A PROJECT REPORT ON

HPCL

AN INDUSTRIAL PROJECT REPORT

ON

OVER ALL PROCESS ON CRUDE DISTILLATION

UNIT (CDU-IV)
.

An Industrial Project report submitted to HPCL-VR,

VISAKHAPATNAM In partial fulfillment for the award of

B.Tech IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

By
Chinthapalli Prem Sai Reddy
21131A0810

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

GAYATRI VIDYA PARISHAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS) VISAKHAPATNAM-530048
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr.Chinthapalli Prem Sai Reddy , bearing Admission number 21131A0810 in
Chemical Engineering Bonafide a student, Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering (Autonomous)
Visakhapatnam has undergone industrial internship in M/s. HINDUSTAN PETROLEUM
CORPORATION Ltd., Visakh Refinery During the period of training he involved in all activities carried
out in Over all process on crude distillation unit (CDU-IV). He acquired good knowledge about CDU-IV.
During the period of training his conduct is found to be

Mr. BUDDHA PRASAD Mr. Y V TARAK

Deputy General Manager (operations) Ch. Manger-(operations)
HPCL, Visakh Refinery HPCL, Visakh Refinery
Visakhapatnam. Visakhapatnam.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be
incomplete without mentioning the people who made it possible and whose constant guidance and
encouragement grown all the efforts with success. This acknowledgement transcends the reality of
formality when we like to express deep gratitude and respect to all those people behind the screen who
guided, inspired and helped us for the completion of the report.

We are thankful to the Human Resource (HR) Department especially to Mr. RAVI KUMAR,
Mr. K. NITHISH BHARADWAJ and Mentor Mr.Y.V.TARAK for his concern in giving the opportunity
toperdue industrial training and for providing guidance.

The encomium goes to the Dr. B.SREENIVASULU M.Tech, Ph.D(A.U), Head of Chemical
Engineering

On conclusion, we will remember our experiences in this industrial training and put of presenting
the training experience to prove our ability and work for pride of the organization in all respects
wherever we get an opportunity.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION TO HPCL.
2. INTRODUCTION TO CDU-IV.
2.1 Pre treatment of crude oil
2.2 Description of the crude oil and demulsifier
2.3 Mechanisms and devices of process of dehydration-desalination
2.4 The salts in crude oil

3. CRUDE DISTILLATION UNIT (CDU)

3.1 INTODUCTION
3.2 Description and characteristics
3.3 Description of the distillation column and its operation
3.4 The plates for distillation columns of oil plants
3.5 The products from crude column can be routed as:
3.6 The products from vacuum column can be routed as:
3.7 Products from HPCL and their purpose

4. FEED SPECIFICATIONS AND

PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS
5.PROCESS PRINCIPLE :
5.1 PRINCIPLE
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HPCL
5.2 Multicomponent distillation
5.3 Distillation towers
---TYPES OF TRAYS and TYPE OF PACKING---

6. PROCESS CHEMISTRY
---Range of hydrocarbons in typical crude---
7.BRIEF PROCESS DESCRIPTION
7.1 CRUDE DISTILLATION UNIT
7.2 NAPHTHA STABILISER
7.3 VACUUM DISTILLATION UNIT
7.4 TEMPETED WATER SYSTEM
7.5 STEAM GENERATION SECTION
7.6 HOT WELL OFF GAS SYSTEM

8. STRAIGHT RUN LPG TREATING SECTION

9.MAJOR EQUIPMENT IN CDU.
9.1 DESALTER
9.1.1 CRUDE ELECTROSTATIC DESALTING
9.1.2 CRUDE DESALTING PROCESS
9.1.3 PURPOSE OF CRUDE OIL DESALTING
9.2 FURNACE
9.2.1 TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENT FURNACES
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HPCL
9.2.2 CHAERACTERISTICS OF AN EFFICIENT FURNACE
9.2.3 HEAT TRANSFER IN FURNACES
9.2.4 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A TYPICAL FURNACE
9.3 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
9.3.1 SELECTION OF FLUIDS FOR TUBE AND THE SHELL SIDE
9.4 CONDENSER
9.4.1 TYPES OF CONDENSERS
9.4.2 CONDENSER DESIGN
9.5 VALVES
9.5.1 VALVE FUNCTIONS AND BASIC PARTS
9.5.2 TYPES OF VALVES
9.5.3 VALVE ACTUATORS
9.5.4 CONTROL VALVE
9.5.5 TYPES OF CONTROL VALVE
9.6 STEAM JET EJECTORS
9.6.1 PRINCIPLE OF STEAM JET EJECTORS
9.6.2 EFFECT OF OPERATIONAL CHANGE ON CRITICAL
EJECTOR PERFORMANCE

9.6.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

9.6.4 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CAUSES OF TROUBLE
9.7 LIQUID RING VACUUM PUMP
9.7.1 OPERATING LIQUID
9.7.3 OPERATING SYSTEM OF LRVP
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HPCL
9.7.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
9.8 TRAYS AND PACKINGS
9.8.1 COMPARISON OF COMMON TYPES
9.8.2 COMPARISON OF RANDOM AND STRUCTURED PACKING
9.9 INTRODUCTION OF TURBINES
9.9.1 TYPES OF TURBINES
9.10 INTRODUCTION OF PUMPS
9.10.1 COMPONENTS OF A PUMPING SYSTEM
9.10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
9.11 FLOWMETERS
9.11.1 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS
9.11.2 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOW METERS
9.11.3 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW METERS
9.11.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS
9.11.5 APPLICATIONS OF FLOW METERS
9.12 PRESSURE GAUGE
9.12.1 TYPES OF PRESSURE GAUGES
9.12.2 APPLICATIONS OF PRESSURE GAUGES
9.12.3 SELECTION CRITERIA AND PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
9.12.4 INSTALLATION
9.13 THERMOCOUPLE
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HPCL
9.13.1 COLD JUNCTION COMPENSATION
9.13.2 THEMOCOUPLES TYPES9.13.3 APPLICATIONS
OF THERMOCOUPLES

9.14 STEAM TRAPS

9.14.1 THERMODYNAMIC STEAM TRAPS
9.14.2 THERMOSTATIC STEAM TRAPS
9.14.3 MECHANICAL STEAM TRAPS
9.15 AIR FIN COOLERS
9.15.1 FAN /TUBE BUNDLE ARRANGEMENT
9.15.2 FAN DRIVES
10 CHEMICAL DOSING SYSTEM
11 TESTS WE HASVE DONE IN THE UNIT
12 PLANT DRAINAGE SYSTEM
13 PLANT UTILITIES AND SPECIFICATIONS
14 PINCH TECHNOLOGY
15 INSPECTION TESTS
16 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL &FACILITIES
17 FIRE AND SAFETY
17.1 METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING FIRE
17.2 FIRE EXTINGUINSHER ANATOMY
17.3 TYPES OPF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
17.4 FIRE PROTECTION
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HPCL
1. INTRODUCTION TO HPCL:
1.1 PROFILE OF VISAKH REFINERY: Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. is a mega
public sector under taking under the government of India and is second largest Integrated
Oil Company in India. This refinery is located at latitude of 17'41'North and longitude of
83'17'East on an area taken on a 99 years lease from Visakhapatnam port trust. Visakh
Refinery was established in 1957 as Caltex oil refining India Ltd., (CORIL). This was the
first oil refinery on the East Coast and the first major industry in the City of Visakhapatnam,
Hindustan Petroleum corporation came into being in mid-1974 after take over and the
merging of Erstwhile Esso and Lube India in 1976 and was subsequently merged with
HPCL Kosan Gas Company in 1978. HPCL thus came into being after merged four
different organizations at different parts of time. Visakh Refinery covering an area of 515
acres of area is situated at Visakh 1km (Northwest) from the foot of Yarada hill. The
refinery is flanked by HPCL terminal & HPCL LPG bottling plant on the eastern side,
Coromandel Fertilizers on the western side, Residential colonies on the southern side,
Andhra Petrochemicals Ltd., East Indian petroleum on the northern side. HPCL has an
Additional Tankage Project (ATP), which is on the Northern side of the refinery covering
an area of 215acres.The refinery has road access from the two sides on the southern side
one, from eastern side and from Northern side of the ATP area. Hindustan Petroleum
Corporation Ltd has nearly 20% refining capacity and the market share and a commensurate
market infrastructure. It operates two major refineries, one at Mumbai of 5.5MMTPA
capacity and other at Visakhapatnam of 7.5MMPTA capacity. Its lube refinery at Mumbai is
the largest in the country with a Capacity of 3,33,500TPA, which is nearly 40% of the
country’s total lube refining capacity. Visakh Refinery has an initial capacity of
0.675MMPTA in 1957.The crude capacity was raised to1.5MMTPA throughput level over a
period of years by various modifications. The crude processing capacity was further
expanded to 4.5MMTPA Level during 1985 by commissioning separate stream of
3.0MMTPA CDU, FCCU and related utilities off site facilities at high seas (off shore
terminal tank) and associated tankage and product dispatch facilities by utilizing available
space in an integrated manner and these facilities was with state of al control system for
better and efficient operation. Visakh refinery is capable of processing both imported and
indigenous crude. The corporation serves as sections of National economy, Domestic,
Agriculture, transport and Industries. HPCL markets entire range of petroleum products
from the lightest of LPG to the heaviest of Bitumen including 200 grades of tubes and
greases. The product state of the refinery includes light distillates, which constitutes 22%wtt
on crude basis consisting of Liquefied A
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HPCL
Project Report On HPCL 2 Petroleum Gas(LPG), Naphtha, Propylene, Gasoline/Petrol, and
Middle distillates which constitutes 52Wt% on crude basis consisting of Mineral Turpentine
Oil(MTO) ,Aviation Turbine Fuel(ATF),Jute Batching Oil(JBO), Superior Kerosene Oil
(SKO), High Speed Diesel (HSD) ,Wash Oil, Light Diesel Oil(LDO), and Heavy ends
constituting 18wt% on crude basis consisting of Fuel Oil(FO), Low Sulphur Heavy Stock
(LSHS) and Bitumen. The majority business in retail sales with volume of MS and HSD
accounting for 49% of the total followed by the industrial sales of over 30% HPCL is one of
the two companies in India which own cross country product pipelines. HPCL always takes
keen interest in the protection, preservation and the improvement of environment. 1997 fire
explosion incident On Sep 14th 1997, due to formation of vapour cloud of LPG receiving
facility, it caused an explosion and fire damaging some refinery and marketing terminal
building and other buildings. The damage to various assets including equipment, stocks,
stores and also loss of profit was cleared under the insurance policy.

PROCESS UNITS:

Crude Distillation Units:

CDU-I: 1.8MMTPA (Not

processing)(DISMANTELD) CDU-

II: 3.6MMTPA

CDU-III:

4.16MMTPA

CDU- IV:

9.0MMTPA

Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Units:

FCCU-I

REVAMP:1.2MMTP

A FCCU-II:

0.97MMTPA

VIS-BRTEAKING UNIT:

1.0MMTPA BITUMEN BLOWING

UNIT: 225,000TPA

Product Treating Unit:

DHDS-REVAMP: 2.4MMTPA
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HPCL
LPG Amine Treatment Unit and Merox:

368,000TPA Gasoline Merox and ATF Merox:

520,000TPA

SR-LPG: 288KTPA
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HPCL
2. INTRODUCTION TO CDU-IV:
The Crude and Vacuum Distillation Unit-IV is to be commissioned as one of the units under the VISAKH Refinery
Modernization Project (VRMP) to enhance the crude refining capacity to 15.0 MMTPA.

CDU-IV has a design capacity to process 9.0 MMTPA of crude oil. The design feed stock for the unit is 86.7% Basra
and 13.3% Doba under Case-1 and 92.5% Arab Heavy and 7.5% Dar Blend under Case-2. The unit is designed to
process 1127 tons per hour of crude oil feedstock.

CDU-IV is designed to produce Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), Straight Run Naphtha, Kerosene Oil (Kero/ATF),
Diesel (LGO and HGO) and Reduced Crude Oil (RCO).

The VDU is designed to process RCO from CDU and to produce Vacuum Diesel, Light Vacuum Gas Oil
(LVGO), Heavy Vacuum Gas Oil (HVGO), and Vacuum Residue (VR). CDU / VDU are designed to operate in
conjunction and independent operation of either of these units is not considered

. The CDU also comprises the Naphtha Stabilizer section. The crude oil is pumped from the off-site storage tanks
to the Crude Distillation Unit. The various stages of operation are as follows:

i) Crude Pre-heating in process heat exchangers (Preheat Train-I)

ii) Desalting of crude in Desalters

iii) Preheating the desalted crude in process heat exchangers (Preheat Train-II)

iv) Heating of pre-heated crude oil In Crude Heaters

v) Fractionation in Crude Column vi) Separation of Naphtha and LPG in Naphtha Stabilizer

vii) Products steam stripping (Swing Naphtha, Kero/ATF, LGO and HGO) and routing to designated Product
tanks or treatment facilities

viii) Heating of Atmospheric Column bottoms (RCO) in Vacuum Heater.

ix) Fractionation of RCO in Vacuum Distillation Column. A Project Report On HPCL 4

x) Routing of products (VD, LVGO, HVGO, Slop, and Vacuum Residue) to designated tanks/units.

2.1 Pre-treatment of crude oil :

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HPCL
The crude distillation unit is the first phase of oil refining. That’s what we usually hear. However, if we are very
careful, The desalination plant, furnaces, distillation columns (atmospheric and under vacuum). Furthermore, in this
process, there are also auxiliary equipment that is also very important, such as pumps, valves, heat exchangers,
coolers, automatic process control systems, etc. The Russian Federation, as a major particpant in the world oil
industry alongside the United States of America, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Argentina, and other countries, has
developed its own standards incorporating international standards. In a similar approach, ordinarily, in Russia, they 2
Analytical Chemistry - Advancement, Perspectives and Applications appoint the distillation unit: Atmospheric-
vacuum distillation unit (AVDU). AVDU is itself subdivided into two other units which are: Atmospheric
distillations unit (ADU) and vacuum distillation unit (VDU).

2.2 Description of the crude oil and demulsifier

Oil emulsion: An emulsion is a suspension of small droplets of a liquid (water) in a second liquid (oil crude) [11].
The liquids, in a stable emulsion, can only be separated by a treatment process which calls the desalting process [10].
The electrical conductivity of oil emulsions in the literature note that it has an ionic nature. A detailed theory of ionic
conductivity of liquid dielectrics. Despite the low dielectric constant, the polar components of crude oil dissociate
into ions and create a fairly significant amount of electrical conductivity. The reason of this manifestation is asphalt-
resinous substances in oil [12]. Oil emulsion i The demulsifier (surfactant) The demulsifier is a chemical additive to
break the crude oil emulsion. The emulsifier destroys the emulsion by reducing the mechanical resistance of the
protective shells formed on the surface of the water droplets. By maintaining a strict hydrophilic-lipophilic balance
[6]. These emulsions are destroyed using synthetic surfactants (demulsifiers) added to the oil emulsion [13]. The
criteria for selecting and evaluating the demulsifier in terms of technology, that is, yield, are The velocity of
separation of water from oil; • Quality of destruction of emulsions (fullness of water separation);crude distillation unit
without vacuum distillation. We would like to emphasize that reboilers were used in this scheme in this way, just for
esthetics. Less flow to the reboilers is done differently. 3 Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) DOI:

2.3 Mechanisms and devices of process of dehydration-desalination (pre-treatment) of oil

: The process of dewatering of crude oil enters the oil production process. At the initial production period of a fresh
field, wells often produce either anhydrous or low-water oil. However, over time, the water content of the oil
produced increases at different rates and sometimes reaches 80–90% in old fields [1, 14]. The desalting (dewatering)
processes depend on the type of oils and its content, any of the following typical processes of desalting of crude oil
are combined a lot of methods like thermal, chemical, electrical and mechanical Often, a combination of Thermal and
chemical methods with the mechanical or the electrical method is used to achieve effective Dehydration of crude oil
[11]. The chemical treatment presents itself as a good option. It consists to use a demulsifier. The demulsifier must
be introduced as early as possible (at the bottom of the well). This is an increased contact time and the interaction
capacity of the demulsifier with emulsion for maximum destruction of the system [15, 16]. The injection of the
demulsifying agent before the pump ensures proper contact with the crude oil and minimizes the formation of an
emulsion [15]. The Industrial application of demulsifiers is not based on non-electrolytes, as their use is associated
with excessive consumption or high price, as well as complex separation from oil after the deposition of the water
layer. Preference is given to colloidal surface-active substances, among which are anionic, cationic, and nonionic
types [13]. The number of steps (one, two or three) during oil desalination is determined by the characteristics of the
initial oil emulsion and the salts contained therein For the desalination of oil emulsion independently of the stage: At
the well or the refinery, the main types of equipment used for oil dewatering are electrostatics disasters, sumps, and
separators [7], and they are detailed in Figure 3 [7, 17]: • thermo-chemical dehydrator; • sump; • ultrasonic; •
centrifugal; • electrostatic desalter. Figure 2. Oil emulsion. 4 Analytical Chemistry - Advancement, Perspectives and
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
Applications Each of the above-mentioned apparatus has its own peculiarities and its own derivatives, according
to the precise tasks to be accomplished: • Advanced separators-vertical flow, horizontal unit with advanced
electrostatic oil dehydration capabilities. • Desalting device-vertical flow, horizontal device with improved
capabilities of electrostatic dehydration and desalting of oil. The process can occur in one or two stages. Figure 3.
Some examples of devices for crude oil dewatering, degassing, and desalting. (a) Sump. (b) Separator. (c) Three-
phases separator. (d) Hydrodynamic phase separator. 5 Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) DOI:

• Field separator-electrostatic coagulator, horizontal apparatus of electrostatic coagulator. It contains the

initial section of the chimney of the heating section for preheating.

• Electromechanical separators-a horizontal device that is characterized by a combination of electrostatic

grids, coalescing blocks, and the initial section of the chimney heating section for preheating. The selection
criterion of devices, it is recommended to consider the following parameters when choosing the equipment [8,
12, 18]:

• properties of formation fluid and its quantity;

• stream type;

• the resistance of emulsion;

• pressure into the device;

• temperature regime

. In the separators, they usually separate gas is usually from the oil in two or three steps under slight pressure or
dilution. The separators of the first stage simultaneously play the role of buffer reservoirs and are usually located on
the deposit. The separators of the second and third stages are mostly on the territory of central collection and
distribution points (the sites of pre-treatment and pumping of oil) [7, 17]. The vertical separators are more productive
in comparison with horizontal ones, but also the vertical separators have a higher price. They are suitable for
enterprises with high production capacities, as well as if the emulsion contains many solid particles [18]. The
horizontal separators are the best option for processing small volumes of material, as well as liquids with a high
content of dissolved gas. They are in the greatest demand, as they are quite productive and affordable. To achieve
maximum efficiency when using horizontal oil and gas separators, the oil is mixed in the separation process; the
temperature is increased, and the pressure is reduced. To increase the depth and improve the quality of separation in
Russia, introducing hot drainage water before separation with a threephase separator is often used. Thus, they use
heat, which increases the selection of gas, intensifies the process of demulsification of oil, improves the quality of
spilled formation water, reduces investments, energy costs of processes, and significantly improves the conditions of
Environmental protection. The three-phase separator can split oil, gas, and water at once. However, separators have
limits. Even with a three-stage separation, complete separation of gas from oil is not achieved [8]. Besides, it should
be noted that, despite the improvement in oil and gas separation techniques and technologies, field separators remain
cumbersome and expensive devices

2.4 Salts in crude oil :

The salts and minerals often present in the oil are mainly magnesium, calcium, and sodium chlorides with sodium
chloride being the abundant type. These salts cause corrosion of equipment. For example, hydrogen chloride (HCl).
Hydrogen chloride dissolves in the emulsion’s water producing hydrochloric acid, an extremely corrosive acid.
However, NaCl = Na+ + Cl. Water, though slight, but dissociates into ions, and the equilibrium is established: H2O=H+
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
+OH, thus, in the salt solution, there is a mixture of Na+ cations and OH, Clanions. Ions in the solution move randomly

and constantly collide with each other [21]. But these collisions of Na+ and OH ions, H+ and Cl ions do not lead to
the formation of compounds, since NaOH is a strong base, and HCl is a strong acid. Since weak electrolytes are not
formed when sodium chloride is dissolved in water, sodium chloride is not hydrolyzed. The concentration of H+ ions
is equal to the concentration of OH ions, so the color of the indicators does not change [13, 20]. All chemical
compounds based on chlorine hydrolyze, except for NaCl, hydrolyze at high temperature to hydrogen chloride:
CaCl2 þ 2H2O ! Ca OH ð Þ2 þ 2HCl (1) MgCl2 þ 2H2O ! Mg OH ð Þ2 þ 2HCl (2) Any remaining salts are
neutralized by the injection of sodium hydroxide which reacts with the calcium and magnesium chloride to produce
sodium chloride because NaCl does not hydrolyze to the corrosive hydrogen chloride.
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HPCL
3. CRUDE DISTILLATION UNIT
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
A crude distillation unit (CDU) is a key component in the refining of crude oil into various petroleum
products. The primary purpose of the CDU is to separate the crude oil into different fractions based
on their boiling points. This process is also known as atmospheric distillation because it is typically
carried out at atmospheric pressure.

Here is an introduction to the key aspects of a crude distillation unit:

Feedstock:
 The feedstock for the CDU is crude oil, which is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. Crude oil
is obtained from oil wells and contains a wide range of components with different boiling points.
Process Overview:
 The crude oil is first heated in a furnace to a temperature where it enters the atmospheric
distillation column as a vapor. The column consists of a series of trays or packing
material.
Fractionation:
 Inside the distillation column, the crude oil is separated into fractions based on boiling points.
The lighter components with lower boiling points rise to the top of the column, while
the heavier components with higher boiling points sink to the bottom.

