
4
A=91 *?=t2o o,a
5 (9 +25) 170
20 z
25
Example 3. Find the area of the trapezoid.
\When a problem gives you the length of the median
T
use this formula:
I
r4 Area oratrapez"tl
= lili?;i"'
I A= 140
Example 4. 4
Step 1.
4 The altitudes divide an
Find the area isosceles trapezoid into
Draw 2 altitudes
of the isosceles a rectangle and2 right
as shown. =
trapezoid on triangles. Knowing this,
the right. helps us to correctly
18 747 divide up the length of the
Step 2. The length of the altitude is B S
bottom base.
2 o .Y
the height that we need for H -\
.We C nW t.2B "rr
the area formula. can
A
H
<'1" - S01 =
m 7 1 7
find the length using trig: -
C
lol
lal 7 rrr = 8.96
4
(b, + b,)\
3. Returning to the trapezoid: Area of a.trapezoid = (h) /t-t
Step
8.96
\z)
1 I
(4 + 18)
l8 A = (8.96) 2 = (8.e6)9 = 98.6\/
Now You Try It
l. Find the area of the trapezoid below. 2. Find the area of the trapezoid below.

17

t3-l

178
 ;k Regulat Means Equal Sides and Equal Angles *
A polygon with equal sides and equal angles is called a regular polryon. This means, a regular polygon
is both equilateral and equiangular. Here are some examples:
23 1l
90" 90' 1 t4

t6 t6 23 23
14 4
I
90' 90"
r6 23 1l

Any regular polygon can be circumscribedby a circle. Circumscribed means that each vertex lies on
the circle.
0"

120"

tWhen you see "circumscribed" think about the vertices lying

on the circle

the center of the circumscribing circle is the center of the polygon. A radius of the
circumscribing circle which goes to a vertex of the polygon, is a radius of the polygon.

If a regular polygon has n sides, the radiuses divide the polygon into n congruent isosceles triangles.

The (perpendiculat that means the shortest) distance from the cenrer of a
regular polygon to a side is called the apotbem (rhymes with rap'-ah-them).

The radiuses and the apothems divide a regular polygon into 2n congruenr right triangles

179
'Working with Regular (equal sides and equal angles) Polygons

Eeeh padius goes

eo avcR8cx"
1. For a given regular polygon, all radiuses are equal

2 3

2.1he radiuses divide a polygon with n

sides into n congruent isosceles triangles:

1
4

5
n=5

3. The radiuses meet in the center of the polygon.

One entire rotation is 360"

4.Ihe radiuses divide the360'angle into n equal angles.

Each angle at the center is 360 * n degrees.
%0" 72
5

5. Each isosceles triangle can be divided into two congruent triangles by drawing in the
;ffi
altitude from the vertex angle (the angle between the two equal sides):

The ofeach isosceles Vz of the central angle

The altitude of each isosceles triangle is a radius of the
is the apothem of the polygon. polygon This figure shows a
P
the connections o
+ t
between the parts h
The base is one side of each right trian- me
of the polygon gle and the polygon. s

180
Finding the Area of a Regular Polygon

Example. Find the Mark all sides equal One complete The radiuses divide the 360"
area of the regular and draw in the rotation is 350'. into five 72" angles (360*5).
pentagon below. (dso equal) radiuses.

-----> + *
8 8 8 8

s=8 8 8

The radiuses divide the Study one Draw the altitude (the This altitude divides the
pentagon into 5 isosceles A. isosceles A. apothem) between the isosceles triangle into
=
equal sides. two !! right triangles.

+ +
8

8 8 84 4
'We Find the "adjacent" side.
To do this problem have one acute angle
we need tt l.rr$h, or and one side, so we can use
both legs of the triangle. trig (or the Law of Sines) to .727 4
find the other leg.
V.n-3C =
.727
44
4/
t,
ta/
1
_

.727 (^t6) = 4
4 a/
t
Id/
) O ) O
+ g
yl * e 5.5
+
@)ilt 4 ?

4
,w =
127
^,li = 5.5 t/
2Ways to Finish the Problem:
lst'W'ay
-
Area of a Regular Pentagon = (Area of one right triangle) x (Number of right triangles in the figure)
fl=5
lr"ylrd M" ,= (4)x6.5)
The area of one right triangle
2
=11
The radiuses and apothems divide ,r,. p'otygo, m 2n = I 0 congruent right triangles.
Area of the pentagon = 11 x 10 = 110 r/
2nd, Tirrox.srvr: The area of a regukr polygon = 1/z (a?othem)(perimeter) A = r/z aP
The approximate length of the apothem is 5.5 and the perimeter = (4)(10) = 40
Area of the pentagon = (yz)(5.5)(40) = 110 r,/

181
Example. Find the area of a regular triangle with radius equal to 8.

A regular triangle is another name for an equilateral (equiangular) triangle. "n" is the number of sides,
so rl=3. In order to find the area, break the figure down into parts, each of which is also a triangle.

@ @

360" = 120" 8
3
r$

One complete rotation The radiuses divide the triangle The apothems divide the
equals 350". into three congruent isosceles isosceles triangles into 2n = 5
triangles. congruent right triangles.

@ f" do this problem, we need to find @ Comparing the problem to the 30'-60'-90"
the lengths of both legs of one of the model allows us to find the lengths of the legs.
congruent right triangles. The problem
8
involves a 30"-60"-90" triangle, so we x 4
can use special right triangles (or trig or
the Law of Sines) to solve. x\/ /;3 4\/5

Z\rayt to Finish the Problem

lst way - The total area of the figure equals:
(Area of one right triangle) x (Number of triangles in the figure)

o=3 The area of one right triangle = g'+lk*) 4

G)xUt/5) = B\E
4J'
3 The radiuses and apothems divide the figure into 2n = 6 congruent right triangles
2 Area of the regular triangle = (S\/3t x (6) = 48.'6 = 83.14 \/
I
2n=6
2nd,way - The area of a regular polygon = Yz (apothem) x (perimeter)

apothem is the distance

from the center to the side, 4
The perimeter is made up
) which is the leg from the ,.2
of legx6
2 center and is equal rc 4 / 4 3
1 4 (6) = 24\fr
^/31"
Area of the regular triangle = V2 (4)(24J1) = 48..fr = $.14 \/ 4\6 4\E
182
Example. Find the area of a
regular hexagon with apothern = 5.
--->

Draw in the radiuses. One complete The radiuses divide the

rotation is 360" 360" into six 60" angles
(360*6).

--+ +

The radiuses divide the Study one The apothem divides the To do this problem,
hexagon into 6 isosceles A. isosceles A isosceles triangle into we need the lengths of
=
two n right triangles. both legs of the triangle
Since the problem involves a Finding "opposite"
30"-60"-90" triangle, we can solve
with either special right triangles,
ft
I
q5
o
H
C
S

tb ='YY
5
ft
d
Yr5
A
trig or the Law of Sines. \7e will H .577 n\Y
use trig.
+ m
lol
hl
r5 = r2
+

2.9 = nyTr/ c)
2W^yt to Finish the Problem
lst Way Total area of the figure equals:
-
17=6 (Area of one right triangle) x (Number of right triangles in the figure)
The area of one right triangle =
(L'e) (L'e)
x pLig= 7.25
At 4= 2.9
The radiuses and apothems divide the polygon into 2n = 12 congruent right triangles.
n=12 Area of the hexagon = 7.25 x12 = 87'/
2nd, \$[.y - The area of a regular polygon = Yz (apothem)(perimeter):
tWe
5 know that the length of the apothem is 5 and the perimeter =(2.9)(12)= 34.3 to'
Area of the hexagon = (Vz)(5)(34.8) = 87
'/
Now You Try It
1. Find the area of an equilateral 2. Find the area of a regular
triangle with apothem = 10. pentagon with radius = 6

183
Finding the Area of Circles, Sectors and Circle Segments
r:
- '.j::::: : :'
' : : ::::::r':''''

El$'
Since tional number, approxrmate calculations.
One value another T" iikjust a
an '::,.'.:::,::.

Circumference - The circumference of

a circle is a special word
for the perimeter, that
is, the distance from
one point all the
way around the
circle and back
to the starting
point.
The formula for
the circumference
isC=2rr.Since
two radiuses make a
I
rt
diameter, another form /,J
of the formula is C = rd. It's
imoortant
I
to memorize these formulas.

Area - The area of

a circle is the size
of its surface. The
formula for the
area is A= n{.
Since all areas
are found by
multiplying a
length dmes a
length, it makes
sense that there is a
square in the formula. It's
important to memorize this formula and to
use it correcdy.

184
lWhen you use one of
the circle formu-
las, stop and Example l. Find the circumference and area of a

think, which
formula do $Kr ffi circle with radius equal to 3.

you want? C=2nr +C= 2n(3)+C =6x x 18.8/

Remember, the A=nf + A =n(3)' +A =9n x28.3\/
area formula is the one
with the squared term.

Example 2. the diameter of a circle is 7. Find its circumference and area.

For this kind of problem, it's a good idea to find the radius first. Since the diameter is equal to two
times the radius, we know that the radius equals 3.5. (There are two formulas for the circumference,
but itt best to find one correct way to do a problem and to stay with that method.)

C=2nr+ C= 2n(3.5) +C =7n x22'/

A= nP + A= n(3.5)2 x J
-> A= 12.25n 38.5
Example 3. The area of a circle is 20, find its circumference.

The answer to the area formula is given, so set the answer equal to the formula and work backwards
to solve for the radius:

A= nr2+20 - nrzd20 + n- f 46.4x12+2.5 xrci C=2nr +Cx5n x 15.7 t/

Example 4. 'Ihe three circles in the figure on the left are congruent.
Find the:
a. length, width and area of the rectangle, and
b. the area of the shaded region only.

T
Solution: All radii of a circle are equal, so always add radii
5
5 5 5 anywhere and everywhere where they may be helpful:
5+5 5+5 5+5 I
T
l0 a. The length of the rectangle is 30 and the width is 10,
5 5 5 5
1 so the area is 300.t/
-5-- 5 -- 5--5 --5--5 - b. The area of each circle is nr2 = n(5)' = 25n x 78.5.
30 There are 3 circles, so the total area of the 3 circles is
Notice how radii have been approximately: 3 x78.5 =235.5
fifi"'
4L
placed and then used to calcu-
iate the length and width of the
rectangle in the figure above.
300 235.5 64.5 /
185
Arc Length
oTt=
The length of an arc is the linear measure of a part of the circumference.

B
o
\7hat is the length of AB ?

Since the degree measure of trE i.

the circle's degrees, it
A | +of #
makes sense that we have the same part
l, of the circlet circumference:
B
C = Znr = 2n (l in.) = 2n in. x 6.28 in. 1.6"

A$' (r. " (tn) (6.28)in x l.6in.'/

The 2 Measurements of an Arc: A
I . The "measure of" or "m' .[B means the degree measure IE . " m" ,IE is giving or asking for the
"f
number of degrees (by definition, the same as the centrd angle intercepting or "cuttin g off" IB).In
the example above, the measure of AB or mAB = 90.
2. The "length of" or the "arc length" of iB
means the linear rneAsure
"f
18. Itt as if you were ro
take a string, lay it on the arc, and then measure the string- The length of FE is giving or asking for a
length. In the example above, the length or arc length of AB ec 1.6 in.
H 38" \Mhat is the length 6fr1
G "f
*dE is -lq g of the total degrees, it makes
360=
Since ro .11
180
sense that we have the same part, .1 1, of the circumference:

fvh.r. did the inch

C=2nr=2n(5) = l0n I go? Unless your
I teacher wants vou to
(.1 1)C = (.1 l)(10) n = l.ln x 3.5'/ { on., if the prob-
"dd doesnt have a unit
I lem
M 'What I of -.rr,rr.. neither
is the length of LM? td.r., the answer.

Since thr- *f,Ai is ) of the total number of degrees in a circle, it

360
makes sense that we have the same pan, of the circumference.
^!=,
350
\7e know the formula for the circumference is C = 2nr so

AncLBNcrH -h(2nr)
rft6
Example 1. Find the length
"f
fr.
o U Using the formula for arc length,
S e"O, and given x = 45and r = 3:

45 1
360- 8
Calculate the fraction, = .125

Calculate the circumference: C = 2m = 2n (3) = 6n

Put the parts together: (.125) (6n) = J5n x 2.4

'/

Example 2. 'I}l.e length of GH is 10. The area of circle O is 64n. Find the measure of ZGOH.
In the problem, we are given the answers to the formula for the
arc length and the formula for the area. To get started, we form
the two equations:

@ "..length: @ ^ra
10=
rn IGOH (2nr) 64n = nf
H 360

10
\7hich of the two equations can be solved? Most of the time, when we say
G
"solve", we mean that we need to get a number for our answer, (not one
variable "in terms of" another). A"d for an equation to be solvable, it can
-
only have one unknown (one unknown variable). The first equation has two unknowns, mIGOH
and r, which means that it cant be solved until we find at least one of the 2 unknowns. Because the
second equation has only one unknown (r), it can be solved (for r) and we can then use that solution
to solve the first equation.
Starting with the second equation, find r:

= H -- 64=t'-+ g=1
64\\
-t-
Now substitute r = 8 into the first
I m ZG)H\ (2n8)
equation to finish the problem: 10=
\aeol
aaofro=(,62r)(W)]*"
3600 = W(wZG9II)
l6n T6*.-

72 x rn IGOH /
t87
Sectors and Their Areas A sector of a circle is formed by two radiuses and an arc.
-

Think Pie!

B
A sector is named by 3 letters.
90"
The shaded area in the circle on the left is sector AOB.
the area of a sector is a part of the circlet total area.
'W'hat
A is the area of sector AOB?
o3"
Since ry1-AOB 6 -29- = +of the circle's degrees, it makes
360 4

sense that the area of the sector .q,r"l, 1 of the circle's area:
4 B
A = xP = n(3 in)z = 9n in2

x7
!x= lo>" inz = 2.25n in2 in2
o A
E
38'
D
What is the area of sector DOE?

Since ruZDOE i, 38 - 180

19 - 11 of the entire circlek degrees, it
360
makes sense that the area of the sector is .11 of the circle's area:
E
A=nf=n(5)r=25n
(.11)A = (.11)(25)n=2.75n x 8.6un2

M o
-What is
the area of sector LOM?
o
x
Since nZLOM -:I- of the degrees,
15 a it makes sense that
350
the area of the sector is
x of the circlet area.
360
L The formula for the area of circle is A= rr2 so:

Anse oF SECToR = ffi(nr')

188
Example 1. Find the area of sector KOLin the circle on the right.
To find the area of sector KOL, we need the wZKOL Since the problem is
giving us two of the three variables from the arc length formula, we can start
with the arc length formula and work backrvards to solve for the wIKOL:

Arclength =#(2nr),so: 2o =(W)t *rrrr>

Ali"
'
L'
\Thenever approxim-
tions are being made xolzo=(5ozr)(4] *
at each step, we accumulate
rounding errors. Dont be
7200 = (5}n)mZKOL
concerned if you get a slightly
different answer. Remembet
7200 _ fr< (m Z.KOL)
the main idea is to understand 50n tSq
the method.
45.9 x wIKOL
Now we have enough information to use the formula for the area of a sector:

Area of a s€ctor =
,$ (n.,), ,o' Area of KoL - (I#)rn)(25)'zx (.128)(r)( 625) x 251.2,/
Example 2.Ihe radius of circle O is 14 and the area of sector FOG is 64n. Find the
G
length Fd.
"f
If we substitute the value of the radius into the formula for arc length we have:
FG= mZFOG 2n(14)
360
So, in order to find the length of Fd ,we need to find mlFOG. Since we were given the area of the
sector, we can set that value equal to the sector area formula and solve for wIFOG:

64n mZFOG n)04)2

=
360

64n=(te6n)P#q

xole+.=(1e6n)W)] *
23040n 196{ (m ZFOG)
l96n --f
117.6 x wIFOG
Now we can substitute 117.6 into the equation for arc length and solve f"r FG

fi * (#)2ng4)^r (.33X28) (n) x2el

189
Circle Segments
F F

o E o E E

Sector EOF Adding Chord zr The segmentis the area formed

by te and6F that is:
chord EF and arc EF.

How to Find the

Area of a Segment

Sector Isosceles Thiangle Segment

Example
- Find the area of the segmenr formed by AB andZi:
I

First the sector: + ft(nc) = fitnr2\ = 38

360
(t.t+)$/tq) N 47.73'/
1

,;?1y=!# ,fu+ (l.g)x(1r.35) *22.

*l,o t1-SS
" x
nyy 3.9 \-
1
I .35
Then the triangle: + orl,
A4x 44.26t/
I 1 I Fu.,

Putting it together: 3.47 ./

190
NowYou T"y h-The figures on this page are made up of circles and parts of circles. Figures that
appear congruent are congruent. Students will need extra scratch paper to do these problems.

1. Find the total area of the black parts of the figure on the right.

2. Find the total area of the gray parts of the figure.

3. Find the total length of the perimeters of the black

parts of the figure.

4. Find the total length of the perimerers (including all inner and
'-8
Problems l-4
outer edges) ofthe gray areas.

14

5. The figure is placed on a 14 x 10 rectangular black board.

Find the total of the perimeters (including all inner and outer
edges) of the black areas of the figure including the board.
10

6. Find the totd area of the black portions of

the figure including those on the black board.
8.----------------
Problems 5-6

4 7. a. \7.hat is the area of the black part of the figure on the left? b. !7'hat is the
perimeter of the black part of the figure including inside and outside edges?
I
Problem 7

8. Find the area of the circle segment shown in the figure on the right

Problem 8

9. Find the area of the gray portion of the figure on the left

Problem 9

191
Geometric Probability

\What is the probabiliry

of the spinner landing
in sector B? \7e know
it's V+ or 25o/o.

\7hat is the probabiliry

of the spinner landing
in sector H? \Me know
it's Vz or 50o/o.

How do we "knov/' the probabiliry in the two examples above?'We naturally

understand and use the ideas of geometric probabiliry. In these examples:
Area of a win
Probability
Area of whole figure

The rules in probabiliry problems are very simple. Here is how they would apply in the above
examples:

1. The spinner is fair and is equally likely to land in any position.

2.The spinner can only land somewhere on the circle. For example, theprobabiliry in
either example above of landing on sector R equals 0. (There is no sector R.)

3. The probabiliry of each spinner landing somewhere in its circle is equal to 1 (100%).
In fact, the sum of the probabilities of all possible outcomes in any problem equals 1.
Probabiliry is locked into the number interval [0,1] for example, V4,.007,
Afi' Yz, 3o/o, .20, 0,.01, 100o/o ,3/+, and 1. If you get an answer smaller than 0 H
-x_l
0l
or larger than l, you need to go back and do the problem again.

192
Example 1. On the math teachert dart board on the right, all squares are
congruent, all darts must land somewhere on the board and all tosses A @ 2 5
are random. s A @ 2

Find the probabiliry of getting: 1 $ A @

l. An odd numb er, 2. A circle, 3. A triangle, 4. A convex polygon 3 1 & A

There are 16 squares on the board so "everything" (the denominator) will always be 16. To find the
numerator, count the number of "win" boxes.

Probabiliry (odd number) Probabiliry (circle)

4 1 27r
164 16 - 8 v

Probabiliry (triangle) Probabiliry (convex polygon)

(Pentagons, triangles
4 _T
1 7 and stars are all
G 16 polygons, but stars
are non-convex.)

Example 2. \Mhat is the probabiliry of breaking a balloon on the

regular hexagonal dartboard on the right? Each side equals 26",
the radius of each balloon is 3", each dart hits somewhere on the
board, and if the round part of a balloon is hit, it will break.
awa
I'robabrlrty :
*
Area of a win ws
Break the problem down into 2 parts:
26"
waw
l. 2. The denominator The dartboard is a
The numerator
- Each balloon is a circle with -
regular (equal sides, equal angles) hexagon
radius equal to 3". There are 11 balloons and the
formula for the area of one circle is A = rcr2: Finding "adjacent"

Area of 11 balloons = 1l xn(3)2 = 99n x 31,1/ ,@/,

''\__, ''
r t3
.d,0
*/"tr x 22.5

H 6^ x (22.5) x A63
42-03)

DZ 's in a hexagon: 12 x 146.3 x 1755.6 J

rv 3Il x
,
Probabilitv
t755.6
.18 r/

Question - An amusement park charges $1 for one dart. If you break a balloon you win a $3 stuffed
animal. Is it a good bet? 'Mhat is the probabiliry of not breaking a balloon? Hint: The total of all
probabilities add up to 1. Explain your answers. (Check in the Answer Section to see how you did!)

193
Example Assuming you have no skill in archery and only arrows that hit somewhere on rhe rarger
-
count, what is the probabiliry of your arrow hitting the white area in the target?

c n(4)' - 7(Q)' 1
/
r'6)' 3
o

6
:i
:i

Geometric Probabiliry also works for lengths The idea is the same:

Total length of a win

Probabiliry =
Entire length
Here's an example. Your kitty has tangled up your shoelace into a ball. The shoelace is
18" long but you need at least a 12" piece to lace up your running shoes. You are going
to have to cut the lace to untangle it. If you make one cut, what is the probabiliry that
at least one of the rwo pieces will be 12" long?

