Assessment questions: Level 2 in Counselling skills

Unit 2: Introduction to counselling skills theories

Name: Ana Patricia Barradas Gonçalves

Question 9. Describe the key elements of psychodynamic theory. (AC 1.1)

Psychodynamic theory was first developed by Sigmund Freud. Its key element is personality, and to
understand how past experiences come to influence present behaviour. To understand personality,
we need to understand its three constitutive parts and how they work.

First, we have the id, which is seen as the primal part of personality, and which is driven by instinct
and desires. Second, we have ego, which acts as the rational part and is present at the conscious and
unconscious levels. This is used for reasoning and problem solving, as well to balance demands of
the id and superego. Furthermore, it is used to recognise what is real and understand the
consequences of behaviour. The third and last part is the superego, which involves the morals and
values that have been passed on from the person’s parents. The superego seeks to inhibit the
demands of the id, particularly those related to sex and aggression. To explain his theory, Freud uses
the metaphor of an iceberg, which represents the mind and its different levels, which affect one’s
personality and behaviour. Freud divides this iceberg in three parts: the conscious level, above the
surface, the subconscious level, under the surface, but still close to it. And the unconscious level,
which is the bottom of the iceberg. The levels below the water are the ones responsible for
personality and behaviour and are made up by the id, superego, and a small amount of the ego.
Although Freud did use the concept of subconscious at the beginning, he stopped using this term
later and only used conscious and unconscious.

Freud also talks about unconscious processes that take place when the Ego tries to balance the
desires of the id and the superego. These processes are repression, displacement, denial, regression,
projection and sublimination. At repression, the individual tries to repress unwanted thoughts from
becoming conscious and is therefore unaware of their own memories, feelings, and motivations. At
displacement, a negative impulse is placed on something or someone else, and not at what caused
this reaction. At denial, the individual denies unwanted thoughts to become conscious and block
these. At regression, the induvial goes back in time at the psychological level when under stress. This
can happen during the period of stress the individual is going through. At projection, the individual
will project unwanted thought on someone else. Lastly, at sublimation, the individual will transform
negative feeling or unwanted impulse into an acceptable social activity.

Finally, Freud believed that our childhood early experiences would influence and shape our
personality later on, and he identifies 5 of those early stages in each individual. He calls these the
psychosexual development. First, he identifies the oral phase, between the 0 and 18 months. At this
stage the child shows sucking behaviours. The next stage is the anal, between 18 months and 3.5
years. In this stage the child will withhold or discard their faeces. The next stage is the phallic stage,
between 3.5 and 6 years old. The child is fixated on their genitals and the discovery of this. The
latent stage, between the 6 years old and puberty, is characterized by no sexual urges. The last stage
is the genital stage, between puberty and adulthood. Here the individual demonstrates sexual urges,
in opposition to their last stage.
Question 10. Describe the key elements of person-centred theory. (AC 1.2)

The person-centred theory was developed by Carl Rogers. This theory focus on how each individual
sees and experiences the world. The individual is empowered to identify their issues and look for
possible solutions. Rogers believed that individuals had the potential to do it and that’s why this kind
of therapy is mainly led by individuals and guided by the therapist. The main elements of this theory
are empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard (UPR). Empathy is the ability to
understand and share another’s person feelings and helps build report with the client.
Understanding the client’s feelings and not judging them, creates a safe space for them, where they
can share their problems without being afraid of being judged. Empathy can be expressed not only
through words, but also through physical gestures, e.g. facial expressions when listening to what the
other person is saying.

Congruence or genuineness can be shown through genuine comments and questions and by
showing warmth and understanding. This will make the client feel at ease in the sessions, safe and
supported, so they will feel comfortable to talk about what they need.

Lastly, unconditional positive regard (UPR), is demonstrated by accepting the client as they are,
valuing and caring by them in a professional manner. The therapist might not always agree with the
client and their actions, but they accept them and do not judge their actions, or who they are. All
these three elements create a safe space for the client, where they are not afraid of being judge or
rejected.

When approaching Rogers theory, one should also consider his notion of self-concept and how this
influences the perception of the individual. According to Rogers, self-concept influences a person’s
individual perception and is what it makes a person individual. Self-concept includes the person's
self-worth (what the individual thinks of themselves), ideal self (what the individual would like to be
and their ambitions) and self-image (how individuals see themselves).