Product Streams:
 The fractions obtained from the CDU include gases (such as methane and propane), naphtha,
kerosene, diesel, and heavier components like atmospheric gas oil and residues. Each fraction
has specific uses in the production of various refined products.Heat exchangers are employed to
cool down the vaporized fractions, causing them to condense into liquid form. This allows for
the
separation and collection of different products.
Side Strippers and Pumparound Systems:
 Side strippers and pumparound systems are used to enhance separation by further distilling
specific fractions. These systems help optimize the production of desired products.
Bottoms Product:
 The heaviest fraction, often referred to as atmospheric residue, is the bottom product of the
distillation column. This residue may undergo further processing in a vacuum distillation unit to
extract additional valuable products.
Utilities:
 The CDU relies on various utilities such as steam and cooling water to maintain
optimal operating conditions.
Control Systems:
 Advanced control systems are employed to ensure efficient and safe operation of the CDU.
These systems regulate temperatures, pressures, and flow rates throughout the unit.
Integration with Refinery Units:
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HPCL
The output streams from the CDU are sent to various downstream units for further processing, such as

3.2 Description and characteristics crude distillation unit (CDU)

The oil emulsion is a complex mixture of naphthenic, paraffin, aromatic carbohydrates, which have
different molecular weight and boiling point, and sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen organic compounds. At
distillation receive a big range of oil products and semi-products. The principle of the process is based on
the difference 18 Analytical Chemistry - Advancement, Perspectives and Applications between the initial
boiling point of the components. As a result, the oil is divided into fractions up to fuel oil and tar and even
base oil. The distillation of oil can be carried out [34]:

• Single evaporation or flash vaporization

• Multiple evaporations

• Gradual evaporation

3.3 Description of the distillation column and its operation

The distillation is designed to separate gas and liquid mixtures comprising two ormore components
or fractions. We can classify distillation columns according to various characteristics

• by technological application;

• by an internal device (plates) ensuring contact between the steam and theliquid;

• columns of atmospheric vacuum.

3.4 The plates for distillation columns of oil plants

In oil refining, a fairly large number of plate types are widespread; new types are being
developed. This situation is explained by the desire to developmore productive and
economic plates than those used previously. The choice of the types of plate depends on a load
of steam and liquid, the physical propertiesof steam and liquid
• efficiency;
• operating stability range;
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HPCL
• hydraulic resistance;
• ability to work on contaminated raw
materials; cost (or weight) of the column
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
3.5 The products from Crude Columncan be routed as follows:

1 LPG to SR LPG Treatment

2. Stabilized Naphtha to
a. Stabilized Naphtha storage tanks
b. Export Naphtha storage tanks
c. Naphtha Hydrotreater Unit (NHT)

3. Swing Naphtha to
a. NHT Unit
b. DHT/DHDS Unit
c. Offsite Naphtha Storage
d. Export Naphtha storage tanks
e. Sour Diesel storage

4. Kerosene/ATF to
a. Existing MEROX Unit when on ATF regulation
b. DHDS Unit c. Sour Diesel Storage
d. Residue Upgradation Facility (RUF)
e. DHT unit
f. Kero storage

5. LGO to
a. DHDS Unit through Coalescer
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HPCL

b. Sour Diesel Storage

c. DHT unit

6. HGO to
a. DHDS Unit through Coalescer
b. Sour diesel storage tanks
c. DHT unit

7. Fuel gas from Stabilizer reflux drum overhead to DHT-FGATU

3.6 Products from Vacuum Columncan be routed as follows: -

1. Vac. Diesel to
a. DHDS Unit
b. Sour Diesel storage
c. DHT unit

2. LVGO, HVGO to
a. FCHCU
b. VGO storage

3. Slop-Distillate to
a. Vacuum Heater (as recycle stream) along with RCO
b. RUF, along with VR product

4. VR to
a. Cold VR + Slop to Storage
b. Hot VR + Slop to RUF
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

c. BBU (28TPH max. as per design)

d. Bitumen tanks

3.7 PRODUCTS IN HPCL ANDTHEIR PURPOSE:

PRODUCT PURPOSE
LPG Mainlyuse d for cooking
Motor spirit/Petrol purpose Use for indigenous
Superior Kerosene oil vehicles Domestic purpose
(SKO) Heavy Diesel oil Used as fuel for heavy vehicles
(HDO) Propylene Raw materials for
Naphtha petrochemicals Industrial Power
Jute Batching Oil (JBO) Generation Used as Jute
Light Diesel Oil (LDO) machines lubrication Used as
Fuel OIL (FO) fuel for ships
Low Sulphur Heavy Stock Used as Industrial fuel for heaters
(LSHS) Bitumen/Asphalt Used for power generation in
Sulphur industries Used for laying roads
Industrial usage
Mineral Turpentine oil Used in paint
(MTO) Aviation turbine industry Used as fuel
fuel (ATF) for planes

4. Feed specifications and product characteristics

 The unit design of CDU/VDU-IV unit is based on the following crude’s:

1. Designcase1:86.7wt%BasaraLight+13.3wt%Doba
2. Designcase2:92.5wt%ArabHeavy+7.5wt%DarBlend
 Unit design is checked for following cases
1. Checkcase1:70wt%ArabHeavy+30wt%Maya
2. Checkcase2:100%Arablight
Basar Arab
Property aLigh Doba Heav DarBlend Maya ArabLigh
t y t
SP.GR(@60/60F) 0.8762 0.9279 0.8888 0.8850 0.9315 0.8591
GravityAPI 30.0 21.0 27.7 28.39 20.4 33.2
RVPkg/cm2 0.33 0.15 0.57 0.015 0.302 0.34
Pourpoint°C -20 -7 -57 +42 -24 -56
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
WaxContent%Wt 4.18 4.73 2.75 27.40 2.28 2.87
TotalSulfur%Wt 2.12 0.09 3.05 0.091 3.62 1.88
Vis(cSt)@15.5°C(60°F) 22.8 2126.7 47.9 794.8 577.8 11.7
Vis(cSt)@40°C(104°F) 9.9 284.4 18.3 153.3 111.9 5.7
TotalaciditymgKOH/gm 0.09 3.94 0.17 1.51 0.14 0.0

Yield pattern of crude and vacuum unit products areas follows:

Product Basra +DobaCase ArabHeavy+DarBlendCase

TBPEndPoint %Yield TBPEndPoint(°C) %Yield
LPG - 2.19 - 2.18
Stab.Naphtha C5-121.2 6.10 C5-120.3 6.63
SwingNaphtha 121.2-136 2.59 120.3-135 1.96
Kerosene 136-240 15.26 135-240 13.2
LGO 240-340.2 15.21 240-340.2 14.58
HGO 340.2-351.7 1.86 340.2-354.9 2.0
Vac.Ovhd. - 0.22 - 0.23
VD 351.7-376.6 3.79 354.9-376.7 2.83*
LVGO 376.6-475.1 15.73 376.7-475.8 15.19
HVGO 475.1-565.4 12.05 475.8-565.2 11.21
VacuumSlop 565.4-580.4 1.71 565.2-580.2 1.68
VR 580.4+ 23.31 580.2+ 28.31

5. PROCESS PRINCIPLE

5.1 PRINCIPLE
If solution of two components with different boiling points is allowed to flash in a vessel, the liquid
and vapour portions separate and after sufficient time attain equilibrium. The vapors will be richer in
lighter components and the liquid residue therefore leaner. Suppose the vapours are condensed and
flashed again, the resulting vapours will be richer in the lighter components. By repeating the
procedure, we will reach a stage when vapours will be full of the lighter components (ideally).
Similarly, by repeatedly heating and flashing the liquid portion, we will eventually end up with a
liquid which is hundred per cent the heavier component. The same principle is used in a distillation
column with an integration of the above process and each step where the heavier component in the
vapours is condensed and the lighter component in the liquid is vaporized known as an equilibrium
stage. The total number of theoretical stages will be decided by the extent of separation relative
volatility of the components involved.
In a typical distillation operation, the feed is introduced into a vertical cascade of stages. Vapour
rising in the section above the feed (called enriching / rectifying section) is washed with liquid to
remove the less volatile components. The wash liquid is provided by condensing the vapour from the
top (rich in more volatile component) called reflux; a portion of the condensate is removed as
distillate. In the section below the feed (called stripping section), the liquid is stripped of the volatile
component by vapours rising from bottom. The vapours are generated by supplying the necessary
energy at the bottom through a reboiler or furnace. The liquid rich in less volatile component is
removed from the
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
bottom.
5.2 Multicomponent distillation:
Through a binary system is ideal to design and operate, many of the separations encountered in
the industry are not so; they involve more than two components. The principles of binary
solutions are generally applicable to such distillations but nevertheless some special consideration
and techniques are needed more volatile components are designated as light and the less volatile,
heavy. Suppose
a solution has to be separated by distillation, the majority component among the bottom product
components compared to the other lighter components is called the light key component.
Similarly, the one among the distillate components which is present in considerable amount when
compared to the other heavier components is the heavy key component. With this key component
as the basis,
now the problem of multi-component distillation is treated in much the same way as binary
distillation. The difficulty of separation, as measured by the number of trays for a given reflux ratio, is
fixed by the key component concentrations in the products. It is, therefore, important to establish the
key components in a multi-component distillation.
The distillations involved in petroleum industry are further complicated by aspects like withdrawal
of side streams (apart from top and bottom products), circulating refluxes, stripping steam, etc.
Here, the separation is achieved not directly on the basis of components but by boiling ranges. Each
product comprises multiple components and its end use requirements specify certain properties such
as boiling range, flash point, specific gravity, viscosity, etc., rather than component purity. The
design of such systems is very complex and cannot be accomplished by totally theoretical methods;
pilot plant
studies coupled with past experience generally yield satisfactory results. Many software packagesavailable
in the present day market to evaluate the performance of the existing columns and also
to design new columns.
5.3 DISTILLATION TOWERS:
Fractionating towers and related equipment are mechanical devices for repeatedly establishing
equilibrium between ascending vapour and descending liquid and repeated separation of the two
phases. Hence, a means of attaining a large interface for contact and affecting a complete
separation of the two phases must be incorporated in any successful design. The choice of
contacting device in a column depends on
• Operating pressure and pressure drop.
• Turn-down ratio
• Nature of the solution (foaming tendency, presence of solids, etc.)
• Number of side streams
The most generally used in the industry are tray towers in which the liquid and vapour are
contacted in steps or trays or plates.
Types of trays:
• Trays with down-comers (Bubble -cap, Sieve, Valve)
• Trays without down-comers (Dual flow, baffle)
• Multi down-comer trays
• Collection or chimney trays
In tray towers, the liquid from the stage above flows across each tray and through a down-comer to
the tray below. The gas passes upward through opening in the tray, then bubbles through the liquid,
disengages and passes on to the next tray above. The depth of liquid on the tray required for gas
contacting is maintained by an overflow weir. Each tray of the column is a stage. The number of
equilibrium stages (theoretical trays) determines the number of actual trays. Tray spacing is usually
decided on the basis of adequate insurance against flooding & entrainment and on expediency in
construction, maintenance & cost. It varies from 300 - 900 mm depending on the diameter and
service of the tower. Column diameter or cross-sectional area is determined on the basis of
gas/liquid volumes to be handled. Packed columns are preferred to tray towers under the following
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
circumstances:
• for columns of less than 2 ft. diameter
• for acids and other corrosive materials
• for foaming liquids
• for thermally sensitive liquids which require low liquid hold-up
• for lower pressure drop or for vacuum operation
• for greater mass transfer efficiency
The design of packed towers involves the determination of HETP (Height Equivalent to Theoretical
Plate). Packings can be either random or structured. The various types of packings available are,
Generation Type of packing
First Raschig, Lessing, Cross Partion Rings, Berl saddles
Second Pall Rings, Hypak, Intalox Metal Tower packing(IMTP), Cascade Mini
Rings (CMR), Nutter rings
Third Gempak, Mellapak, Intalox ( structured )
Care should be exercised to distribute feed and reflux streams uniformly throughout the cross-
section of the packing to avoid channeling. The withdrawals will be from collector or chimney trays.

6. PROCESS CHEMISTRY:
Crude oil is one of the two major fossil fuels on earth, the other being coal. It is the major and a cost-
effective energy source today; though efforts are on to discover other means. Crude oils vary widely
in appearance and consistency from country to country and from field to field. However, all crude
oils consist essentially of hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons:
Organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen are known collectively by the name hydrocarbons. As
carbon has a valency of four and hydrogen is monovalent, it can normally be expected that carbon
should form only one tetra-hydride by combining with four atoms of hydrogen. Such a compound
known as methane or CH4 does exist, but as carbon can also combine with itself and can also leave
some of its valencies unsatisfied by getting involved in unsaturated bonds or linkages, the number of
hydrocarbons is truly myriad.
Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbon Compounds:
In any compound made up of carbon and hydrogen the carbon atoms behave as though they had
four arms and the hydrogen atoms behave as though each had only one arm. Each arm of the
carbon atom must always be occupied, that is, it must be holding something, either a hydrogen
atom or
another carbon atom. When all the carbon arms or bonds are used to hold other atoms, the compound
is said to be “saturated”. Similarly, a compound which does not have all the carbon arms or bonds
taken up by other atoms is said to be “unsaturated”. There are millions of different ways in which
carbon and hydrogen atoms can be connected together to form hydrocarbon molecules. To help
describe these in a systematic way, Science has classified hydrocarbons into various families
depending on their molecular structure. In petroleum chemistry, hydrocarbons are classified
primarily into four groups
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
Type of Hydrocarbon Group

1. Paraffinic Family:
The first family of hydrocarbons is Paraffins. They are saturated hydrocarbons with the general
formula CnH2n+2.

 Normal (Straight Chain) Paraffins & Isomers:

There are two ways in which carbon and hydrogen can be combined in butane

In the normal butane, the chain is straight where as in the iso-butane, the chain is branched, although
both compounds have the same number of carbon and hydrogen atoms. For heavier hydrocarbons
there can be more isomers.

 Properties of Paraffins:
1) Good natural stability. However, high reactivity in presence of oxygen or under
the influence of heat.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

2) Low effect of temperature on viscosity. Highly paraffinic lubricants have

high viscosity index.
3) At a sufficiently high molecular weight they form waxy solids. Paraffinic crudes are
good sources of waxes.
4) Paraffinic hydrocarbons in the gasoline range burn too readily and lead to the
‘knocking’ phenomenon. They are poor components in gasoline blends.
5) In lubricants they lead to high pour points.
6) As motor oil components they tend to form hard carbon deposits
 Properties Of Iso-Paraffins:

1) For the same carbon number (number of carbon atoms in the

hydrocarbon molecule), iso-paraffins have lower boiling points than paraffins.
2) They make better components in gasoline blends; they have better (higher) octane rating.

 Naphthenic Family:
Naphthenic hydrocarbons have fewer hydrogen atoms per molecule than paraffins. This is because
they have a closed or ring structure. Naphthene molecules with one ring have the general formula
CnH2n. They are also known as cyclo-paraffins. While rings can be small (3, 4 carbon atoms) or
large (above 6) many naphthene’s in petroleum have 5 or 6 membered rings.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

 Properties of Naphthene’s:
1) Naphthene’s in motor oils form soft fluffy carbon deposits
2) Viscosity is affected more by temperature change. Viscosity index is lower for
naphthenic lubricants for paraffinic ones.
3) Naphthenic lubricants have low pour points.
4) Naphthene’s in gasoline improve its octane rating e.g. n-heptane has 0 octane and
methyl cyclo-hexane, 78 octane number.

 Olefin Family:
Olefinic are unsaturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n. While olefins as such are not
normally found in natural crude oil, they are produced by cracking reactions. The simplest member
of this family is ethylene. Like paraffins, the higher members of the olefinic family can exist in
straight chain (normal) or branch (iso) structure. The location of the double bond can vary, leading to
different isomeric compounds.

 Properties of Olefins:

1) Olefins are highly reactive. Thus, their presence in gasoline or lubricating oils leads
to interaction with oxygen to form sludge, gum and varnish.
2) In gasoline the presence of some olefins does improve octane rating (anti –knock
properties).
However, anti-oxidants will have to be added to suppress oxidation tendencies.

 Aromatic Family:
Aromatics are unsaturated ring type hydrocarbons of a special chemical category. In these structures,
alternating double and single bonds having a property known as resonance confer some stability and
other special characteristics.
Aromatic streams from a refinery normally contain benzene or its derivatives, condensed aromatic
hydrocarbons like naphthalene or their derivatives.

 Properties of Aromatics:
1) In view of the property of electronic resonance, benzene hydrocarbons are quite stable.
2) High octane values render aromatics excellent blended components.
3) Have high solvency power. They make good commercial solvents.
4) They are poor viscosity index components in lubricating oils.
5) Aromatics in kerosene produce smoky flames (low smoke point
 Crude Oil:
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

Various systems of classification have been attempted since the early production of crude oil from
the last century. Based on the nature of hydrocarbons present in Crude Oils, they are Abroadly
classified into
 Paraffin Based Crude Oils:
These consist mainly of paraffinic hydrocarbons and little / no Asphaltenes matter. They usually give
good yields of paraffinic wax, high grade SKO and high-grade lubricating oils.
 Asphaltene Based Crude Oils:
They contain little / no paraffin wax but Asphaltene material is usually present in large proportions.
They consist of mostly Naphthene’s. Lube Oils of these crude oils are more sensitive to temperature.
These crude oils give high quality Gasoline.
 Mixed Base Crude Oils:
These crude oils exhibit considerable overlapping of the both types described above. A majority of
the crude oils are of this type.
Recent classifications are based on their API gravity (calculated from specific gravity) and sulphur
content. Generally, the higher the API gravity (or lighter the crude) the more distillate products it
contains and the higher is its value.
Sulphur is a significant factor in the crude cost as it is an impurity. The sulphur content in the
petroleum products is restricted by product specifications. High sulphur crudes also have to be
processed after all, but the investment and operational costs are high. Sulphur in crude occurs in
different forms like free Sulphur, Hydrogen Sulphide, Mercaptans, etc.
Nitrogen is also present in crude oils in very minute quantities in the form of Indoles, Pyridines,
Quinolines, etc. Nitrogen compounds create problems while processing and to the stability of the
products. Catalyst deactivation or poisoning, gum formation are some of the offshoots of Nitrogen.
Pour point is also important factor to the extent of handling the crude oil. Crude oils with high pour
point require special handling facilities such as heat tracing and tank heating coils. Sometimes pour
depressing additives are also used. Pour point is an indication of-wax content in crude oil.

 Range of hydrocarbons in typical crude:

7. BRIEF PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Process flow sequence, arrangement of process equipment, salient operating parameters, major
control schemes and heat and material balance for Crude Distillation Unit, Vacuum Distillation Unit
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
& Naphtha Stabilisation Section are shown in the Process Flow Diagrams. The unit is designed to
process 86.7% Basra + 13.3% Doba and 92.5% Arab Heavy+ 7.5% Dar Blend crudes to produce
transport fuels of BS VI specifications.

Facilities provided in the unit battery limit are:

• Heat integrated Crude & Vacuum Distillation Units
• Naphtha Stabilisation section

7.1 CRUDE DISTILLATION UNIT

A. Crude Charge and Preheat Train I:

Crude from offsite storage is received at CDUVDU-IV plant battery limit at a pressure of 1.5
Kg/cm2g and 30°C. Crude pressure is boosted by crude charge pumps located within the unitbattery
limit and is discharged under pressure control of Desalter. While limiting the unit throughput to the
design value, provision to process up to 5% of slops with the crude is also made (facility provided at
offsites). Crude is first preheated in the Crude/LGO productexchanger-II and subsequently heated in
Crude / Crude Col. Overhead Exchanger. Crude is then split equally between two parallel heat
exchanger trains by ratio control. Crude picks upheat in the two parallel trains of preheat exchangers
consisting of Crude/LGO product exchanger-I, Crude/KERO CR exchanger-I AND Crude/Kero
Product exchanger-II, Crude/Kero CR exchanger-II, Crude/ LGO CR exchanger-III and wherein it is
heated to optimum desalting temperature of 120- 137°C and routed to Crude desalter.
Piping connections to heat crude using LVGO CR before entering desalter is provided. Piping
connection to use Crude /LGO CR exchanger-III downstream of Desalter is also provided for swing
case operations. Desalter upstream temperature achieved will be 120-121°C in case LGO CR / Crude
Exchanger is used downstream of desalter. Desalter upstream temperature achieved will be 145-
148.5°C in case Crude / LVGO CR Exchanger is used upstream of desalter.
Anti-foulant is injected into the crude at the common discharge of crude charge pump after Crude /
Crude Column OVHD Exchanger using anti-foulant injection pumps - I and into VR + Quench line
at common suction of VR + Quench pump using anti-fouling injection pump-II.