Below is a sketch of an untangled shoelace. In which segments do cuts result in a "win'? A

cut in the 0-1" interval results in a 1" piece and a 17" piece (a "*iri'). Continue with this
logic marking offthose 1" segments in which a cut would result in one of the pieces being at
least 12" long:

hJtuWhJhrhJ hJ W hi lill^)W
01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 l0 ll 12 13 t4 15 16 t7 18

There are twelve l" segments in which a cut would result in a "win".
r
Probability = Total length of a win t2
=rV
2/
Entire length 18 )

Time problems work in the same way. Just think of elapsed time as lengths. Heret an example

A 24 hour movie theatre continuously shows: a 2 hour movie, then a l5 minute preview, then a LYz
hour movie and then a 5 minute preview. If you go to the theatre at a random time, what is the prob-
abiliry that you ll get there during a preview? A "wid' in this problem is arriving during either the 15
minute or 5 minute preview for a total of 20 minutes. One total time cycle is 3 hours and 50 minures
which equals 230 minutes:
Probability =# = $'t
194
Probability Problems Using A Simple Counting Argument
1
If you have five tops, three pairs of
shorts and two jackets, how many dif- 2
ferent outfits can you make?

5r3x2=30./
I 3

This simple method works for many

$-r< R ,M
5

problems. The key is to count the Jr\" 6

paths. Here are some examples:
n'
How many outfits can you make
that have a short sleeved (not sleeve-
less) top and your lighter jacket? You
can count the paths that satisfy the
.
:dJ
;

"iu
i:is
t.
..,f.f

t&
I
m
8
t 9

1
',ffi
requirements or you can do the math: *,*"
.n{iF;
2x3"1=6/ W $i4.**
I{
S ..1..
', 3

\7hat is the probabiliry that you are

wearing a short sleeved (not sleeveless) ffi,
I
top and your lighter jacket? tWe know
W m
that six paths satisfy that requirement
and that there are a total of 30 paths.
Therefore, the probabiliry is:
ffi t8
Number Of 'Winning Paths
Total number of Paths
I 19

61=
305
./ n 0
2t
tffhat is the probabiliry that you are
M
hs*Htl
ititt,

wearing a long sleeved top and your

black and grey sweatshirt? Six paths
satisfy that requirement and there I
are a total of 30 paths. Therefore,
the probability is:
ffi
-d&

sffis m J"
6
Number Of \Winning Paths W
Total number of Paths
27
6 1
0 8
/
30 5

195
 ttt l
NowYou Try It

1. Vhat is the probabiliry of hitting a diamond on

the dart board on the right? The diamonds )
oo 24"
are congruent, each side is equal to 5" and
the shorter diagonal is equal to 6". Assume
that only darts that hit the board count and
that all tosses are random.
6"
rtftr 36"

2. Study the archery target on the right, with measuremenrs as indi-

cated. Assuming you are a beginning archer and only arrows that hit
the target count, find the probabiliry of,

a. Hitting the bulls eye

b. Hitting either white area.

,I
*,r
3. Your hero, Tiger, has promised to stop by and help dedicate the new communiry
center sometime this afternoon. He will stay for 15 minutes during the 3 hour open-
ing ceremony but cant be sure what time he can get there. During the same 3 hours,
you can only stop by for a minute on your way home from school because you have
to get home and do your darned (but awesome) geometry project. til/hat is the
probabiliry that you will get to see Tiger?
,&it'

4. Thelocal pizza place has a special which includes a large pizzawith or without extra cheese and the
choice of one meat topping and one vegetable topping. There are 3 kinds of mear, pepperoni, sau-
sage and ham; and there are 4 dif[erent kinds of vegetables, green peppers, onions, mushrooms and
pineapple. You want to buy the special and need to decide what to choose.

a. How many different kinds of special pizzas are rhere to choose from?

b. If you always choose pepperoni for the meat choice, how many
rypes of pizza can you choose from?

c. If the pizzaplace decides to offer thin and thick crusrs, how

would the answers to the above questions change?

196
 m Area of Solid O
Solid objects are 3-dimensional. A prism is a simple solid object

I
I
2 Kinds of Prisms I Right I Oblique
I ,
I I
I
.l_ _

Right Prisms stand up straight, they Oblique Prisms /ean and are
are perpendicular to the ground. not perpendicular to the ground.
Right Prisms In high school geometry classes most prism problems are about right prisms.
-
A right prism has 2 bases. Bases come in pairs.

It doesn't matter which way a prism is turned, the bases might not be on the top and bottom.

The2 bases are: 1. Congruent 2. Polygons 3. In parallel planes.

Some prisms have more than one pair of sides that could be considered bases:

Sometimes you can decide which pair to use as the bases, sometimes the problem will say which pair
to use as the bases.

Prisms are named by the shape of their bases:

{ Wa **ry % re I
s
t Right
o
square prisms hexagonal prisms

t97
The sides of prisms that are notbxes are kteralfaces or more simply,faces.

A C V
P
IV
D T
E .t
The 2 bases are ABC and DEF. Given: The 2 bases are GJHKand NIML. The 2 bases are PQRSIand tlVWXY.
The faces are ABED, BCFE and The faces are GNLK, JING, HMIJ and The faces are PUYT TYXS, SXVTR,
CADF. KLMH. RWVQand PWQ.

For right prisms, the faces are always rectangles.

The bases are triangles. The bases are rectangles. The bases are pentagons.
The faces are rectangles. The faces are rectangles. the faces are rectangles.
(Squares are rectangles!)

A lateral edge is a line segment where two lateral faces meet. Here are some examples:

A C V
P
Rr- - W
D T
E .t
Lateral edges Lateral edges Lateral edges
AD, BE and CF. GN, KL, HM andfl, PU, ry SX, RW QV.

A lateral edge of a right prism is an abitude of the prism. The length of an altitude is the height of
the prism. Notice that the height is the (r) distance between the bases. Here are some examples:

8 8 -5
7
The height of the The height of the The height of the
triangular prism is 8. rectangular prism is 5. pentagonal prism is 7.

198
Remember for right prisms, think:

Altitude .3 Lateral Edge f Height

\7ith prisms there are 3 measurements you will be asked to find:

I. Lateral fuea (the area of the faces).
II. Total Area (the area of the faces and the 2 bases).
IIL Volume.
I. I.errnar Anre: 7he area of the (lateral) faces. L.A. = Ph
There are two ways to find the lateral area:
1. Since the faces are rectangles, find the area ofeach rectangle and add them up, or
2. Find the perimeter of the base and multiply it by the length of a lateral edge (the height).
A C
Example:
Find the lateral area of the 8
5
right triangular prism.
3 4
E
1st \Way: BA 2nd Way:
"Open (Jp" the prism: Find the perimeter of the base and multiply
8 by the height (the length of a lateral edge).
E 3D 5 F 4 E
C
Find the area of each 8
5
rectangle (base times 8 24 8 40 8 32
height).
) 5 4 3 4
E
Add up the areasof the rectangles: Perimeter ofthe base: 3 + 4 + 5 = L2
Lateral Area = 24 + 40 + 32 = 96 r/ Multiply by the height: l2x8 = 96
Lateral Area = 96 J
II. Torer Anra: Zhe lateral AreA + the area of the 2 bases T.A. = L. A. + 2B
A C 5

Example: g @rrt. base is a triangle. Vttt

not isosceles and we
Find the total area of the 5 dont have a height. However, using the converse of
right triangular prism. D F the Pythagorean Theorem, we can show that it is a right
) E 4 triangle' So: x (Leg) (3) x (4)
Area _ (Leg)
2
:=-:-Z:--=6 -,
O fh. lateral area is the area of the faces
From above, the lateral area = 96. Total Area = "the faces + the 2 bases"
Since all prisms have tvvo congruent \ry-J \-\P
bases, we must find the area of a base. TotalArea = 96 + 6+6 =108/
199
III. Vorurrae: The uolume of a prism = AreA of the base , height V=Bh

In the formula, the B is capitalized. Capital B means the area of one of the two congruent bases. The
h stands for height, the distance between the bases.

Units Volume is measure d in cubic units. If the units in a problem are centimeters, the answer is
-
in cubic cenrimerers which is written as cm3. If the units are in inches, the answer is in cubic inches
which is written as in3. Even when a physical unit is not given in volume problems, your teacher
might want you to give the answer in units cubed which is written as un3.

Here are some examples of volume problems:

Example 1. Find the volume of the rectangular prism below.

Since each pair of opposite sides are con-
gruent rectangles, we can choose which
2cm
t-- pair of sides are the bases.'We will use the
top and bottom sides the bases.
3cm
CM as
ffi::
::;'zcm
B=(3)(2)=6
V = Bh = (6)(2) =12 cm3 J
ffi, otice that the area oFonly I of the bases is used in the volume formula.

Example 2. Find the volume of the triangular prism below.

A C Since 32 + 42 - 5', we know by (Leg) x (Leg) _ (3)x(4) =
o._
"N22 e
7 5 the converse ofthe Pythagorean
theorem that the base of the prism Since B is the area of the base, B = A\= 6
D F is a right triangle. andV=Bh= (6)(7)=42r/
)- E
4

Example 3. Find the volume of a regular pentagonal prism with base edge = 6 and height = 8.

@ Break down one

eo The bases are congruent regular
isosceles triangle:

\ pentagons. To find the area of a

F-
6
base, divide the pentagon into
congruent isosceles triangles. 6
+
)
K3
8 6

ri"a the length of the adj. leg: Find the area of the right triangle:
@ @ 4.t
S
o
H
c
,fu 3 o._
"\-2,
(Leg) x (Leg) _ (4.r3)x(3)
= 6

rK
nrr
A
H /2/ (o1,1)
=
*1,
J
I 3

@ The area of the pentagon = l0 x 6.2 = 62 which means B = 52

3
E;I
lal *l'5 = 4'13 @rrr.volumeoftheprismisV= Bh= 62x 8 = 496r/

200
Example 4. the volume of the trapezoidal prism on rhe right, is 3960 un3.
20
Find the total area of the prism.
I

In order to find the totalarea of the prism we need to know the height of the prism which is not
given. The problem ls giving us the volume and a lot of information about the trapezoidal base of the
prism. If we set the given value for the volume equd to the volume formula we have:
3960 = Bh
B is the area of one of the congruent trapezoidal bases of the prism and h is the (r) distance between
the bases. In order to solve, we can only have a single variable, and since the problem gives us enough
/20\
information lrapraI to find B, that is where we should start.
\ro I
T Ittimportant to understand that there are 2 differcnt heights in this problem and we
h
need to keep them straight. The first height h, belongs to the prism itself. The second
I
height which we've labeled hs, belongs to each of the congruent bases (top and bottom)
20 In order to find B, the area of one of the trapezoidal bases, we need to find hs:
13
20 10 5

t3 -+ t3
Using the Pythagorean theorem
we can find hs:
(h")'* = 132
52
(hs)2 = 144, hs = l2'/
Knowing hswe can now find B, the area of the base:
20
Area of the ., (br+bz)
- (hs)
. A-=B =(t2)@P=180r/
trapezoid 2
10
Now we can find h, the height of the prism itselfi

3960=Bh=(180)h
22 = h'/

Now that we have found the value of h, we can find the lateral and therefore, rhe total area of
the prism:

T.A.=L.A.+28
L.A. = ph (p is the perimeter of the base, h is the height of the prism)
20
r:[r: P= 13 +20+13+10=56
10

L. A. = (56)(22)

Putting it all together: T. A. = (56)(22) + 2(180) = 7592 un'

'/
201
The kinds of solids shown on rhis page are often used in homework and test problems. Here are some
keys to working with them:

Volume
fl

The (top and bottom)

Total Area t
(2) o missing pieces.

rt tr !
Volume .1ts-*-t
, r-D

(2)c
Total Area rt I
rts-+-l
I it
I
+ The (top and bottom)
l,l,
l-D
missing pieces.

Volume +
2x

^(:{)

+2x
(8)
Total fuea +
t----- F, HJ:._r#bottom)
2x

202
 I
CUBES I
2.5
3
All the edges of a cube are equal. I !--

Given that a side measures s, 2.5 2.5

B=s2,h=sandV=s3 B=lun2,h=l B=9un2,h=l B = 6.25 un2,h = 2.J
Here are some examples of cubes L.A. = 4 un2 L.A. = 36 :un2 L.A. = 25 un2
T.A. = 6 rn2 T. A. = 54 un2 T.A. = 37.5 un2
V = 13 un3 = 1un3 V = 33un3 =27:ur;r3 Y = (2.5)3 un3ng l5.6un3

ISo:ror area and volume problems:

1. Carefully memorize the formulas (even if your teacher allows nores on exams)
2. Draw a sketch (doesnt have to be perfect) of each problem.
3.'When you find the value of a variable, add it to your sketch.
4. use different colors in your sketch for the bases and the lateral edges.

Now You Try It

l. Find the lateral area, total area and volume of the square prism on the right

t2 5

2.The volume of the regular hexagonal prism on rhe right = 300 un3. Find the
prismt lateral area and total area.

I
0
3. The total area of the triangular prism on rhe right is 768 cm2. Find the volume
of the prism.
3

4.The volume of a cube is 125 un3. Find the total area of the cube

203
Pyramids
vertex
lateral edge 1. Pyramids come to a point called a vertex.
2.The sides of the pyramid are triangles called lateral faces.
lateral face
altitude 3. Each edge where two lateral faces meet, is called a lateral edge.
4.Ihe altitude is the r segment from the vertex to the base.
5. The length of the altitude is the height of the pyramid.

Pyramid or Prism? Stop and think and be sure you have the right figure in mind. All,
Pyramids are like the tombs in Egypt where the pharaohs are buried.

^firannr\s come to a,
"B$.
Regular Pyramids In high school Geometry classes, most pyramid problems are about regular
-
pyramids. Here are the properties of a regular pyramid:

1. The base is a regular (equal sides, equal angles) polygon

2. The faces are ( 1 ) congruent, (2) isosceles, (3)triangles.

height
3. The vertex is directly above the center of the (regular polygonal) h
base and therefore the altitude meets the base at its center. VS.
slant
height
4. The slant height of a pyramid is the height of a face (each face is
one of the congruent isosceles triangles). The symbol for the ,a
slant height is a lower case cursive L (l).

Right triangles and the Pythagorean Theorem are the key to solving many pyramid problems. Be
sure that you know the theorem and that you are using it correctly:

Quick Review -The Pphagorean Theorem: (Lql)'? +{,@)'z = (}Iypotenuse)2

1. The hypotenuse is opposite the right angle.

15 2.lhehypotenuse is always the longest side. 15 > 9 and 15 > 12

'/
9

3. The length of the hypotenuse sits all by itself on one side of the equation.

t2 92 + =@'*/
122 92 + 122 = 152
4. You must square each of the lengths. F+ffi 8l + 144 = 225 ,/
204
 The Right Triangles in Regular Pyramids

The different parts of pyramids combine to form triangles. Notice how each part of the
pyramid appears in more than one triangle.

the
base

I qe a
oa I
e t
ir
--side- 1U
rd
-le {
I

I ,
a
t 5
e
t
a
I
\
o
b
e -side-
I Jtib.
o

I
I
I
I
I
I I
a at
a
e
r l\
tr
I f
t a il
I tr
--J E---\
i; e I d
-rd- { d
(>
I
I
e
le b ./t

_rl
e
t,
_

,Q
,"i
205
Pyramids are named by their bases.

Tiiangular
Regular Regular Square Regular Pen tagonal Regular Hexagonal
Pyramid Pyramid Pyram id Pyramid

There are 3 measurements of regular pyramids that you will be asked to find:

I. The Lateral Area (the area of the faces).

II. The Total Area (the area of the faces and the singlebase)
III. The Volume.

I. LnrsRAr Alre - The area of the (lateral) faces.

There are two ways to find the lateral area:

lstway- Since the faces are congruent isosceles triangles, find the area of one triangle and
multiply by the number of faces (which is the same as the number of sides of the base).

A/=FI
10555
^
n=-
(5x8)
2
A=20 A= 40
A L.A. = (6)x(40) = 240
'/
or,2ndway Find the shnt heightr of one triangle and the perimeter of the base.
-
Lmsner AREA Or e PrncMro = l/zp\
Notice that the p stands for the perimeter of the base

p = (6)r(10) = 60, ,( = 8 Lateral Area = (V)x(50)x(8) = 240 '/

206
II. Torar Anea - Tbe area of the (kteral) faces and the single base. T = L.A. + lB

l0 Example Given a regular triangular pyramid with lateral edge 10 and base edge 12,
-
find: 1. The slant height, 2.lhelateral area and 3. The total area of the pyramid.

t2
1. The slant height is the height of one of the lateral faces
I

By Pphagorean Theorem

,t
l0 l'* 6' = 102
\'=
64, .1. = 8
slantheight=L=8r/
12 5 6
One lateral face

3
2.The lateral area is the sum of the three lateral faces.

lst way One lateral face: (8)(12) + +

- A _ 48
2 L. A. = (3)(48) = 144,/
t2
Znd,way
- L.A. = Vrp\ = Yz(12 + 12+ 12)(8)= 144 \/
3. The total area is the sum of the lateral area and the I base. T = L.A. + B 1
t2
From above L. A. = 144 Since this is a regular pyramid, we know
the base is a regukr polygon, in this case
an (equilateral, equiangular) triangle. t2
2

By Pphagorean Theorem
62+x2=122
t2 I 212 2
xx x2 = 144 -36
l= 108, x= 6J5
t2 t2 t2
6 6
A=(12)$\E) =36.fr
Total Area = 144 + 36lfr x 206.4 t/
207
III. Vorururn

7he uolume of a pyramid = 1/3 area of the Base x height of the pyramid
h*"
-
One of my students said, "You mean pyramids losezfof their stuffon the way up?"

Yes, they do! Remember, if a solid comes to a point, its volum. U t

*

Example 1. Find the volume of the regular triangular pyramid below.

Begin by finding B, the area of the base:
9
B = 2lA@1=
xx
7
6
33 Knowing B, we can solve for V
By Pythagorean
6 Theorem:
6
x2+32=62 y = rl3Bh
f =27, *=3Jj Y = Yz 0^/5)0)
Area of 1
Y = 2rt/5 * Ze .n
(t
2

Example 2. Find the volume of the regular Example 3. Find the volume of the regular
pyramid on the left
Let x = radius, then by
Since the pyrami d is regulaa
Pythagorean Theorem,
3 the base is a square and
5
32+x2=52 9
\ its area = s2.
xz=16, x=4
radius = 4 t/ Y=%Bh
B=8x8=64
Y = Yz (64)(9) = 192 \/
90' In Exampl e 2, the area of the square
the
base is:
A$,
(4)(4) B=32unz
1^.: --T =8
The volume of the pyramid is:
86 = 4x8=32unzJ Y=32un3
y=12Bh Although the numbers (32) are the same, one
stands for squared units and one stands for
Y = Yt Q21131 = 32 un3J cubed units and the quantities each measures
are entirely different. (And both answers are
correct!)

208
 Example 4. Find the lateral area, total area and volume
of the regular hexagonal pyramid on the right:
17

Begin by finding B, the area of the base, which is a regular hexagon:

Divide into two con-
gruent right triangles.
x 4 use one of the
Using innertriangles to
special *"6
triangles: ^6w find h, the height:

^6w Av=ry=8{5 ffiB=(r2) x(81i1= 96\/5 h

Find the area a one of the congruent isosceles triangles on the face
of the pyramid. 8

82 +h2 = 172

12+ 42 = 172 h2 = 225

1 7.! 7 l=",@x16.5 h = l5\/
From the base
7 calculations x33
above:
^\"tg+a
4
4.\/5
33+33
A*66r/

Putting the Parts Together

1. L. A. = rhe sum of the areas of the congruent
isosceles triangles on the face of the pyramid. x 6 = 396\/

t5
2. T. A. = the sum of the Lateral Area + the Base. 396 + 961, x 562.3/
l;
96\B

3. Y =Yz(Basexheight). (D19611r)(15) = 4BO{, x$1.4/

209
Q"i"k [lramid Revier
Lateral Area = ?.re& of the faces = Y, pl
(P = .h. perimeter of the base)

it
Total Area = Lateral Area + lBase
I
rd
\
ie-

volume = h)
ftnrse)(
<- side

-
NowYou Try It
v
n
1. A regular square pyramid fits perfectly in a cube with edges equal to 4. I I
I
\7hat is the volume of the unused space in the solid? ,
I ,l .--l II
, ir

2. A regular triangular ppamid has height = 10. If the apothem of the base
equals 5, find the volume of the pyramid.

Upper

3. The storage tank pictured on the right is a square pyramid. The tank has an
upper reserve tank as shorvn in the figure. Find the volume of the upper reserve tank

2rc
Cylinders Cylinders are like prisms excepr, their bases are circles:
-

2 Kinds of
Cylinders
Right Oblique

Right Cylinders stand up straight, Oblique Cylinders leanand are

they are perpendicular to the ground. not perpendicular to the ground.

fucur CvuNoens: In high school Geometry classes, most cylinder problems are about right cylin-
ders. The bases are congruenr circles. The bases are in parallel planes.

There are 3 measuremenrs of cylinders that you will be asked to find:

I. The Lateral Area II. The Total Area III. The Volume

I. Lerrner Anne or e CyrrNoqp. = 2nrh

A can is a good example of a cylinder.