Finally, Rogers talks about organismic valuing process. This is when individuals trust their own
judgment and ability to behaviour in a certain manner, according to the situation. However, this
ability could be affected in the individual’s early years if they do not grow in a loving and supportive
environment. This could affect their ability to trust their own thoughts and feelings and the ability to
make decisions according to their perceptions.

Question 11. Describe the key elements of cognitive-behavioural theory. (AC 1.3)

Cognitive behavioural theory (CBT) approaches the cognitive (how we think) and the behavioural
(how we act) of a person. This theory was developed by Albert Ellis, in the 1950’s and by Aaron T.
Beck in the 1960’s. Ellis develops the Rational Emotive behaviour Therapy, which goal is to help
individuals solve their problems by identifying, challenging and replacing self-defeating (negative)
beliefs with positive ones and by achieving their goals. Furthermore, Ellis develops the ABC
technique, which is a 3 steps technique to identify how an individual develops an irrational belief.
The A would be the activating event, the B the belief, which is associated with the event, and the C
which is the consequence. Ellis believed that it was not the A, the event that caused the C, which
were the negative feelings and behaviours, but the B, the belief. How the person interpreted the
event, would generate the consequence, which could be negative or positive, according to the
person’s belief.
On the other hand, Beck, while working with patients suffering from depression, found that when
working with the clients on their negative thoughts, identifying them and evaluating them, the
patients came to feel emotionally better after.

In summary, CBT believes that how we think about and perceive a situation will impact on how we
feel, react and behave. Also that individuals can become “trapped” in negative thoughts and these
can influence their behaviour. In CBT problems get separated in five different areas: situations,
emotions, actions, thoughts, physical feelings

Question 12. Identify the key differences between psychodynamic, person-centred and cognitive-
behavioural theories. (AC 1.4)

Psychodynamic works with the individual’s personality, which is believed to be shaped by their
childhood experiences. Therefore, it can work on past events, as these influence the present. It
believes that behaviour can be explained by unconscious processes. The counsellor leads the
sessions and this form of therapy is usually a long-term one.

On the other hand, person-centred theory focuses on the present and future, with the aim to help
the client create change and grow. The change is client driven and the counsellor is there to support.
Client and counsellor are at the same level, but a professional level is maintained. The therapy is
focused on the induvial perception and the counsellor shows empathy, is genuine and show
acceptance (unconditional positive regard).

Lastly, cognitive behavioural focus on how beliefs, attitudes and thoughts affect the individual’s
behaviour. This therapy focus on breaking negative thought patterns and also behaviours associated
with these. It will focus not on childhood experiences, although past experiences can be taken into
consideration to understand how the individual behaves, but mainly on current situations and
problems. The counsellor and client work together to set goals and the client needs to be honest to
take the most out of the therapy.

Question 13. Describe how counselling theory underpins the use of counselling skills. (AC 2.1)

To have the knowledge of the different counselling theories (Psychodynamic, Person-centred and
Cognitive behavioural), means that our client will be supported in the right way, as the counsellor
will use the right theory according to the situation presented and the client needs. Without this
knowledge, it will be difficult for the counsellor to give the right support to the client, as the
counsellor will not have something to guide themselves on. To have these different skills will also
make the client feel comfortable and supported when going through their problems and difficult
experiences. This is because the knowledge we have about the different counselling theories and
how to use them, will make us act empathetically, for example; use a non-judgmental language (as
in person-centred counselling); use unconditional positive regard; use techniques to help cope with
negative thoughts and problems (as in cognitive behavioural); and others. The counsellor will then
be able to create a safe space for the client. Another characteristic that can contribute for this is for
the counsellor to present itself not as a superior, but at the same level as the client, and to let the
client guide, while being supportive (person-centred approach).
Question 13: This is a good start but there is not enough detail to show your knowledge of
different counselling theories and how they can underpin the use of counselling skills. Add a
section about how understanding theories like cognitive-behavioural, psychodynamic, and
person-centred approaches allows a counsellor to choose the most appropriate therapy form
and apply relevant techniques effectively.

Additionally, highlight how this knowledge helps counsellors interact with clients
empathetically, use non-judgmental language, and create a comfortable environment for
exploring difficult feelings.

You will find this information on pages 31 to 32.

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