Piping provision for addition of wash water using water injection pump at crude charge pump
discharge is also available.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

B. Desalter:
A 2-stage electrostatic Crude Desalter is provided for removal of salt and water from the crude to
desired level. The desalter is designed to handle feed salt content of 57 PTB and feed BS&W of 2.0
vol. % (max). The principle of desalting operation requires mixing of preheated wash water in a
mixing valve with the crude under controlled conditions and to extract impurities. The water/crude
mixture is then resolved by coalescence in a high voltageelectrical field and subsequently separated
in the desalter. Sufficient pressure is maintained at the desalter to ensure no vaporization. This is
achieved by the pressure control valve located at the discharge of the Crude charge pump.
Sufficient quantity of water is mixed with the crude upstream of desalter to dissolve the salts present
in the crude. The desalting water is preheated in Desalter water/brine exchanger and Desalter
water/Kero exchanger before mixing with the crude in order to maintain crude temperature. Strong
electric field is applied in the desalter to break the oil water emulsion and achieve desired phase
separation.
The salt rich water phase (brine) from desalter is sent to the effluent treatment plant. The oil phase
(treated crude) obtained from desalter top is sent for further processing under its own pressure.
The first and second stage desalter vessels are connected in series. The crude enters the firststage and
desalted crude leaves from the second stage. The desalting water flows in a counter current fashion to
the crude flow. The fresh water enters the second stage, and the brine solution leaves from the first
stage desalter. Piping provision exists for maintenance bypass of any one stage to enable unit
operation with only one stage in operation for short duration.
Typically, stripped sour water from Sour Water Stripper Unit shall be used for desalting. Provision to
use service water/DM water is also made. The Desalting Water is pumped from the Desalting Water
Drum operating at 0.5 kg/cm²g pressure through 2nd stage desalting water pump. Desalting water is
pumped under flow control to the Desalter Water/brineexchanger and Desalter water/Kero
exchanger. The water is heated to a temperature of 135°C before it is mixed with crude entering the
2nd stage Crude Desalter. Good mixing of crude and water is achieved through mixing valves
provided at desalter inlet.
The water from 2nd stage Crude Desalter is pumped by 1st stage desalting water pumps under level
control of second stage. This water is mixed with the crude entering 1st stage desalter in a mixing
valve. Hot brine from 1st stage crude desalter is cooled in Desalting Water/Brine Exchanger and
subsequently cooled to 40°C in Brine Cooler before it is sent under interface level control of desalter
to the Effluent Treatment Plant under its own pressure.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
Demulsifier injection is done at the inlet of Desalter using. Provision for Demulsifier injection in
crude pump suction is also available.
A special provision for swing case of operation of pre-heat exchangers is provided based on the
required desalting temperature corresponding to different types of crude to be processed in the unit.

C. Crude Preheat Train II:

The crude from 2nd stage Desalter outlet at a temperature of around 128.6-131.5°C is heated in
Preheat Train-II which consists of two parallel train of exchangers. Crude from Desalter is transferred
to Preheat train II using Crude booster pump. The crude is equally split between the two trains by
ratio control.
Crude picks up heat in the two parallel trains of preheat exchangers consisting of Crude/LVGO CR
exchanger-II, Crud/Kero Product exchanger-I , Crude HGO Product exchanger, Crude/LVGO CR
exchanger-I, Crude/ VR Product exchanger, Crude/HVGO CR exchanger-IV, Crude/VR product +
Quench exchanger-IV, Crude/ VR product + Quench exchanger-III, Crude/HVGO Product
exchanger-I, Crude/HVGO CR exchanger-II, Crude/ VR product + Quench exchanger-I AND
Crude/LVGO product exchanger, Crude/LGO CR exchanger-II, Crude/HVGO Product exchanger-II,
Crude/LGO CR exchanger-I, Crude/HVGO CR exchanger-III, Crude/VR product + Quench
exchanger-II, Crude/HVGO CR exchanger-I, Crude/HGO CR exchanger before being routed to two
parallel crude heaters. Adequate Pressure of Crude is maintained upstream of Pass control valve of
the Heater to avoid any

flashing. Crude from parallel trains of Pre-heat train-II is combined and routed to crude heaters,
temperature of crude from pre-heat train-II is 313°C (case 1) and 319.5°C (case 2).
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
D. Crude Heaters:
The preheated crude is divided equally between two identical heaters by crude throughput controller.
This crude throughput controller sends soft signal to ratio controller for controlling flow to each pass.
The amount of crude oil that flows through the coils is regulated by means of the Pass Total Flow
Controller and the furnace Pass Balancing Control adjusts the flow rate to each pass, to equalize the
outlet temperature. The estimated coil outlet temperature of each heater for Basra + Doba crude case
is 376.4°C and for Arab Heavy + Dar Blend is 382.5 °C. Each Crude Heater is a six-pass vertical
tube box-multicellular type heater.
Crude Heaters are designed with combination firing burners i.e., for full firing of either fuel gas or
fuel oil or both. Provision for firing of Hot Well-Off gases from Vacuum Column overhead system
and vent gases from SR LPG unit has been provided in Crude Heaters.
Individual heater pass flow controllers are reset by flow controller on inlet heater stream.
Coil outlets of each heater join common heater outlet manifolds and single transfer line is routed to
Crude Distillation Column.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

E. Crude Distillation Column:

Heated and partially vaporised crude from enters Crude column provided with 62 trays of which 6
trays are in the column bottom stripping section. The column has four side draws, namely, Swing
Naphtha (SN), Kerosene (Kero), Light Gas Oil (LGO) and Heavy Gas Oil (HGO), all of which are
drawn through side strippers. The column is also provided with three circulating refluxes, namely,
Kerosene CR, LGO CR and HGO CR to maximize the heat recovery from crude column and to
minimize overhead condenser duty. The partially vaporised crude enters the flash zone between tray
#6 and tray #7

F. Crude column overhead circuit:

The overhead system consists of a two-stage condensing system with wash water injection provision
into crude overhead vapor at the inlet of overhead exchanger. In the first stage, the column overhead
vapor is partly condensed in the Crude/Crude Column OverheadExchanger against the crude at 45°C
and subsequently cooled in the Crude Column Overhead Air Cooler to about 100.7-105.1 yielding
reflux for the crude column. 50% of the Crude Column Overhead Air Cooler fans are considered
variable speed type for effective outlet temperature control. The Reflux Drum level is controlled by
varying the heat duty of AFC.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
The Crude Column Overhead Air Cooler effluent is routed to the Crude column reflux drum for
separation of vapour, hydrocarbon and water.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

Sour water separated in reflux drum is routed to the Sour Water Stripper Unit by sour water pumps
after preheating the wash water (Sour water/ Wash water) in followed by further cooling by cooling
water in under inter phase level control. The uncondensed vapours from the Reflux Drum are fully
condensed in Overhead Naphtha Air Cooler and Overhead Naphtha Trim Cooler. The hydrocarbon
liquid (unstabilized naphtha) and recycle water are separated in Overhead Naphtha Drum.
The Unstabilized naphtha consisting of all the fuel gas, LPG and Naphtha components is pumped
under level-cascaded flow control by Stabilizer Feed Pumps to Naphtha Stabilizer Column after
preheating in the Stabilizer Feed/ Bottom exchanger and Stabilizer Feed/ Swing
Naphtha Product Exchanger. Separated sour water is routed to the Sour Water Stripper unit by
Overhead Naphtha Drum Sour Water Pumps.
Crude column top pressure is maintained by split-range pressure control with Fuel gas blanket on
Overhead Naphtha Drum.
To avoid severe local corrosion by strong acids, wash water is injected to overhead vapours at the
inlet of the Crude / Crude Column OVHD Exchanger. The wash water is added to the overhead
vapours to force the water dew point of vapours at the inlet of overhead exchangers. All the salts
(primarily chlorides of calcium, magnesium and sodium) present in overhead vapours are dissolved
in wash water and are purged out of the system through sour water purge stream to Sour Water
Stripper unit. Additionally, Filming Amine and Neutralising Amine are also injected in the Crude
Column overhead line in order to protect the overhead line and the Column top dome. Provision for
injecting Wash water at inlet of AFC is available to remove salt deposits on the bundle, this shall be
used if pressure drop across AFC increases. Filming amine and Neutralizing amine are also injected
in crude column reflux line to protect the column top. During start-up, unstabilized naphtha shall be
taken from DHT unit using start up line provided in Overhead Naphtha drum.

G. Swing Naphtha Section:

Swing Naphtha is drawn as side product from tray #49 (through chimney tray # 4) to side stripper
under stripper level control. Swing naphtha side stripper is a reboiled stripper provided with six
trays. Hot Kerosene product is used as the reboiling medium for SN

stripper reboiler Light ends in Heavy Naphtha are knocked off by reboiler so as to achieve the
desired Swing Naphtha product flash point. Swing Naphtha stripper reboiler duty is controlled
regulating the
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
opposite acting control valves of Kero product flow. Light hydrocarbon vapours from the side
stripper are routed back to crude column below tray #
51. The bottom product of Swing naphtha Stripper is pumped by Swing naphtha Product
pump to Stab feed / Swing Nap product exchanger followed by SR Swing Naphtha Air
cooler. Swing Naphtha is routed to NHT unit at 87°C. Provision is also kept to route Swing
naphtha to Diesel pool at 40°C. Swing naphtha Product Trim Cooler is also provided in the
rundown line to route the Cold Swing Naphtha at 40°C to offsite storage or Export Naphtha
storage tanks. Provision for routing Swing Naphtha to Existing DHDS unit or New DHT unit
at 87°C is available.

H. Kerosene Section:
Kerosene is drawn from tray # 36 (through chimney tray #3) of Crude Column. The Kero drawflows
to the Kero Stripper under Stripper level control. Kero stripper is a reboiled stripper using HGO CR
as reboiling medium. The Kero Stripper has horizontal thermosiphon reboiler. Light ends in Kero
product are knocked off by the reboiler so as to achieve the desired Kero product flash point. Kero
Stripper Reboiler duty is controlled regulating the opposite acting control valves of HGO CR flow.
The light Hydrocarbon vapours leaving the Kero stripper are returned to the Crude column below
tray # 39.
Kero Product is pumped by Kero Product Pumps to Swing Nap Stripper reboiler, Crude/Kero Pdt
Exch-1, Crude/Kero Pdt Exchanger-II, followed by Desalter water/Kero Exchanger. The Kero
Product is further cooled in Air cooler. The Kero product is cooled in Kero Product Air Cooler-II and
Kero Product Trim Cooler to 40 °C and is routed as a feed to Existing Merox. Provision is also kept
to route Kero at 40 °C to Sour Diesel storage / Kero storage.
Piping arrangement is provided to route Kero Product from upstream/downstream of Air Coolers to
RUF unit or from upstream of Air Cooler to DHT / DHDS unit.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

I. Light Gas Oil (LGO) Section:

LGO Draw and LGO CR stream is drawn as a single stream from tray # 25 (through chimney tray
#2) of Crude Column. One stream as LGO flows to the LGO Stripper under LGO stripper level
control where it is stripped using MP steam under flow control and the stripped vapours are returned
to the Crude Column below tray # 28.
The bottom product of LGO Stripper is pumped by LGO Product pump to Stabilizer reboiler,
Crude/LGO Product Exchanger-I and Crude/LGO Product Exchanger-II and is routed to Hot LGO
Coalescer before routing to DHDS/DHT Unit.

Provision for LGO Product cooling in LGO Product Air cooler and LGO Product Trim Coolers to 40
°C is provided. Cold LGO product from is routed to Sour Diesel Storage.

J. Heavy Gas Oil (HGO) Section:

HGO Draw and HGO CR are drawn as a single stream from tray # 16 (through chimney tray #1) of
the Crude Column. One stream as HGO flows to the HGO Stripper under Stripper levelcontrol where
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
it is stripped using MP steam under flow control and stripped vapours are returned to the Crude
Column below tray #19.
The bottom product of HGO Stripper is pumped by HGO Product pump to Crude/ HGO Product
Exchanger and then HGO Product Air cooler. The HGO pdt is routed to Hot HGO coalescer before
routing to DHDS/DHT Unit.
Provision for HGO product cooling in HGO Product Trim Cooler to 40 °C is provided. Cold HGO
product from Exchangers is routed to Sour Diesel Storage.
Swing Naphtha and Kero side stripper are stacked as one column.

K. Reduced Crude Oil (RCO) Section:

Stripped RCO from the Crude Column bottom is sent to the Vacuum Heater under level control of
Crude Column bottom cascaded with the pass flow controller of Vacuum Heater. Provision is also
made in the control scheme to cascade the Crude Column bottom level control with the flow
controller on the Vacuum Residue (VR) rundown line through a selector switch. This provision is to
be used for CDU operation alone in which case RCO from Crude Column will be routed through VR
circuit to offsites and also during start-up circulation.
Over flash is provided across the Flash zone of the Crude Column to ensure proper distillation
between HGO and RCO. MP steam under flow control is introduced as stripping steam below tray #
1 of the Crude column. The MP steam flow is cascaded with the RCO flow rate.

L. Crude Column Circulating Refluxes:

Crude Column is provided with three Circulating Reflux streams for optimum vapour-liquid internal
traffic and heat recovery.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

 Kero CR:
Kero CR is drawn from tray # 36 along with Kero draw to Kero Stripper and is pumped by Kero CR
pump. The heat available in Kero CR is removed in Crude/Kero CR exchanger’s and routed to the
Crude Column on tray # 38 under flow
control.

 LGO CR:
LGO CR is drawn from tray # 25 along with LGO draw to LGO Stripper and is pumped by LGO CR
Pump. The heat available in LGO CR is removed in Crude/LGO CR exchanger-I, Crude/LGO CR
exchanger-II and Crude/LGO CR exchanger-III before being routed to Crude Column on tray # 27
under flow control
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HPCL

 HGO CR:
HGO CR is drawn from tray # 16 along with HGO draw to stripper and is pumped by HGO CR
Pump. The HGO CR stream exchanges heat with crude in crude preheat exchanger Crude/HGO CR
exchanger and then HGO CR is used as a hot medium in the Kero reboiler before being routed back to
the Crude Column on tray # 18 under flow control.

M. Product Rundown section:

 Swing Naphtha Product Circuit:
The bottom product of Swing naphtha Stripper is pumped by Swing naphtha Product pump to
Stabilizer feed I Swing Naphtha Product Exchanger followed by Swing Naphtha Product Air cooler.
Swing Naphtha is routed to NHT unit at 87 Degree C and provision is also made to route Swing
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
naphtha to DHDS/DHT Unit at 87°C from downstream of Air Coolers. Swing Naphtha Product Trim
Cooler is also provided in the rundown line to route the Cold Swing Naphtha at 40°C to Offsite
storage / export Naphtha / Slip stream for Demulsifier dilution.
Provision for manually bypassing the cascade control and run individual flow control loop (FT/FIC)
on Swing Naphtha rundown lines is considered in case any of the FT/FIC malfunction.

 Kero Product Circuit:

Kero product from Kero Stripper bottom is pumped by Kero Product pump. Kero product is first used
as hot medium in Swing Naphtha stripper reboiler followed by Crude preheat exchangers and
Desalter water/Kero Exchanger. The Kero product is further cooled in Kero Air Cooler followed by a
series of exchanger Air Coolers and Exchangers before routing it to respective destinations. Piping
provisions are made for routing the Kero product hot to the DHDS/ DHT from upstream of the air
cooler. Various destinations of Kero product are:
- Feed to Existing Merox (cold rundown operations)
- Storage (cold rundown operation)
- Hot feed to Existing DHT unit/DHDS unit (hot rundown operation)
- RUF
Kero product is routed as hot feed to Existing DHT under flow control. Provision is kept to route
Kero product to Existing Merox unit at 40 °C under flow control. Provision is also kept

to route Kero product to storage at 40 °C. Depending on the demand of Kero Product in DHTunit and
Merox unit, the balance product is routed to storage.
Provision for manually bypassing the cascade control and run individual flow control loop (FT/FIC)
on Kero Product rundown lines is considered in case any of the FT/FIC malfunction.

 LGO Product Circuit:

LGO Product from LGO Stripper is pumped by LGO Product Pump. Heat of LGO product is used in
Stabilizer reboiler and preheating crude in Exchangers. The LGO product is further cooled in
LGO Air Cooler followed by LGO trim cooler to the desired rundown temperature of 40°C before
routing it under flow control to storage. Piping provisions are made to route LGO product to various
destinations. Various destinations of LGO product are:
- To storage via the sour diesel rundown header (cold rundown operation)
- Hot LGO feed to DHT / DHDS (hot rundown operation)
Normally LGO product is routed as hot feed to DHDS/DHT unit under flow control. The excess
LGO is cooled and routed to storage. The LGO pdt is routed to Hot LGO coalescer before routing to
hot feed. Provision for manually bypassing the cascade control and run individual flow control loop
(FT/FIC) on LGO product rundown lines is considered in case anyof the FT/FIC malfunction.

 HGO Product Circuit:

HGO Product from HGO Stripper is pumped by HGO Product Pump. Heat of HGO product is used in
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
preheat exchanger. The HGO product is further cooled in HGO product Air Cooler followed by HGO
product trim cooler to the desired rundown temperature of 40 °C before routing it under flow control
to storage. Piping provision are made to route HGO product to various destinations. Various
destinations of HGO product are:
- HGO to storage via the sour diesel rundown header (cold rundown operation)
- Hot feed to DHT / DHDS (hot rundown operation)
Normally Hot HGO product is routed to DHT Unit under flow control. Facility to route to storage
after cooling on flow control is also provided. The HGO product is routed to Hot HGO coalescer
before routing to hot feed. Provision is also kept to route HGO towards Seal flushing drum.
Provision for manually bypassing the cascade control and run individual flow control loop (FT/FIC)
on HGO product rundown lines is considered in case any of the FT/FIC malfunction.

 RCO Product Circuit:

Normally, Reduced Crude Oil (Crude Column residue, RCO) from Crude Column is pumped byRCO
pumps to Vacuum Heater. However, during start up and for short time when Vacuum
unit is not operating, provision to route RCO through Vacuum residue circuit has beenprovided.
Provision is available for routing RCO towards LVGO and HVGO circuit during start up.

7.2 NAPHTHA STABILIZER

Unstabilized naphtha consisting of fuel gas, LPG and Naphtha components is pumped under level-
cascaded flow control by Stabilizer Feed Pumps to Naphtha Stabilizer after preheating in the
Stabilizer Feed/Bottom Exchanger and Stabilizer Feed I Swing Naphtha Product Exchanger.
Stabilizer column has 48 trays with feed normally entering the 25th tray. Stabilizer Reboiler isheated
by LGO Product. Stabilizer Tray # 3 temperature is controlled by controlling the LGO Product flow
in the Stabilizer Reboiler, with opposite acting control valves.
The overhead products are condensed in the Stabilizer Overhead Condenser before routing to
Stabilizer Reflux Drum. Any water present in the overheads is separated in Stabilizer Reflux Drum
and sent to Sour Water Stripper Unit through a common sour water line under level control of Boot.
The LPG from Stabilizer Reflux Drum is pumped under level-cascaded flow by LPG product pump
to LPG Treater Unit. Stabilizer reflux is pumped by Stabilizer Reflux Pumps.
The desired composition of stabilised naphtha & LPG can be obtained either by controlling the
reboiling rate or by controlling the condensing rate. Reboiling rate is controlled by tray # 3
temperature regulating the hot medium (LGO Product). Condensing rate is controlled by Tray # 46
temperature cascaded with reflux flow. Only one of the temperature controllers shall be employed at
a time.
Stabilizer column pressure is controlled through hot vapour bypass control scheme wherein part of
overhead vapour bypasses the overhead condenser and provides enough vapour to Stabilizer Reflux
Drum to maintain control. In case of any accumulation of non-condensable, excess pressure is
relieved to fuel gas header via control valve which is routed to DHT FGATU.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
During normal operation, there will not be any release to fuel gas header and 100% vapours will
condense down, however, in case of any upsets, the same shall be taken care by the overhead vapour
line control valve.
Stabilised Naphtha product from Stabilizer Column bottom is pumped by Stabilised Naphthaproduct
pumps and cooled in feed/bottom exchanger before being routed to Naphtha Hydrotreater unit as hot
feed. Stabilised Naphtha is further cooled in the exchanger to 40°C before routing to offsite storage /
Export Naphtha storage tank / Slip stream for Filming Amine in Filming amine Drum for dilution as
per requirement.
During start-up, Naphtha Stabilizer is bypassed and unstabilized naphtha is routed to slop header.
To avoid build-up of corrosive salts in the naphtha stabilizer, filming amine and neutralizing amine
dosing provision is available at the column top and column reflux (only filming amine).

During start-up, Naphtha Stabilizer is bypassed and unstabilized naphtha is routed to slop header.
To avoid build-up of corrosive salts in the naphtha stabilizer, filming amine and neutralizing amine
dosing provision is available at the column top and column reflux (only filming amine).

7.3 VACUUM DISTILLATION UNIT

A. Vacuum Heater:
Hot RCO from Crude column bottom is pumped by RCO pumps to vacuum heater where RCO is
heated and partially vaporised. RCO enters the Vacuum heater at temperature of 367.1°C (for case 1)
& 373.2°C (for case 2).
Vacuum Heater is an eight-pass twin cell cabin type heater. Total RCO flow is equally distributed
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
among eight passes by flow controllers located on each pass. The amount of RCOthat flows through
the coils is regulated by means of the Pass Total Flow Controller and the furnace Pass Balancing
Control adjusts the flow rate to each pass, to equalize the outlet temperature. Individual pass flow
controllers are reset by the total flow controller cascaded with Crude column Level controller.
Vacuum Heater is designed with combination firing burners i.e. for full firing of Fuel Oil or Fuel Gas
or both. The Fuel Gas or Fuel Oil supply to the Heater is controlled by the Vacuum Heater outlet
manifold temperature. The atomizing steam is supplied under differential pressure control with
respect to fuel oil pressure.
MP steam (coil steam) is injected in the coils at appropriate locations to start vaporisation bylowering
the partial pressure of hydrocarbons. Coil steam also helps in maintaining requisitevelocities in
heater passes and to prevent coking owing to high coil outlet temperatures. Thetarget coil outlet
temperature of Vacuum Heater for Basra + Doba and Arab Heavy + Dar blend Crude is 425°C.
Each coil outlet of Vacuum Heater joins the transfer line and the combined product is routed to the
Flash Zone of Vacuum Column.