If you were to cut offthe can's label and

lay it out fat, it would be a rectangle.
Ingrdi.nc: Pert.s, wa(., NUI'RI1 ION INFORMATIOI
etr, pr.s.mriv.s,.nric acid. Peaches 6c
Natural Juice
S.ryin$ P.rCo.r1in.l 3
The area of the can's label
Cllori.rT0 Gloriefrcm Flr
% D,lyV.l!.
is the lateral area of the
cylinder.
ry,,",
Example: Find the lateral area of a cylinder with radius = 3 and height = 8.

\\ If the cylinder had a label, it would be a rectangle.

The lateral area of a cylinder equals the area of the rectangle

Area of a rectangle = base x height

base = Znr(the circumference), height = h
Laterd Area = 2nrh
8 height
Lateral Area = (circumference) x (heighr) = 2n(3)(8)
Lateral Area = 2nrh = 48n=150.7\/

base = 2m

2tt
II. Torer Anre or e CyuNDER = Tlte lateral Ared + the area of the basa.

The bases of a rylinder are2

h congruent circles.
The area of each circle = rcf

1
L.A. - Znrh h+ +

I
Znr

Total Area = 2nrh + 2nf

Example

Find the totd area of a cylinder with 8

radius=3andheight=8.

From the previous page, we know that the laterd area The area of each circle is 7tr2,

of the given cylinder = 48n =150.8. that is, n32 = 9n.

L.A.=2nrh = 2n(3)(8) = 48n =150.7 8 + +

2n(3)

Total Area = 48n + (2)9n = 48n + 18n = 66n = 207 .24 '/
212
III. VoruME oF e CyrrNonr.. = Area of the base x heryht

The basic formula for volumes is V - Bh, where B stands for the area of the base which in the case of
a cylinder, is a circle and the area of each circle = Itr2.

V x
+{
Volume = nfh

Example:

Find the volume of the cylinder shown at right. 8

The area of each base is ruf,

that is, n32 = 9n.

V x
i{
Volume = tcfh = TC32x 8 = 9nx8 = 72n = 226.1,/

ItAll Together

PI I. Lateral Area of a Cylinder = 2nrt

II. Total Area of a Cylinder = Znrh +
III. Volume of a Cylinder = nfh
2nf t
h
+

213
Example 1.

The total area of acylinder = 240n and the height is 7. Find the lateral area of the cylinder.

In the problem, the answer to the total area formula is given, so set the answer equal to the formula:

Totd area = 2nrh + 2nP

240n =Znrh + 2nl
Since h is given, r is the unknown; substitute h = 7
into the equation and solve for r:
240n =2nr(7) + 2nr2
7 240n=l4nr +2nr2
120 7r t2
There is a quadratic term (l* ),
24o.z'
ge
I4nt
-2n-
+ &(
:8-
a linear term (7r) and a constant
(120), so move all the teflns to one
side, faccor and solve.
12 +7r - 120 = 0
(r+15)(r-8)=Q
.1-, \
r+ 15 =0,r=)K ,18 =0,r=8,/
fEr-to.i@
The problem asks for the lateral area and the formula for the lateral area is 2nrh:

L.A. = 2n$)(7) = 1L2n = 351.68,/

Example 2.

'S7.hat
A square with area = 16 is rotated around one edge. a.) solid is formed? b.) Find its volume.

a.) Imagine one edge of the square fixed in place:

rll
Fv\l/y{
rt- -)I-= -t. The solid that
lr- ( /l\ -rl
Now imagine the square being spun around the fixed side: n a \ tt would be swept
out is a cylinder.
i-l ,1. i-jj
b.) The formula for the volume of a cylinder is V = nfh.

Both the radius r, and the height h, of the cylinder are equal to a side of the square.

Since the area of the square is 16, 16 we know that each side is equal to 4.

4
Substitute 4 into the equation for r and h: Y= n(4)'(4) = rc(16)(4\ = 64n * ZOlt/

2t4
Example 3.

If the radius of a rylinder is doubled, what is the volume of the rylinder multiplied by?

To do this rype of problem:

1. Start with the regular formula, in this case V = nfh
2. Substitute in the modified variable, in this case, replace r with 2r, Notice that the entire
Y = n(2r)2h = n22fh = n4fh = 4nfh quantiry 2r, is squared:
(2r\2=22P=4rz
3. Compare the solution,4nfhto the origind formula, V = rcfh,
4nfh = 4 times the original volume.

Therefore, when the radius of a cylinder is doubled, the volume is multipli edby 4. t/

*'ne s'[ep s shown ab ove

AF, #I:Hfffiix;:I;:; *y;,::,'*:::}.T:n

NowYou T"y It
l. If the radius of a cylinder is halved, what is the effect on the size of the volume of the rylinder?

Iv tv
2.The lateral area of a cylinder is 100n and the height is 5. Find the circumference of the base of
the cylinder.

3. Find the total area and the volume of the cylinder in problem 2.

' I'ilmffin::t ff ',:1? ;,*::1, :;:** #e a 1 0 inch reng'lh or pipe'lha"'W

Be sure to check in the back of the book ro see how you did!

2t5
Cones
A cone comes to a Zaist.The base of a cone is a circle. Think of an ice cream

Parts of a Cone:

slant height

Although cones can be right or oblique , high school geometry problems are usually about
right cones, and when textbooks say "cone" the term usually means a right cone.

Vith cones, there are 3 measurements you will be asked to find:

I. The Lateral Area.
II. The Total Area (the lateral area plus the single base, a circle).
III. The Volume.

Itt best to carefully memorize each of the following formulas:

I. Lateral Area of a Cone = ) {rirrumferenc e)x(slant height)

=
{ tr"')tl)
ml Lateral Area = r.tl

II. Total Area of a Cone = lateral area + area of the single base (a circle)

+
= nfJ- + ntz

Total Area = nt!, +nt2

III. Volume of a Cone =

| {B"r.)x(height) 1

3
x x
I It th
3

1
Volume 3
fir2h

216
Example l.

Find the lateral area, total area and volume of the cone below:

The height of the cone and the radius of the base form a right triangle.
The hypotenuse of the right triangle is the otherheight,(, the slantheight.
,t
Use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the slant height:

122 + 52 = ),2, 169 = \', 13 =).

lateral area =nr!= n(5)(13) = 55n =204.1
total area = nr\ + tlr} = 65r' + (5)2n =,90n = 282.5
volume =
* un = |rr,hq *"f t). (fA = loon= 314
As'
'k The right triangle
hidden in every
cone.
\
To find the volume
use the height, h.

Example 2.

The total area of a cone is 90n. If the radius is 5, find the height and the slant height of the cone.

In the problem we are being given the answer to the total area formula, so
set the answer equal to the formula:
total area = nr!. + nr2
90n = nr1.+nrz
Now substitute the radius, r = 5, into the equation:
9Ox ="(5),( + n(5)' = 5n1 + 25x
Subtract 25n from both sides and then divide through by ru,

65-x- 5*,t 55 = 5!,, !. = 13

-f,.- -f,-

Add the value of ,t to the original figure. Now we have the lengths of
/.t
two sides of a right triangle so we can find the third side which is h,
the height, using the Pythagorean Theorem:

h2+52=132,h=72

Having found the height and the slant height, we could easily find the lateral
area and volume of the cone if the problem had asked us to do so.
Did you notice that this is the same cone as the one in Example 1 above?

2r7
Solid Search

\Write the letter of the matching figure. Be sure to check in the back of the book to see how you did.

Cone
Thiangular pyramid 2
Square pyramid
2
Right Cylinder
Oblique prism
Right triangular prism A B C D E
fught pentagonal prism
Cube
Right rectangular prism
Oblique cylinder
F G H I I
A Problem Combining Solids
Step 1. Study the figure. r3
Notice that the crayon is \
Find the total area of the made up of a cone
crayon at right. and a cylinder.-..

T Step 2. Studying the original figure, .ro,i.e.\

15
that the base of the cone and the top of the
I cylinder are not exposed and therefore are
not part of the total area of the crayon.
5
Step 3. It's a good idea to work on Step 4. Now consider the cylinder.
each solid individually, so we'll start The problem tells us the lengths of the
with the cone. The problem tells us height and the radius of the base. tVhat
I
15
the lengths of the slant height and the cylinder contributes to the total
the radius of the base.
'S7'hat
the area of the crayon is its lateral area plus
I
t3
cone contributes to the total area of the area of its bottom base:
\
the crayon is only its lateral area.
lateral area = 2nrh = 2n(5)(15) = l50zr
lateral area = r\ = n(5)(13) = 65n area of base (a circle) = nt2 = n(5)'= 257-

Step 5. Adding together the contributions of the cone and the cylinder:
Area of crayon = 65n + l50rc + 25n = 240n = 753.5/
If you were to find the volume of the
asked h2 +52 = 132,h= 12 [l
V=rr'zh T

crayon, (or how much wax was required i v= I*ct =In6)'(rzl[l v =n(5)'z(t5) I
to make a crayon), you would find the V = l00r 11

volume of each part and add them together. Total Volume = l00n - 375i'= 475x = 1491 .5/

218
SPHERES
A sphere is the collection of points in space that are equally far away from a given point called its
center. Spheres are part of our everyday lives, for examp Ie tennis balls, soccer balls,
volleyballs and basketballs and even the Earth itself. The rerms
that we use with circles are also used with spheres.

There are several types of sphere problems that you need to know how to do:

I. TheAreaof aSphere- Since a sphere has no base, its "area" refers to its total surface area. Area
tells us how much material it would require to make a cover for a bowling ball, or how much paint it
would take to cover a spherical posr rop

Area of a Sph€re = 4nr' MemoryTip!

Formulas for spheres
include the num 4
A
Since areas always come from
"something times some-
Example 1. Find the area of = 2 inches.
", squaring the
makes sense.

Example 2.The area of a 6r. Find its diameter.

In the problem we are given the answer to the area formula, so set the answer equal to rhe formula
and work backwards to find the radius:

A=4ni
256n = 4nr|
64
4H Divide both sides by 4n.
W=
64 = i, radius = 8, so the diameter = 2r = l5t/

219
II. The Volume of a Sphere MemoryTips!
iFormulas for soheres include
!the nu-be ,4.' V=@J,'
lSince volumes always come
Volume of a Sphere = {n '
3 ifro* "something times
isomething times something"
icubing the radius makes
Example 1. Find the volume of a ball with radius = 2 inches. lsense.

Examp le 2. The area of

In the
area (of a and

A= 4nr2
256n = 4nf
A/,
"
_W= *H
256T 4'rt? divide both sides bv 4n

)
64 = f-r radi US =8 Knowing the radius, we can find the volume:
V 4
nr'' = = 2Wn * 2143.6,/
3 ln(af

III. Planes Passing Through Spheres

1. Imagine a solid wooden ball 3. Study the larger piece. Its

top will always be a circle.
This circle is called the
c irc le of inters ectio n.

2. Imagine a plane (think

4. Draw a radius of the sphere
of it as a sharp electric saw)
to the edge of the top. Draw
making a clean cut through
a radius of the top (the
the ball. The ballwould be
circle) to the same point.
divided inro rwo pieces. The distance from the cut to
the sphere's center forms a
right triangle with the rwo radii

220
A Close Look at Planes Passing Through Spheres
\When a plane cuts through a sphere the intersection (the points shared by both the plane and the
sphere) is the circle of intersection.

Start with Plane P cuts The circle is the Draw in the radius
Sphere M sphere M. intersection of plane of the circle of
P and sphere M. intersection.

Find the right

No
d
i
s
triangle in the
t problem
a
n
c
e distance = I distance
from the center of the
Draw a radius of the Add the t distance from sphere to the center of
sphere to the outer point the center of the sphere the circle.
of the radius of the circle. to the center of the circle.
Example: A plane P cuts through sphere M in a circle that has radius 8. If plane P is 5 units away
from the center of M, what is the radius of sphere l14
radius of circle
d
i
s
t
a
r8
n
c
e
M
By the Pythagorean
Plane P cuts The radius of the Plane P is 5 units away
sphere M.T.he
Theorem:
circle is equal to 8. from M (the point thar is
intersection is a the center of the sphere). 52+82=*
circle. J89 =*
Example: Sphere Gwith radius 13 is cut by plane C 5 units from G. Find the area of the circle of
lntersectron radius circle
d
i

"

By Pythagorean Theorem:
5'* !' = 132
Plane C cuts sphere Sphere G PlanePis5units away
G. The intersection is has radius
v' = 144, I = 12,
from G (the poin t that is and the atea of the
a circle. t3. the center of the sphere). circle is nr2= l44n

221
Example l. A sphere has radius = 5.lf a plane cuts the sphere 3 units from its cenrer, what is the
diameter (2xr") of the circle of intersection that is formed? Let r. equal the radius of the circle of
intersection. Then, by the Pythagorean Theorem:
rc
32+(r.)'=5' t---
3
9+(r.)2=25 5
(..)' = 16, r.= 4, diameter = 8r/

Example 2. Aplane cuts a sphere 4 units from its center. If the area of the circle of intersection is 9n,
what is the area of the sphere? In this problem we are given rhe answer to the area formula, so
set the answer equal to the area (of a circb) formula and work
backwards to find the radius (r.) of the circle. Since two differ-
ent radiuses are involved, let r. equal the area of the circle and r,
equal the area ofthe sphere:
A = n(rJ2
9n = n(r)'
94. = x(.ilz Divide both sides by n
v- fi
Looking at the 9 =(rJ',
3 = r,
top (the circle), By Pythagorean Theorem
3
from above the 42+32=(rJ2 I
ball. 16+9 =)J=(r)z 4
5= rr/
'We
As with most circle and sphere problems, finding the radius is the key to the solution. were asked
for the area of the sphere: A = 4nf = 4n(5)r= l00n = 3r4 r/
Example 3. If the radius of a tennis ball is 1.75 inches, how much empty space is in a can of
tennis balls?

The air space equals the volume of the can (a

cylinder) minus the volume of the 3 balls (spheres). = EMPTY SPACE

,'A',
--\
The radius of the ball, 1.75 in., equals the radius of the rylinder. *y
The diameter of the ball is 2(1.7) = 3.5 in.
Since their are 3 balls in each can, the height of the can is 3(3.5) = 10.5 in.

Let the empry space = x = tcr2h - 3(+ nj)

x = n(rlr200.5) - \fne.7r3) = (32.r5n - Zt.43n) =lO.7n = 33.6 in?r/
222
Now You Try It

1. A plane cuts a sphere with a 10 inch radius and forms a circle of intersection with a 4 inch radius.
How far away from the spheret center does the plane cut the sphere? (Hint: Find the right triangle
in the problem.)

2. Find the area and volume of the sphere in problem I

3. A basketball with an 8 inch radius fits perfectly in a box. Find the volume of the
unused space in the box.

Quick Solid Review

Right Prisms: 2 Bases which are: l) Congruent 2) Polygons 3) In parallel planes.

MW Faces are rectangles

I.
c%
Lateral Area (the area of the faces, the sum of the rectangles' areas).
II. Total Area (the area of the faces and the 2 bases).
III.Volume = Bh. (Capital B stands for the area of the base.)

& Regular Pyramids: 1 Base which is a regular (equal sides, equal angles) polygon.
Faces are congruent isosceles triangles.
I.
fzasir\s come to a Zairr\
Lateral Area = V, pl,,t ir th. slant height. h,41|\

& II. TotalArea=L.A.+

III. Volume = YzBh
18. A
ffi ffi1 ffi
Cylinders: 2 Bases which are congruent circles in parallel planes.
A

I. Lateral Area = 2nrh <_

4
II. Total Area = 2nrh + 2nrz 2nrh h
III. Volume = Bh = nr2h +

Cones: l Base which is a circle

I. Lateral Area = nrl
II. Total Area = m\+nr,
III. Volums = y3nr2h

Spheres Remember the number 4 circle of

distance from
Area = 4nr2 Volume = *,ni?;
2- -. NI^r" the mo "1". ofs

223
Lengths, Areas and Volumes of Similar Solids If mo solids are similar, that is, if they have the
-
same shape but perhaps, different sizes, they are connected mathematically. Heret an example:

Fig.2 The two rectangular prisms are similar. This means

the ratio of each pair of their corresponding sides
Fig. 1 is the same, that is, they are in proportion to ofle

I
another: Z 4 g
I 3= 6= 12
I
I
I
t2
I
I
Order Counts! The smaller figure appears first in
I 8
t
the problem. Therefore, for this particular prob-
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
lem, the order is: small to big
e /6
a The Scale Factor (SF) of mo similar figures is
,e o
e the value of the common ratio of corresponding
2
)
a
lengths, in this , rr,
t or "2 to 3" or 2:3

The 3 Levels Of Similarity

Level I
- All Lengths (SF)
the ratio of allcorresponding lengths of the two objects equals their scale factor, in our e*a-ple, 2
3
Forexample: TheperimeterofthebaseofFig. I =2+4+2+4 =12 12 Z/
Theperimeterof thebaseof Fig.2 =3 +6 + 3 + 6 = 18 18 5u
-
In addition to the perimeters, other corresponding lengths whose ratios equal the scale factor include
sides, diagonals, altitudes, and radii.

Level II - All Areas (SF)'

the ratio of all corresponding areas of the two objects equals their scale factor squared: 0)'_q
-
9
For example: The area of the base of Fig. 1 = 2 x 4 = 8 8 4/
a':Y
The area of the base of Fig. 2 = 3 x 6 = 18 18 9'
Other areas on Level II include the total areas, the lateral areas, and the areas of corresponding faces.

Level III -Volume (SF)3

The ratio of the uolumes of the two figures equals their scale factor cubed, using our example: 0)'_8
Forexample: ThevolumeofFig. l =2x4x8= 64 64 _ 8 .t 6r- u
ThevolumeofFig. 2 = 3 x 6 x 12 = 216 216- 27 "

Example l. The diagonal of the right face of Fig. 1 = 8.9. Find x, the corresponding
.9
diagonal of Fig. 2. A diagonal is a length so it is on Level 1. Therefore, the ratio of
the diagonals must equal the scale factor (SF) itself.

In creating the ratio, be consistent, small to big: = Cross multiply and solve, x = 13.4r/
Y +
224
Example 2. the lateral area of Fig 2 on the previous page is 216, find the lateral area of Fig. 1.

A lateral area is a type of area so it must be on Level II. Therefore, the ratio of the two lateral areas

must equal the scde factor squared, (SF)2 =

(z)'= 4
(3)' 9
Let x equal the lateral area of Fig. 1.
4 x Cross multiply and solve.
Set the ratio up in the right order,
smdl figure to big. Fig. 1 to Fig. 2.
9 216

x = 96r/
I
I
To prove the above method works, find the lateral area of Fig.1 by using the formula: I
I
I
I
I

L.A. = ph = (2 + 4 + 2 + 4) x 8 = 96'/ )-

In fact, the ratio method works for pairs of similar objects of any shape: 2

Example 3. The radius of a basketball equals 8 in. and its volume = 582.7n in3. If the radius of the
soccer ball equds 6 in., find its volume.

All spheres are similar, so we can use

the ratio method. Since the radii are
lengths, their ratio will give us the scale
factor for these two solids:
8 = 4 =qtr,/
6 - 3 -"' v
The order that the balls are given in is
big to small, so thatt the order that the
ratio must follow. Reducing the ratio
makes it easier to work with.

The ratio of the volumes of similar objects equals their scale factor cubed: (SF)3 =
(3)3
@ 64
)'7
Let x equal the volume of the soccer ball and remember ordzr counts:

Volume of Basketball 682.7n 64 Cross multiply and solve:

ffi = x27= x = 288nin3 = 904.3in3 t/

Example 4. \What is the area of the basketball if the area of rhe volleyball is t44n?
LetT equal the area of the basketball. All areas are on Level II, so the ratio of the areas of the balls
must equal rheir scde factor squared:
rq'\2_
\vrl=
(4), _ 16
612- 9
Area of Basketball r6
_T Cross multiply and solve:
ffi x = 256nin2 = 803.8 in2l

225
Example 5. The volumes of two similar pyramids are 343 un.3 and 216 un.3, respectively

a. Find the scale factor of the two figures and

b. Find the ratio of their lateral areas.

a. The problem gives the two volumes (Level III) of rwo similar solids. The ratio of the volumes
equals the scale factor cubed:
Volume of Pyramid I _ 343 _ /eE\3
V@ 216-\ur"'
lVe need to find the scale factor (SF). \7e have its cube, so we need to work baclarards to find the
cube root:
frcF), ^rl@
<tr4 7 (SF)
v 216 <ffi 6

CALCULATOR NOTE: A cube root of a number is a number which when multiplied by

itself and then by itself again equals the original number. For example,4 r 4 x 4 = 64, so 4
is the cube root of 64. To find a cube root using your calculator, find the power key. Here
are three possibilities for how your power key might look
FE, W,of E After
you've found the power key, heret how to fi,nd a cube root: enter the base number, ( use 64 for a trial),
then press the power key, then enter ll3 (if you have a fraction key) or .33333 (if you dont), then
press the equal key. If you're doing it correctly, your calculator should display 4 or 3.9999.....

b. Knowing that the scale factor, (SF) = I6 *rcan now find the ratio of the lateral areas (Level II) of
the pyramiJs:
(SF)'= 49
E;= 36

I + If the given information in the last problem had been the areas of the two solids and if the
JAupquestion had been to find the ratio of the volumes, the key to solving would have been to take
the square root of the ratio of areas in order to find the scale factor (SF). The next step would have
been to cube the scale factor to find the ratio of volumes. The harder problems of this rype wont
ask for the scale factor but will leave it up to you to 6gure out that finding the scale factor is the key
to solving the problem.