B. Vacuum Distillation Column:

Heated & partially vaporised RCO from Vacuum Heater enters the Vacuum Column at the Flash
zone above tray # 6. An open-ended tangential entry device with large empty space

above flash zone ensures optimal vapour liquid separation. The Vacuum Column Flash zone pressure
is maintained at 39 mmHga and temperature of about 410°C.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

C. Stripping section:
Stripping section is provided with six valve type trays. The heavy hydrocarbons are stripped on valve
trays by means of superheated LP stripping steam. During start-up, LP steam from LP steam header
shall be used and during normal operation or after vacuum heater stabilization, superheated LP steam
from vacuum heater shall be used. Subsequently the residue is quenched to a temperature of 350°C
by the vacuum residue Quench to prevent after cracking in the bottom compartment of the column.
Quench at 250°C is recycled back to the column bottom under flow control cascaded with column
bottom stream temperaturecontroller to maintain the required temperature.
The vaporised portion entering the flash zone of the column along with the stripped light ends from
the bottoms, rise up the column and is fractionated into 4 side stream products in 5 packed sections.
Demister pads are provided at the top of the column to minimize carryover of hydrocarbons to the
ejector section.
The various side streams from Vacuum Column are Vacuum Diesel (VD), LVGO, HVGO and Slop
Distillate. Vacuum Residue (VR) + Quench is drawn from the bottom of the column. Vacuum
Column
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HPCL
Overhead Circuit:
Overhead vapours from Vacuum column goes to the vacuum system to maintain a pressure of about
28 mmHga at the Vacuum Column top. The vacuum system is designed with a two- stage ejector and
Liquid ring vacuum pump package. The two stage steam jet ejectors operating during normal
operation are 1st Stage Ejectors and 2nd Stage Ejectors. The vacuum system also includes ejector 1st
stage Inter condenser, Ejector 2nd stage after condenser & LRVP package. MP steam is used as
motive steam to the Ejectors. To avoid build-up of corrosive salts in the Vacuum column, filming
amine and neutralizing amine dosing provision is available at column top. There are two number of
neutralizing amine dosing points at the vacuum column overhead line. One is- used for dosing
neutralizing amine during normal operation and the other is normally blinded, which shall be used
only during shutdown for decontamination of overhead line by using KMnO4 dosing.
Vacuum Column overhead vapours are drawn by 1st stage ejectors. The hydrocarbon and water
vapours from first stage ejectors are partially condensed in the Ejector first stage Inter condenser and
the liquid from Inter condenser flows to the Hot well. The vapours from Inter-condenser are fed to
the 2nd stage Ejector. The HC + Water vapours from 2nd stage ejector are condensed in the ejector
2nd stage After condenser the HC + Water vapour fromafter condenser is sent to LRVP package and
the liquid is sent to Hot well. A spillback line to the 1st stage ejector inlet from the 1st stage outlet is
provided to maintain the Column top pressure. Vent gases from Hot well are sent to the Hot well
Catch Pot from where vent gas issent for Amine Treatment before being routed to the Crude Heaters
burners. Flame arrestorsare provided on the line to the burners to prevent flame flash back.
Sour water from Hot well is pumped by hot well sour water pumps. Sour water ex-Hot well flows
under interphase level-cascaded flow control for further treatment in sour water stripper unit.
Slop oil from Hot well is pumped by Hot well Slop Oil Pumps under level-cascaded flow control
through a Coalescer to LGO product rundown line as a hot feed to existing DHT
/DHDS unit or Sour diesel storage. Alternatively, this stream can be routed to light slop header.

D. Vacuum Diesel Section:

 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

Vacuum Diesel from Bed # 1 collector tray is drawn and pumped by Vacuum Diesel Product +CR +
IR Pump and is divided into 2 streams, namely, Vacuum Diesel IR, Vacuum Diesel CR + Product.
Vacuum Diesel IR is returned under flow control to the Vacuum Column above Bed # 2 through
gravity distributor. The product + CR stream is routed through Vacuum diesel Product + CR Air
cooler. Cold Vacuum Diesel Product rundown and part CR stream is further cooled in the Vacuum
Diesel Product Trim Cooler to a temperature of 40°C before the product is routed to Sour diesel
storage. Vacuum diesel product hot rundown line is available through Air Coolers to DHDS / DHT
unit.
The temperature control of CR stream at 50 °C is achieved by Temperature control split range control
valves, one on Vacuum Diesel CR line at the outlet of Exchangers and the otheron Vacuum Diesel
CR line bypassing.
The temperature-controlled Vacuum Diesel CR stream is routed back to Vacuum column above bed
#1 under flow control cascaded with Column top temperature control.
The vacuum diesel bed (# 1) is also a heat transfer section where the heat transfer duty is provided by
Vacuum Diesel CR.

E. Light LVGO:
Light LVGO from Bed #2 collector tray is pumped by Light LVGO pump under tray level control
and is merged with LVGO CR before entering the top of bed #3. This combined stream passes
through LVGO CR filters before entering vacuum column, to remove any foreign particles.

F. Light Vacuum Gas Oil Section (LVGO):

LVGO from Bed #3 collector tray is pumped by LVGO Product +CR+IR Pump and is divided into 3
streams, namely, LVGO IR, LVGO CR and LVGO product.
LVGO IR is returned under flow control to the Vacuum Column above Bed # 4 through spray nozzle
distributor.
LVGO CR is cooled in Crude/LVGO CR Exchangers I and II before returning to the Vacuum
Column along with Gas Oil IR (called as Light LVGO IR) above Bed # 3 through spray nozzle
distributor. This stream is returned to the column under flow control.
LVGO bed (#3) is a heat transfer section where the heat transfer duty is provided by LVGO CR. The
LVGO CR flow is set to provide the heat transfer duty for getting the required flow of LVGO IR and
LVGO product from the Bed # 3 collector tray.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

LVGO product, after exchanging heat with Crude in Crude/LVGO Product Exchangers is combined
with hot HVGO product and the combined VGO is routed as Hot VGO to FCHCU unit.
In case of cold rundown operation, LVGO is cooled in Tempered water coolers then combined with
cooled HVGO and routed to storage under flow control. The LVGO rundown temperature is
controlled at 80 °C by a temperature controller which manipulates opposite acting control valves on
tempered water side.

G. Heavy Vacuum Gas Oil section (HVGO):

HVGO from Bed # 4 Collector tray is pumped by HVGO Product pumps and HVGO CR + IR
Pumps. HVGO CR+ IR streams are split into two streams namely HVGO CR & HVGO IR.
HVGO IR is returned under flow control to the Vacuum Column above Bed # 5 through a spray
nozzle distributor. This stream provides the necessary wash liquid to the wash section to provide
adequate vapour wash so that the desired VGO quality w.r.t Asphaltenes and metals is achieved.
HVGO CR exchanges heat with crude in Crude/HVGO CR exchangers and routed to Vacuum
column above Bed #4 along with LVGO IR through a spray nozzle distributor. HVGO CR stream is
returned to Vacuum column under flow control.
HVGO product after exchanging heat with Crude in Crude/HVGO Product Exchangers and
subsequently in MP steam generator, LP steam generator and Tempered water cooler is combined
with hot LVGO and the combined VGO is routed as Hot VGO to FCHCU unit. Provision to further
cool the HVGO product in tempered water cooler is provided before routing the Cold VGO (along
with LVGO) to storage.
The HVGO rundown temperature is controlled at 80 °C by a temperature controller which
manipulates opposite acting control valves on tempered water side.
Normally VGO product is routed as hot feed to FCHCU under flow control. The excess VGO is
routed to storage.
HVGO bed (#4) is primarily a heat transfer section where the heat transfer duty is provided by
HVGO CR. The HVGO CR flow is set to provide the heat transfer duty for getting the required flow
of HVGO IR and HVGO Product from the Bed # 4 collector tray.

H. Slop/ Wash section:

Slop from bed #5 collector tray flows by gravity to the Slop Drum. Slop from this drum is pumped by
Slop Distillate Pump and is divided into 3 streams. One stream is returned under flow control to
Vacuum Column as Over flash while the second stream as Slop Product is
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

mixed with Vacuum Residue stream after Vacuum Residue stream exchanges heat with Crude in
preheat train exchangers and third stream as recycle to vacuum heater inlet.
Over flash is the reflux on to the tray above the flash zone to knockout the entrained crude oil and
wash it down into the bottom of the column. The Over flash removes heavier components in the
vapor flowing upward from the flash zone by condensation and by coalescing entrained liquid
droplets. This lowers the heavy vacuum gasoil (HVGO) end point by removing heavier components
that belong in the vacuum residue. This also serves to reduce other contaminants such as organic
metals, carbon, and asphaltenes. Over flash flowis controlled through, and required quantity is 74915
kg/hr (for case 2) & 77422 kg/hr (for case 2).
Combined stream of Vacuum Residue + Slop after exchanging heat in MP Steam generator and LP
Steam Generator and VR+Slop / BFW preheaters and TW coolers is sent as hot feed to RUF.
The slop bed #5 is immediately above Flash Zone and serves as a wash zone to prevent entrainment
of Vacuum Residue into HVGO. This bed consists of two portions - the bottom layer is grid packing
and the top layer is structured packing. Vapours rising from Flash Zone are condensed by HVGO IR
and collected as slop in bed # 5 collector tray. This liquid providesthe required washing in this
section. Also, fractionation between HVGO & Slop takes place inthis bed.
For proper operation of wash bed, sufficient wetting all over the wash bed is of utmost importance. If
the liquid load of the bed becomes too low, part of the packing will run dry resulting in hot spots and
local coke formation. Further, more entrainment will no longer be removed and the fractionation in
the bed will be adversely affected. Wash oil rate which determines the wetting rate on the top &
bottom of the wash bed is governed by HVGO product yield. HVGO yield can be lowered to increase
the wetting rate and improve the HVGO product quality.
The slop drum is provided with minimum hold up to take care of the surge required for the slop
distillate pump. It is advised to keep the level in the slop drum at minimum possible. This is required
to avoid excessive residence time of the slop drum liquid and the possibility of cracking/coking.

I. Vacuum Residue Section (VR):

Vacuum Residue + Quench from Vacuum Column bottom is pumped by VR + Quench Pump to
crude preheat train for heat recovery in Crude/ VR +Quench exchangers.
The VR + Quench stream is then split into three streams
1. VR Quench is returned to the Vacuum Column under flow control cascaded with
Vacuum Column bottom temperature
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

2. VR Product stream to BBU

3. The third stream viz. VR Product exchanges heat with Crude in Crude/VR
Product exchangers.
Part of the VR Product is routed through VR/LP Steam Generator-II and then to VR + Slop/TW
Cooler-II before being routed to Bitumen Tanks.
The rest of the VR Product is combined with Slop and, after exchanging heat in MP Steam generator,
LP Steam Generator (501-E-135A/B), VR + Slop/BFW preheaters and VR+Slop Tempered Water
Cooler is sent as hot feed to RUF at 170°C.
Provision is also kept to route VR+ Slop directly to Offsite storage by further cooling in Tempered
Water Cooler. The temperature of VR run down line to storage is controlled at 160
°C by a temperature controller (which manipulates opposite acting control valves on tempered water
side.
For MP steam drum out of service during IBR inspection exchanger will remain out of service.
VR+slop rundown to RUF for both cases of operation will utilise cold rundown exchangers to meet
hot rundown temperature and no cold rundown of VR+slop to storage tanks will be possible in this
scenario.
During IBR inspection, exchangers will remain out of service along with LP steam drum. VR+slop
hot rundown to RUF for both cases of operation will utilize additional exchanger of single shell along
with cold rundown exchanger to meet hot rundown temperature to RUF. No cold rundown of
VR+slop to storage tanks will be possible in this scenario.

J. Hot well Slop Oil:

Slop oil from Hot well is pumped by Hot well Slop Oil Pumps under level control through a
Coalescer and routed to DHDT/DHDS unit header. The Hot well slop Coalescer is provided to
separate any carryover of sour water along with Hot well Slop Oil. Sour water from Coalesceris
routed to Sour Water rundown line. Provision to route Hot well slop oil to slop header as well to Sour
Diesel storage header is also provided.

7.4 TEMPERED WATER SYSTEM

Cooling of high pour point products like Vacuum Residue and VGO is done by tempered water to
prevent exchanger congealing and to reduce exchanger maintenance. A recirculating tempered water
circuit is provided in the unit for this purpose. Tempered water at 60°C is pumped from Tempered
Water Drum by Tempered Water Pumps to LVGO Product/TW Cooler, HVGO Product/TW Cooler-
I, HVGO Product/TW Cooler-II, VR+Slop / TW Water Coolers I and II. The heated tempered water
at 80°C is then returned to Tempered Water Drum after cooling to 60°C in Tempered Water Air
Cooler. Temperature at the
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

downstream of Air cooler is maintained at 60°C by a temperature controller which manipulates the
fan pitch to control the temperature (50% of fan are variable pitch type). Intermittent make up of
Boiler feed water (DM water is not to be used) compensates for theevaporation and other losses from
the system. Pressure of the Tempered Water Drum is controlled by Nitrogen blanketing.

7.5 STEAM GENERATION SECTION

When VR + Slop products, HVGO product are required to be routed as cold feed to storage, excess
heat available in the streams will be removed in a set of MP & LP steam generators, BFW preheater
and tempered water coolers.
Horizontal thermosyphon exchangers connected to MP Steam drum constitute the MP steam
generation section.
The LP Steam Generation section comprises the following:
1. Horizontal thermosyphon exchangers connected to LP Steam Drum
2. Horizontal thermosyphon exchangers connected to LP Steam Drum II
Steam Drums are operated at higher pressure than the maximum header pressure of MP& LP steam.
MP and LP steam drums pressure is controlled by a pressure control valve located on the steam outlet
line of each drum. The MP and LP Steam generated in the steam drums are at saturated conditions at
the respective pressure of the two drums and attain some superheat before it joins the steam header
because of reduction in pressure by the pressurecontrol valve.
Make-up BFW is preheated by VR+Slop runs downstream in VR+Slop/BFW preheaters I and
II. Make up preheated BFW from is fed to MP Steam Drum while BFW from is fed to the LP Steam
Drum. Make up BFW to is direct. The make-up BFW to each Steam Drum is controlledby the steam
flow from that Drum cascaded with the level of the respective steam drum.
Provision for bypassing steam drums has also been made in this unit for IBR inspection. In case of
MP steam out of service during IBR inspection, exchanger’s will be isolated and VR + slop will be
routed through the bypass of these exchangers. No cold rundown of VR+slop to storage tanks will be
possible in this scenario. When LP Steam Drum is out of service for IBR inspection, exchangers will
remain out of service. In this case additional exchanger of single shell in series will be required in
addition to tempered water cooler for to meet hot rundown case of operation for VR+Slop. No cold
rundown of VR+ slop to storage tanks is possible in this scenario.
When LP Steam Drum is out of service for IBR inspection, exchanger will remain out of service.
Exchanger will need to be taken in line to cool and route VR Product to Bitumen Tanks (if the need
for this routing arises).
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

For both the modes of operation, it will be possible to route HVGO at hot rundown temperature
similar to design cases as well as cold rundown of HVGO, if required.
Blowdown from MP steam drum is flashed in a LP flash drum floating with LP steam header. The
flashed condensate from this LP Flash Drum and blowdown from LP Steam Drum is sent to Steam
Blowdown Drum after exchanging heat with BCW in Exchanger where it is quenched with service
water before draining it to IETP.

7.6 HOT WELL-OFF GAS SYSTEM

Hot well Off-gases from the Hot well catch pot of the Vacuum section of CDU/VDU is routed to the
Hot well Off-gas treatment section containing Amine Absorber column. Amine Absorber column is a
two packed bed column.
Lean amine from VRMP/DHT ARU is routed to the Amine Absorber column on flow control,
where it strips H2S in the Off-gases entering the column from the Hot well catch pot. H2S
concentration in Off-gas at Absorber inlet is 21.29 - 21.52 WT % which is reduced to 0.09 WT
% in Sweet Off-gas at Amine Absorber outlet. Most of the H2S absorption occurs in first bed (bottom
bed) of the amine column and remaining H2S is absorbed in the second bed (top bed) of the column.
H2S stripped Off-gases exit the column from top and is routed to CDU heaters through Off-Gas
Knock-out Drum as a fuel source. Any carry over or any condensed off gases in the Sweet Off-gas
from the Amine Absorber column are separated in Off-Gas Knock-out Drum before being routed to
Crude heaters. Rich amine exits the column from bottom and is routed back to VRMP/DHT ARU for
amine regeneration. In case amine is not available in Amine Absorber, Caustic scrubber provided will
strip off H2S from the Off-gases before being vented to atmosphere. Venting to atmosphere is done
only during start-up operation or any other upset scenario. The Amine Absorber column is also
provided with skimming facility to skim off any hydrocarbon accumulated on the surface of amine in
the column. As the lean amine in the column becomes richer in H2S it converts into rich amine which
is finally pumped out of the system by Rich Amine Pumps on level control to VRMP/DHT Amine
Regeneration Unit.
Temperature differential control is provided in between Lean amine and Hot well sour gas in order to prevent
any condensation of the sour off gas entering the Amine Absorber column.Typically, Lean amine temperature
should be minimum 5 degree above Hot well off gas temperature entering into the Amine absorber column.
During start- up, LP Steam is used forheating the lean amine in Lean Amine/Tempered Water Exchanger with
temperature control. During normal operation, Temperature control will provide the set point to Flow control
on tempered water line to control the lean amine temperature. Set point to located on tempered water return line
is adjusted based on set point of flow control to balance the flow rate in tempered water circuit. Selector switch
is provided to switch between start-up and normal operation mode.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
8. STRAIGHT RUN LPG TREATING SECTION

Introduction:

The LPG treating unit shall be designed to treat LPG stream.

Straight run(SR) / LPG from CDU/VDU, the treatment of raw
LPG stream will be done in two steps, mainly,
*Amine (MDEA) treatment of SR LPG from CDU/VDU to
remove H2S.
*Regenerative caustic treatment of amine treated SR-LPG from
CDU/VDU to remove mercaptans.
The unit is designed for turn down capacity of 30%.

The SR LPG treater is an integrated unit having no battery limit

segregation.
The unit has been divided into number of sub-sections as--
**LPG amine absorption section
**Caustic wash section
**Caustic Regeneration Section
**Caustic Storage and disposal
** Fresh solvent section.

LPG Amine absorption section :

Sour LPG from CDU-IV, FCHCU and/or CDU-II/CDU-III is routed to

LPG amine
Absorber column along with part of lean amine (40% MDEA
sol.)for bulk
removal of H2S. Lean amine from VRMP/DHT-SRU is pumped
using Lean
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HPCL
Amine boostee pumps to LPG amine absorber column. Lean
amine stream is
Split into 2 streams. About 20% of lean amine is mixed with sour LPG
in mixer
and remaining is sent to top of amine absorber column. LPG rises from
column
bottom to top through amine, which forms the dispersed phase and is
routed to
Amine settler drum. Rich amine from bottom is transferred to amine
sump. Any
carryover of amine from column top settles down in amine settler
and amine-treated
LPG is routed to caustic wash section for removal of mercaptans.

Caustic wash section:

Amine treated LPG enters the caustic pre-wash column in bottom bed,
having
structured packings. Before entering pre-wash column, LPG
passes through LPG amine
Settler filters to arrest carryover of foreign materials back to column.
Bottom bed of pre-wash column is intially filled with 12% caustic.
This section
functions in semi-continuos mode. In this arrangement LPG
stream passes continuously
through a pool of caustic solution. Once the caustic concentration
reaches 2% i. e,
spent caustic it is transferred from column bottom to degassing vessel.
LPG from this section goes to top bed of pre-wash column which
operates in
continuos mode.) LPG contacts counter-currently with caustic coming
from seperators,
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HPCL
through filters to arrest carryover of foreign materials back to column.
Rich caustic from top bed of pre-wash column is sent to Caustic
Regenerator system
through caustic heater.From top of this column LPG goes throughLPG
filters to
remove solids larger than 100microns.Then LPG enters the caustic wash
column
where it again contacts with rengenerated caustic solution. The treated
LPG passes
through a coalescer pad located in caustic seperator and then it is
cooled in LPG cooler
Using cooling water upto 40°C.The treated LPG is filtered in filter
to arrest caustic
carry over and LPG product is finally sent to storage outside battery limit.

Caustic Regeneration Section:

Rich caustic from top bed of Pre-wash column is sent to Caustic

Regenerator
Column through caustic heater where it is heated to 52°C and fed to
Regeneration column. In regeneration column, rich caustic solution is
contacted with dry air, which is dispersed through a distributor located
at bottom of column. Dry compressed air from Air compressor supplies
oxidation air. The caustic and air flows counter-currently, sodium
sulphide
is converted to sodium thio-sulphate and sodium hydroxide, sodium
mercaptides
are converted to Disulphide oil in presence of water and catalyst,
which is in liquid form
is added to the system through catalyst addition vessel .A slip stream
of the circulated
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HPCL
solvent entering DSO extraction column can be fed to the Regenerator.
This solvent acts
as a demulsifier in the Regeneration column.
Mixture of dry air , aqueous solution of caustic and
Naphtha through
Perforated plate and then to chimney tray and caustic solution
overflows.In this process ,
Vapour disengages liquid at top of Regenerator column and off gases
to off gas knock
Out drum. Off is diluted with fuel gas and diverted to crude heater.The
caustic solution
From chimney tray is fed to the top of DSO column,where it contacts
with the steream of
Fresh solvent( naphtha). From solvent surge drum, fresh solvent is
introduced into DSO extraction
Column through filter.In this process, the Naphtha mixes with caustic
and enters DSO extraction
Column. A stream of solvent and DSO is discharged to B/L through
solvent sand filter vessel.
A stream of regenerated caustic is pumped through filter to
caustic wash column.
A purge caustic stream is taken out from the bottom of solvent wash
separator and sent
to spent caustic degassing vessel, this purge would be needed to
maintain NaOH concen
tration and sodium thiosulphate level in the regenerated caustic. To compensate
for lost of
caustic, a fresh caustic of 18% concentration is added to circulated regenerated
caustic
stream into caustic wash column. Caustic make up is required for loss of
catalyst through
purge stream. Purge caustic from solvent wash separator and spent
caustic from prewash
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HPCL
column is sent to spent caustic degassing vessel, where off gases from
caustic while be
vented to flare. Caustic from degassing vessel is pumped to ETP
intermittently.

Caustic storage and disposal :-

Fresh 18% caustic from B/L is fed into 18% caustic tank. A small
amount of 18% caustic
Is required for continuous make up in caustic wash section and rest of
18% caustic is required
For preparing 12% caustic solution by addition of DM water.
12% caustic solution is directly
Prepared in 12% caustic tank by mixing of 18% caustic and DM water
using jet educator.
12% caustic is used for unit start up and also for intermediate
batch requirement of Prewash
Column.
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HPCL
9. MAJOR EQUIPMENT IN CDU

9.1 DESALTER
Crude oil desalter is a device used in petroleum refineries to remove in organic salts, water and
sediment from the incoming petroleum crude oil feed stock before it is refined. This article
focuses on the use of electrostatic desalters to produce a dehydrated, desalted crude oil with
allow sediment content. Almost al refineries now use electro static desalters. However, there
may stil be a few refineries employing the older, less efficient method that utilizes chemicals
and settling tanks.

Removal of the salts, water and sediment is necessary to avoid excessive fouling of equipment
as wel as corrosion from the generation of hydrochloric acid (HCl) by the hydrolysis of the
chloride salts present in the incoming crude oil, in particular magnesium chloride (MgCl2) and
calcium chloride (CaCl2). Any salts that are not removed represent a source of metals that can
"poison expensive catalysts used in various petroleum refinery processes.

Contaminants in crude oil as received by refineries

The amount of water, salts and sediment in the crude oil as received at petroleum refineries
Varies widely with the source of the crude oil, the prior processing of the crude oil at the
source sites and with the mode of transporting the crude oil from its source to the refineries.
The salts present in petroleum crude oils are mainly chloride with following approximate
breakdown:

75 weight percent Sodium chloride (NaCl)

15 weight percent Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) 10 weight percent Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
These diment present in petroleum crude oils include clay, rust, iron sulfide (FeS), asphaltenes
and various other water-insoluble particles.

Such oil field processing typically involves washing the oil with water to remove salts, some
heating, use of demulsifying chemicals and simple settling vessels and tanks. In some cases,
the oil field processing includes electro static desalting as well. In general, the oil field
processing
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
facilities strive to remove enough water, sediment and salts so that the transported crude oil
contains less that 1 to 2% by volume of sediment and water (BS&W) and less than 10to20
pounds of salts per 1000 barrels (PTB) of clean, water- free crude oil (which is equivalent to a
salt content of 34 to 68 ppm by weight).
Never the less, the crude oils as received at petroleum refineries have a salt content that
ranges from a PTB of 10 to 300 (34to1,020 ppm by weight), based on spot samples of many
different crude oils as delivered to refineries.

9.1.1 CRUDE ELECTROSTATIC DESALTING

Crude oil also contains trace elements such as vanadium (V), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), cadmium
(Cd), lead(Pb) and arsenic(As), al of which can cause problems in some of the various
processing units in the petroleum refineries. They may be present in the form of oil –soluble
organo- metalic compounds or as water- soluble salts.
The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit in virtually al petroleum
refineries. The CDU distils the incoming crude oil into various fractions of different boiling
ranges, each of which are then processed further in the other refinery processing units. Figure 1
below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical CDU and, as can be seen, the desalter (colored
red for clarity) is typically installed in the heat exchange train that heats the incoming crude oil
before it flows through a fired heater and into the distillation tower. The desalter is usually
located at the point where the incoming crude oil has been heated to about 100 to 150°C. The
optimum desalter temperature varies some what with the crude oil source.

At that point, wash water is injected and mixed in to the continuous flow of crude oil and there
resulting oil-water emulsion then continuously enters the electrostatic desalter. The rate of
wash water required is about 4 to10% by volume of the crude oil rate. The optimum wash
water rate varies with the API gravity of the crude oil and with the desalter temperature.
The oil water emulsion that enters from the bottom of the desalter through the feed line Is a
thorough mixture of two non-
Miscible liquids consisting of a continuous phase (the crude oil) and a dispersed phase (water
in the form of very small droplets with dimensions ranging from1to10 micrometres).
Asphaltenes and finely divided sediment solids are adsorbed on the oil- water interface and
stabilize the emulsion. Thus the degree of difficulty involved in coalescing the droplets into
large globules which can be settled and removed is related to the presence of asphaltenes,
sediments and other water- insoluble contaminants.

9.1.2 CRUDE DESALTING PROCESS

 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
An electrical system connected to the electrodes with in the desalter (seeFigure2) generates an
electrostatic field at potentials ranging from about 6,000 volts to about 20,000 volts that induce
dipole attractive forces between neighboring droplets of water.

In other words, the electrostatic field results in each droplet having a positive charge on one side
and a negative charge on the other which cause the droplets to coalesce because of the attractive
force generated by the opposite charges on neighboring droplets. The resulting larger water
droplets (globules), along with water- Insoluble solids, then settle to the bottom of the desalter.
The settled water is continuously with drawn from the desalter from a point some what above
the desalter bottom (see Figure2) and is referred to as a brine because it contains the inorganic
salts that originaly entered the desalter with the water in the crude oil. The settled sediment at
the bottom of desalter is with drawn as a sludge at intermitent intervals as needed to prevent
solids from entering the settled water withdrawal outlet. Cross-sectional end- view diagram of a
horizontal, cylindrical crude oil desalter.
The purpose of desalting is to remove these undesirable impurities, especially salts and water,
from the crude oil prior to distillation.

The most concerns of the impurities in crude oil:

The Inorganic salts can be decomposed in the crude oil pre-heat exchangers and heaters. As a
result, hydrogen chloride gas is formed which condenses to liquid hydrochloric acid at
overhead system of distillation column, that may causes serious corrosion of equipment.

PURPOSE OF CRUDE OIL DESALTING

To avoid corrosion due to salts in the crude oil, corrosion control can be used. But the byproduct
from the corrosion control of oil field equipment consists of particulate iron sulfide and oxide.
Precipitation of these materials can cause plugging of heat exchanger trains, tower trays, heater
tubes, etc. In addition, these materials can cause corrosion to any surface they are precipitated
on.
The sand or silt can cause significant damage due to abrasion or erosion to pumps,
pipelines, etc.

9.2 FURNACE
A furnace is an equipment to melt metals for casting or heat materials for change
of shape
(rolling, forging etc) or change of properties (heat treatment).
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9.2.1 Types and Classification of Different Furnaces
Based on the method of generating heat, furnaces are broadly classified into two types namely
combustion type (using fuels) and electric type. In case of combustion type furnace, depending
upon the kind of combustion, it can be broadly classified as oil fired, coal fired or gas fired.
• Based on the mode of charging of material furnaces can be classified as
(i) Intermittent or Batch type furnace or Periodical furnace and
(ii) Continuous furnace.
• Based on mode of waste heat recovery as recuperative and regenerative furnaces.

9.2.2 Characteristics of an Efficient Furnace

Furnace should be designed so that in a given time, as much of material as possible can be
heated to an uniform temperature as possible with the least possible fuel and labour
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
9.2.3 HEAT TRANFER AND FURNACE
Determination of the quantity of heat to be imparted to the material or charge.

• Liberation of sufficient heat within the furnace to heat the stock and overcome all
heat losses.

• Transfer of available part of that heat from the furnace gases to the surface of the
heating stock.
• Equalisation of the temperature within the stock.
• Reduction of heat losses from the furnace to the minimum possible extent.

9.2.4 Performance Evaluation of a Typical Furnace

Thermal efficiency of process heating equipment, such as furnaces, ovens, heaters, and kilns is
the ratio of heat delivered to a material and heat supplied to the heating equipment.
The purpose of a heating process is to introduce a certain amount of thermal energy into a
product, raising it to a certain temperature to prepare it for additional processing or change its
properties. To carry this out, the product is heated in a furnace. This results in energy losses in
different areas and forms as shown in sankey diagram figure 4.9. For most heating equipment,
a large amount of the heat supplied is wasted in the form of exhaust gases.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
9.3 Heat Exchangers Classifications
PROCESS DESIGN OF SHELL
AND TUBE EXCHANGER FOR
SINGLE PHASE
HEAT TRANSFER
Classification of heat exchangers
Transfer of heat from one fluid to another is an important operation for most of the chemical industries.
The most common application of heat transfer is in designing of heat transfer equipment for exchanging
heat from one fluid to another fluid. Such devices for efficient transfer of heat are generally called Heat
Exchanger. Heat exchangers are normally classified depending on the transfer process occurring in them.
General classification of heat exchangers

Amongst of all type of exchangers, shell and tube exchangers are most commonly used heat exchange
equipment. The common types of shell and tube exchangers are:

Fixed tube-sheet exchanger (non-removable tube bundle): The simplest and cheapest type of shell
and tube exchanger is with fixed tube sheet design. In this type of exchangers the tube sheet is welded to
the shell and no relative movement between the shell and tube bundle is possible

Removable tube bundle: Tube bundle may be removed for ease of cleaning and replacement.
Removable tube bundle exchangers further can be categorized in floating head and U-tube exchanger.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
Shell Typical Advantages
HPCL Limitations
and TEMA
Tube code
Exchangers
Fixed tube BEM, Provides maximum Shell side / out side of the tubes are
sheet AEM, heat transfer area for a inaccessible for mechanical
NEN given shell and tube cleaning.
diameter.
No provision to allow for differential thermal
Provides for single and expansion developed between the tube and
multiple tube passes to the shell side. This can be taken care by
assure proper velocity. providing expansion joint on the shell side.

Less costly than

removable bundle designs.

Floatinghead AEW, Floating tube sheet To provide the floating-head cover it is

BEW, allows for differential necessary to bolt it to the tube sheet. The bolt
BEP, thermal expansion circle requires the use of space where it
AEP, between the shell and the would be possible to place a large number of
AES, BES tube bundle. tubes.

Both the tube bundle Tubes cannot expand independently so

and the shell side can be that huge thermal shock applications
inspected and cleaned should be avoided.
mechanically.
Packing materials produce limits on
design pressure and temperature.

U-tube BEU, AEU U-tube design allows for Because of U-bend some tubes are omitted
differential thermal at the centre of the tube bundle.
expansion between the
shell and the tube bundle Because of U-bend, tubes can be cleaned
as well as for individual only by chemical methods.
tubes.
Due to U-tube nesting, individual tube
Both the tube bundle and is difficult to replace.
the shell side can be
inspected and cleaned No single tube pass or true
mechanically. countercurrent flow is possible.

Less costly than Tube wall thickness at the U-bend is

floating head or thinner than at straight portion of the
packed floating head tubes.
designs.
Draining of tube circuit is difficult when
positioned with the vertical position with the
head side upward.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

1. Shell 16. Tubes (U-type)

2. Shell cover 17. Tie rods and spacers
3. Shell flange (channel end) 18. Transverse (or cross) baffles or support plates

4. Shell flange (cover end) 19. Longitudinal baffles

5. Shell nozzle or branch 20. Impingement baffles

6. Floating tube sheet 21. Floating head support

7. Floating head cover 22. Pass partition
8. Floating head flange 23. Vent connection

9. Floating head gland 24. Drain connection

10. Floating head backing ring 25. Instrument connection

11. Stationary tube sheet 26. Expansion bellows

12. Channel or stationary head 27. Support saddles

13. Channel cover 28. Lifting lugs

14. Channel nozzle or branch 29. Weir

15. Tube (straight) 30. Liquid level connection

9.3.1 Selection of fluids for tube and the shell side

The routing of the shell side and tube side fluids has considerable effects on the heat exchanger
design. Some general guidelines for positioning the fluids are given in Table 1.4. It should be
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
understood that these guidelines are not ironclad rules and the optimal fluid placement depends
on many factors that are service specific.

Table 1.4. Guidelines for placing the fluid in order of priority

Tube-side fluid Shell-side fluid
Corrosive fluid Condensing vapor (unless corrosive)
Cooling water Fluid with large temperature difference (>40°C)
Fouling fluid
Less viscous
fluid
High-pressure steam Hotter fluid

9.4 Condenser
The change from liquid phase to vapor phase is called vaporization and the reverse phase
transfer is condensation. The change from liquid to vapor or vapor to liquid occurs at one
temperature (called saturation or equilibrium temperature) for a pure fluid compound at a given
pressure. The industrial practice of vaporization and condensation occurs at almost constant
pressure; therefore the phase change occurs isothermally.

Condensation occurs by two different physical mechanisms i.e. drop-wise condensation and
film condensation.

The nature of the condensation depends upon whether the condensate (liquid formed from
vapor) wets or does not wet the solid surface. If the condensate wets the surface and flows on
the surface in the form of a film, it is called film condensation. When the condensate does not
wet the solid surface and the condensate is accumulated in the form of droplets, is drop-wise
condensation. Heat transfer coefficient is about 4 to 8 times higher for drop wise
condensation. The condensate forms a liquid film on the baresurface in case of film
condensation. The heat transfer coefficient is lower for film condensation due to the resistance
of this liquid film.

Dropwise condensation occurs usually on new, clean and polished surfaces. The heat exchanger
used for condensation is called condenser. In industrial condensers, film condensation normally
occurs.

9.4.1 Types of condensers

There two general types of condensers: i.
Vertical condenser
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
Downflow vertical condenser: The vapor enters at the top of condenser and flows
down inside tubes. The condensate drains from the tubes by gravity and vapor
induced shear (Figure 1.7).

Upflow vertical condenser: In case of upflow condenser, the vapor enters at the bottom
and flows upwards inside the tubes. The condensate drains down the tubes by gravity
only.

ii. Horizontal condenser: The condensation may occur inside or outside the horizontal tubes
(Figure 1.8). Condensation in the tube-side is common in aircooled condensers.
The main disadvantage of this type of condenser is that the liquid tends to build up
in the tubes. Therefore the effective heat transfer coefficient is reduced
significantly.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
Figure 1.7. Downflow vertical condenser with condensation inside tube [5].

Figure 1.8. Horizontal condenser with condensation outside horizontal tubes [5].

9.4.2 Condenser design

The design of condenser is similar to a typical shell and tube exchangers. A condenser must
have a vent for removal of non-condensable gas. The non-condensable gas decreases the
heat transfer rate. Condenser usually use a wider baffle spacing of B D s (ID of
shell) as the allowable pressure drop in shell side vapor is usually less.

Vertical cut-segmental baffles are generally used in condensers for side-to-side vapor flow and
not for top to bottom. An opening at the bottom of the baffles is provided to allow draining of
condensate.
Reboilers

9.4.3 Classification of reboilers

There are three major types of reboilers:
i. Thermosyphon natural circulation reboiler: The boiling occurs inside the tubes in
vertical thermosyphon reboiler and inside shell in horizontal thermosyphon reboiler
(Figure 1.10). In vertical thermosyphon reboiler, the liquid circulation occurs due to
density difference between vapor-liquid mixture (two phase) in the exchanger from the
reboiler and the liquid through the downcomer to the reboiler. Advantages: most
economical because no pump is required.
Limitations: not suitable for heavily viscous fluid; high construction cost for the
installation of the column base at suitable elevation to get thermosyphon effect; not
suitable for low temperature difference processes due to boiling point elevation imposed
by static head.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

Figure 1.10. Thermosyphon reboiler [5]. (a) Horizontal thermosyphon reboiler. (b) Vertical thermosyphon
reboiler

ii. Forced circulation reboiler: The liquid is fed by means of a pump. Forced
circulation reboilers with vertical or horizontal tubes boiling may be designed. Forced
circulation reboilers are similar to vertical thermosiphon reboilers, except the pump is
used for the circulation of the liquid and the hot liquid flows inside column. To
calculate the heat transfer coefficient it is generally assumed that, heat is transferred
only by forced convection. The usual method of shell and tube exchanger design can
be used. Advantage: suitable for viscous and highly fouling fluids.
Disadvantage: high pumping and maintenance cost; pump is required to circulate the
boiling liquid through the tubes and back into the column.

iii. Kettle reboiler: The tube bundle is immerged in a pool of liquid at the base of the
column in an oversize shell (Figure 1.11). Kettle reboiler is also called a
“submerged bundle reboiler”. The height of the tube bundle is usually 40-60% of
the shell ID. The submergence of the tube bundle is assured by an overflow weir at
height of typically 5-15 cm from the upper surface of topmost tubes.

Advantage: suitable for vacuum operation and high vaporization rate up to about 80%
of the feed.

Limitations: low heat transfer rate than other types as there is no liquid circulation (low
velocity); not appropriate for fouling fluids; kettle reboiler is not suitable for heat
sensitive materials as it has higher residence time.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL

9.5 VALVES
A valve is a mechanical device that controls the flow of fluid and pressure within a system or
process. A valve controls system or process fluid flow and pressure by performing any of the
following functions:

Stopping and starting fluid flow

Varying (throttling) the amount of fluid flow

Controlling the direction of fluid flow

Regulating downstream system or process pressure

Relieving component or piping over pressure

9.5.1 TYPES OF VALVES

a. Globe g. Diaphragm
b. Gate h. Pinch
c. Plug i. Check
d. Ball j. Safety/relief
e. Needle k. Reducing
f. Butterfly
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
Gate Valves
HPCL
A gate valve is a linear motion valve used to start or stop fluid flow; however, it does not regulate
or throttle flow. The name gate is derived from the appearance of the disk in the flow stream.
Figure 4 illustrates a gate valve.

The disk of a gate valve is completely removed from the flow stream when the valve is fully open.
This characteristic offers virtually no resistance to flow when the valve is open. Hence, there is little
pressure drop across an open gate valve.

Globe Valves
A globe valve is a linear motion valve used
to stop, start, and regulate fluid flow. A Z-
body globe valve is illustrated in Figure 9.

As shown in Figure 9, the globe valve disk can

be totally removed from the flowpath or it can
completely close the flowpath. The essential
principle of globe valve operation is the
perpendicular movement of the disk away
from the seat. This causes the annular space
between the disk and seat ring to gradually
close as the valve is closed. This characteristic
gives the globe valve good throttling ability,
which permits its use in regulating flow.
Therefore, the globe valve may be used for
both stopping and starting fluid flow and
for regulating flow.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
Ball Valves
HPCL
A ball valve is a rotational motion valve that uses a ball-shaped disk to stop or start fluid flow.
The ball, shown in Figure 12, performs the same function as the disk in the globe valve. When
the valve handle is turned to open the valve, the ball rotates to a point where the hole through
the ball is in line with the valve body inlet and outlet. When the valve is shut, the ball is rotated
so that the hole is perpendicular to the flow openings of the valve body and the flow is stopped.

Most ball valve actuators are of the quick-acting type, which require a 90° turn of the valve
handle to operate the valve. Other ball valve actuators are planetary gear-operated. This type of
gearing allows the use of a relatively small handwheel and operating force to operate a fairly
large valve.

Plug Valves
A plug valve is a rotational motion valve used to stop or start fluid flow. The name is derived
from the shape of the disk, which resembles a plug. A plug valve is shown in Figure 13. The
simplest form of a plug valve is the petcock. The body of a plug valve is machined to receive
the tapered or cylindrical plug. The disk is a solid plug with a bored passage at a right angle to
the longitudinal axis of the plug.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
In the open position, the passage in the plug lines up with the inlet and outlet ports of the
valve body. When the plug is turned 90° from the open position, the solid part of the plug
blocks the ports and stops fluid flow.

Diaphragm Valves
A diaphragm valve is a linear motion valve that is used to start, regulate, and stop fluid flow.
The name is derived from its flexible disk, which mates with a seat located in the open area at
the top of the valve body to form a seal. A diaphragm valve is illustrated in Figure 14.

Figure 14 Straight Through Diaphragm Valve

Diaphragm valves are, in effect, simple "pinch clamp" valves. A resilient, flexible diaphragm is
connected to a compressor by a stud molded into the diaphragm. The compressor is moved up
and down by the valve stem. Hence, the diaphragm lifts when the compressor is raised. As the
compressor is lowered, the diaphragm is pressed against the contoured bottom in the straight
through valve.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
Reducing Valves
HPCL
Reducing valves automatically reduce supply pressure to a preselected pressure as long as the
supply pressure is at least as high as the selected pressure. As illustrated in Figure 16, the
principal parts of the reducing valve are the main valve; an upward-seating valve that has a
piston on top of its valve stem, an upward-seating auxiliary (or controlling) valve, a controlling
diaphragm, and an adjusting spring and screw.

Reducing valve operation is controlled by high pressure at the valve inlet and the adjusting screw on top
of the valve assembly.

Pinch Valves
The relatively inexpensive pinch valve, illustrated
in Figure 18, is the simplest in any valve design. It
is simply an industrial version of the pinch cock
used in the laboratory to control the flow of fluids
through rubber tubing.

Pinch valves are suitable for on-off and throttling

services. However, the effective throttling range
is usually between 10% and 95% of the rated
flow capacity.
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
HPCL
Pinch valves are ideally suited for the handling of slurries, liquids with large amounts of suspended
solids, and systems that convey solids pneumatically. Because the operating mechanism is completely
isolated from the fluid, these valves also find application where corrosion or metal contamination of the
fluid might be a problem.