Example
-Two similar prisms have areas 64 un2 and l2l un2 respectively. If the volume of the
smaller prism is 1,024 un3, find the volume of the larger prism.
Step 1. Step 3. Find the ratio of the volumes, (SF)3:

- -' # (SF)'z '. -.1= 2Z

/ = @,.
l2l ,rqu ls
The ratio of the areas, (SF),
\-^ (11)3 l33l
Step 2. Find (SF): Step 4. Let x = the volume of the larger prism:
164 _ 512
=\Fu x - l33l
8 1,024
sF = /sFF
II
^h21 Cross multiply and solve: x = 2,662 un3 t/
226
 Ways N to Do Similar Solid Problems
"t
I. Setting up the ratio in the Wrrvlft order -
Example: The areas of two similar prlr-r are 225 and 169 respectively. Find their scale factor.

w
Step 1. (SF)'?

X Step 2. Find (SF): sF = /SFF =

| #-
.@ =.&.
"M #&
\When you're doing these kinds of problems, before you give the answer, go back and re-read
1 a
JT'p the question. This problem named the prisms in big to small order. The problem needs to be
set up in the same order and the answ€r must be in the same order.
answer is:
+;
/
II. Reducing fractions that do Nr-f ,ff:":tct
Example: The areas of two similar cylinders are 256 and 625 respectively. Find the ratio of their radii
(Radii are lengths so their ratio is the scale factor of the two figures)

w
=\G
&
16
Step I. (SF)2 =
256
@ Step 2. Find (SF) sF=lsF), = ./_256 \/
{uu- 25

The correct answer is :

16

w
25

%d
Other fraction that do N
"f
reduce:
9
25
& 6c

Reducing and taking the square root are two different processes. Be sure to keep them separate.
9
t6
&
R N OTE: Here S to proper your you a
fraction k.y @, on your calculator, use rt. En ter the numerator, then p ress the fraction
then enter the denominator and then press the equal sign. Your calculator will display
the reduced fraction if it reduces. If the original fraction is still shown, it does not reduce!
o test an lmproper fraction invert it (flip it) and enter it. Remember to fip it back when
re done. If you do not have a fraction key, you should get a new calculator if you can.
you cant, just start looking for common divisors. And remember, no number can be divided by a
number than one half itself

))7
Quick Review Solving Similar Object Problems
-
Problem: Find the volume of the larger pyramid. r\,
2 3
The Method: _ Small _ 2
Volume = 4
Volume = r SF
Big 3
l. Find the scale factor (SF) of the two similar objects.

l&Ll1qllll1!q,d- a
2. Create a ratio containing your unknown and the corresponding part.
Vol Big
=
Pyramid x

3. Choose the right level for the rype of parts: SF, SF2 or SF3.
(2)' 8
Volume-+ (3)' 27

4. Create a proportion, cross multiply and solve for the unknown.

+=+,8x=ro8,x=r3.5\/
Types of Pars on kvel I (SF) All lengths including sides, perimeters, diagonals, altitudes, medi-
ans, radii, diameters and circumferences.
-
Types of Parts on kvel II (SD2- AII areas including areas of corresponding faces, areas of corre-
sponding cross-sections, areas ofbases, lateral area, total area, surface atea.
Types of Parts on Level III ( SF)3- All volumes.

NowYou Try It
l. The rwo cylinders at right are similar.
In less than 30 seconds, find the ratios of,

a. the heights of the cylinders

b. the circumferences of the bases

c. the lateral area of the cylinders

8 N.,

d. the total area of the cylinders /\

/1 ,-----aa

e. the volumes of the cylinders.

2. Find the height of the smaller cylinder.

3. The lateral area of the smaller cylinder is 36n. Using the ratio method, find the lateral area of the
larger cylinder.

4. the volume of the larger rylinder is 1282. Using the ratio method, find the volume of the smaller
cylinder.

228
ANSWERS Note: in this book r/ means, this is the correct answer.

page 4
NowYou Try It
- A PB C D E F GWH I
-'-r5' 0 I 2 3 4 4.5
A 5 6
Using the number line at right find:
L. AE = l-2 - 2l =4 (or count)r/ 3. EA = 12 - -21 = 4 (or count),/
(Notice rhar- AE = EA)

2.WP=14.5 *-t.21= 5.7\/ 4. GA =14 --21= 6 (or count)r/

5.The midpoint and the coordinate of the midpoint of HB.

First find HB, (the length), HB = 15 -- 1l = 6 (or just count). A midpoint divides a segment into
two equal parts. Each part must be lz of the total, in this problem, Yz of 6 or 3 units long. So
the midpoint must be 3 units from either endpoint. Subtract 3 from 5 (or count 3 units back
from 5),which equals 2. Since the number 2 is paired with point 4 the midpoint of HB is E
and2 is the coordinate of the midpoint of HB .
'/

prge 5
NowYouT"y It Give the definition of each symbol shown below.
-
Lfr RayAB.
'/
2. AB The length of the distance from pointr4 to point B. AB is a number. r,/
3. AB Line AB.r/
4. TB Segment lB r/

page 10
NowYouTryIt - 1

A
laac
CBA
-ft DBCor 2

ZwxYo,
ZYXVoT Y
of Zx
B lon,e

ZEFGo,
3 GFE 4.
E GFH or
lyro, K
ItcJt
or
lFl I Zt
H
ZEFHo,
lupr

229
Page 12

NowYou Try It -
Pictures of angles do not always show the points through which the rays pass. In fact, there are many
different ways in which your teacher and your textbook might draw and label angles. Several of these
are shown in the measuring exercises below. Using a prorractor:

1. Measure ZB
B
o
4. Measure Z I I uo

A
2. Measure lH. 5. Measure ZABC.
(Remember, the
vertex is the middle
letter.) B C
H
3. Measure ZDEF. D 6. Measure ZGHI.
I
G
E
H
F
And remember, always measure as carefully as you can, but these are still just approximations!
(And your answers might be slightly different.)
page12
Now You Try It
-
Identify each of the following as an acute, right, obtuse or straight angle.
2
1

4r o
AC te
3 4
i boht
90.1
ute 5
btuse
5
180'
I
6. 7 acute
t4 89.9"
stral ghr
o tuse
page 18
NowYou Try It-
l. a. List the 3 conditions for angles to be adjacent: b. Sketch a pair ofadjacent angles.
( 1) Same vertex.
(2) One shared side. ZABC and ICBD
(3) No overlap. (Distinct interior regions.) C
D
230
2. Are 21 and 22 in the figure adjacent angles? If not why not? Do you know anything else about
these two angles? ll and 12 not adjacent angles because they do not share
are
I a common side. However, Zl and Z2 are vertical angles,
and therefore, by the Vertical Angle Theorem, Zl 12.
=

3 Find x, y and z. + 4)"

a
(3y + 6) = 105 (Vert. Z thm.) (22+ 20)"
75
-6 -6 5x"
(3t * 105' 3y = 99, !
=33t/ (22 + 20) = 75 (Yert. Z- Thm.)
3x + 105 = 180 (Straight Z = 180)
_ 105 _ 105
-20 -20
(22 - 5)" 2z= 55 z=27.5r/
3x = 75, x =25t/ (4y + 4) + 75 = 180 (Straight I = 180)
(22-5) + 105 = 180 (Straight Z = 180) -4 -75 -4 -75
+5 - 105 +5 - 105 4y=101,!=25.25\/
), =80, z = 40t/ 5x + 75 = 180 (Straight I = 180)
-75 -75
5x=105, x=2lr/
4. Find a y and z. (When lines cross look for straight angles and vertical angles.)

IJo thls equatlon

.a(5x+5) + (4x - 5) = 180 (Straight Z = 180) (2y + 11) = (4x - 5) (Vert. l lhm.)
9x=180, x=20t/ (2y+11)=4(20)-5
first, since it contains a (5x + 5) = (42 - l) (Vert. Zlhm.) (4t+11)=75
single variable
5(20)+J =(42-r) - 11 - 1l
(5x + 5)" (4x -5 105 = (42-l), 2y =64, !=32t/
(2y +ll)" (42 - 106=42,2=26.5t/
5. a. An anglet measure is five times the measure I .,, 5x+x=90,6x=90,x=15,
of its clomplement. Find the anglet measure. Draw a sketch: lii'X "the angle" = 5x = 75 t/
b. If the su pplement of an is 20 more than three times its complement find the ansle's measure.
- \-----/
180-x =20 + 3 ( gO-* )
Now solve the equation: 180 - x = 20 + 300 - x\ 180- x=20+270-3x, ll0=2x, x=55/
5. Name and define 4 special pairs of angles. Sketch an example of each, naming the angles that
meet the definition.
1) Vertical angles: opposite 2) Complementary Angles 3) Supplementary Angles: 4) Adjacent l's:
angles formed when two 2 angles whose measures 2 angles whose measures 2 angles that have
lines cross. total 90. total 180. ZR and ZS. 1. Same vertex.
F 42=1 2. Common side.

M
Na *Zr, 3. No ouerlSp.
Jl
ZFGH and ZJGI
lM and ZN ./ \,
ZFGJ and IHGI. ZR and lS, ZLJK and IKJI
D
ZABD and /.CBD, the exterior
Another correct answer would be a linear pair. A BC sides are opposite rays.

231
Page24
NowYou Try It -
Given: AC = EC and AB = ED B D
Prove: BC = DC
C
Statements Reasons B
C
t. AC = EC. 1. Given. €rgArl,/,%*?
Using the Segmen tr .AC=AB+BC, 2. *Segment Addition Postulate. €wbtr &rf ,
Addition Post. to -y'' EC=ED+DC.
break each whole into
3 .AB+BC=ED+DC. 3. Substitution. (From Statements I A2).
its parts which brings
BC and DCinto the .AB=ED. 4. Given.
proof. 5. BC = DC, 5. Subtraction Property of Equality.
\
The last statement *Note that the Segment
This equality be is always the prove.
Addition Post. can be used
stated before it can be
subtracted from the to show that the parts
equation in step 3. equal the whole or that the
whole equals its parts.
\il7hen to put in the Given? In the above proof one part of the given was stated in the first step and
the other part in the fourth. It was not necessary to do this but it made more sense because AB = ED
was not needed until the fourth step.

page26
NowYou Try It - A D
1. Given: AB = CD
Prove: AC = BD

,. must
Inls equallty Statements Reasons
. l'
b. rt"tld before it AB = cD' I Given
can be added to
\2. BC = BC. 2 Refexive.
the equation from 3.AB + BC = CD + BC. ) Addition Property of Equality,
step 1 .AB+BC=AC 4 Segment Addition Postulate.
Adding the 2 equa- BC +CD=BD
tions from Steps I & 5. AB = CD. 5. Substitution. (From Steps
\-.
2 together. The last statement t r au+1.
is always the prove I
Using the Segment Calling the same thing (from Step 3)
Addition Post. to state by a different name (the one deter-
that the sum of the parts equals the mined in Step 4).
whole. Doing this brings AC and BD
into the proof.

)1)
page26 (continued)

2. Given: wIAEB
= wZDEC AB C
Prove: wZAEC = wIDEB

Note: This proof is logically identical to the previous proof.

E

equatron Statements Reasons

be stated l. wZAEB = mlDEC. l. Given.
mZBEC can 2. ml
BEC = ml BEC, 2. Reflexive.
added to the 3. Addition Property of Equality
. wIAEB + ml BEC = ml DEC + ml BEC,
equation from 4. Angle Addition Postulate.
Step 1.
wIAEB + mZ BEC = wZAEC,
wIDEC+wZBEC=mlDEB
5. wZ.AEC = mlDEB. 5. Substitution (Stmts.2 &.3).
the 2 eq ,/l
from Steps 1 statement Calling the same thing (from Step 3)
2 ls the by a different name (the one deter-
o to state mined in Step 4).
tep b
that the sum of the parts equals the whole. Doing
this brings wZAEC and wIDEB into the proof.
3. Prove the following:

TnronEN,r: If two lines are perpendicular, they form czngruent adjacent angles.
Create an appropriate figure and state the given and the prove.
The theorem ar rhe top of the previous page and this one have a close connection. Th.y are called
"converses". Can you see what the connection is? Answer: The connection is that the given and the
prove have been switched.

€ .€
Given: CE ADt
Prove: IABC ZCBD
=

Statements
K*K Reasons
<:- e
1. CE t AD. <-
ir, 1. Given.stare
2. ZABC and,1CBD are rt. l's.
;*? z 2.Definition of perpendicular lines.
\;;^i; (r lines form rt. t's)
3. ruZABC = 90, ruICBD =90. then Defrnition of right angles.
- 3. (Rt. Z=90)
usert/
4. ruIABC = ruICBD 4. Definition of congruency.
*\
The last statement
is always the prove.

233
page 30
Now You Try It -
l.List the four logical conditionals and using symbol shorthand give an example of each. State the
two pairs which are logically connected.

If-then statement: If p then q. These two conditionals are logically connected. Both
Contrapositive: If not q then nor p. ) are true or both are false.
Converse: If q then p. two conditionals are logically connected. Both
Inverse: Ifnot p then not q.
l These
are true or both are false.

2. Given the statement: If you are in a top band, then you are famous,
a. Form the contrapositive, converse and inverse and state the truth value of each of the 4 statements.

If-then statement: If you are in a top band, rhen you are famous. True
Contrapositive: If you are not famous then you are nor in a top band. True
Converse: If you are famous then you are in a top band. False
Inverse: If you are not in a top band, then you are not famous False

b. If your cousin Sally is not famous, whar can you conclude about her?
Sally is not in a top band.
c. If your cousin Sam is famous, what can you conclude about him?
Nothing. Maybe he is in a top band or maybe he is famous for some orher reason.

3.Given the statement: If I > 16, then x > 4, form the contrapositive, the converse and the inverse
and determine the truth value of each of the four statements.

If-then statement: If * > 16, then x > 4. False (Counterexample, (-5)2 = 25 and -5 . 4)
Contrapositive: lf x!4thenf S16. False (For example, x = -5, f= 25)
Converse: If x>4then*>16. True
Inverse: If f < 15 then x< 4. True.

4. Explain what are the requirements for a syllogism and make up an original example to demon-
strare this logical form.
A syllogism is made up of two iFthen statements in which the conclusion of the first statement is the
hypothesis of the second statement.
The Law of Syllogism states that if both statements of a syllogism are true, rhen you can skip directly
from the first hypothesis to the second conclusion.

P+@@+ r p+ r
Problem 4. continued on next page.

234
page 30 (continued) Example: If you had salad you had a healthy lunch.,.-lNo,.f;H:*:::t?*f:i.
If you had a healthy lunch you must have?aten chick'eh.
Notice that the conclusion of the first statem ent is the hypothesis of the second but the second state-
menr is false and both statements must be true for the Law Of Syllogism to apply.
Example: If you can run the four hundred meters in under 50 seconds you are an extraordinary runner.
If you are an extraordinary runner you can qualify for a top track team.
Since the conclusion of the first statement is the hypothesis of the second andboth statement are true
The Law of Syllogism applies and we may state: If you can run the four hundred meters in under 50
seconds then you can quali$, for a top track team. The Law of Syllogism applies in the following 2 examples:
Example: Tawnee is an Olympic gymnast.
Olympic gymnasts are excellent athletes.
Given that both sratements are true,we can conclude that Tawnee is an excellent athlete.
+
Example: If x > 5 then f > 25. The Law of Syllogism can be P
lf * > 25 then xa > 625. represented symbolically as: -> r
Since both statements are true, we can conclude that if x > 5 then ra > 625. + r
page 32 Now You Try It
-
Given: mlI* mZJ,
Prove: Z I and lJ are not both right angles. Do the proof indirectly and use a paragraph proof.
Proof: Assume temporarily that I I and ZJ are both right angles. Then, by the definition of right
angles, ml I = 90 and mZJ = 90. But this would mean that m/- I = mZJ (Substitution). But this
contradicts the given which is impossible. Therefore, our temporary assumption was wrong and Z I
and lJ are not both right angles.
Here are two more examples of Indirect Proofs using theorems and definitions from later chapters:

Example l. Given m Z4 = 128', m/7 = 51" 2

( the nesative ofrhe prove ) 3 4
Prove: I is not parallel tom
l. Assume temporarily is parallel to
7
2.lf I is parallel to m, then PSSIS tells us that since mZ-4 = 128o, mZ 6 = 52".
3. But if mZ6 = 52", VAT tells us that mZ7 = 52".
4. But this contradicts the given, mZ7 = 51".
5. Therefore, our temporary assumption must be false and the prove is true, I is not parallel to m.
Example 2. Given: BD = BC = 6, AB = 7, mZ2 = ml3 A
Prove: m/1. * mZ4 z( the nesative ofthe prove )
ll
Proof:1. Assume temporarily that = mZ4
2. Since DB = CB, ml3= ml Isosceles tiangle Theorem). D
3. Since ml3 = ml4 (step l) and mZ2 = mZ3 (given), mZ2 = ml4 (Substitution).
4. But if mll = mZ4 (our temporary assumption), and ml2 = mZ4 (step 2) then m
ll = mZ2 (substitution).
5. But the converse of the Isosceles Triangle Theorem tells us that if ml | = ml2 (step 3.)
then AB = BD, which contradicts the given. Since the given is always true, our tem?orar! assum?-
tion, mZl = ml4, must be false and the prove, mZl * ml4 must be true.

235
page34
NowYou T"y It
- I
Using the above figure, classify the following pairs of angles
9
as corresponding angles, alternate interior angles, same side 1
L

5
interior angles or none of these. If the angles do form one t2
of the listed special pairs, name the lines and the ffansversal 8
that form the 2 angles. r5 4
1. Z3 and 17: Corresp. ./.'s, the lines are k and /, the transversal is7.
2. 14 and 25: Nternate interior l's, the lines are k and /, the transversal is7.
3. /.15 and Z6: Nternate exterior Z.'s, the lines arc i and j, rhe rransversal is /.
4. 12 and Z5: Same side interior (or consecutive)Z's, rhe lines are k and /, the transversal is7.
5. 13 and 210: Alternate interior Z-'s, the lines are i and j, the transversal is *.
6. ll1 and Zl0: None . (Th.y are vertical angles but always answer the question that was asked.)
7. 17 and ll3: Same side interior (or consecutive)Z's, the lines are i and j, the transversal is /.
8. 14 and 113: None, (no transversal is shared by both angles).
9. Zll and Z8: None, (no transversal is shared by both angles).

page 38

NowYou Try It
-
r.) 2.)

7x-5 =4x+31 3x+24=4x-8

- 4x - 4r Subtract 4x from each side. - 3x - 3x Subtract 3x from each side.
3x-5=31 Dothemath. 24=x-8 Do the math.
+5 +5 Add5toeachside. +8 +8 Add 8 to each side.
3x = 36 Divide by the coefEcient of x. 32 = x J Done.
33
x = 121 Done! Because, we have a single
positive r (thatt what "isolared"
means) all by itself on one side.

3.) 4.)
4x +7 = 5x- 10.5(The answer is not an integer) 20x + 4 = l3x + 39
- 4x - 4x Subtract 4x from each side. -13x -l3x Subtract 13x from each side.
7= x-10.5 7x+4=39
+10.5 + 10.5 Add 10.5 to each side. _ 4 _4 Subtract 4 from each side.
17.5 = xJ Done, 7x = 35 Divide by the coefficient of x.
77
x =)V
-l

236
page39

Now you try it - Solve for x:

1. l0x+ 5 = 180 - (4x -7)

lOx + 5 = 180 - t(4x) -t(-7) Distribute the formerly invisible negative one.
l}x+5= 180-4x+7 (-) (*) = - (-) (-) = *
+4x -5 = +4x-5 Add 4x to each side, subtract 5 from each side. Do the math
l4x =
t82 Divide each side by the coefficient of r.
t4 14
f= 13 r/ Done.