Butterfly Valves
A butterfly valve, illustrated in Figure 19, is a rotary motion valve
that is used to stop, regulate, and start fluid flow. Butterfly valves are
easily and quickly operated because a 90o rotation of the handle
moves the disk from a fully closed to fully opened position. Larger
butterfly valves are actuated by handwheels connected to the stem
through gears that provide mechanical advantage at the expense of
speed.

Butterfly valves possess many advantages over gate, globe, plug,

and ball valves, especially for large valve applications. Savings in
weight, space, and cost are the most obvious advantages. The
maintenance costs are usually low
because there are a minimal Figure 19 Typical Butterfly Valve
number of moving parts and there are no pockets to trap fluids.

Butterfly valves are especially well-suited for the handling of large

flows of liquids or gases at relatively low pressures and for the
handling of slurries or liquids with large amounts of suspended
solids.

Needle Valves
A needle valve, as shown in Figure 20, is used to make relatively fine
adjustments in the amount of fluid flow.

The distinguishing characteristic of a needle valve is the long,

tapered, needlelike point on the end of the valve stem. This "needle"
acts as a disk. The longer part of the needle is smaller than the orifice
in the valve seat and passes through the orifice before the needle
seats. This arrangement permits a very gradual increase or decrease in
the size of the opening. Needle valves are often used as component
parts of other, more complicated valves. For example, they are used
in some types of reducing valves.
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Check Valves
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Check valves are designed to prevent the reversal of flow in a piping system. These valves are activated
by the flowing material in the pipeline. The pressure of the fluid passing through the system opens the
valve, while any reversal of flow will close the valve. Closure is accomplished by the weight of the
check mechanism, by back pressure, by a spring, or by a combination of these means. The general types
of check valves are swing, tilting-disk, piston, butterfly, and stop.

Swing Check Valves

A swing check valve is illustrated in Figure 22. The valve allows full, unobstructed flow and
automatically closes as pressure decreases. These valves are fully closed when the flow reaches zero and
prevent back flow. Turbulence and pressure drop within the valve are very low.

A swing check valve is normally recommended for use in systems employing gate valves because of the
low pressure drop across the valve. Swing check valves are available in either Y-pattern or straight body
design.

Relief and Safety Valves

Relief and safety valves prevent equipment damage by relieving accidental over-pressurization of fluid
systems. The main difference between a relief valve and a safety valve is the extent of opening at the
setpoint pressure.

A relief valve, illustrated in Figure 28, gradually opens as the inlet pressure increases above the
setpoint. A relief valve opens only as necessary to relieve the over-pressure condition. A safety valve,
illustrated in Figure 29, rapidly pops fully open as soon as the pressure setting is reached. A safety
valve will stay fully open until the pressure drops below a reset pressure. The reset pressure is lower
than the actuating pressure setpoint. The difference between the actuating pressure setpoint and the
pressure at which the safety valve resets is called blowdown.
Blowdown is expressed as a percentage of the actuating pressure setpoint.
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Relief valves are typically used for incompressible fluids such as water or oil. Safety valves are
typically used for compressible fluids such as steam or other gases. Safety valves can often be
distinguished by the presence of an external lever at the top of the valve body, which is used as an
operational check.

9.5.3 VALVE ACTUATORS

Some type of actuator is necessary to allow for the positioning of a valve. Actuators
vary from simple manual handwheels to relatively complex electrical and hydraulic
manipulators.

9.5.4 CONTROL VALVE

Modern processing plants utilize a vast network of control loops to produce an end product for market.
These control loops are designed to keep a process variable (i.e. pressure, flow, level, temperature, etc.)
within a required operating range to ensure a quality end product is produced. Each of these loops
receives and internally creates disturbances that detrimentally affect the process variable (PV).
Interaction from other loops in the network also provide disturbances that influence the process
variable. Sensor Controller Transmitter Control Valve Process Manipulated Variable Controlled
Variable Figure
1.1 Feedback Control Loop To reduce the effect of these load disturbances, sensors and transmitters
collect information about the process variable (PV) and its relationship to some desired set point. A
controller processes this information and decides what must be done to get the process variable back to
where it should be after a load disturbance occurs. When all the measuring, comparing,
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and calculating are done, some type of final control element must implement the strategy selected by
the controller. The most common final control element in the process control industries is the control
valve. The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical
compounds to compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as close as
possible to the desired set point. The control valve is a critical part of the control loop.

9.5.5 TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES

Double-Acting Actuator: An actuator in which pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric power is supplied in

either direction.
Dynamic Unbalance: The net force produced on the valve plug in any stated
open position by the fluid process
pressure acting upon it. Effective Area: In an actuator, the part of the diaphragm or piston area that
produces a stem force. The effective
area of a diaphragm might change as it is stroked, usually being a maximum at the start and a minimum
at the end of the travel range. Molded diaphragms have less change in effective area than flat sheet
diaphragms; thus, molded diaphragms are recommended.
Fail-Closed: A condition wherein the valve closure member moves to a closed position when the
actuating energy source fails.
Fail-Open: A condition wherein the valve closure member moves to an open position when the
actuating energy source fails.
Fail-Safe: A characteristic of a valve and its actuator, which upon loss of actuating energy supply,
will cause a valve closure member to be fully closed, fully open, or remain in the last position,
whichever position is defined as necessary to protect the process and equipment. action can involve
the use of auxiliary controls connected to the actuator.
Flow Characteristic: Relationship between flow through the valve and percent rated travel as the latter
is varied
from 0 to 100%. This term should always be designated as either inherent flow characteristic or
installed flow characteristic (See definitions in Process Control Terminology Section).
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9.6 STEAM JET EJECTORS

9.6.1 PRINCIPLE :
Steam Jet Ejectors offer a reliable & economical means for producing vacuum. In
Steam Jet Ejector, pressure energy of motive fluid is converted into velocity
energy. The velocity energy entrains the suction fluid. This entrained mixture of
motive fluid & suction fluid are discharged via convergent/divergent diffuser
where its velocity energy is reconverted into pressure energy. This action makes
the discharge pressure higher then suction pressure thus a Steam Jet Ejector behaves like a compressor.
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9.6.2 The ejector performance is affected by either high/low supply steam pressure to the
ejector or by high condensate level in the ejector. In such cases, put the starting air ejector in
service immediately along with the running main air ejector to prevent a decrease in
vacuum.

9.7 Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps

Liquid ring vacuum pumps and compressors are rotary machines. They operate according to the
positive displacement principle. In these machines, a liquid is made to act as a piston. The liquid is
generally water for most of the applications and hence they are also known as water ring water piston
or liquid piston rotary pumps and compressors. Information about construction, working, operation and
maintenance of liquid ring vacuum pumps is given in this article.

Construction and Working of Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps

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9.7.1 Operating Liquid

Because part of the operating liquid also flows out of the pump along with the discharged gases, it has to
replenished by fresh liquid. The continuous flow of the operating liquid also takes away part of the heat
of compression from the gases handled thereby cooling the pump. The liquid must not contain solid
materials, e.g. sand, otherwise the casing will be subject to heavy wear or the impeller will jam. The
three methods/schemes to replenish operating liquid are: once-through system (no recovery), partial
recovery system and total recovery system.

9.7.2 OPERATING SYSTEM

Once-through System (no recovery)

In this method, the operating liquid discharged along with gases is separated from the gases in a
separator and allowed to flow into a drain. The lost quantity of operating liquid is replenished by fresh
operating liquid (full quantity) from an external source. This is a popular method and is used where
there is an abundant supply of fresh liquid and its conservation or contamination is not a concern. It is
recommended that the operating liquid should be supplied to the pump with a pressure, approximately
0.5 to 1 bar (7.25 and 14.5 psi) above the inlet pressure of the gases. The flow rate of the operating
liquid depends on the pump capacity and the operating vacuum.

Partial Recovery System

This method is used where it is desired to minimize the use of fresh operating liquid. In this method,
the operating liquid enters and leaves the pump like the once-through system. However, part of the
discharged liquid is recycled from the discharge separator and the balance is continuously supplied
from an external source. The temperature of the mixed liquid supplied to the pump will be higher than
the temperature of the fresh make-up liquid. Its final temperature will depend upon the amount of the
recycled liquid. It is important to remember that with higher operating liquid temperature, the pump
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performance (capacity) will decrease with the possibility of operating the pump in the cavitation area.
Hence, fresh make-up of the operating liquid should be introduced in a sufficient quantity to maintain
the proper temperature of the operating liquid that is essential for good performance.

Total Recovery System

9.7.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

Comparing with other mechanical vacuum pumps, the liquid ring vacuum pump has many advantages.
There is no need to lubricate the pump cavity because there is no metal to metal contact. Their
operation and maintaining is easier. As the gases in the pump cavity are compressed under almost the
same temperature, the liquid ring vacuum pump can pump the gases that are flammable/explosive.

9.8 TRAYS AND PACKING

Tray Columns utilize a pressure and temperature differential to separate the products. For most
tray columns, the weir holds a liquid level of each tray. Liquid enters from the downcomer of
the tray above. The vapor must overcome this liquid head to move up the column. On the tray
the vapor and liquid are contacted becomes bubble or froth where the mass transfer takes place
and then above the tray they are separated where froth flows over the outlet weir and vapor with
the light volatile compound is disengaged.
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Tray column performs well in high liquid and vapor loading. Tray have higher pressure drop
than packed, and It also have high resistance to corrosion.

9.8.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRAYS

1. Bubble captray

The oldest widely used equilibrium-stage plate is the bubble cap tray. A bubble cap tray is
perforated flat plate which has a riser (chimney) over the holes covered with a cap. They are
usually equipped with slots to allow the passage of vapor to be mixed with the liquid flowing
across the tray forming bubble where the mass transfer takes place. Each tray is provided with
one or more downcomers which the liquid flowing across the tray is conducted to the tray
below. A liquid head is maintained on the tray by a dam placed on outlet side of the tray near the
downcomer, it is called the outlet weir. Bubble cap tray is able to operate at low vapor and liquid
rates (less than 2 gpm per foot of average flow width) because liquid and foam is trapped on the
tray to a depth at least equal to the weir height.
Bubble cap trays work well in high turndown applications because the orifices in the bubble
caps are in the form of risers whose top opening is elevated significantly above the tray deck.

The size of the cap tends to create hydraulic gradient across the deck and a high vapor side
pressure drop. The cost of the bubble cap tray is far the highest.

Figure 1: Bubble cap tray

The bubble cap tray can be used where very low vapor rates have to be handled or adequate
residence time is necessary for separation

2. Sieve tray

Sieve tray is perforated plate with holes punched into the plate and usually has holes 3/16 in to
I in diameter. The standard size is 0.5 inch with the perforation punched downward, Vapor
comes out from the holes to give a multi orifice effect. The vapor velocity keeps the liquid
from flowing do through the holes (weeping). The number and size of the perforations control
the vapor flow through the tray deck to contact the liquid.

The punching direction affects the dry pressure drop, a smaller hole diameter result in lower
pressure drop for the same open area. This due to the ratio of the hole diameter to the tray
thickness. The number and hole size are based on vapor flow up the tower. The liquid flow is
transported down the tower by down-comers, a dam and overflow device on the side of the plate.

A sieve tray has higher entrainment than valve tray at the same vapor velocity. This is due to
the spray of liquid directed upwards to the next tray. For efficient operation, the hole velocity
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must be sufficient to balance the head of liquid on the tray deck and thus prevent liquid from
passing through the perforations to the tray. Sieve tray can be used in almost all services.

Sieve deck tray has a minimum capacity approximately 70%. Their capacity and efficiency
are atleast as high as that of other standard trays used commercially. Sieve trays may be used
in moderately fouling services, provided that large holes (3/4 in to 1 in) are used. Sieve trays
are simple and easy to fabricate and therefore relatively inexpensive.

Figure 2: Sieve tray

The sieve tray can be used in the distillation of highly viscous or self-polymerized mixtures such
as the separation of vinyl acetate from a polyvinyl acetate.

3. Dual flowtray

Dual flow tray is a sieve tray without downcomer. Vapors move up to the tray move through
the hole, while the liquid travels down in the same hole that can result in mal-distribution and
low efficiency.

Dual flow trays are designed with enough open area on the tray deck to eliminate stagnation
and promote back missing that makes it suited to handle highly fouling services, slurries and
corrosive services. Dual flow trays are well suited also for the fractionation of polymerizable
compounds and give more bubbling area, therefore have a greater capacity than other tray
types.
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Dual flow tray is also the least expensive to make and easiest to install and maintain. Dual
flow tray performs best in the operating region of 60-85% of flood and increases the efficiency
with vapor rate. The challenge of dual flow instability is developed it propagates down the
column.

The top of a column will move in a typical storm as much as 6 inches. This movement will
cause the hydraulic load to migrate in the column. If the hydraulic flow instability is developed
it propagated the column.
Valve tray

Valve tray uses valve (movable dise) which almost closes off completely at low vapor rate,
thus minimize tray open area. When lifted, as vapor rate increases, the open area increases for
vapor flow between the valve dise and tray dise.

Valves can be round or rectangular, with or without caging structured. Most types of valves,
the opening may be varied by the flow, so that the trays can operate over a wide range of flow
rates with high separation efficiency and large flexibility.

Because of their flexibility and price 9slightly more expensive that sieve tray), valve trays are
tending to replace bubble-cap trays.

Valve tray has maximum capacity approximately 60%. The dry pressure drop of valve tray is
lower than bubble cap, because the valve does not need a chimney for the vapor and it
depends on weight valve.

The valve tray can used in condition where vapor rate change unpredictability over a given
section of tower. A tower utilized in blocked operation at varying rate and feed compositions, a
fluctuation in feed rate, and servicing of auxiliary equipment operating the entire unit.

9.8.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PACKINGS

1. Structured packings

Structure Packed column is crimped layers or corrugated sheets which is stacked in the
column. Each layer is oriented at 70° to 90° to the layer below. Structured packed offers 30%
capacities higher than random packed for equal efficiency up to 50% higher at the same
capacity.

Structured packings are typically constructed as blocks of alternating layers of thin corrugated
sheet, gauze, or mesh, which can be fabricated from a wide range of metal alloys or nonmetals
such as plastics, ceramic and graphite. This structure spreads the vapor and liquids evenly
over the cross-section of the tower.

In general, structured packings create lower pressure drops and achieve better separation
efficiencies with shorter bed heights than random packings, but they are also generally more
expensive than random packings and are more time-consuming to install.
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The base material for structured packing is generally a thin (0.1-0.2 mm) metal sheet, Lower
surface area packings have deeper crimping and therefore may require a thicker material for
structural purposes. Since structured packing materials are very thin and have a large amount
of surface area, there is essentially no corrosion allowance. Thus, material of construction is a
very important consideration. Wire gauze packings fabricated from woven metal cloth are used
for very-high-efficiency applications at low liquid loadings such as those at deep vacuum
(although high-surface-area sheet-metal packings with high-quality liquid distributors are also
successfully used in deep vacuum services).
Random packings

Random packings come in a wide range of geometries: cylindrical rings, saddles, spheres,

and various other shapes. Traditional shapes such as Raschig Rings (cylinders) and Intalox

saddles have mostly been replaced by more modern designs such as Pall Rings, Nutter

Rings, IMTP packings, and proprietary designs. Suppliers continue to develop novel shapes

that deliver improved performance.

Figure 5: Structured packing

Random packings are usually characterized by their nominal size or diameter, although
different packings of equivalent size may provide very different performance in terms of
capacity and separation efficiency (modern packings typically offer significant performance
advantages over the traditional designs). In small towers with any random packing design, a
minimum tower-to- packing diameter ratio of 8:1 to 10:1 is recommended to minimize loss of
separation efficiency due to voids in the packed bed and wall effects.

Random packings are made from material of various thicknesses, so the maximum allowable
bed depth for each packing needs to be considered carefully. This is especially true with plastic
packings, which may experience some degree of crushing at the bottom of the bed that worsens
at elevated temperatures due to plastic softening. Bed heights as tall as 12 m have been
successfully operated, although these tall towers use larger packing. Even if a packing's
mechanical strength can withstand a high bed depth, in order to maintain effective liquid
distribution, a height of no more than 10-14 theoretical stages is recommended for a single bed
without liquid redistribution.

Random packing has been used for fractionation, absorption and stripping operations in gas,
refinery and chemical plants for many years and the benefits are well established. Furthermore,
ease of replacement and storage make random packing the ideal choice for
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9.9 Introduction and Terminology:

• “Turbine” is a general term for any device that extracts mechanical energy from a fluid –
generally converting it to rotating energy of a turbine wheel.
• For liquids, we usually call them “hydraulic turbines” or “hydroturbines”.
• For gases, we usually call them “wind turbines”, “gas turbines”, or “steam turbines”, depending
on the type of gas being used.
• Just as with pumps, there are two basic types of turbine:
o Positive displacement turbines – fluid is forced into a closed volume, and then the fluid
is pushed out.
o Dynamic turbines – no closed volume is involved; instead, rotating blades called
runner blades or buckets extract energy from the fluid.
• In general, positive-displacement turbines are used for flow measurement, rather than for
production of power, whereas dynamic turbines are used for both power generation and
flow measurement.
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9.9.1 TYPES OF TURBINES
Positive-Displacement Turbines:

• The nutating disc flowmeter, commonly used to measure the volume of water supplied to a house,
is an example of a positive-displacement turbine.

Nutating disk

• Other geometries are also used for positive-displacement turbines; e.g., a flowmeter that uses
a double helical three-lobe impeller design, as discussed in Chapter 8:
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Dynamic Turbines:

• Dynamic turbines do not have closed volumes. Instead, spinning blades called runners or buckets
transfer kinetic energy and extract momentum from the fluid.
• Dynamic turbines are used for both flow measurement and power production. For example,
turbine flowmeters for air and water are discussed in Chapter 8.

Turbine used for

measurement of air speed

Turbine used for measurement

of volume flow rate of water
flowing in a pipe

There are two main types of dynamic turbines: impulse turbines and reaction turbines.

• Impulse turbines: Fluid is sent through a nozzle that then impinges on the rotating blades,
called buckets. Compared to reaction turbines, impulse turbines require higher head, and work
with a lower volume flow rate.
• The most common example is the Pelton wheel turbine.
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The source of the water is usually from

either a natural or man-made reservoir at
much higher elevation, so that it has high
momentum to transfer to the buckets.

The buckets are

shaped carefully to
• Reaction turbines: Instead of using water jets, reaction turbines fill a volutetake
withadvantage of the
swirling water
that rotates the runner blades. Compared to impulse turbines, reaction turbineshigh momentum
water jet, and are
designed to turn
around the water
nearly
180 o for maximum
transfer of
momentum from the
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require a lower head, and work with a higher volume flow rate. They are used primarily for
electricity production (hydroelectric dams).

CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
9.10 Introduction
Pumps are used to transfer and distribute liquids in various industries. Pumps convert mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy. Electrical energy is generally used to operate the various types of pumps.
Pumps have two main purposes.

Ø Transfer of liquid from one place to another place (e.g. water from an underground into a
water storage tank).

Ø Circulate liquid around a system (e.g. cooling water or lubricants through machines and
equipment).

Components of a Pumping System

· Pump casing and impellers

· Prime movers: electric motors, diesel engines or air system
· Piping used to carry the fluid
· Valves, used to control the flow in the system
· Other fittings, controls and instrumentation
· End-use equipment, which have different requirements (e.g. pressure, flow) and
therefore determine the pumping system components and configuration. Examples
include heat exchangers, tanks and hydraulic machines.

Classification

There exist a wide variety of pumps that are designed for various specific applications. However, most
of them can be broadly classified into two categories as mentioned below. i. positive displacement
ii. dynamic pressure pumps
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Fig. 29.1 Classification of pumps

Positive Displacement Pumps

The term positive displacement pump is quite descriptive, because such pumps are designed to displace
a more or less fixed volume of fluid during each cycle of operation. The volumetric flow rate is
determined by the displacement per cycle of the moving member (either rotating or reciprocating) times
the cycle rate (e.g. rpm). The flow capacity is thus fixed by the design, size, and operating speed of the
pump. The pressure (or head) that the pump develops depends upon the flow resistance of the system in
which the pump is installed and is limited only by the size of the driving motor and the strength of the
parts.
Consequently, the discharge line from the pump should never be closed off without allowing for
recycle around the pump or damage to the pump could result. They can be further classified as:

Types of Positive Displacement

Pumps Reciprocating pumps

Pumping takes place by to and fro motion of the piston or diaphragm in the cylinder. It is often used
where relatively small quantity of liquid is to be handled and where delivery pressure is quite large.
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Piston pump: A piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal
reciprocates with the piston. The pump has a piston cylinder arrangement. As the piston, goes away
after the delivery stoke, low pressure is created in the cylinder which opens the suction valve. On
forward stoke, the fluid filled inside the cylinder is compressed which intern opens the delivery valve
for the delivery of liquid.

Fig. 29.2 Piston pump

Diaphragm pump: uses a combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber, thermoplastic or Teflon
diaphragm and suitable non-return check valves to pump a fluid. Sometimes this type of pump is also
called a membrane pump.

Fig. 29.3 Diaphragm pump

Rotary pumps
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In rotary pumps, relative movement between rotating elements and the stationary element of the pump
cause the pumping action. The operation is different from reciprocating pumps, where valves and a
piston are integral to the pump. They also differ from centrifugal pumps, where high velocity is turned
into pressure. Rotary pumps are designed so that a continuous seal is maintained between inlet and outlet
ports by the action and position of the pumping elements and close running clearances of the pump.
Therefore, rotary pumps do not require valve arrangements similar to reciprocating pumps.

Gear pumps: uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most
common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. The rigid design of the gears and houses
allow for very high pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids.

Fig. 29.4 Gear pump

Lobe pump: Lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps in operation in that fluid flows around
the interior of the casing. As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet
side of the pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they rotate. Liquid
travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the lobes and the casing. Finally, the
meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure.
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Fig. 29.5 Lobe pump

Screw Pump: These pumps are rotary, positive displacement pumps that can have one or more screws
to transfer high or low viscosity fluids along an axis. Although progressive cavity pumps can be
referred to as a single screw pumps, typically screw pumps have two or more intermeshing screws
rotating axially clockwise or counterclockwise. Each screw thread is matched to carry a specific
volume of fluid. Screw pumps provide a specific volume with each cycle and can be dependable in
metering applications.

Fig. 29.6 Screw pump

Vane pump: A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement pump that consists of vanes mounted to a
rotor that rotates inside of a cavity. In some cases, these vanes can be variable length and/or tensioned
to maintain contact with the walls as the pump rotates.

Fig. 29.7 Vane pump

Rotary plunger pump: The pumping action takes place by rotating rotor and reciprocating plunger. In a
rotary plunger rotary pump, the axes of the plungers are perpendicular to the rotational axis of the rotor or
at an angle of not less than 45° to the axis; the rotor is located eccentrically with respect to the axis of the
case.
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Fig. 29.8 Rotary plunger pump

Suction and forced delivery of the liquid occur with the reciprocating motion of the plungers as a
result of centrifugal forces and spring action. Rotary pumps of this type may have as many as 72
plungers arranged in multiple rows, provide a delivery Q ≤ 400 liters/min, and build up a pumping
2
pressure ρ ≤ 100 MN/m .

29.6 Dynamic Pressure Pumps

In dynamic pressure pump, during pumping action, tangential force is imparted which accelerates the
fluid normally by rotation of impeller. Some systems which contain dynamic pump may require
positive displacement pump for priming. They are normally used for moderate to high discharge rate.
The pressure differential range for this type of pumps is in a range of low to moderate. They are
popularly used in a system where low viscosity fluids are used.

29.6.1 Centrifugal pumps

They use a rotating impeller to increase the pressure of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are commonly used to
move liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating
axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or volute chamber
(casing), from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are used for large
discharge through smaller heads. These types of pumps are used for supply of water and handling of
milk in dairy plants.
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Fig. 29.9 Centrifugal pump

Propeller pump

A propeller pump is a high flow, low lift impeller type device featuring a linear flow path. The propeller
pump may be installed in a vertical, horizontal, or angled orientation and typically has its motor situated
above the water level with the impeller below water. These pumps function by drawing water up an
outer casing and out of a discharge outlet via a propeller bladed impeller head.

Fig. 29.10 Propeller pump

29.6.3 Turbine pump

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Turbine pumps are centrifugal pumps that use pressure and flow in combination with a rotary
mechanism to transfer fluid. They typically employ blade geometry, which causes fluid circulation
around the vanes to add pressure from inlet to outlet. Turbine pumps operate using kinetic energy to
move fluid utilizing an impeller. The centrifugal force drives the liquid to the housing wall in close
proximity to the vanes of the impeller or propeller. The cyclical movement of the impeller produces
pressure in the pumping bowl. The shape of turbine pumps also contributes to suction and discharge
rates.

Fig. 29.11 Turbine pump

Flow measurement is vital to many different industries such as oil, power, water and wa ste
treatment. These industries require that they know exactly how much fluid is passing through a
point at any given point. Flowmeters help to determine how much fluid is passing through to
determine how much money should be billed or how much product is being produced. A
flowmeter is an instrument used to measure linear, non-linear, mass or volumetric flow rate of
a liquid or gas.

Most flow meters work by forcing flow through a known confined space and measuring
different properties to determine the flow rate of fluid. Examples of measured properties include
pressure, thermal, magnetic, etc. In the report below, we will provide example for five different
types of flowmeters. Most popular flowmeters include: Coriollis, Differential Pressure,
Magnetic, Positive Displacement and Variable area. The most common type of flowmeter is
differential pressure and is pictured in Figure 3. The piezometers at the entrance and center
measures the incoming pressure used to determine the velocity of the flow.
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9.11 Types of Flowmeters:
There are many different types of flow meters and each performs optimally under different
conditions. The most important part to choosing a flow meter is to have a clear understanding of
the particular applications requirements. Some good questions that can help determine the type
of flow meter needed for different applications are; what type of fluid is being measured, what is
the expected temperature of the fluid, what is the maximum pressure expected at the location,
how accurate must the meter be, will the fluid flow be continuous or sporadic, what range of
flows will the system be under, and what is the size of the pipe the meter will be installed on?
Each of these questions will be very important when decided which flow meter should be used
in different applications.

This section is going to discuss the most common types of flowmeters including;

9.11.1Differential Pressure Flow Meters

9.11.2Positive Displacement Flow

Meters 9.11.3Open Channel Flow Meters

9.11.4Electromagnetic Flow Meters

It will also identify the major advantage and disadvantages of each flow meter when necessary.

Differential Pressure Flow Meters

Differential pressure flow meters operate by introducing a restriction in the cross sectional area
of a flowing fluid. Restricting the flow area causes a pressure drop across the constriction, this
pressure drop is cause by a change in the fluids velocity. The operating principal is based on the
Bernoulli equation and the continuity equation of fluid flow, combining these equations you
can find the relationship between the flow rate and pressure drop. This theory can be seen
below.
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9.12.1 Pressure Gauges with Bourdon Tube
HPCL

Bourdon tubes are oval tubes bent into a circular arc. The pressure which is to be measured acts upon the
interior of the tube so that the tube's oval cross section becomes approximately circular. The edge stress
produced through this deforming effect causes the arc of the Bourdon tube to open. The end of the
Bourdon tube which is not affixed performs a motion, this motion being a measure for the pressure. For
pressure ranges up to 40 bar Bourdon tubes bent into a circulararc over angle of 270 degrees are
commonly used, for higher pressure ranges helical Bourdon tubes having several turns are employed.
Bourdon tubes have a relatively low restoring force. This must be taken into account when using
additional accessories like indicating pointers, limit switches or potentiometric tained. Pressure
gauges with a Bourdon tube can normally only be protected in a limited way against overloading by
supporting the elastic element at a specific pressure limit.
Bourdon tube pressure gauges of accuracy grades between 0.6 and 2.5 are commonly used for
measurements in the range between 0.6 bar to 4000 bar. The influence of temperature changes on the
indication depends chiefly on the temperature coefficient (TEC = change in stiffness caused by change
in temperature) that is specific for the elastic modulus of the Bourdon tube. Depending on the material
used, the accuracy error caused by temperatures differing from the reference temperature will amount
to between 0.3 % and 0.4 % per 10 K.

Diaphragm Pressure Gauges

The diaphragms are corrugated in circles. The pressure is applied to one side of the diaphragm. The
degree of flexing is a measure for the pressure. Diaphragms have a relatively high restoring force. For
this reason the influence of additional accessories is less compared to gauges using Bourdon tubes.
Through the annular fixing arrangement for the diaphragm it is less sensitive to vibrations. By
supportingmeans it is possible to protect the diaphragms against severe overloading

There exist gauges with a horizontally arranged diaphragm and gauges with a vertically arranged
diaphragm, i.e. where the diaphragm is placed in parallel to the dial. Generally for pressure ranges below
0.6 bar diaphragms having a diameter of 160 mm are used for pressure gauges with horizontal
diaphragm, whereas diaphragms having a diameter of 100 mm are used for higher pressure ranges.
Owing to the annular fixing arrangement of the diaphragm the inaccuracy caused by temperature
changes is significantly greater compared to gauges with a Bourdon tube. Diaphragm pressure gauges
are applied for pressure ranges between 10 mbar up to 25 bar with standard accuracy grades of 1.6 or 2.5,
in exceptional cases also 4.0.

Capsule Pressure Gauges

A diaphragm capsule consists of two circular corrugated diaphragms or a diaphragm and a base plate
joined in a pressure-tight matter at the rim. The pressure is introduced at the centre of one of the
diaphragms and acts upon the inside of the capsule. The resulting movement is a measure for the pressure.
Capsule pressure gauges are not suited for liquid pressure media. They are available for pressure ranges
from 2.5 mbar to 600 mbar in accuracy grades from 0.6 to 1.6. The deviation in the
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readings in response to temperature changes amounts to between 0.3 % and 0.4 % per 10 K depending on
the material used

Selection Criteria

In each case the user needs to ensure that the proper

pressure gauge was selected with respect to

indicating range and design (resistance of the

materials used against the pressure medium,

atmosphere and tempe- rature as well as resistance

against overpressures,

for example). The regulations valid for the particular

application as well as EN 837-2 must be observed.

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9.12.3Principles of measurement
The pressure gauges described in these Operating

Instructions contain components which are subjected to

elastic deformation when exposed to a pressure.

This motion is transferred to a movement with a pointer.

Because of their ruggedness and simple usage these pressure

gauges are widely used throughout the indu-

stry. The elastic elements themselves are generallymade of copper alloy .

9.13 A thermocouple is a type of temperature sensor, which is made by

joining two dissimilar metals at one end. The joined end is referred to as the HOT
JUNCTION. The other end of these dissimilar metals is referred to as the COLD END or
COLD JUNCTION. The cold junction is actually formed at the last point of thermocouple
material

Positive leg

Hot junction Cold Junction (Joined

End) Negative leg

 Certain combinations of metals must be used to make up the thermocouple pairs.

 If there is a difference in temperature between the hot junction and cold junction, a small voltage is
created. This voltage is referred to as an EMF (electro-motive force) and can be measured and in
turn used to indicate temperature.

 The voltage created by a thermocouple is extremely small and is measured in terms of millivolts
(one millivolt is equal to one thousandth of a volt). In fact, the human body creates a larger
millivolt signal than a thermocouple.

 To establish a means to measure temperature with thermocouples, a standard scale of

millivolt outputs was established. This scale was established using 32 deg. F (0°C) as the
standard cold junction temperature (32 deg. F (0°C) = 0 millivolts output).
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9.13.1 COLD JUNCTION COMPENSATION
 As we mentioned earlier, the last point of thermocouple material is known as the cold junction.
The amount of output the t/c produces is determined by the difference between the hot junction
and the cold junction temperatures. The cold junction temperature must be known to accurately
determine the temperature.

9.13.2 THERMOCOUPLE TYPES

 All thermocouples have a corresponding color code per ASTM E-230 (replaces ANSI MC96.1)
 Consult the Pyromation catalog page GEN-6 for a complete list of American color codes

BASE METAL THERMOCOUPLES

 Base metal thermocouples are known as Types E, J, K, T and N and comprise the most commonly
used category of Thermocouple. The conductor materials in base metal thermocouples are made of
common and inexpensive metals such as Nickel, Copper and Iron.

 Type E: The Type E thermocouple has a Chromel (Nickel-10% Chromium) positive leg and a
Constantan (Nickel- 45% Copper) negative leg. Type E has a temperature range of -330 to 1600 F,
has the highest EMF Vs temperature values of all the commonly used thermocouples, and can be
used at sub-zero temperatures. Type E thermocouples can be used in oxidizing or inert atmospheres,
and should not be used in sulfurous atmospheres, in a vacuum or in low oxygen environments where
selective oxidation will occur. The color code for TYPE E wire is purple and red.

 Type J: The Type J thermocouple has an Iron positive leg and a Constantan negative leg. Type J
thermocouples can be used in vacuum, oxidizing, reducing and inert atmospheres. Due to the
oxidation (rusting) problems associated with the iron leg, care must be used when using this
thermocouple type in oxidizing environments above 1000 F. The temperature range for Type J is
32 to 1400 F and it has a wire color code of white and red.
 Type K: The Type K thermocouple has a Chromel positive leg and an Alumel (Nickel- 5%
Aluminum and Silicon) negative leg. Type K is recommended for use in oxidizing and
completely inert
environments. Because it’s oxidation resistance is better than Types E, J, and T they find widest use
at temperatures above 1000 F. Type K, like Type E should not be used in sulfurous atmospheres, in
a vacuum or in low oxygen environments where selective oxidation will occur. The temperature
range for Type K is -330 to 2300 F and it’s wire color code is yellow and red.

 Type N: The Type N thermocouple has a Nicrosil (Nickel-14% Chromium- 1.5% Silicon)
positive leg and a Nisil (Nickel- 4.5% Silicon- .1% Magnesium) negative leg. Type N is very
similar to TYPE K but is less susceptible to selective oxidation effects. Type N should not be
used in a vacuum or in reducing atmospheres in an unsheathed condition. The temperature range
is 32- 2300 deg F and its wire color code is orange and red.
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 Type T: The Type T thermocouple has a Copper positive leg and a Constantan negative leg.
Type T thermocouples can be used in oxidizing, reducing or inert atmospheres, except the
copper leg restricts their use in air or oxidizing environments to 700 F or below. The
temperature range for Type T is -330 to 700 F and it’s wire color code is blue and red.

NOBLE METAL THERMOCOUPLE TYPES

 Noble Metal Thermocouples are another category of thermocouples and are made of the
expensive precious metals Platinum and Rhodium. There are three types of noble metal
thermocouples:
 Type B (Platinum/Platinum-30% Rhodium)
 Type R (Platinum/Platinum-13% Rhodium)
 Type S (Platinum/Platinum-10% Rhodium)

 Types R and S have temperature ranges of 1000 to 2700 F and Type B thermocouples have
a temperature range of 32 to 3100 F.

 As can be seen above, the difference between these three thermocouples is the amount of
Rhodium contained in the negative leg. Types R and S can exhibit excessive grain growth in the
platinum when exposed to the higher end of its temperature range. The increased amount of
Rhodium in the Type B thermocouple helps to reduce the grain growth problem allowing for a
slightly increased temperature range.

 Noble metal thermocouples are intended for use in oxidizing or inert atmospheres. They must not
be used in reducing atmospheres or in applications containing metallic or nonmetallic vapors.
Noble metal thermocouples are soft and prone to being damaged if mishandled. These
thermocouple assemblies are usually assembled in ceramic insulators and supplied with ceramic
protection tubes. Noble metals should never be supplied in metal protection tubes only. The color
code for Types R and S is black and red, and the color code for Type B is gray and red.

Refractory Metal Thermocouples

 Refractory Metal Thermocouples are the last category of thermocouple that Pyromation
manufactures. These thermocouples are made of the exotic metals Tungsten and Rhenium, which are
expensive, difficult to manufacture, brittle, and must be handled carefully. There are three types of
refractory metal thermocouples:
 Type G (Tungsten/Tungsten 26% Rhenium)
 Type D (Tungsten 3% Rhenium/Tungsten 26% Rhenium)
 Type C (Tungsten 5% Rhenium/Tungsten 26% Rhenium)

 (Note: The Type designations listed for the refractory thermocouples are industry
standard designations, not standardized thermocouple types)

 All of these types have a temperature range of 32-4200 deg F. Refractory metal thermocouples
are normally used in vacuum furnaces beyond the temperature capabilities of platinum. They are
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seldom used below approximately 2500 F since there are other thermocouple types more suited for
the lower temperatures. Refractory metal thermocouples and their associated refractory metal
protection tubes must not be used in the presence of oxygen at temperatures above 500°F.

 The color code for refractory thermocouples are: Type G: White with blue tracer and red
 Type D: White with yellow tracer and red
 Type C: White with red tracer and red

9.14 Steam traps are automatic valves used in every steam system to remove
condensate, air, and other non-condensable gases while preventing or minimizing the passing of
steam. If condensate is allowed to collect, it reduces the flow capacity of steam lines and the
thermal capacity of heat transfer equipment. In addition, excess condensate can lead to “water
hammer,” with potentially destructive and dangerous results. Air that remains after system startup
reduces steam pressure and temperature and may also reduce the thermal capacity of heat transfer
equipment. Non-condensable gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, cause corrosion. Finally,
steam that passes through the trap provides no heating service. This effectively reduces the heating
capacity of the steam system or increases the amount of steam that must be generated to meet the
heating demand.

Inverted Bucket Steam Trap

The inverted bucket trap is a mechanically actuated model that uses an upside down

bucket as a float. The bucket, connected to an outlet valve through a mechanical

linkage, sinks when condensate fills the steam trap; thereby, opening the outlet valve.

The bucket floats when steam enters the trap; thereby, closing the valve.

Overview of Steam Traps – D04-001

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Advantages of the inverted bucket steam trap
1) The inverted bucket trap can be a very economical solution for low-to-
medium pressures applications such as plant heating and light-duty processes.
When handling high pressures and capacities, these traps become large and
expensive.
2) Like a float-thermostatic steam trap, it has a good tolerance to water
hammer conditions
3) Can be used on superheated steam lines with the addition of a check valve
on the inlet
4) Failure mode is usually open, so it’s safer on those applications that require
this feature for example turbine drains
Float and Thermostatic Steam Trap

The ball float type trap operates by sensing the difference in density
between steam and condensate. The float and thermostatic (F&T) trap is a
hybrid. As condensate collects, it lifts a float which opens a valve as much as
required. A built-in thermostatic element purges air and other non-
condensable gases and closes off when steam enters the trap.

Advantages of the float-thermostatic steam trap

1) The trap continuously discharges condensate as soon as it is formed. This

makes it the first choice for applications where the rate of heat transfer is high for
the area of heating surface available.
Overview of Steam Traps – D04-001
The F&T trap is able to purge the system of air and other non-condensable
gases, allowing for quick system startups.
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3) It is able to handle heavy or light condensate loads equally well and is
not affected
by wide and sudden fluctuations of pressure or flowrate.
4) The float valve with thermostatic air vent is resistant to water hammer and
has large
capacity of its size.
9.14.1 Thermodynamic Steam Trap
The thermodynamic trap has a simple mode of operation. The trap operates by
means of the dynamic effect of flash steam as it passes through the trap.
Thermodynamic or disk traps are designed with a flat disk which moves between
a cap and seat. On startup, condensate flow raises the disk and opens the discharge
port. When steam or very hot condensate arrives, it closes the disk, which stays
closed as long as pressure is maintained above the disk. Heat radiates out through
the cap, which diminishes the pressure over the disk, opening the trap to discharge
condensate. The rate of operation depends on steam temperature and ambient
conditions. Most traps will stay closed for between 20 and 40 seconds. If the trap
opens too frequently, perhaps due to a cold, wet, and windy location, the rate of
opening can be slowed by simply fitting an insulating cover onto the top of the
trap.

Advantages of the thermodynamic steam trap

1) Thermodynamic traps can operate across their entire working range

without any adjustment or change of internals.
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2) Thermodynamic traps are relatively small and compact for the amount of
condensate they are capable of discharging. Overview of Steam Traps – D04-001

Thermodynamic traps can be used on high pressure and superheated steam and
are not affected by water hammer or vibration.
4) Thermodynamic traps are not damaged by freezing and are unlikely to freeze,
if installed with the disc in a vertical plane and discharging freely to atmosphere.

9.14.2 Thermostatic Steam Trap

Thermal element thermostatic traps are temperature actuated. On startup, the
thermal element is in a contracted position with the valve wide open purging air,
condensate and other non-condensable gases.
As the system warms up, heat generates pressure in the thermal element, causing it
to expand and throttle the flow of hot condensate through the discharge valve.
When steam follows the hot condensate into the trap, the thermal element fully
expands, closing the trap. If condensate enters the trap during system operation, it
cools the element, contracting it off the seat, and quickly discharging condensate.
Thermostatic traps can have either continuous or intermittent discharge
depending upon the load.

Bimetallic Steam Trap

Bimetallic steam traps operate on the same principle as a heating thermostat. A
bimetallic strip or wafer connected to a valve, bends or distorts when subjected
to a change in temperature. When properly calibrated, the valve closes off
against a seat when steam is present, and opens when condensate, air, and other
non- condensable gases are present.
Overview of Steam Traps – D04-001

There are two important points to consider regarding this simple element:
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1. Operation of the steam trap takes place at a certain fixed temperature,
which may
not satisfy the requirements of a steam system possibly operating at varying
pressures and temperatures.
2. Because the power exerted by a single bimetal strip is small, a large mass
would have to be used which would be slow to react to temperature changes in
the steam system

There are two important points to consider regarding this simple element:
1. Operation of the steam trap takes place at a certain fixed temperature,
which may
not satisfy the requirements of a steam system possibly operating at varying
pressures and temperatures.
2. Because the power exerted by a single bimetal strip is small, a large mass would
have to be used which would be slow to react to temperature changes in the
steam system
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9.15 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

GEA offers a range of different air-cooled heat exchanger configurations in order to meet the
specific requirements of both the process and the site location.
Whatever the configuration, one of the most important design criteria is to ensure that air is
allowed to freely enter and leave the system, ensuring maximum heat transfer.
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9.15.1 FAN / TUBE BUNDLE ARRANGEMENT:

Induced draft unit gives a steady and durable

thermalperformance due to the protection of the finned surface against
wind,rain, hail and snow by the plenum chamber. The induced draft alsoensures
a better air distribution, less hot
air recirculation, less air-side fouling and lower noise levels at grade.

Forced draft:
The forced draft unit allows an easy access for maintenance to thefans
and to the bundles. Furthermore, the fans remain in the coldambient
air.

HEADER CONSTRUCTION:

D-type Header:
The welded bonnet type header is used in some cases for special services such as:
ammonia, freon and vacuum steam condensers. One advantage of this design is the
full welded construction which provides the perfect sealing required for such
applications.

Induced draft fan arrangement

Forced draft fan arrangement

Forced draft unit at Mosgas

Plug Type Header:
The plug header is the most commonly used up to 350 bar workingpressure. The plug hole
opposite each tube allows expansion of thetube in the tube
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sheet, mechanical cleaning, and plugging in case ofleakage Seal welding or strength welding
can be provided for highpartial hydrogen pressure services resulting in a less expansivesolution
than the use of pipe header generally used for over 200 barservice pressure.