2. 180-(2x+3)=6x-3
180 - t(2x) -1(J) = 6x - 3 Distribute the formerly invisible negative one.
180-2x-3= 6x-3 (-) (*) = - (-) (*) = -
+2x +3 = +2x +3 Add2x to each side, add 3 to each side. Do the math.
180 8r Divide both sides by the coefficient of x.
88
22.5 = xJ Done.

page 4O
Now You Try It See:,
1. Solve for a, b and c, Think
In a problem like this one, sometimes itt helpful to
extend the lines (see Figure 2). Now itt clearer that
ffi
the figure has (2 pairs of) parallel lines cut by trans-
Fig. Fig.2
versals. The arrowheads should tell you to think of the 4
methods and of the 4, PSSIS is the right method for this problem because it tells us that
each pair of consecutive angles is supplementary. Now, which equation to create? Remem-
ber, in order to be solvable, one equation can have at most, one variable. The only pair of expres-
sions that share the same variable are 4a andSa-48, so that's the equation to start with:

4a+(8a-48)=180
l2a -48 = 180, l2a = 228, a = l9t/

Knowing that a = 19, we can solve for the remaining variables:

3b + 5 + 4A = 780, 3b + 5 + 4(19) = 180
3b +5 +76= l8O,3b + 81 = l8O,3b=99, b=33'/
c + 3b+5 =180, c + 3(33)+5 = 180 = 76, c = 76t/

237
page 40 (continued)
2. Solve for u, u and w. To solve this problem, we need to creare an equation with a single
variable. This means that we should form the equation using the
8l'angle and one other expression based on one of the 4 methods.
Studying the problem, there are several ways to solve, however, it is
Qr* o
probably easiest to use PAEAC:

W
N,,%fu lffi,H'
'We
PCC tells us:
5u =81,u=13.5\/
Qu +52)" = 6u = 8l (from above), so
2u=81 -52=29,a=14.5\/
can then use the Vertical Angle Theorem and PSSIS,
page 4l 3ut+81= 180, w=33r/
NowYou Try It:
Given line pllq
l. Prove 12 is supplementary to 15.
None of the 4 methods deal with angles in the relative positions of Z2 and Z5 VA,T
so we need to use other methods to get started. Study the figure. The Vertical
Angle Theorem (VAT) tells us that ml2 = ml3. PSSIS tells us that Z3 and I
15 are supplementary, but this is the same as saying 12 is supplemenrary to
15. As you do a proof mark up your sketch. Your "notes" help you.
Proof:
Statements Reasons
t. pllq. l. Given.
2. mZ2 = ml3. 2. VNf.
3. 23 is supplementary to 25, 3. PSSIS.
4. ml3 + mZ5 = 180. 4. Definition of supplementary.
5. ml2 + ml5 = 180. 5. Substitution Property (Statements 2 k- 4)
6. Z2 is supplementary to l5 6. Definition of supplementary.
Note:'We cant substitute right after Step 3 because substitution is a property of equaliry and congru-
ence. You can't use substitution in other rypes of statements.
2. Prove mll = mZ8 without using PAEAC
Only PAEAC deals with angles in the relative positions of Zl and Z8 so we need to use other
methods to get started. Study the figure. PCC tells us that mZl = m/5 and the
Vertical Angle Theorem (VAT) tells us that mZ5 = mZ8. Since both steps involve
equations, we can use the Tiansitive Properry with no intermediate steps.
Proof:
Statements Reasons
AT
r. pllq. I Given.
2. mll = m/-5. 2 PCC.
3. ml5 = mZ8. 3 VAT.
4. mZl = mZ8. 4 Thansitive Property (Statements 2 &.3).

238
page44
Find the measures of a throtghf Letter Reason Equation Answer
a Straight Z = 180 (l8o -103) 77
b VAT 103

c AnglesofaA= 180 (l8o-103-58) t9

d Straight Z = 180 (180 - 61) 119

e VAT 77
f AnglesofaA= 180 -61 -77) 42
"180

page50 NowYouTryIt-
Find the measures of ISRQ ZSRT lQand ZS. X};ffiA$,
gives a hint,
(Hint: Form a "system" of equations with u and u)
u -6)" alouays take it.
(5u - 3)"
+ 5)"
(u- so (2u-6)*(5u-3)=180
Sinceastraight l=180: @U, the Ext. I Theorem:
(2u-G)=(, +5)+ (r-4)
a 2u+5u=189 2u-u-u=5-4+6
Note: Some students might find this u - u = /, now isolate u
problem challenging. karning to solve @No* substitute: =U*
"systems of equations" is covered in
2u+ u=189 uation from step 1.]
first year Algebra courses. Some of the
2(u + 7)* u = 189, 2u + 14 + 5u = 189,7 u + 14 = 189, u = 25
methods used to solve include substitu-
tion, (which we used here), addition Now that we know u = 25, substitute 25 into the simplest
and subtraction, multiplication and a equation in order to frnd u: u = 25 + 7 = 32.
combination of the above.
Knowing u and z, itt easy to substitute their values into the expressions for the various angles:
nISRQ= 5u -3 = 5(25)-3 = 122'/ ISRT= 2u -6 = 2(32) -G = 58'/
ZQ= u +5 - (32)+5 = 371, ZS = u - 4 = (25)- 4 = 2l'/
Vocabulary Checkup Give the definition and sketch an example for each of the terms:
-
1. Scalene triangle. 4. Acute triangle.
A triangle with 3 unequal sides A triangle with all 3 angles less than 90"
2. Obtuse triangle. 5. Right triangle.
A triangle with one obtuse angle. A triangle with one right angle.
3. Equilateral triangle. 6. Isosceles triangle.
or
A triangle with 3 equal sides. A triangle with 2 or more equal sides.
page 57 5

NowYou Try It - Each pair of triangles shown below is congruent. In each problem you are sup-
posed to find an additional pair of equal parts by using previously introduced theorems or
Then, name the postulate or theorem which proves that the pair of triangles is congruent.
I 2. ,rnr 3. -r 4 lvvz 5.z
6
vaT
SS Post./ SAS Post Post.r/
Post.r/ ASA
Post.r,/
Iis the midpoint of RIZ

239
Page 58
Now You Try It
Given: AB llDE and Cis the midpoint of AE Prove: LACB LECD
=
D
(a,ia,c D

ZA=ZE A'/
C
eC=Cf A't
Search for Drl 14,l'7r,wt ZB =ZD SY
pairs of equal E Mark up the figure,
Z's and sides. Choose the method AAS
that matches the figure.
Proofi
Statements Reasons Hint - \When you are given that
1. Given. C is the midpoint of AE , you are
L ABIIDE.
resnSn{ wirh AC =
2. lA=
lE, =
lB
ZD. 2. PATAC. Y!?':d 10
CE.(def. of a midpt.)
3. Cis the midpoint of AE, ;. ;..;.
4. AC = CE. 4. Definition of a midpoint.
5.Laca A,ECD. 5. AAS. (Steps 2 and 4.)
=
page 59
is the defini-
NowYou Try It tion of -.t- lines. You
1. Given: eA CB and AO t AC Prove: LABD LCBD could also say "DeE
= = inition of r lines."
B Proof:
Statements Reasons
I. BDLAC. 1. Given
2. IADB is a rt. l, I
CDB is a rt. ./.. 2. I meet to form rt. angles
A D C *3.
AABD and LCBD are right triangles. 3. Definition of right triangles.
4. AB Cg. 4. Given.
=
5. DB = OB. 5. Refexive property.
6. LABD LCBD. 6. HL. (Steps 4and5.)
=
*Note: HL only applies to right triangles so before you use HL, you must first show that the tri-
angles are right triangles.
pn
2. Given: UO
= PR, ZM > lP, wO t l4O and qA t Prove: LMNO APQR
=
Proofl
l/
Statements Reasons
l. NO t MO, QR L PR. 1. Given.
M 5 O R 5 P 2.ZO isart. l, lRisart.Z 2.r lines meet to form rt. angles.
N 3. mlO = 90", mlR = 90" 3. Def. of rt. angles.
4. ZO = lR. 4. Definition of congruency.
5.ZM = lP, UO = Pn 5. Given.
6. ASA. (Steps 4 and 5.)
M OR P 6. LMNO APQR.
=

240
Page63
NowYou T"y It
Every proof on this page can be done using congruent triangles and/or the definition of congru-
ency.
Statements Reasons
1. Given: AC EC and 1. ZACB = ZECD. 1 VAT.
=
ZBAC ZDEC 2. AC =EC, 2 Given.
=
Prove: BZ DE
B ZBAC = IDEC.
= 3. LACB = LECD. 3. ASA=. (Stmts I A D.
4. BA=DE. 4. CPCT

2. Given: FH
=JE,Gr = KI, HI L GK
Statements Reasons
and ZFHG IJHK 1. GI=KI, At tCX.t Given.
Prove: FG=JK
= l 2. IGIH, ZIOH arc 2. Def. of r lines and
rt. angles, and = 90" def of right angles.
3. ZGIH = ZKIH. 3. Def. of congruency.
4. HI HI. 4. Refexive.
"See" the 2 pairs of triangles that G =
5. LGIH = LIOH. 5. SAS=.(Stmts 1, 3 Aq.
you rhink are congruent.
6. GH= KH. 6. CPCT.
1H !
f
l. Co--o, p^rrr. 11/
2. Vertical angles. 7. FH =JE, 7. Given.
f; 3. Information from parallel line ZFHG = IJHK.
6 methods (especially PAIAC).
? 4. Information from definitions. 8. LFGH LIKH. 8. SAS=. (Stmts 6 A7).
=
9. FG=IK. 9. CPCT.
KG
Start with the pair of A's that
yov can Prove are congruent.

3. Given: P is on the perpendicular Statements Reasons

bisector of QR 1. P is on the r bisector l. Given.
Prove: PQ= PR of QR-R.

as R 2. S is the midpoint
@, Ps r QR.
of 2. Definition of l-
bisector.
3. ZQSP is a rt. Z, 3. Definition of perpen-
sAs Z.RSPisart. Z. dicular lines.
4. ZQSP LRSP
= 4. Nl righr Z's are
=.
,. QS= Rs. 5. Def. of midpoint.
a .t R
6.N=PT. 6. Refexive Properry.
First A A, 7. LQSP = ARS? 7. SAS (Stmts.4,5&6).
= =.
then CPCT { 8.PQ = PR. 8. CPCT.

24t
page 63 (continued)

4. Given: SU = SV Statements Reasons

Prove: S lies on the perpendicular l. Construct S7 L W 1. There is exactly one r
bisector of UV segment between a line
and a point not on the
U P V line.
2. ZUPS is a rt. l, 2. Definition of perpen-
ZWS is a rt. l. dicular lines.
3. LSUP & ASIZP are 3. Def. of rt. A's.
right triangles.
HL I
4. SU=SVSU=SV. 4. Given.(Definitionof
=.)
I
5. 57 = .tZ'. 5. Refexive.
+
I
tA= 6. LSUP ASIz? 6. Hl.(Statements 4 & 5).
V =
P 7.UP=W. 7. CPCT,
8. Pis the midpt. of W.8. Def. of midpt.
9. S lies on the l- bisector 9. Def of ..t- bisector.
of UV (Statements I & 8).
5. Given: )zlies on the bisector Statements Reasons
ofZIVXZ,WtXlXt, l. t XW, YZ L XZ. 1. Given.
YlV
YZ T XZ, W 2. IXWY and ZXZY 2. Definition of perpen-
Prove: YW = YZ are rt. l's and = 90". dicular lines & rt. Z's.
3. ZXWY > ZXZY 3. Defintion of =.
4. Ylies on the bisector 4. Given.
W of llWZ.
5. IWXY IZXY 5. Defintion of I bisect.
=
AAS 6.XY=XY. 6. Reflexive Prop.
Y lrst A=A, LXWY= LXZY
7. 7. AAS=. (Steps 3,5 U 6).
Z
t
8. YW=YZ. 8. CPCT.

6. Given: YW = YZ, YlV L XW and Statements Reasons

YZ t XZ. W l. YrX/ L XW , YZ L XZ.l. Given.
Prove: Z\WY = ZZXY 2. IXWYis a rt. Z, 2. Definition of perpen-
ZXZYis a rt. Z. dicular lines.
3. LXWY k XZY are 3. Def of rt. A's.
rt. A's.
W 4. Y'W= YZ, YW= YZ. 4. Given.(Definitionof=.)
5. XY= XY. 5' Reflexive'
HL
LxZY
[e . xxwv= 5. HL.
lt. zwxY=tzxY 7'3PCT'
242
Polygon Chart page67 Total of
Number of Number of
Calculation Interior
Sides Triangles
Ansles
7 I Ix 180 180
4 2 2x180 360
1 3 x 180 540
6 4 4x180 720
7
5 5 Xtro 900
6 6X/rO /o80
9 7 7X/KO /260
'to o K Xlgo /440
page 68 NowYou T"f It
1. Find the totd sum of the measure of the interior angles of a 100-gon.

Use the formula, (n - 2)(180) = (t092)(180) = (98)(180) = 17,640",/

2. Find the measure of the smallest and largest angle of polygon PQRSTTIVW. 5

RS 7
gtep 1. Counting the sides of the polygon, there are eight, which
(1

06' (9x+ T means that the total npasure of the interior angles is:
0xl)' (n - 2)(180) = ff-
z)(rso) = (6)(180) = 1080'
P
11
U
(l2x+
W V Step 2. Now set the total of the values of each angle equal to 1080":
(10x- 7)" +106"+(I4x- l3)'+ 12x" + (9x+1)"+ 1lx" +(12x+13)" +(l3x+8)" = 1080"
81x+108=1080, 8\x=972, x=t2
Step 3. Go back and read the question and answer the questions that were asked:
The smallest angle is ZQwhich equals 106', the largest is lWwhich equals 164".'/

page69
NowYou Try It - If the sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon is 1260, find the measure of
one exterior angle of the polygon.
This problem is giving the answer to the formula (n - 2)(180) so set the formula equal to the answer:
(n-2)(180)=1260"
Carefully distribute each term
of the expression (n - 2): n(180) - 2(t80)= 1260
180n - 360= 1260
Balance the equation: + 360 + 360
Divide by the coefficient of n: l80n 1520 n=9
180 180
Using the compact formula (n - 2) 180 for the measure of one interior angle, (9 - 2) 180 = 140".'/
n9

I Since a straight angle equals

Now, draw one corner
180", the exterior angle must
of the polygon:
equal 180-40 = 40.1

243
pageTl
Now You Try It
1. If an exterior angle of a regular polygon is72",what is the total measure of the interior angles of
the polygon?
Since the exterior angles of a regular polygon are equal, use the formula:
360"
=fi t
the measure of one exterior 72"
angle of a regular polygon
(
Since n = 5, the total measure of the interior angles = (fr -2)(l8o) = 540"
'/
2.lf the interior angles of a regular polygon total 1620", 6nd the measure of one exterior angle.
The problem is giving the answer to the formula (n-2)180 so set the formula equal to the answer:
(n-2)180 = 1620.
Now distribute: 180n - 360 = 1620,
18on = 1980, n =
Use the formula: 11

360" the r_neas-ure of one exterior 360" = 150" x 32.7" /

n - angle of a regular polygon n 1l

3. Polygon ABCDEFGH is regular. Find the measure of ZI.

There are lots of ways to do this problem, heret one of them:
Polygon ABCDEFGH is a regular octagon.
A
Each exterior angle measures: ,6qr, "
= 3Q = 45"

Sketching one vertex of the octagon helps you to see that each interior angle
equals 180" - 45" = 135". Now study the original figure. Polygon EFGI is a
quadrilateral so its interior angles total (n-2)180 = 360":
Z.FEI + IIGF + (360" - Z.EF1 + lI =360"

Now substitute , ,fr . ,,rE;.(360" - ,W. tI = 360"

45" + 45" + (225) + lI = 360", lI = 360"- 315" = 45"1
page72
NowYou T"y It
Given E GHIJ at right, add the correct measurements for the following: I
ruZGHI, mlHIJ, HG, ruZHGJ, HI Gf .
^"d
ruIGHI = ruZGJI = 133 (E) t/ , ruIHIJ = 180'- 133" = 47" (consecutiveG 8

angles of n are supplementar/), ftC tJ = 5 (#), ruIHGJ = rnZ-HIJ = I

=
47"( ),HI=GJ=g , GI=6+6=12(&).'/

244
page74
NowYou Try It
Supply the reasons to prove the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. B C
Given: E ABCD Prove: BD bisects AC and 1Z bisects BD A D
Proof:
Statements Reasons
I. E
ABCD. l. Given.

^:/w' 2. ZAEB ZDEC.

=
2.YNr.

^ffi' t. AE oC.
4. BC
=
ll aDt ABllDC.
3. Opposite sides of
4. Definition of a E.
a E areo

A
5. IDBA= ZCDB. 5. PAIAC.
LAEB v LCED.
6. 6. AAS.

A
7.AE = EC; BE = ED. 7. CPCT.
t of AC; E is 8. Definition of a midpoint.
",-r$.GXc
ro,:n, 8. E is the midpoin
the midpoint of BD.
,'iFQ,-,' 9. BDbisects AC, AC bisects ^BD 9. Definition of segment bisector.
page76
NowYou Try It
TnBon-ENr: If both diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, the
quadrihteral is a parallelogram.
Given: Quadrilaterd, ABCD with AE = EC and BE =
ED
Prove: ABCD is a pardlelogram. D
Proof: Statements Reasons
l. AEEC, Af = ZO.
=
1. Given.
2. IBEA= ICED; IAED = IBEC. 2.YNl.
3. LAEB = LCED; LBEC = LDEA. 3. SAS.
4. AE = DC, AD = BC, 4. CPCT.
5. ABCD is a parallelogram. 5. A Quad. with 2 prs. of
=
opp. sides is a E.
TrrBoruu: If one pair of opposite quadrilateral are congruent
sides of a o
and parallel, the quadrilateml is a parallelogram.
Given: Quadrilate ral MNOP with MN =
PO and MN llPZ Pror., MNOP is a parallelogram
Proof Statements Reasons
1. Construct MO . Two points determine a line.
1.
2. A,INllPo. 2. Given.
3. INIUIO_: ZPOM. 3. PATAC.
4. MN = PO. 4. Given.
5. MO =tWO. 5. Refexive Property.
6. LMNO = LOPM. 6. SAS=.
7. NO = tWP. 7. CPCT.
8. MNOP is a parallelogram. 8. A Quad. with 2 prs. of opp. sides is a D.
=

245
page77
Now You T.y It
For problems I - 4, find any parallelograms in the drawings. Be sure to thoroughly explain your con-
clusions.
B
1 2 0 3 4.
I X 9 s
2 V R
A D
L Y
Z
PSSIS tells us i ll lk IZXY of LZY mexures UT
and we can see IJ = LK The diagonals
180 - 44 - 30 = 106.5o 2 CCP tells u, AC ll ED,
but no theorem tells us bisect each other
ZXWis 180 - 106 = 74. I ITT tells us AB = AC= 9,
that this is a E so the so RS7Vis a D
correct answer is "No VZX of Quad. VZXW mea- so, AC= ED. Therefore, t/. H.r. is the
sures 360 - 74 - 74 - 106 =
CDEisaEbecause
Conclusion'.'.r/ logic sketchof
.ZF
Had one pair of sides 106. Since opposite angles
one pair of sides is both
the supporting
I

and =. t/ Here is the logic

been both llr"d IJKL are equal, Q""d. VZXWis a theorem:
=, sketch of the supporting
wouldbeaEby: E.Here is the logic sketch rheorem:
of the supporting theorem: D-&

o
5. Find the values of x 30)'
g)" 6. Find the values of a and +9)
and y that make MNOP a p
(7y+2)
(9x b that make FGHI a paral-
parallelogram.
M lelogram. (3b - 4)
+
Step l. Assume tempo- 6x+8 = 9x -28 Step 1. fusume that
rarily that MNOP is a 3x=36, x=12 FGHI is a D. -2 = b+l
l-l. )teP z. Lreate equa- 7y+2 = 5y+30 Step 2. Create equations b-4=a+9 i#n*.y.,
equatlons.
tions based on the facts 2!=28,
!=14 based on the facts that
I =b Using lst eq.
that you know about x=12,!=14t/ ti
you know about a E, lsolate ,
a D, in this case thar in this case that opposite 3(4a r4) - 4=a*f!!!2
r
opposite angles are equal. sides are equal. l2a -42 - 4= a+9
lla=55, a = JSolvefora.
page 81 4(5) -14 = b = 6 Solve forb.
NowYou T.y It a.=5,b=5/
l.Find the perimeter of o
EABCD, m/.AED B C ABCD is a rhombus because BA= AD. (A
with 2 consecutive
sides is a rhombus.) Therefore, the perimeter is 4xl0 = 40.1
56' =
and ruZEAD.
D Diagonals of a rhombus are t so,mlAED = 90"J (def. of r).
A wIBAD = 68o (ZABC = 2x56= 112", so ZBAD = 180" - ll2"=
68" (Consec. Z's of a are suppl.),
ZEAD = 68"* 2 = 34".1 (Diagonals of a rhombus bisect the l's.)