Removable Cover Plate Header:

The cover plate header is used for fluids with high foulingfactors up to 40 bar working pressure
where a frequentmechanical cleaning is necessary. It is used also for verycorrosive process
fluids so as to periodically check thecorrosion allowance. Special cover plate headers
usingwelded gaskets are provided for hydrogen service units inhydrocracking plants.

9.15.2 FAN DRIVES:

Fan blades are generally made of eitheraluminium or glass reinforced plastic (GRP).The
number and the rotational speed of theblades depends on the air-flow and noiserequirements.
Different kinds of belt drivesystems are used depending on the transmission power and client
preferences.The different belts used are v-belts, integralv-belts and toothed high torque drive
(HTD)belts. For higher powered systems (over 37kW), gear drives (parallel shaft or
rightangle) are preferred. Electric motors aregenerally used as drivers, but steam orhydraulic
turbines as well as low speeddirect drive electric motors can also beused. Air-flow control can
be realised usingeither manual or automatic variable pitchfans or variable speed electric
drives(variable frequency).

10. CHEMICAL DOSING SYSTEM

This system caters to CDU-IV unit. For details of chemical specifications, dosing rates, dosinglocations and
other details, please refer Chemical summary.

 Demulsifier
Demulsifier chemical is unloaded into Demulsifier Drums. Provision is made for addition of Swing
Naphtha to for dilution. The drum is provided with a mixer which can be used for preparation of desired
concentration levels of the solution. Demulsifier injection is done by Demulsifier Injection Pumps at the
inlet of First Stage and second stage Desalter. Provision of demulsifier injection in Crude Charge Pumps
suction line is also made.
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 12% Caustic
18% caustic is transferred from offsite into caustic solution tank. This 18% caustic is diluted with DM water
to make 12% caustic solution. A ratio controller is provided for this purpose. To achieve homogeneous
mixture of 12% caustic concentration a static mixer is provided. 12% caustic is injected using caustic
injection pumps (first stage discharge (H1) is used for injecting caustic at suction and second stage
discharge (H2) along with crude slip stream via vortex mixer for injection to Booster pump suction. A
vortex mixer is provided at thedischarge of Caustic injection pump to mix a small quantity of crude along
with caustic.

 Filming Amine
Filming Amine is unloaded into Filming Amine Drum. Provision is made for addition of Stabilised Naphtha
to Filming amine drums for dilution the drum is provided with a mixer which can be used for preparation of
desired concentration levels of the chemical. Filming Amine injection is done using Filming Amine
Injection Pumps -I to Crude Column and Naphtha Stabilizer overhead and Filming Amine Injection Pumps
-II into the overhead line of Vacuum Column.

 Neutralising Amine
Neutralising Amine is unloaded into Neutralising Amine Drum. Provision is made for additionof DM water
for dilution. The drum is provided with a mixer which can be used for preparation of desired concentration
levels of the chemical. Neutralising Amine injection is done using Neutralising Amine Injection Pumps-I to
Crude Column and Naphtha Stabilizer overhead and Neutralising Amine Injection Pumps-II into the
overhead line of Vacuum Column.

Provision has been made to use the same system for KMnO4 dosing during turnaround of the CDU-IV Unit.
 Anti-foulant
anti-foulant is unloaded into Anti-foulant vessel- I for injection into Crude line at the common discharge of
Crude Charge pump. Injection is done using Anti-foulant injection pumps-I. Anti-foulant vessel- II is used
for injection into VR+Quench line at Common suction of Pump. Injection is done using Anti-foulant
injection pumps II.

 Tri Sodium Phosphate

Tri Sodium Phosphate chemical is unloaded into TSP Drum. Provision is made for addition of DM water
for dilution. The drum is provided with a mixer which can be used for preparation of desired concentration
levels of the chemical. TSP injection is done using TSP Injection Pumps into the BFW line to MP and LP
Steam Drum. The first stage of the pump discharges to the LP Steam Drums while the second stage
discharges to the MP Steam Drum.

11. TESTS WE HAVE DONE IN THE UNIT:

LPG weather test

It is to be done to know the composition is in its range. Collect 100ml of LPG sample in a
tube and place it in water. Install thermo meter in it and then keep the apparatus in
atmosphere until its volume reaches 5ml. Record the temperature and it should be
between
+2 and -2 then its proportion is in its range. If it exceeds +2 then c5, c6 are in high
 A PROJECT REPORT ON
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proportion, it its temperature is less than-2 then c1 ,c2 are in high proportion.

PH test:
The pH test is done fo reffluent water, stripped water, wash water. The testing water is
taken in a test tube and 1 or 2 drops of universal indicator is added and colour change will
occur. The respective colour will match on chart of the indicator and the colour has the
value and that is our required value.

Another method is by using pH meter and it will give digital reading. The pH value
from 1-7 is acid,
7-14 is base and 7 is neutral.
Generally the value should be 6.5 and we need to adjust value if it increase or decreases.

LPG Weathering or Volatility

The significance of the LPG weathering test is to find out the presence of heavier
hydrocarbons in the LPG like pentanes and hexanes etc. In weathering test, 100 mL of
liquid LPG sample is taken in a test tube and is allowed to evaporate. After 95 mL of
liquid is vaporized, the remaining (5 ml) liquid temperature is noted. If the temperature is
very low (below 0°C), then the proportion of propane in the mixture is more and if it is
high (above 2°C), then the proportion of butane will be more. For domestic use, the
maximum weathering temperature should be 2°C.
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12. PLANT DRAINAGE SYSTEM: A project
Report on HPCL CLOSED BLOW DOWN
SYSTEM:
Those hydrocarbon streams that are either free of water or only slightly contaminated with water
are received in closed blow down (CBD) vessel. Such hydrocarbon streams are generated
especially during shut down periods when equipment and systems are drained under gravity to
clear hold up oil. The hydrocarbon in the CBD vessel should be received at a temperature well
below flash point of lightest component present inside. CBD system is an underground system,
where in the drains of all equipments are connected through an under ground piping network
leading to underground storage vessel.

OILY WATER SEWER:

This system also called OWS is mainly to collect water contaminated with hydrocarbon oil.
Such streams are generated during equipment draining and flushing during routine operation.
Streams suitable for OWS also generated as a result of floor washing and cleaning or spilled oil
etc. Drained streams received through OWS funnels etc. are routed to ETP through a combined
header All equipments having CBD connections are normally provided with OWS connection
also. No OWS points are provided near the heater for safety reasons. The OWS man holes are
sealed and a vent pipe provided releases any hydrocarbon trapped at a higher elevation. The final
outlet of the OWS is located at the south east corner of the unit. The OWS system is common
for both CDU and VBU units. The effluent generated in the unit reaches ETP for treatment and
oil recovery. Care should be taken that at no time any spark reaches vapour space of OWS
funnels. This may result in explosion immediately there or else where in network wherever
explosive mixture of air and hydrocarbon vapours is present in appropriate concentration for
explosion.

Standing Instruction on OWS system: Presently during wet weather, the collection of
Rainwater was exceptionally high and is more than what ETPs are actually to hold. This is
resulting in overflowing of the Surge ponds and oil break through into Refinery Effluent. In
View of the above, it is Required to ensure that, the entire OWS system is properly maintained
and operated in order, not to get excess/ unwanted influent entry in to oily water sewer system.
The following actions need to be compiled in Process Units.

Ensure that al the OWS catch basin covers are in position.

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During wet weather conditions, switch surroundings OWS to open drain after first hour of the
rain.

Ensure that no Fire water usage for House keeping/ Floor washing.

Ensure no draining of spent caustic and chemicals into OWS.

Ensure sour water out into SWSU.

g. Ensure that spent caustic is routed to Merox unit for dumping in Chemical sewer.

SURFACE DRAIN SYSTEM:

The peripheral surface Drain with double valve arrangement to route it either to OWS or to
Storm Sewer System depending upon its oil content. Normaly, surface drain outlets are
kept floating on OWS system. During rains, the outlet is changed over to Storm water

sewer after one hour to reduce the load on ETP

13. PLANT UTILITIES, SPECIFICATION:

USES LP Steam

Pressure (kg/cm2) : 3.5-

50
Temperature (c) : 150-170

It is used as mothering steam in fire box to halt the fire in case of emergency. MP steam
Pressure (kg/cm2) : 10-12
0
Temperature(c) : 250-280

MP steam is used in ejectors to create vacuum.

It is used as stripping steam for atmospheric column and strippers. This

is used as Steam purging of equipments and lines.

It is used as Atomizing steam for fuel oil in

burner. It is used asTurbulising steam for furnace.

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Instrument air Pressure
HPCL

(kg/cm2): 5-7
0
Temperature (c) : 30-45

It is used for all the Control

valves. Boiler feed water

Pressure (kg/cm2) : 20
0
Temperature (c) : 120

It is used for MP steam generation.

Make up water for tempered Water drum service water

Pressure (kg/cm2) : 3-5
Temperature (c) : 150-

170 Bearing cooling

water:

Pressure(kg/cm2) :3.5-5
0
Temperature(c) :150-170

It is used as cooling water for

pumpSeawater Pressure(kg/cm2) :6.3
0
Temperature(c) :33

It is used in coolers and

condensers. It is used in fire water

lines.
Fuel oil

Pressure (kg/cm2) : 9
0
Temperature (c) : 130

It is used in burners for

combustion. Its calorific value is

about 9800.
Fuel gas
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HPCL
Pressure (kg/cm2) : 4
0
Temperature (c) : 40

It is used in burner for

combustion. Tempered water

drum make up.

It is used in Chemicals dilution.

It is used for Safety showers, sample coolers.

14 .PINCH TECHNOLOGY:
The term “Pinch Technology” was introduced by Linnhoff and Vredeveld to represent a new
set of thermodynamically based methods that guarantee minimum energy levels in design of
heat exchanger networks. Over the last two decades it has emerged as an unconventional
development in process design and energy conservation.

Basis of Pinch Analysis:

Pinch technology presents a simple methodology for systematically analys- ing chemical
processes and the surrounding utility systems with the help of the First and Second Laws of
Thermodynamics. The First Law of Thermo- dynamics provides the energy equation for
calculating the enthalpy changes
( H) in the streams passing through a heat exchanger. The Second Law deter- mines the direction
of heat flow. That is, heat energy may only flow in the direction of hot to cold. This prohibits
‘temperature crossovers’ of the hot and cold stream profiles through the exchanger unit. In a heat
exchanger unit nei- ther a hot stream can be cooled below cold stream supply
temperature nor a cold stream can be heated to a temperature more than the supply tempera- ture
of hot stream. In practice the hot stream can only be cooled to a tem- perature defined by the
‘temperature approach’ of the heatexchanger. The temperature level at which DTmin is observed
in the process is referred to
as “pinch point” or “pinch condition”. The pinch defines the minimum driving force allowed in
the exchanger unit.
15. INSPECTION TESTS
RADIO GRAPHY TEST:

The radio graphy test isa nondestructive examination (NDE) technique that involves the use of
either x-rays or gamma rays to view the internal structure of a com- potent. In the petrochemical
industry, RT is often used to inspect machinery,
such as pressure vessels and valves, to detect for flaws. RT is also used to inspect weld repairs.
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Compared to other NDE techniques, radiography has several advantages. It is highly
reproducible, can be used on a variety of materials, and the data gathered can be stored for
later analysis. Radiography is an effective tool that requires very
little surface preparation. Moreover, many radiographic systems are portable, which allows for
use in the field and at elevated positions.

STRESS RELIEF TEST:

Stress relief test is form of post weld heat treatment. In stress relieving we heat a material to a
specific temperature; hold it at this temperature for a specified amount of time in order to reduce
or eliminate residual stresses; and then
cool it at a slow enough rate to prevent these stresses from redeveloping.

It is mainly checked at the point of the welding joints and welded areas with a temperature
which steadily increases by the value of approximately 200°c per hour. It attains the
temperature upto 610°c from where the temperature is brought down uniformly at a rate of
150°c to the normalatmospheric temperature. Here the pipelines are testedto check
howeffectively the pipe can resist or withstand the
temperature of the hot process fluids.
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16. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL & FACILITIES
Air emissions from the petroleum industry can be classified as combustion emissions,
process emissions, fugitive emissions, emissions from storage and handling of
petroleum liquids and secondary emissions.
Combustion emissions are produced with the onsite burning of fuels usually for energy
production and transportation purposes. Flaring is a specific source of combustion
emissions in the petroleum industry. It is used to control pressure and remove gas, which
can not be otherwise used. Fugitive emissions (equipment leak emissions) are released
through leaking valves, pumps, or other process devices. Process emissions are
generated in the process units and released from process vents. Storage and handling
emissions are contributed from the storage and manipulation of natural gas and crude
oil, as well as their intermediate and finished derivatives. The water systems of a
production or processing site (tanks, ponds, sewer system drains, etc.) are the main
source of secondary emissions.
Polluted water in the petroleum industry is usually generated in the various production
or processing operations. Leaks of liquids from the production, process, storage
equipment or pipelines to the ground can also contribute to pollution of underground
water.
Solid wastes containing varying amounts of different pollutants are generated from
particular processes or as sludge in storage tanks.
3.1. Pollution from Exploration and Production of Crude oil and Natural Gas.
Production of oil and gas is a major operation of the petroleum industry. Nearly 100
countries are involved in it world wide, and a considerable amount of oil and gas is
produced off shore. In the USA only, there are more than 575 000 crude oil wells, 252
000 gas wells and 724 gas plants.
Major activities in this branch of the petroleum industry include exploration and well
site preparation; drilling; crude oil and gas production, enhanced (secondary) recovery.

Emissions Control:

Emissions from Refinery operations which significantly affect the environment are (i) Sulphur
Dioxide (SO2), (ii) Carbon Monoxide (CO), (iii) Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), (iv) Suspended
Particulate Matter (SPM), (v) Hydrocarbon (HC), and (vi) Noise.

Low sulphur content in the internal Fuel:

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Sulphur in the internal fuel, that is, Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS) used in Boilers, Heaters
& Gas Turbines is maintained in the range of 0.5 to 0.6wt% by in-house blending so as to meet
present SO2 emission norm of 11.5 TPD stipulated by APPCB.

Low NOx burners in Heaters:

Low NOx burners have been provided in heaters to reduce NOx emissions.

Smoke less Flare:

The refinery flare gases are safely flared in a tall vertical flare stack with proper water seal and
steam dispersion to avoid black smoke. The flare piping network is closed system
interconnecting all the process units.

Floating Roof Tanks and mechanical seals:

To facilitate control of fugitive emissions from tanks and pumps, refinery has installed floating
roof tanks for Crude oil tanks and light product storage tanks. All pumps in use are equipped
with mechanical seals and for of LPG and lighter product pumps double mechanical seals are
used.

Low noise machines/ motors:

At the time of equipment purchase itself it will be specified that noise level to be below the
statutory limit with required acoustic enclosures.
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17. FIRE & SAFETY:

Fire and safety is these to practices intended to reduce the destruction caused by fire. Fire safety
measures include those that are intended to prevent ignition of an uncontrolled fire, and those
that are used to limit the development and effects of a fire after it starts.

Fire safety measures include those that are planned during the construction of a building or
implemented in structures that are already standing, and those that are taught to occupants of
the building.

Threats to fire safety are commonly referred to as fire hazards. A fire hazard may include a
situation that increases the likely hood of a fire or may impede escape in the event a fire
occurs.

17.1 METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING FIRE:

Limiting anyone or more of the factors of fire tetrahedron can do extinguishment of fire. These
are classified as:

Starvation: Elimination of fuel.

Smothering: Reducing O2 % to below

15%. Cooling: Removal of temperature.

Chemical flame inhibition: Breaking combustion reaction.

17.2 FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEM & EQUIPMENT:

Water is the most important medium available for fire protection. Water is used for fire
extinguishing, fire control, cooling of equipments and protection of equipment and personnel
from heat radiation. For these purposes water is used in various forms such as straight jet,
water jog, water curtain, water spray, deluge, sprinkler for foam making etc.
The system is designed in such a way that it can fight two fires requiring largest water demand
at the same time. Fire water system is designed for a minimum residual pressure of 7.0kg/cm2
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at the hydraulically remotest point of application at the designed flow rate at that point. The
fire networks hal be kept pressurized at minimum 7.0kg/cm2al the time.

Hydrants:
Hydrants are located keeping in view the fire hazards at different sections of the premises to be
protected and to give most effective service. Atleast one hydrant posts hal be provided for every
30 meters of the perimeter of unit battery limit. The hydrants should be located at a minimum
distance of 15 meters from the periphery of hazardous equipment. Double headed hydrants with
two separate landing valves on 4” stand post should be used.

Rubber Hose Reel:

They are provided for immediate usage of fire water during fire emergency or push the spiled
oil into OWS. They are of 30 meters length as per OISD guide lines and contain a nozzle at the
opened. It should not be used for floor washing but can be used for pushing spiled oil into
nearest storm sewer
/OWS. In this condition, immediately car seal should be put back.

Monitors:
Monitors are located at strategic locations for protection of cluster of columns, heaters, etc.
and where it may not be possible to approach the higher levels. Monitors shall be located to
direct water on the object as wel as to provide water shield to fire men approaching the fire.
The monitors should not be installed less than15 meters from the hazardous equipment and
shal not exceed 45meters from the hazard to be protected.
The butterfly valves of the monitors should be periodically checked for free operation and if
isolation valves are gate valves, it should be greased regularly and medium sized wheel spanner
should be welded near it. Monitor rotation levers should be periodically checked for its function.

Fixed Water Spray System:

Fixed water spray system is a fixed pipe system connected to are liable source of water supply
and equipped with water spray nozzles for specific water discharge and distribution over the
surface of area to be protected. This system should be provided in high hazard areas where
immediate Application of water is required.

Fixed Water Sprinkler System:Fixed water sprinkler system is a fixed pipe tailor made system to
which sprinklers with fusible bulbs are attached. Each sprinkler system includes a controlling
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valve and a device for actuating an alarm for the operation of the system. The system is usually
activated by heat from a fire and discharges water over the fire area automatically.

17.3 Types of fire extinguishers:

Carbon dioxide extinguisher:

These are suitable for B&C type fires. It contains CO2 in liquid form. At ordinary temperature
and pressure CO2 is a gas, which is inert and will not support combustion. It is used primarily
to fight flammable liquid fires and on electrical equipments.

Dry chemical extinguisher:

These are used to fight B&C type fires. They contain bi carbonates of soda ash has been
processed to make it water proof and free flowing. Pressure to expel comes from a CO2
catridge stream upto 14ft occur. If a wheel extinguisher used, streams can reach35ft.

Foam extinguisher:
These are used to fight A&B type fires. Contents are dry bicarbonate of soda, a foam
stabilizing agent such as soap bark dissolved in water for the inner cylinder. Reaction between
the aluminium sulfate and bicarbonate of soda produces CO2 gas in the form of bubbles and
aluminium hydroxide in the bubble film, which expels the foam upto 40ft.

Fire sprinkler system:

The article is about the complete fire protection system. For the device that actually discharges
water, sea fire sprinkler. A glass bulb type sprinkler head will spray water into the room if
sufficient heat reaches the bulb and causes it to shatter. Sprinkler heads operate individually.

Fire alarm pull station:

A fire alarm pul station is an Active fire protection device, usually wal-mounted, that, when
activated, initiates an alarm on an alarm system. In its simplest form, the user activates the alarm
by puling the handle down, which completes a circuit and locks the handle in the activated
position, sending an alarm to the Fire alarm control panel. After operation, some fire alarm pull
stations must be restored to the ready position using a special tool or key in order to deactivate
the alarm sequence and return the system to normal. Primitive manual stations, requiring only a
single action or hand motion to activate, can be subject to unwanted activation
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by jarring or accidental contact. Early strategies to cope with this problem included
requiring the operator to break a pane of glass to release an internal spring- operated
mechanism.
Manual pul stations that require two hand motions, such as lift up and pul down, or push in and
pul down, have sincere placed the break- glass and single- action models in many modern
installations.
Smoke detectors:
Smoke detector is a device that senses the smoke typically as an indicator of fire. Commercial
security devices issue a signal to a fire alarm control pannel as part of a Fire alarm system

17.4 FIRE PROTECTION

Flare system is provided for safe disposal of combustible, toxic gases, which are released from
process plants during startup, shut down, normal operation or in case of emergency.

Flare system is designed to burn at all times from the discharge of pressure relief systems and
gases from depressurizeing of equipments. Any liquid hydrocarbon discharge into the flare
header is separated in the knock out drums and pumped to slop tanks.

The existing flare system is designed for a load of 284716Kg/hr. The existing flare system
consisting of flare stack (32"Diameter&55mheight), flare tip, fluidic seal, flame front
generator, water seal drum, knock out drums, and two blow down pumps.

Instrumentation
The Instrumentation is an art and science of applying measuring device or measuring
and controlling devices to an object or a combination of objects
(a system) for the purpose of determining the identify and /or magnitude of certain varying
Physicalor Chemical quantities and offer for the controlling these quantities with in the
specified limitations.

Different types of measurements techniques are possible to measure a physical variable. But a
proper selection must be made to suit the application. Each technique has its own advantages
and disadvantages.

Al the physical variables have to be indicated to estimate the present process conditions. These
must be recorded for future reference also.

As the process is of large scale, different variable shave to display at the remote locations.
Additional devices are used to do this. The signal transmission is of pneumatic type. So at
transmitter of receiver i/p converters will be used. Pressure regulators had to use to maintain
constant pressure supply to al the instruments.

The controlling actions are done mostly by pneumatic values. Butterfly valves, bal valves,
spring– diaphragm valves and solenoid valves are mostly used in these plant.
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facilitate emergency evacuations are fire alarms, exit signs, and
emergency lights. Some structures need
special emergency exits or fire escapes to ensure the availability
of alternative escape paths.
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