246
page 8l (Continued)

2. a.Find x, y and zin E FGHI is not a rhombus (2ZGEF = 7B), nor is it a rectangl, Gf * f]l
E FGHI. b. LGEF | ? so only the regular properties of parallelograms can be used to solve the
H problem: ! = 5, z= 12 (diagonals ofaD
bisecteach other),wZFEI = 102
G (180 - 78),wZEFI =21 (lB0 - 102 -57,31's of aA= 180"), sox=21,
(PAIAC). ,/ b. LGEF LIEH (Since GE = IE, IGEF = IIEH, f7 fE.)
= =

4. Find the perimeter of square

F MNOP, wZMQN, wZPOQ
3. Given D and name any triangles A OQP.
JKLM,find, NM. I =
A square has four sides and four
is a rectangle (a/- with I rt. = = P o
IKLM (rt.) angles. The length of one side of the square is r. In
Z is a rectangle). JN> NL (diagonals this case, we cannot solve for (find the value of) t, and that
of a E bisect each other), so JL= means the answer must be "in terms of" t; the perimeter is
32. Diagonals of a rectangle are .r, so 4xt or, 4t. J To frnd mlMQN, recall that the diagonals of
Kfu[=32, and NM = 16. (A second a square (since a square is a rhombus) are t, so wIMQN
proof; LJLM is a right triangle, and = 90 r/(def. of r lines). The diagonals of a square (since it's
l/is the midpoint of JL, so NM =16 a rhombus) bisect the vertices, so wIPOQ= 90 +2 = 45/.
because the midpoint of the hypot- Since order counts, there are 7 triangles to A OQP: LPQO,
=
enuse is equidistant from each vertex.) LOQN, AlrQO, LMQN LNQM, LMQP, LPuM.,/
page84 NowYouT"yIt

l. ls ABCD a trapezoid? To be a trapezoid, two sides (and only mo) must be ll

C which would then mean that by PSSIS, two adjacent
angles (two angles that are next to each other) must be
supplementary. But 101 + 78 = 179, and78 + 93 = l7l.
A
So no, ABCD is not atrapezoid.t/
2. Given D,MNOP with bases Since NO and MP bases, they must b. ll. Th.refore, by
^r,
l/Oand MP, frrd x andy. PSSIS, IONM and IPMN must be supplementary, so set
N o their sum equal to 180: 9x+8+5x+ 4 180, l4x + 12 = 180
=
14x=168, x=12.t/
M For the same reason, ZMPO and INOP must also be supple-
mentary. Substitute 12 for x in the equation:
4(12) +7 + y = 180, 55 + y = 180, y =125.'/

3. Given GHA find u and u. This is an isosceles a so by the Isosceles Tiapezoid Theorem, each
pair of base angles is equal. But first, we need to find the value
of either u or u. ZIHG and ZJGH are supplementary by PSSIS
so set their sum equal to 180: 123 + 5u + 2 = 180,
125 + 5u = 180, 5u = 55. u = ll./
Nowsubstitute: u = 7l into (5u + 2)andset = /. 5(11) + 2 = u.
u=57t/
247
page 84 (Continued) Finding a and c. Since Findins &:
YZ ,t the median of base 1+ base2
4. Given a, UVlWwith
-.di,i- 2
the A, YandZ are
median YZ, find a, b and c.
r0 + (2b +t6)
midpoints of the sides. 2
l0
This means:
zbz=rc+2b+t6\tr
(3c+B)
4a- 6 =24,
2a=6,a=31
\21
(4a - 6)
2b+15 44 = 2b + 26, 18 = 2b,9 = b.t/
and,4c=3c+8
c=8t/
a median- basel+base2
5. Given QRSTfind r. Because aa: UR 2
R 3x+8 S andST-VT, UV 5x-3= (3x+8)t(7x+Z)
26 is a median.
22 )
I 0x + 10 4
L
2 3
7x+2
k.- x
l2x - $ = l}x +10,2x = 16, x =8t/
6. Given D,IJKL with median MN The median of a a
is parallel to both bases. PCC tells us

, find z. that IJMN= ZMIL so set the corresponding expressions

equal: 5z * 13 = 4z + 2, z =15.1
I 2. Solve for x, y and mZ HJI.
Top of page 85 NowYouTty It
I First concentrate on L,GIK,
-
l.
Find zandmZ DEC. Since DE joins 5x+ 4 = Vz(l1x -2) =7.5 x -l
the mid points of two sides of AABC, DE 5=2.5x, x=2t/
is Yz as long as and ll to, th. third side, mIHJI= 36"(PCC)
(HJ is llto GKe.FL)
68 48 AC. So,2z +14 = Vz(68), z =10 r/and F L study ttFHJL.
A wZDEC = 180 - 48 = 132 (PSSIS). GKis the median of trapezoid FHJL so
Bottom of page 85 NowYouTiw It substitute x = 2 into the median formula:
Since th. a'llh.r.r cut offequal
1. Given a = b, find
'' p"rtr on one transversal, they cut
1
+ 1
2
yk= +

off equal parts on the other trans-

2 8= 14 l3y
+ +4 I
5z versal, so set the two expressions
a I
+12 equal: 5z = 2z +12,32 = 12, z = 4. t/ ,r,(r
56 = l3y +18, l3y = 38, y =2 r/
2.Ihe three lines in the figure are Parallel lines that are equally far apart, cut offequal segments on
equally far apart. Solve for x and y. every transversal. Therefore, we can form these equatlons:
(Hint: Think about which segment
' (1) -I
2y +5 = 4x |This is a system (2 or
equals which segment.) (2) 3y-7=2x+4 Jmore) of equations
Vorking on equation (1), isolate y: 2y =4x-
+5 3v -7 Now substitute into equation (2): 3(2x 3)-7=2x+4
4x -1 2x +4 Distribute: 6x - 9 - 7= 2x + 4
4x=20,x=5t/
Substitute x = 5 into equation (l): 2y +5 = 4(5) - I = 19, I =7 t/

248
page 88
Now Yo uTryIt 1. How many exterior angles are named in the figure? List them.
Can you find any exterior angles that are shown but not named?
(1) 5
(2) 13 (to 2 different triangles), 24, 18, 110 (to 2 different tri-
angles), and Zl2.
t2 (l) Yes
Problems l-3

2. Using the Exterior Angle Inequality Theorem, list as many inequalities as you can.
ml3> ml5, ml3 > ml6, ml3 > mZ7, mZ3> mZ9, mZ4> mll, ml4> mZZ, ml8> m
ll, ml8 > ml2 (Notice that mZ8 = mZ4, by VAT), mZ.lO > mZ7, mZl) > ml9, mZ-10 >
ml5, mZl\ > mZ6, (Notice that mll} = ml3 by VAT), mll2 > ml7, mZl2 > m211.

3.If ml3 > ml4 (never assume that it is based on the drawing) what else can you conclude?
Since ml3 > mZ4 and ml4 ) mll
and ml4 > ml2, rhen ml3 > ml1 and ml3 > ml2 as
well. \We could not have known this otherwise.
page 89
NowYou T"y It
1. Can you make a triangle with sides equal to
a) 4,4, and 8? No, 4 + 4 = 8 * g. "Equal to" isn't good enough. The sum must be larger.
b) 4.01, I and3? No. 1+ 3 =4* 4.01. Rememberalways addthe wo smallernumbers together
c) 2, 7.9 and 5? Yes, 2 + 6 = 8 and 8 >7.9 (ever so slightly bigger, but thatt enough).

2.lhreesides ofa triangle are 5,5 and x. Find numbers a and& such that a < x < b.
a<x<b 5-5<x<5+5 0<x<10 A=0*,b=10\/
*But physical quantities are positive, how can a = 0? Because x will not never equal 0. Zero is simply
its lower limit. But x may get as close to 0 as we please. For example, x could equal .0000000001, or
perhaps Vz of that amount, or Yr, of that amount and so on.

Explanation ofTiiangle Inequaliry Problem \p, 2

Heret an example: Given that the lengths of three sides of a triangle are 3, 4, and x. Find a and b
such that A < x < &. Looking for a, the lower limit, we know by the Thiangle Inequaliry Theorem,
when x is added to 3 (the lessor of the giuen lengths) the sum must be greater than four, that is x + 3
> 4.To solve the inequaliry subtract 3 from each side, x > l, or 1 < x This gives us a, the lower limit.
Lookingfortheupperlimit, since 3 +4=7,xhas to staysmallerthan T,thatisx < 7.And this gives
us the upper limit, &. Putting this all together, we have: | < x < 7 .
But looking back at the explanation, you can why this is the same as the method:

Small Big
Length of Third Side Number N umber
Num Number

249
page92
NowYou T"y It
Given: BO trC lirt everything you can discover about the angles, sides and triangles in the figure
=
below:
Z5 = Z4 (ITT); Z7 = Z3 (Angles that are supplements of congruent angles
are congurent); 14 > 22,14 > 15 >ll, /8,15
> 29, 17 , 26,17 >
14, 13 > 25,13 > 16, (Ext. Angle Ineq.); 14> 28, Z4> 29, 15 >
12, 15 > Zl,
17 > 15, 23 > 24, (Subst.); in LDAB, AB > DB, in
E D c A LCEB,EB> BC,(Inatriangle,alargerangleisacrossfromalarger
side)'
page96
NowYou Try It
Answers to Inequalities with Two Tiiangles:

O l. Using the figure at left and the following information, what can you conclude?
a.lf INPO = 93, and P is the midpoint of OM.
P o o
Re-sketch the figure (since we Now, we have the right
need to use it more than once) combination of information
and add the new information about the two triangles to
plus what we can figure out for apply SAS Ineq. ON > MN.'/
ourselves 190 -93 = NP= NP.
b. If 1\/P is a segment bisector of OM and Z MPN= 91". o
o
Re-sketch the figure and add
Now, we have the right
the given information plus combination of informarion
P
what we can figure out for our- about the two triangles to
apply SAS Ineq. ON < MN.'/
selves, 180-91 =89, NP=NP.

c.If NO = NM and OP < PM. o o

Re-sketch the figure and add Now, we have the right
the given information plus combination of information
what we can figure out for about the triangles to apply
ourselves, NP= NP. SSS Ineq. ZONP < MNP.'/

2. Given: WV < XY and WX = W Statements Reasons

Prove: I.WXV < /. XYZ. I.WV<XYWX=W 1. Given. Step I
X
2.XV=XV 2. Refexive. Step3.
3. ZTWV < ZXW 3. SSS Ineq. Y
W Y 4. ZXYZ > ZXW 4. Ext. Z Ineq.Thm. Step 4.

V 5. ZXYZ >ZWXV 6. Properry of Ineq. Y

250
Page 98
NowYou Tiy It
1. Name the 6 properties of proportion and give an example of each.

w=Y 3 6
If xz and
Z 8

(1) Cross multiply: uz = lx and (3)(8) =(4)(6) (2) Flip the ratios: { =
z
and
48
' ll) v 36
(3) Swap the means
lt
=
x
and
34 (4) Swap the extremes:
z
=y and
86
yz 68 XU 43
(5)Bring up the denominato,
u*x l:a (6) Add them vp,
* =y
xz = ?# xz =

3+4 6+8 3+6 9 3 6

48 4+8124 8
g , which of the following are equivalent proportions?
2. tf h j
.I7hrt
1 happened? gand j got switched. Since swapping the extremes is one of the
") i =
properties, the answer is yes, this is an equivalent proportion.

b.\!
'g = !i \ifhat happened? Compare b to the original proportion; each ratio has been fipped.
Since fipping (inverting) the ratios is one of the properties, the answer is yes, this
is an equivalent proportion.

d+b !i tVhat happened? Compare c to the origind proportion; the right ratio has been
fipped (inverted), but not the left. None of the properties of proportion allow only
one side to be fipped. Conclusion: No, this is not an equivalent proportion.

3.rfy=a
xz then z Compare to the original, the ratios were fipped and then both the
v
. t/
; =;
means and extremes were swapped, to
b
4.If t=, then, ? Co-p"re to the original, the denominator of the left side got
"brought up" and then the ratio was flipped (inverted) so do
-a+b
exactly the same to the right side: /
h= *.
page 102 NowYouTryIt
1. \Write four congruencies and the extended proportion given by this similarity: MNOP * QRSTI
ZM=ZQ ./.N=ZR ZO=lS ZP=Z T order counts!
MN NO OP PM - QRST
MNOP
QR RS .t7 TQ t&@if

25r
page 102 (continued)
G
2.1he two quadrilaterals shown are similar. J
D 2t A
93" 3
2 ,-t 111"
a. Name two similar quadrilaterals. t t2
C
Answer: Any similariry where the corresponding 9
angles are matched up as shown below, is correct. B
J +
GHIJ,-, BADC. (Match up the corresponding angles)
b. CBAD is similar to what quadrilateral? Re-sketched .;
GHIJ so that rt,
JGHr is oriented like
c.tVhat is the scale factor of the two figures?
BADC.
Answer: Studying the two figures, the problem gives a length of two corresponding sides, .Br4
and GH , the sides berween the 125" and 3l " angles in each figure. Since the figures were
glven in small to big order, that is the order for this problem, small to big. The scale factor
ir9 which reduces to 2
Always write the scale factor on the figures. It helps you to keep
12 )
track of the scale factor and the order of the p roblem.
d. Find r, s, and t. + J
22 (2)(r) = (3)(2) = 6, r = 3'/
3r J
2.t (2)(9) = 18 = (3)G), 6'/ q
39 s =
D
93"
2t

2t r
32t (2)(2r) = 42 = (3)(t), t = 14 I c
111'
3 t2
9
page 106
B
NowYou Try It
In problems 1-4, decide if rwo triangles are similar. If they are similar, explain why and name the
similarity. If not, explain why not.
1

Here are the ) Arr{-

ways you rho*!, SAS- Since no lengths are given in the problem, the
rwo triangles I only way we can prove LGHI * LFHJ is by AA-.
SSS-
are similar ) Draw the two triangles separately.
F 2-Study the lettersr.
to help find
H shared parts,
Look for
straight angles lHisin
both As.
\
I I
G 180-108 7)
F
F
ZG=ZFandlH=ZH
LGHI* LFHI byAA-./

252
page 106 (continued)
2.6 second triangle gives two angles, so the first step is to find its third angle:
M 180-86"-48"=46".
8
L The first triangle has a 33'angle and the angles of the second triangle are 86",
1 4B', and 46.The two triangles can't be similar because all three corresponding
angles of similar triangles are congruent and triangle NOP doesnt have a 33"
l/ 1
angle.
3 P
ZY = ZV and ZX = lU (and IYWX = lVWXby VAT)
In naming the similariry, follow the order of the pairs of
W W congruent angles.
I
=z_ I -z_ I -z_

V U V
A by AA-.'/
4.a P Both triangles shows the size of 2 angles so we can find the third.
ARQP; 180 - 26" - 28" = 126" LMNO:180 - 26" - 126" = 28"
Therefore, the three angles of both triangles are 26" , 28" , and 126" . The
R two triangles are similar by AA- because they share pairs of congruent
M o angles. To name the similariry correctly, follow the same angle measure
path in each triangle 26",28", 126 APRQ - LMNO.\/

5. Using the figures below, name two

similar triangles and find g and i.
G
I The problem is telling us that the 2 triangles are similar
K
so the first thing to do is to re-orient the second trian-
gle (triangle lfi{ so both triangles are turned the same 5.6
way. Do this by drawing a larger copy of FGH. You F
know where the angles go (in the same relative loca- o
H 6 7
tions as in LFGH). Then carefully transfer the letters
and other numbers by referring to the original figure.
5
J
H Now it's easy to name 2 similar triangles: /rFGH - LIIOJ
Find the scale factor by forming the ratio of two corresponding sides that
havelength, 5=6
=.g= L 4 = g s=4\/ 4 - 8 i=l0r/
7 5 5 5o 5 i
6. Using the figure below, prove
Statements Reasons
AC AE r. ABIIBD 1. Given.
BC
*Notice
BD 2, IEAC = ZDBC 2. PCC.
that once youve
proved the triangles are similar,
ZAEC = ZBDC
you can state that the ratios of 3. AEAC - ADBC 3. AA-
any pair ofcorresponding sides ,* AC AE 4. Definition of Similariry.
must be in proportion. BC BD (Corr. sides are in nronortion-)

253
Page 109
NowYouTty It Complete the indicated operation and if necessary simplif, (finish) the
-
following radical expressions.
Answers:
t. (3)(2^fr) = 6 \/T = 6^M = 6)G)(^h) = 18 ^6,t

2. 6^fr) o^fr) =a^R =8^M = (8)(4) (^R)=32\b'/

3.m \a
^3 (fl (4Xl) ,/5v/
---;-
4
Note: You can't rr..l
4 ,G .G (2)(3x5) z6 ,/ ffi
^12 ts ,l ts F9 (@; 15
Think of the radical sign as
'/
-= protecung lts contents
page 111
NowYou T"y It
Given right LGHIwith altitudr- HI drawn from the right angle, name three pairs of similar triangles.
Remember, order counts!
tWhat this problem is testing is if you know how to name the similariry; that
means, Iisting the angles of each triangle in the correct (corresponding) order.
'We
know the three triangles are similar so they dl have the same shape.
Draw wo smaller triangles that are the same shape as the original tri-
angle (GHI) and that are oriented (turned) like GHI. And then
H
carefully place each letter on the correct vertex, beginning with the
right angle, and then the acute angle from which the dtitude was not drawn.
++

J ++

J
Now itt easy to name three similar triangles: l. LGHI
2. LGJH
3. LHI
There are lots of other correct answers, for example, LGIH * LGHJ - LHII.

pagell4
NowYou Try It
l. Based on the figure below,
fill in the blanks:
a is the geometric mean between d and @A.
& is the geometric mean between e and @A
c is the seometric mean between e and d
a
b

254
page l14 (continued) AC=AD+DC=3a9=12J
2. Based on the figure, find
AC, AB, DB and CB: Findinsl,B:
OAB12 -
3 AB
A3 D 9C
(AB)'=36, AB=6J

ADBg3
FindinsDB: -
DB

B (DB)' = )/, DB = il@O)= 3J5 = 5.2J

A 3 D 9 C
Findins.BC 9 BC
ABCO -
6
J' (BCy=1o8,BC= (3X-6)(6) 6 Jj=10.4'/
B
page 116 NowYou Try It l. Find z in the right triangle below. Answer: In the problem, you are
given that this is a right triangle so you know that the lengths of the sides of the triangle are related
by the Pphagorean Theorem: 1- ,1 (Leg1)'z + (Leg2)2 = (Hypotenuse)2
3z-2
LLi'
(22 + 2)2 + * = (32 - 2)z Foil the binomials.
/, (4*+82+4)+*=9*-l2z+4
4i-202=0, 4z(z-5)=0
4z =O,rXO (i-possible), (z -5) = 0, z = 5 r/
2. Is triangle PQR a right triangle? Answer: The converse 6f the Pythagorean Theorem says that if
the lengths of a right triangle are related by the formula: (Leg l)'z+ (Leg 2)2 = (Leg3)2'
then the triangle is a righltriangle. Always let the largest side of the triangle be Leg 3: 4
3
32 + 22 ?- q' 9+4 * 16 So triangle PQR is not a righrtriangle. P R

page 118 NowYouTrylt-Given: a2 + b2 < P Prove: LABC is obtuse.

Hints: Construct right LTUZ with right lV andlegs a and b. Now recall the inequality theorems!
B Statements Reasons
d l. a2 + b2 < P. 1. Given.

A bC
U 2. a2 + b2 = ri. 2. Pythagorean Theorem. ^%.
a 3. ti< *, u< c.
b
v 4. ZC > lV.
3. Substitution.
4. SSS Ineq. Thm.
5. ZC A LABC are obtuse. 5. Def. of Obtuse Z's &. A's.
ru
page l19 NowYou Try It 1. Is triangle BCD acute, right or obtuse? Prove it.
To use the three theorems, we need to know the lengths of all three sides. Since triangle ABC is a right
triangle, we can use the Pythagorean Theorem to find CB:
82 + 42 = (CB)z, 80 = (CB)2
D
JBo = (s )(4)(4)= 4\5 =8.94=CB
8
Knowing all three sides we can now form a test equation to test the triangle:
62 + 72 ? (4\/-5)'z Since 415 is the largest leg, we placed it by itself on the right.

A4 B Left side: 62 + 72 = 36 + 49 = 85 Right side: (4t/j)' = (4)' 6/r)'= (16) (5) = 80

Since 85 > 80, that is, the left side of the test equation is larger than the right
side, we know the triangle is acute. r/

255
page 121- Now You Try It
1. Find thelength A diagonal divides a Draw the 45"-45"-90" Since "rGis the length of
of a diagonal of the square into two congruent model so that it is ori- a leg, the hypotenuse of
square below. 45"- 45"-90" triangles. ented like the problem. the triangle (which is the
diagonal of the square)='s

x
{60 ="h1=2",13 *3.46J
x

2. Find the length The diagonal divides the Draw the 45"- 45"-90" Since 1.8 is the length of
of a side and the square into two congruent model so that it is ori- the diagonal (the hypot-
perimeter of the 45"- 45"-90" triangles ented like the problem. enuse of each triangle),
square below. with hypotenuse = 1.8 set 1.8 = *J1
1.8*-rt = x
.8
I 1.27 = r =side,,/
page 124 Perimeter = 4(1.27)
NowYou T.y It = 5.08r/
Find a. Answer: To solve a right triangle problem we need one side and one acute angle. At
d first glance, it doesn't look like we have enough information about either triangle to
get started. But the lower triangle is isosceles, and since it's a right triangle, LU must
equal 45
Draw the 45"- 45"-90"
x model so that it is oriented
like the lower triangle
5
x
@ a
Comparing the lower triangle to 5J1
@But the hypotenuse of the lower
the model, the hypotenuse of the triangle is the left side of the upper
triangle, and since p = {J, )qt = 2
5
lower triangle must equal5fi.
5 90. Now we know that the upper Upper tiangle
Lower Tiiangle triangle is a 30"- 60"-90'triangle.
d
2x @Co-p"ring the 5J, = xt6
upper triangle to the
5
x^15 x model, 5Ji isin
10 ="A Divide bvlj
@ the same position ^h ^"6
Draw the 30"- 60"-90" SO
as xy3 soset
10 =x Rationalize denomin.
that it is oriented like the upper v'6
..._..._-1**..
them eoual.
(^fr^fr=3)
triangle in the problem. \-= 5#
-_ 10\/6 \/
3
= 4.08 so 2x = a = = 8.16
3

256
Page 131 Finding the FindingT FindingT
It
NowYou T"y
Find r and y:
acute angle.

8
S
o
H
tan 30" =
+
tst
loi
uC
sin 30" = +
from^yoycalculator from p:ru:alculznr

&--+
C A

A H
8
30"
v H
m
lol
lA mahe the left side a ratio
T
o
A
.i.r'30" =
mahe the lf
+
side a ratio
v I
Remember, if one angle The 30-60-90 .58 8 .5= 8
is 30", 60", or 45", then 0"
60" d modeltriangle 1
v lx
with a different cross mubiplying cross multiplying
you can use the special a variable.
right triangle formulas
(5a7, x 1(8) (.5)x = 1(8)
g x=16,_
instead of trig to solve
),= 8\/3 t 13.8
diuide both sides by .58 diutde both sides b1 .5
x = I6t/
for the =13.8J
2. Find the measure of O This is a "going o S
o t2 o@@
H tan /. M )
a
or
angle M: n
backwards"
t2 C
A
4
@@@
problem, use the H
m mZM = 71.6J
second key:
l/ 4M 4 lol
lal

3. Find the length of S cos62o = '44 cross mubiplying

4 o 4 (.47)4 o *1,6
the base of the triangle. H
from yogr calculator
EI
1.88 * *1,5
4 A/
IAI
ln
T
o
A
*b*'+ L/

4 orl,6x2 ro base
make tbe left side a ratio
Y
1.88x 2 x3.76J
47 a,/-,
1 - 4"
4. Solve triangle ABC: Remember, "solve" A I Finding AC; _ 3 Finding AB:AB
means find all 1ficos47"=+E tan 41" =
A lel-,,t1r-A 6.5
missing o"-li'y''**':'- "#om:-.ta
measurements ry
vour calculator
t
5 of the triangle. B He+_#la #"o AB
6.5
Label the triangle from mahe tbe left side a ratio mahe the left side a ratxo
B
lC's Ji.* r AB
point of
#'*# + 6.5
Finding mlA: ros muhip[ing cros mubiplying
(.87)6.5 x AB
mZA= 90 - ml C = 90 - 41= 49,/ ('75)AC x 6'5
AC x 8.67 5.7 =AB
'/
5. Solve triangle WXY To find WX, use mZY: This is a "going backwards"
PythagoreanTheorem:
X pro blem, use the second key:
X
(3.33)'*(W'z x(4.25)' W Y3 coslY = 3Y' =.78 H
o
% (W'z* (4.25)') - (3.33)2 4V4 C
A
(W'z x 6.97 mZY = 38'/ IJ
T
4V4 Y \Wx2.6/ Finding mZW
?
mlW= 90 - m./.Y = 90 -38 = 52'/
257
pageI35
NowYou Try It
In problems l-5, name a method that could be used to solve each triangle, then solve the triangle
l. x Trig can be used to Fi ndingT Finding x 2. This is a
solve this problem, o cos 32"
S

so label the triangle H

= lr?
16tz +-
s tan 32" = 45-45"-90"
t2 C frorrt vour calculator H f'rom your calculator triangle.
from the 32 angle's A ' " -:/
85-: t') t Therefore, one
point of view:
x
o re*TN
T
A
" ilrx-T"+
.tJZ
method to
make-the ufr ro/" o *rrT make the hfr side d solve is
v
-32/o, r, .62 x special
I
cros
1

multiplying
t 1
mubiplying
12 triangles although
cross
trig or the Law Of
(.85)! x I(r2) (.62) t2 ns 1(x)
Sines could also be
diuide both sides by .85 X =7.44r/ used. Comparing the
t =14J2\/ problem to the model:
3r/, x4tfr.=
n,-5 , Since 52 + 122 = 132,
/VML 4
W LMN is a right triangle 'When
you are given 2 angles
12W13 (Converse of Pythag. C

of a triangle, always find the

fl Th-.) with ZN = 90",/.
third:
lh To find the other 2 angles, t
use trig, ("go bachvards",
mZS=180-69-65=46
5
LS
o use the second key). Now that we have a pair, we
H
r
T2 r3 C
A ranzM= + can use the Law of Sines.
H
fom your calcut"*, R
H 9@ t
mZM x 22.6/ sin 46 =
sin69" srn 4e sin65'
mZL= 90 - 22.6 x 67.4'/ 5 t 5r
7;r ' \.gt
from vour calculator from your calculator
' \.93
If you didnt norice that this was a 7;r Affitr =@
right triangle, the Law of Cosines -*#tr = @
would have worked. 5t 5-r
.72 t t x 6.46t/ .72r=5(.91),rx6.32/
5 This is not a right triangle and we do not have Now that we have a pair, use
apair, so the Law of Cosines is the method the Law of Sines:
to use. Since we are given a, b, and c use: lo- y,o,y''53 s,,ffi = sin ZB
calculator 5 9
b Az = bz + c2 - 2bc(cos A) cos A is our
yll unhnoun .53(9) = 5(sinZB), sinZB = .95,
c 52 = 92 + 62 - Z(9)(6)(cos A) .95 @ @, mZB x71.8
25=81 +36-108(cos,4) mZC = 180 - 31.8 -71.8 x76.4
-92= - 108(cos,4) B ut Z- B must be the biggest angle 9 ls the
(-gZ)* (- 108) = cosA,.85 = cos-,4 biggest side) So B I 80 7 1 8 I
1 0 8 .2
and mZC = 1 80 3 1 8 I 08 2 40
.85€@ @, ZAx3l.B''/ *See the bottom
of 133 more

258
page 135 (continued) 1. Find the right tri- 2. Use trig (go backrvards, use
6.The light beam falls 100 an in the picture: the second key) to find the angle
ft. from the bottom of the
S
o of elevation (which equals the
angle of
'tsh thouse. If the lighthouse
H
C
A
angle of depression, by PAIAC.)
70
is 70 ft. tall, what is tan Z! = m_0
the angle of depres-
Qfi (@
fom your calcukn,
sion of the light mlelevation x 35 so the
beam?
l0
mZdeoression es 35 r/
page 138
NowYou T"y It Study the illustration on the right and identify each B
-
object. (Hint, some are duplicates and for this exercise, objects that appear
A

tangenr are tangent.) Answers:

A oointoftansencv G center
B tansent H diameter
C secant I secant
K
D chord I chord
E chord K tansent
F diameter Z ooint of tansencv
-
pagel4O
2. Explain what you know about AB?
NowYou Try It
The converse of the Theorem tells
l.Find x. us that triangle ABC is 2
Since all tangents from a given point are a right triangle and that
equal, the middle unnamed tangent equals 13
angle ,B is a right angle.
6and x=6/. Therefore, AB is tangent rc circle C.t/
page 144
NowYou Thy It
l. FindT; (5x+20\ Both of the chords go (5x+201

-," through the center so " 3*+5x+20=180

8rr= 160, x=20/
both are diameters.
)
a
3y=90=yt/
2. Find z: (2x+20f Both chords go through the center and there- 4x=2x+20
fore both pairs of opposite angles are cenffal 2x=20,x=10
angles and by VAT, congruent. This means we 4(10)+z=180
4x
can set the two expressions equal to each other, z = l40r/

3. \Mhat can you_ D IACB = Z ECD by VAI and since D

conclude about AB all radiuses of a circle are equal, AC =
and DE? Explain. BC = DC = EC andthe two triangles
are congruent by SAS. Therefore, by
CPCT, AB DE
= '/
259
pagel(T NowYouTrylt
same or congruent , congruent chords are equally
-In
distant from the center of the circle(s).
Using the drawings as hints, prove the above theorem for a single circle.
Prove: In a O chords are equidistant from the center.
E
=
E E E
F F F F

H G G G G

Statements Reasons
l. EF
=
HG. 1. Given.
2. ED=FD=UO=CO. 2. All radii of a circle are equal.
3. LHDG = LFDE. 3. SSS congruency postulate.
4. lH=lF. 4. CPCT.
5. Construct altitudes AD and BD. 5. Thru a pt. not on a line there is ex.l line r to the given
5. Z DAF A ZDBH are right angles. 6. Definition of altitude and perpendicular lines.
7.LHBD = LFAD. 7. AAS = Theorem.
8. BD =AD, BD = AD. 8. CPCT.

page 149 Now You Try It

1. Find the
tst
k-)l
HI
sin 55" = +
length of a 6
x C
A
H
.82*3x
diameter of 110" 110" Let x = the radius T
\$ o 82 3
circle C. x A
5 lx
3 0-Ev0.tv .82x x 3
"3 xx
3.55
Since the diameter equals two times
the radius, the diameter is x 7.32/

tst
lol
HI
2.The radius of x" is equal to the '7) C
A
circle Wis 4, find x measure of the 3.6 H
tv f. T
central angle. o
A
y(
xo xo 3.6 3.6
h,SY
sin Vz
3.6x" 9 =
4
going backwards,
Cg@@ or@@CGl
Vzx x 64.2
x x 128.4'/

260
Pagel52
NowYou Try It
l. Given the anglerand arc measures shown in the
A
figure and that BA and DC are tangents, find all
of the numbered measurements. (The point at 4 is
the center of the circle in the figure.)
1. 20" ^ = central I 8. 60" semicircle = 180" 1
2. 10" inscribed I =Yz^ 9. 30" inscribed I =Yz-
1

3. l0o inscribed I =Yz^ 10. 90" ^ =2(ltan&chord)

4. 160" straightl = 180" ll. 70" Semicircle = 180"
5. 10" ITT 12. 35" inscribed I = Yz^
6. 20" ^ = (2) (inscribed Z) 13. 45o inscribed Z = Yz^ 11

7. 50" Z tankchord = Yz^ 14. 100" l'sofaA= 180"

+
2. Giye{r BC is tangent to the circle at right,
mAB = (4x + 32)' and wIABC = (x + 30)o, kt I formed by a tangent and a
find r. chord is equal to Vz the arc of the
chord:
(r +30) = Vz(4x +32)"
x +30 = 2x +16
x = l4'/
pagel54 A
NowYou Try k
1. Find x: Use the relationshi p: I = G+G
2
3x+6 Substitute in the given expressions: 2x+14 = (3x+6) + (2x+ 4)
2
(2x+74) = (3x+5) + (2x+ 4)
Make the left side a ratio:
2x+4 l2
Cross Multiply: 2(2x+14) = l((3x+6) + (2x+ 4))
Distribute: 4x+28 =3x+6+2x+4
Combine like terms and solve 4x+28 =5x+10, x =l8t/
2. Find * 5d
Use the relationship: a- G*G
2
A = 8l t- DC
Make the left side a ratio: 86 '2

81' Cross Multiolv: 86 - $ + 5d

LJ -T-
-2--
B Distribute and solve: 2(86) = 1(81 * 5d1,172 = 8l + 5d, 9l = 5a /
26t
page 157 NowYou T"y It
1. Find the value Use the formula Z =
EE-Gt
of r in the figure 2
on the right: (8x+20)'
F . (2x+4)"
rorm a proporuon: Gx-2\ =
(8r+20) - (2x+4)
2 (4 x- 2)"
multiply:
- 8x -2)= (8x+20) -(2x+4) Now,
Cross 2(4x 1 ((8r+ 20) (2x +4))
-4 = - carefully distribute the invisible negative one.
8x -4 = 8x+20 -2x- 4 = 6x+16
2x=20, x=70t/
2. Given tangents Use the formula: Z - 6E 2- G]
,D arrd C-D, and
mZD =70, find. * 7C-, Let x = Small then 360- r = Big A
,j60
and m IEa. 79 = -:r\ - (x\

70
-1-
_ Q60-x)-(x)
2

2(70)= 1((360-x)-(r)) B
C

140=360-x-x=360-2x

-220=-2x
divide by (-2) and solve: 110 = x t/,

,o *fr = I lO"and *iEd = 360" - 110' = 250"r/.

page 159 NowYouT"yIt

1. Findy: The product of the chord
segments are equal 2. Find the length of the shorter chord.
(2)(6) = (3)(y)
Since the products of each chord's
12 =3!
parts are equal, set them equal to
4=ll each other:
(r +8)(x) = (5)(x +2) Now distribute.
*+8x=5x+10
terms to
+3x - 10=0
of the equation and then
like terms, we end up with a
(x + 5)(x - 2) = 0One or both expressions must equal0 so
(r+5)=0 take turns setting each expression = 0
which has a quadratic (r2x), a linear
(x-2)=0 Physical quanti ties must be POSltrve so
term (8r) and a constant term (- l0).
throw out the ,r * 5 answer.
we need to factor and then
use the zero produc property to solve. The shorter chord is 5 + (2 + 2) = 9 /

262
Page 16r
NowYou Try It
l. Findr: (x)(x+5) - (8X20) 2. MP is a tangent, Findingy:
*+ 6x = 160 frndy and z: (3)(3+9) =(2)(2+y)
*+6x -160 = 0 36 = 4+2!
(x+16)(x-10) = g 32=2y,!=16
8 M
(x+16)=0, x=X6 2 O Finding z:
(physical quantities are positive) (3)(3+9) = *
(r-10)=0, x=10/ P 36=* z =6t/
3. Find AB:
10.8 Let x = AB.
Then BC = 10.8 - x.
10.8(10.8 -x)=15(4.5)
4.5 c 115.54 - 10.8r =67.5
-10.8r=-49.14
x = 4.55 AB = 4.55'/

page 168
NowYou T"y It
1. Find the perimeter of square UVWX.
LetT equal the length of one side. By the Pphagorean Theorem,
l'*f-2f=142=195
-z
Z1f =195 98
z
!2=98 U t X
I = 70 * 9.9, perimeter
^,
(4X9.9) = 39.6\/

2.The area of a rectangle is 180. The ratio of the base to the height is 4:5.
Find the perimeter and the diagonal of the rectangle.

Draw a rectangle that roughly matches the given information

The ratio is 4:5, so you must supply the x's,4x:5x.

Now, mark up the drawing, showing all the information that you know.

Since A = bh
180 = (ai6x) = 20x2, * both sides by 20, then 9 = x2,3 = x.
The perimeter equds 4x + 5x + 4x + 5x = l8x = (18)(3) = 54
/5 '/
By the Pythagorean Theorem, the diagonal squared equals (12)'z+(15)2 = 369
The diagonal = \/rOx 19.2'/

263
page 168 (continued)
Mark up the drawing, Note Heret another
3. Find the area of the ,1,* below: -
breaking the figure into way ro divide the figure:
14
rectangular pieces.
x x
r6
28 28
50 50
20 20
I I
Findthemissingdimensions, find x: 50 = x + x +2x+ 6, 50 = 4x + 6, 44 = 4x, x = 11
find7: ! = 20 + 28 + 16 + 14 =78, ! =78
r4
,,/l- 11 x 14 = t54
30
16+14
//
:t
11 x 30=330
<7 Area = 154 + 330 + 1276 + 468 = 2225 \/
#
28 + /6 +/4
22 22 x 58=1276

6- I 6 x 78=468
hr
4. Find the area of paralellogram GHIJ
20
l0
G12

4 = (base) [ (height @ that base) = (12)(10) = 120\/

a=rzolfu(z+o e=lzofyp4zoo
,/ \ ,/\
C
5. Given parallelogram ABCD, find r.
Answer: Area = (base) X Geight to thatbxe)
Area = (20) (6) = 120 20
Now, since the area of the pardlelogram doesnt change,
Area = 120 = (12) (x) The other base times the height to thatbase A t2D

'oLr(.= (g(.) x=tot/

)v )v
264
page 168 (continued) 418
6. Find the area of parallelogram PQRS.
Answer: Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal so PS = l8 and QP = ll. 11
Finding QM would allow us to find the area of the parallelogram.
Using trig to find QM: PMS
tsl
ol sin 70" = trr 4-I QM a 18R
-\
-aP
lHl
C
11 tr
A QM= (.94X11) =10.34 o.34
H 11
_F
T Area = (18X10.34) = l85.l2J
o P
pagelT6 P M A s
NowYouThy It /6
1. The measure of each side of the equilateral
triangle on the right is 5. Find the area of the
x
triangle.
2
5 5
By Pythagorean Theorem:
*+(2.5)2=52
5 5 2.5 2.5 *=25-6.25=18.75
x = 4.33
4.33 (4.33)(2.5)
A= There are two right triangles within the equilateral
2 = 5.4 triangle, so the total area equals 2x 5.4 = 10.8r/
Alternatively, when we know the lengths of all3 sides of a triangle, we can use Heront formuala:

Semiperimerer-5- 5+5-+5 A=
22 =2=7.5
7 .5(7 .5 - 5)(7 .5 - 5)(7 .5 -5) = 117.2 = 10.8 r/
6
2. Find the area of the rhombus to the right. (Hint,
draw the diagonals, which divide the rhombus into four
4 c rt A, then use trigonomerry.)
6
6 6 *il,r .92 - a/,1
cos23" aitr= J-j2
6 6
=
6t6
-
sin23" =
rvy .39
- ,F ryV = 2.34
6
V 61
6 t
First'Way: 6.46 There are 4 right triangles so
Area of 1 right triangle = Yz(5.52)(2.34)= 6.46 A = (4)(6.46) =25.8J
6.46
Second'Way: Once we find the opposite and (d,)(d,)
Area of a rhombus 2
adjacent sides of the right triangles, we are also (rr.o4)(4.68)
finding the lengths of the diagonals and so we can A= 2 = 25.$ J
then use the special formula for the area of (The .03 difference in answers is a
rounding error.)
a rhombus.

265
page 176 (continued)

3. Find the area of triangle ABC on the right.

As, "J,L',3'
by the lengths
8.25 is the altitude to the base which mea- 13.6 of the other two
sures 13, so the area of the triangle is : sides. Just keep it
A = Yz [(base) X (height to that base)] l0 simple, carefully
A = Yz (13.6)(7.98) = 54.264 / doing what you
l1 know how to do.
page 178 C
NowYou T"y It
1. Find the area of the trapezoid below. One of the formulas for the area of a trapezoid is
Area of a trapezoid = (h)(median)
7 A=(3)(tZ)=36,/

2. Find ,h, Yfthe trapezoid at right S

^rr 77" o
H
Draw the other altitude because C
r3
-\\ ,rr A
the two altitudes divide the
-\ tan77" = + 4.33
= 'YY H
trapezoid into a rectangle and2 31 )a m lol
right triangles. Knowing this 77" rVV h= 13 u (b, + b)
= 77"
Area trapezoid = (h)
helps us to correctly divide up the "f'j 10
2
bottom base length. g_44
4 = (13) 2
=@)9 = l3O'/
page 183
NowYou Try It 3 0"- 60'- 90" model
1. Find the area of x l0
an equilateral loJ 3
triangle with
apothem = 10 *- (101f4 = 50{3
Yr(10)
Ar.= 6x 50",f3= 30013*519.611
=10 =10
-We
have one acute angle and one
side so we can use trig (or the
2. Find the area of a regular
Law of Sines) to find the lengths
pentagon with radius = 6
of the legs
S
Vz of the central angle o
360" - 7)o nH .81
lal cDsSC
4r
6
5
H]
T
o
*1,6 * 4.86
\\ A
.59 rrr
sln36" = -T
%
+

trrrvv nYr = 3'54 A

H
=6 6
Ae Yr(4.86)(Z.S+) = 8.6 6
A
Ao= (10)(8.Q = 367

266
page 191 Questions: l-4.
NowYou T"y It Answer: \When a series of questions refers to one figure, sketch the differenr parrs
of the figure and calculate the measurements for each part. Itt very important to
be very careful with problems like this, especially on a test, because one mistake
can lead to multiple wrong answers. Be sure to check your work.
This is a 90' sector of a circle with radius = 4
'-8
Problems 1-4 - Am= (n(4)'=(.25)n (16) ro 12.57

4
n*= (#uJ 2n(4)=(.25)(2)(n)6) x 6.28
A=nrz =n(1)'= nx3.l4
x6.28+4+4=14.28
P = 2nr =2n(l)= 2nx6.28
with radius = 2
is a 45"sector of a circle
(.125)(n)$) x r.57

w
o =(-lruu)n(2)2=

P =2.2\Ae)x(2)x5.57
[ = (n (2)2 + 2)
- (n (1.5)'z + 2) =.97 5 n * 2. 75
8-
P = Yz(2)n(2) +Yz +Yz +Yz(2)x(1.5)x12 A = xr2 = x(4)2=l6x x 50.27
\ P =2nr=2n(4)= 8n x25.1
Y2

\xp
Y2

l. Find the total area of the black parts of the figure:

oot\,,
. 3.14 + 1.57 + 2.75 x 10.6/

2. Find the total area of the gray parts of the figure:

ffiUw
kn
50.27 - 10.6 + 12.57 + 12.57
M
= 64.84'/

3. Find the totd length of the O.rS.,.rTf the black parts of the 6gure:

12 + 5.28 + 6.28 + 5.57 = 30.13'/

4. Find the total length of the perimeters (including all inner and outer edges) of the gray areas

Uffi M &
30.13 + 25.1 + 14.28 + 14.28 = 83.79'/
5. The figure is placed on a 14 x l0 rectangular black
T
board. Find the total of the perimeters (including all inner
l0 and outer edges) of the black areas of the figure including
theboard:U& & WI
I
+l
27.77 + 25.1 + 14.28 + 14.28 +48 = 129.43 ,/
6. Find the total area of the visible black portions of the figure including those on the black board

\,rOOlIffimM -14+
2.75 + 3.14 + 3.14 + 1.57 + 140 - (50.27 + 12.57 + 12.57) = 75.19t/
267
page 191 (continued)
7b. \What is the perimeter of the black part of
7a.
\What is the area of the black part of the figure the figure including inside and outside edges?

To start, we have Yz of t"he

circumference of the outer
Study the figure
4 circle: C = 2nr = 2n(2)=4n
so (Vz)C = (Vz)4n = 2n

The part of the figure marked For the inner edges, we have
with an X is a semicircle and Yz the circumference of the

is exactly the same size as the upper small black circular

semicircle marked with an O, area (x) plus Vz the circum-
ference of the lower small
white circular area (O).
If the semicircle marked with Study the figure at left. Since
an X is rotated, we see that
the area ofthe black part of 1(i the diameter of each small
circular area is 2, putting the
the figure adds up to exactly
one half of the circle's area.
Total Black Area = Vznrz
l$i two areas together makes one
small circle with:
diameter =2andradius = 1.
Note that r = (Vz)(4) =2. C = 2n(l) = 2n
Yzn (2)'z = 2n x 6.28J Total = 2n +2n = 4x * 12.6J

8. Find the area of the circle segment shown in the figure on the right.
l/ 1l

11 11 I Problem 8

First the sector + firf"tt - #(nIl'z) x (.13)(a.r 4)(rzt) x 4e.4,/

=#'ffis=+ - (4.4)x(10.1) x 22.2
.917
cDs-'frS
,Il x 10.1 nyy x 4.4 \
11 11
10.1
Then the triangle: + o,1., cen +
0
A< x 44.4J
11 11 11 v4-4

Putting it together: 5/
268
9. Find the area of the p ortlon of the figure. Answer: the two congruent circles intersect at their
centers so the the centers equals 6.

6
)
x 4.5
First the
triangle: N 3
32+ x2
x 3
+^fr
4.5 \/3
= 4.5 g\/3 x15.6
^fr) ^fr =
From
Then the sector: In order
to find the area of the
sector, we need to find the
:R ";:,,ff=*,f 0
=[#) ffi. ) @
measure of this ry Ao no)'--('333)(")(36)x37't '/ 2 x 2 2.7= 44.2J
page 193 Question An amusement park charges $ 1 for one dart. If you break a balloon you win a
- -il/hat
$3 stuffed animal. Is it a good bet? is the probabiliry of not breaking a balloon? Hint: The total
of all probabilities add up to l. Explain your answers. Answers: Unless you are an expert at darts itt
a bad bet. Here's why. You have a . 18 (random) chance of breaking a balloon which means you'll win
about once every 5Yz games ar a cosr of $5.50 for a $3 prize. (In real games, the odds are muclt worse.)
Since the sum of all probabilities is 1, the probabili ry of not hitting a balloon is: 1 - .18 = .82\/
page 196 NowYouTryIt- 1. \Mhat is the prob-
abiliry of hitting a diamond on the dart board on )1
()
the right? The diamonds are congruenr, each side is
equal to 5" and the shorter diagonal is equal to 6". 6" 24"

Area of a win
Probability =
Area of whole figure
First the numerator, find the area of one diamond, then multiply by the number of diamonds:

5
x
5 3 3
5 An Draw the altit By Pythagorean
beween the eoI > Theorem:
srdes.
l+32=52
(Leg) X (Leg) *=25-g=76
4 5 A x=4
2
4x3 = 24 There are 2l diamonds, 2l x 24 = 504
3A 6
2
The denominator, the area of a rectangle is length x width = 35 ,24 = 864
'/
Probabiliry = x .583t/
#
269
Page 196
Now You Try It
2. Study the archery rarget on the right, with the measurements as indicated.
Assuming you are a beginning archer and only arrows that hit the target
counr, find the probabiliry of;

a. hitting the bulls eye and

b. hiting either white area.

b +
a n(4)', 1
n(8)'-n(6)'+n(4)'
7r(8)' 4 '/ ,c(8)'

44 1l
64 I6 '/

3. The ceremony is 3 hours long. This means the ceremony is 3 x 60 minutes per hour = 180 minutes
long. Tiger will be at the communiry center for 15 + 180 = | l12 of the time. Probabiliry = | I 12 \/

4.'Ihelocal, pizzaplace has a special which includes a large pizzawith or without extra cheese and the
choice of one mear topping and one vegetable topping. There are 3 kinds of meat, pepperoni, sau-
sage and ham; and there are 4 different kinds of vegetables, green peppers, onions, mushrooms and
pineapple. You want to buy the special and need to decide what to choose.

a. How many different kinds of special pizzas are there to choose from?
2x3X4=24.t/
b. If you always choose pepperoni for the meat choice, how many
rypes of pizza car. you chose from?
\x2x4=8.\/
c. If the pizza place decides to offer thin and thick crusts, how
would the answer to the above questions change?
Each answer would be doubled. rr/

270
 Page2OS
NowYou T"y It
1. Find the lateral area, total area and volume of the square prism on the right.
Prisms are named by their bases so we know that the shaded regions must be rhe
square bases and therefore, that the unlabeled sides of each base musr measure 5.
t2 5

The lateral area is made up of the four rectangular faces each of which measures:
12 x 5 = 60, so the lateral area is 4 x 60 = 240. \/
The total area is the lateral area plus the area of the 2 bases, each ofwhich is:
5 x J = 25, so the total area is 240 + (2)25 = 290.,/
The volume equals Bh, where B is the area of a base and h is the distance between the bases:
25 x 12 = 300.
'/
2.Tlr,e volume of the regular hexagonal prism on the right = 300 un3. Find its
lateral area and total area.

To find the lateral area, we need h, the height of the prism. Since the volume = Bh, if we calculate B
we can then "work backwards" and solve for h. The problem stares that the prismt base is a regular
(equal sides, equal angles) hexagon with sides equal to 4. This is enough information to allow us to
calculate its area:
4 4
Divide into two congruenr
right triangles.
Using the 30-60-90 special
360"
-6- = 60' triangle to find the length of
4 4 the other leg.
4 (2\f3=)(2)
A__ ----T- =-''
4
"v- 2{3

B (t2)x12t/5 )=

Since we were given that the prismt volume equals 300 , we can set this amount equal to the formula
for volume, substituti ng24tB for B and then solve for h, the of the prism:

300 = Q4\f'Dflrt)
h x7.2
Having found h, we can now calculate the lateral area of the prism. Lateral area is the sum of the six
rectangular faces, each of which is (length x width) 7.2 x 4 = 28.8,
L.A. x 6 x 28.8 = 172.8 un"/
\We could also have used the formula
for lateral area: L.A. = ph = (6 x 4) x 7.2 = 172.8
Total area is the sum of the lateral area plus the area of the 2 bases:
T x 172.8 + (2)(2415) N 255.9 vn2,/

271
page203 (continued)
t8
3. The toral area of the triangular prism on the right is 768 cmz. Find the volume
of the prism.
The total area is equal to the lateral area plus the area of the two bases
r3

The problem states 768 =TotalArea = L.A. + 2B = (13)(18) + (13)(18) + (10)(18) + 28

768=648+28
2B=120,B=60
Since V = Bh, the volume is (60)(18) = l080cm3r/

4. The volume of a cube is 125 un3. Find the total area of the cube.
Answer: Since this is a cube, V = s3 (where s = the length of every edge). The cube root* of 125 is
5, which means each side of the figure measures 5. One face is 52 = 25 un2. There are 6 faces so the
roralareaequals 6x25 = 150 rn'.t/ *Seethecalculatornoteon page22Stolearnhowtofindcuberoots

page 2lO Now You Try It

-
1. A regular square pyramid fits perfectly in a cube with edges equal to 4. !t
-J(hat is the volume of the unused space in the solid? ,rl
I tl I
tl ,-.t tT
it I
All of a cube are equal. Since the pyramid fits perfectly inside the
edges
cube, the pyramid's base edges and height are equal to 4.
Notice that the pyramidt
volume is equal rc /3 of
the cubet volume so the
4
:4i Solution unused space must equal
I _t_ 2/z of the total volume of
r-i
the cube. Could we have
4 simply found the volume
B=(4)(4)=16 B=(4)(4)=16 of the cube (s3) and multi-
V=Bh Y = y3Bh plied by 2/z? Absolutely.
v = (16) (4) = 64 Y = Yt (16)(4) x 21.33 N 42.67
'/
2. A regular triangular pyramid has height = 10. If the apothem
of the base equals 5, find the volume of the pyramid.

base of the pyramid g&+g= n.5\6

( B= ern.i^6 =75\61*\
Y = ytBh = Vz tts^,5)(10) ev 433\/

)7)
page2l0 (continued)
3. The storage tank pictured on the right is a square pyramid. The tank has an upper
reserve tank as shown in the figure. Find the volume of the upper reserve rank.

<-11----> Divide the cross sec- 5.5

To find x, the side tion into two similar t4 5.5
Vzx 6
reserve
of the smaller triangles.'We can Yzx tank
1
square, sketch a assume that the top (r()(Yzx) = (6)(5.5) =33
cross-section of and interior divid- 7x=33 @.
the tank: ers are parallel so by xx4.7 -@
PCC the triangles are r= the side of the
1l similar based on AA- smaller square
I
B=(lt)(11)=t2t 4.7 B=(4.7)(4.7)=22.r
Y = VtBh Y = r/zBh

The entire
storage tank
Y = Yz (r2t)(t4) x 554.7
ry
Lower part
of the tank
Y = YE (22.1)(6) x 44.2 x 520.5'/

page2l5
NowYou Try It
l. If the radius of a cylinder is halved, what is the ef[ect on rhe size of the volume of the cylinder?
Start with the formula for the volume of a cylinder: V = nfh.
Substitute in the modified variable, in this case, replace r withVzr:
Y = n(Yzr)2h = n (Yz)2r2h = n(vq)rzh = vanfh
(Math note: (vz)z = (y2)(v2)=y4)
Comparing the solution,l/anfh, to the original formula, nfh, we see that when the radius is halved,
the volume is quartered (multiplied by Va which is the same as *4).r/

2.-the lateral area of a cylinder is 1002c and the height is 5. Find the circumference of the base of the
cylinder. Answer: Since the lateral area is given, set that value equal to the formula for lateral area.
100n= 2nrh=2nr(5) = 10nr.
1o*r Since both terms have * by n.
ry = zc as a factor,

100 = l0r
r=10
The formula for circumference is 2nr = 2n(10) = 20n * 62.gt/
3. Find the total area and the volume of the cylinder in problem number 2

Total area = 2nrh + 2nf and since we know rhat r = l0 and h = 5, the total area is:
2z(10X5) + 2n(10)2 = 1002r + 200r = 300rc * 942 t/
Y = nfh = nG0)25 = n00)25 = 500n = 1570t/

273
pagezlS (continued)

4. tVhat is the amount (volume) of metal needed to make a 10 inch length of pipe that is Yz inch
thick and has inner diameter equal to 5 in?
Answer: The amount of metal necessary is the difference in volume between the outside and the
inside cylinders. Notice that the radius of the outside cylinder is 2.5 + .5 = 3.
Volume of outside rylinder is nlh = zr(3)2(10) = 90lr
\/olume of inside cylinder is nlh = n(2.5)2(10) = 62.5n
Difference is 90r - 62.5n = 27.5n = 85.35'/

page 218
Solid Search
\Write the letter of the matching figure. Be sure to check in the back of the book to see how you did

Cone D
Triangular pyramid J 2
Square pyramid B 2
Right Cylinder A .L--

Oblique prism E
Right triangular prism H A B C D E

Right pentagonal prism F \

Cube C \
Right rectangular prism I F-- \
L__
Oblique cylinder G
FGHI I
page 223
NowYou Try It
I . A plane curs a sphere with a 10 inch radius and forms a circle of intersection with a

4 inch radius. How far away from the spheret center does the plane cut the sphere?

_4_ By Pythagorean Theorem

n
x2+42=(10)2
x
l0 x2=84
x =2t81 x9.2'/

2. Find the area and volume of the sphere in problem l.

Area = 4nl = 4n(10)2 = 400n x 1256 t/
Volume = l,333Yzn x 4,186.7 ,/
$-nr'= $nQO)3 =

274
page223 (continued)
3. A basketball with an 8 inch radius fits perfectly in a box. Find the volume of the
unused space in the box.

AII radiuses of a sphere are equal, so the box is a cube. The diameter of rhe ball is 2r =
2(8) = 16, which is also the length of each side of the box. Since each side of the box =
16, the volume of the box equals:
y,b.=s3=(16)3=4096.
The volume of the ball equals:
V,ph...=
*"ru = t"$)'" !{sn)"x682.67nx2144.7
The unused space in the box is the volume of the box minus the volume of the ball:

4096 - 2144.7 = 1951.3 in3 J

page 228
NowYou Try It The scale factor, is the ratio of
corresponding lengths from
1. The two cylinders at right are similar
each figure. The radiuses of the
cylinders are 4 and 3 (note the
t
8
order of this problem is big to
small).
I
Therefore, the scale factor (SF)
for these 2 figures is, !3
In less than 30 seconds, find the ratios of;
a. The heights of the cylinders. Height is a length. The ratio of any 2 corresponding lengths is
the scale factor (SF) itseE
f /
b. The circumferences of the bases. Circumference is a length. The rario of any 2 corresponding
lengths is the scale factor (SF) itseff,
{ /
c. The lateral area of the cylinders. Lateral area is an area. The ratio of any 2 corresponding areas

is the scale factor squared (SF)2, gr= ff 't

d. The total area of the cylinders. Total area is an area. The ratio of any2 corresponding areas is
the scale factor squared (SF)2,
*qr= ff 't
e. The volumes of the cylinders. The ratio of the volumes is the scale factor cubed (SF)3,
(4f _64
-/
Bf 27'
275
page228 (continued)
Order Counts! For these problems each ratio's order is big to small:
2. Find the height of the smaller rylinder.
The ratio of the heights must equal the scale factor. Since tt = let r equal the height of the
1,
smaller cylinder and create the propor ri"", =
! *
Cross multiply, 4x = (3)(8) = 24, and solve, x = 6r/
3. The lateral area of the smaller cylinder is 36n. Using the ratio method, find the lateral area
of the larger cylinder.
-
The ratio of any corresponding areas must equal the scale factor squared: (Surz -T @Y rc
-
Now let x equal the L.A. of the large figure and create the followi"* o-n;;;;6Y
49 = -!- 36n
Cross multiply, 576n=9x,and.solve, xx64nx20lt/

4.lhevolume of the larger cylinder is 128 m. Using the ratio method, find the volume of the
smaller cylinder.
The ratio of the volumes must equal the scale factor cubed. (SFl'=
UQr:= #
Now, let x equal the volume of the small figure and create the followiirg proportion:
64= 128 Cross multiply, 64x = 3456n, and solve, x = 54nx 169.61
T ;

276
 NDEX
Algebra 38,39 Circumscribed polygons 141 Lateral edge
Altitudes of a triangle 5l Common internal tangents 140 prism 198
Acute angles 12 Common external tangents 140 pyramid204
Acute triangles 47 Complementary angles 14, 20 Law of Cosines 134
showing triangles are acute 1 l8 Concentric circles 138 Law of Detachment2T
Adjacent angles 15 Conditionals 27 Law of Sines 133
Addition Property 22 Cones 216-218 Law of Syllogism 30
Alternate interior angles 33 Congruence 3, 52 Linear Pair 16
Alternate exterior angles 33 Consecutive angles 33 Lines 1
Angle Addition Postulate 19 Contrapositive 28 postulates about lines 8
Angle bisectors 19,62 Converse 28 Major arcs 1,43
Angle of depression 132 Coplanar 6 Median of a trapezoid 83
Angle of elevation 132 Corresponding angles 33 Median of a triangle 51
Angles 9 Counting argument 195 Minor arcs 143
mZ to Cubes 203 Oblique prisms 197
measurement 10, l1 Cylinders 2ll-215 Obtuse angle 72
Answer Section 229-275 Diagonals of a polygon 66 Obtuse triangle 47
Apothem 179 Diameter 137 showing triangles are obtuse 117
Arcs 142-158 Distance 4 Opposite rays 5
arc length 186 Distance Formula 116 Parallel lines 35, 4l
Area 162-19l Equaliry 3 segment lengths and parallel lines 85
circles 184-185 Equilateral triangles 46 triangles and 84
Heron's Formula 173 Exterior angles of polygons 70 three or more parallel lines 85
isosceles triangles 170 Exterior angles of triangles 48 Parallel planes 35
parallelogram s 165 -l 67 Exterior Angle Theorem 49 Parallelogram s 72-81.
rectangles 163-164 Exterior Angle Inequality Theorem 88 properties 72
regular polygons 179-183 45"- 45" - 90o triangles 120-121 special parallelograms 78
rhombuses 175-176 Geometric mean 110 rectangles 78
sectors 188 Geometric probabiliry 192-194 Perimeter 162
solid figures See Chapter 13, pl97 If-then statements 27 Perpendicular Bisectors 62
squares 162 Indirect Proof 31, 32, 235 Perpendicular lines 25
trapezoids 177-1,78 Inequalities B7-96 Planes 6
triangles 169-174 inequalities for one triangle 90-92 coplanar 6
Between 2 inequalities for two triangles 93-95 postulates concerning 8
Calculators and trigonometry 128 properties 87 Point oftangency 137
Central angles 142 In proportion 100 Points 1
Chords 137 Inscribed angles 141 collinear 2
Circle segments 190 Inscribed circles 141 coordinates 4
Circles 137-16l Inscribed polygons 141 postulates concerning 8
area 784 Intersection 6 Polygons 63-71
circle segments 190 Inverse 28 convex/nonconvex 65
circumscribed 141 Isosceles trapezoids 82 exterior angles 70
circumference 184 Isosceles triangles 46 naming65-66
congruency 138 Kites 86 n-gons 66
inscribed 138 Lateral area regular polygons 55
sectors 184 cones 276-217 sum of the interior angles 67
tangents 140 cylinders 2ll,2l4 sum of the exterior anglesT0-71
Circumference 184 prisms 199-203 Prisms 197-202
Circumscribed circles 14 I pyramids 206,209-210 bases 197

)77
INDEX (continued)
Prisms (continued) Regular pyramids 204 30'- 60"- 90o triangles 122-124
lateral area 199 Remote interior angles 48 Three Important Ideas 136
lateral edge 198 Rhombuses 79-80 Total area
lateral face 198 Right Angle 12 cones 216-218
total area 199,201 Right Prisms 197 rylinders 212,214
volume 200 Right triangles cubes 203
Probabiliry 192-195 defrnition47 prisms 199,201-202
Proofs congruence of 58 pyramids 207, 209-2lO
about proofs 21,23 properties 110-119 Tiansitive Properqt 22
angles 20,24 Pythagorean Theorem 15 1 Tiansversals 33
circles 146-147,149 Same side interior angles 33 Tiapezoids 82
congruent triangles used in proofs 60-61 Scalene triangles 46 area 177-178
inequalities in one triangle 92 Secants 137 isosceles trapezoids 82
Now You Try It (exercises) 26, 58, 59, 63, Secant segments 160-161 median 83
74,76,96, 106, 147 Sectors 188-189 Tiiangle Inequality Theorem 89
parallel lines 4l Segments 3 Triangles 44-64
perpendicular lines 25 bisectors 7 altitude 51
properties in proofs 22 distance 4 area 169-174
proving lines parallel 42-43 length 4 congruency 53-59
proving properties of parallelograms 73-74 midpoints 3 equilateral46
proving properties of sp. parallelograms 7 8-7 9 Segment Addition Postulate 5..
proving quadrilaterals are parallel ograms 5-7 6 Segments divided proportionall), 100
- - 45"- 45" -90" triangles IZO-121
7 i.o...1., 46
proving triangles are congruent 53-59 Semicircles 143 median 5l
proving triangles are similar 103-106 Similariry 99-107 obtuse 47
segments 23 scale factor 100 rishr 47
Properties 22 similar triangles 103-107 scie.re 46
Proportions 97-98 similar solids 224-228 similarity 103-lO7
segments divided proportionally 100 Similarity versus Congruency 107 solving general triangles 133-135
Protractors 1l Similar solids 224-228'
90o triangles 722'124
Pyramid,s 204 slant height, 1i-^'^1'-
using congruent triangles 60-64
right triangles in (diagrams) 205 cones Zj.4 *'fiLT;,:.y,,ff;133""-
slant height 204 pvramids 204 ..
1.c 1,. -*-.:--, etry r28
Pythagorean Theorem 1 15 133-135
Solving general triangles
ot'-t:i:'l applications 132
Quadrilaterals 66,72 Special triangles 120-1;4
angle ofdepression 132
parallelogram s 72-81 Spheres 138,219-222 ofelevation 132
trapezoids 82-83 areaZlg .angle
Radicals 108-109 planes and spheres 220-222 ::19:::::::: *:::: llf
trlgonometrlc ldentltles IJU
220,222
Radius 137
Ratios 97
Ratio problems 163,764
volume
Squares Bo
Straight Angle 12
X:llfHlil:?I
13
Rays 5 Substitution Property22 l;T]]o"*leTheorem
vol^lT^t^
opposite 5 Subtraction Proferry 22 ,,
Rectangles 78
area 163
Supplement^ryingirri+,zo :ffi::
SYllogism 3o ili "t
Reflexive Property 22 Symmetric Properry -
22 -t
. -- 2r3-2r5
cyrinders
^
Regular polygons 66 Thngents 137, 139, l;o l-t-t:t^1t,?oo-'o'
pyramids 208-2lo
apothem 179 internal/exte rnal r4l 220' 222
area 179-183 point of tange n.y t\l 'Phttt'
radiuses 179 Thngent segments 160-161

278
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