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Polylactic Acid
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Recycling of Polyurethane Foams, Thomas et al. (ISBN: 9780323511339)
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 Polylactic Acid

A Practical Guide for the

Processing, Manufacturing, and
Applications of PLA
Second Edition

Lee Tin Sin

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia
The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia

Bee Soo Tueen

Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia
The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia
William Andrew is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein.
In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety
of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
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 For our dearest
Parents, children, and families with love forever
 About the Authors

Lee Tin Sin is a researcher, professional engineer, and associate profes-

sor of Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman. He graduated with a bachelor
of engineering (chemical polymer), first class Honours as well as a PhD
(polymer engineering) from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.
Dr. Lee written extensively on rubber processing, biopolymers, nano-
composites, and polymer synthesis, with more than 70 publications
including journal papers, book chapters, and conferences. He presently
serves as chairman of Chemical Engineering Technical Division and a
council member of the Institution of Engineers, Malaysia.
Bee Soo Tueen is a researcher, professional engineer, and associate
professor of Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman. She graduated with a
bachelor of engineering (chemical polymer), master of engineering
(polymer engineering), and PhD (polymer engineering) from Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia. Dr. Bee has published numerous journal
papers in nanocomposites, flame-retardants, and biopolymers.

xiii
 Preface

In recent decades, the demand for plastics has grown tremendously. The
use of plastics is unavoidable for current society. However, inappropri-
ate plastic wastes disposal has led to serious environmental pollution.
The ocean has been seriously polluted by microplastics resulting from
nondegradable polymers. Conventional petroleum-derived plastics take
more than 100 years to degrade before they are harmless substances!
Although many education campaigns have been organized to create
awareness in society through the “reduce, reuse, and recycle” (3R) pro-
gram, the response of society remains inadequate.
The elimination of plastic is impossible and the 3R initiative for plas-
tics still needs a lot more time to change consumer practices and atti-
tudes. Hence, biodegradable polymers could be an alternative to reduce
the environmental impact of plastic waste. Although there are many bio-
degradable polymers in the market, poly(lactic acid) (PLA) seems to be
the most viable polymer to substitute nondegradable petroleum-based
polymers. This is because PLA is produced on a large industrial scale at
a competitive price. PLA can also be processed using current polymer-
processing technology such as injection molding, extrusion, blown film,
thermoforming, and the currently popular 3D printing method.
In this book, PLA characteristics and applications are discussed in
depth. As compared with other books on biodegradable polymers, this
book is written to enable readers to get basic but sufficient information
about PLA before proceeding to the high-level research and develop-
ment stage. Readers are given information on PLA, including as market
demand, grades, synthesis and production, thermal properties, chemical
properties, mechanical properties, rheological properties, degradation
and stability, processing technology, injection molding and 3D printing,
environmental assessment, international standards of polymer biodegra-
dation, and applications. The authors believe that this information will
be highly useful for industrial players, educators, researchers, postgrad-
uate students, environmentalists, etc. to obtain one-stop information
source on PLA.
Finally, the authors wish to record their special thanks to Ms. Silva
Isabella for advising and assisting throughout the writing of this second
edition. The authors sincerely believe that this book can promote the

xv
xvi PREFACE

development and applications of biodegradable polymers globally, with

the hope of reducing plastic pollution to deliver a sustainable environ-
ment for future generations.

Lee Tin Sin and Bee Soo Tueen

 1 Overview of Biodegradable
Polymers and Poly(Lactic Acid)

Chapter Outline
1.1 Background to Biodegradable Polymers 1
1.2 Market Potential of Biodegradable Polymers
and Polylactic Acid 11
1.3 General Properties and Applications of Polylactic Acid 28
1.3.1 Polylactic Acid for Domestic Applications 28
1.3.2 Polylactic Acid and Copolymers for Biomedical
Applications 41
1.4 Conclusion 49
References 49

1.1 Background to Biodegradable Polymers

People have been using polymers for thousands of years. In ancient
times natural plant gum was used to adhere pieces of wood together in
house building. When the ancients started to explore the oceans, natural
plant gum was applied as a waterproof coating to boats. At that time
people did not know the extent to which polymers could be put to use,
so their use was limited to very specific applications. The ancients natu-
rally depended on plant-derived polymers, and no modifications were
made to their formulation, nor were polymers synthesized to improve
their applications.
Natural rubber has been known about since 1495, when Christopher
Columbus landed on the island of Haiti and saw people playing with an
elastic ball. At that time rubber latex was harvested from the rubber
tree Hevea brasiliensis as a sticky lump, which had limited applications.
However, by 1844 Charles Goodyear discovered and patented a method
to sulfur vulcanize rubber, and since then it has been widely used in the
tire industry.
The first synthetic polymer was invented by Leo Hendrik Baekeland
in 1907. This was a thermosetting phenol-formaldehyde resin called

Polylactic Acid. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814472-5.00001-7

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 POLYLACTIC ACID

Bakelite. In recent decades, the rapid development of polymers has

made a large contribution to technology with the invention of a highly
effective catalytic polymerization process. Because commodity
polymers—polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and poly(vinyl
chloride)—can be produced so cheaply, their use has been exploited for
the mass production of disposable packaging. Thus around the world,
polymer pollution has become a serious issue. These petroleum-derived
commodity synthetic polymers require hundreds of years to fully
degrade into harmless soil components. This, together with the reducing
reserves of crude oil, is encouraging research into the development of
renewable sources of raw materials for polymers. Fig. 1.1 shows the
general trend of polymer development globally.
Although steps have been taken to educate people about the environ-
mental impact caused by the exploitation of plastics, these materials
continue to represent the largest proportion of domestic waste.
Conventional plastic waste takes a very long time to be broken down
into harmless substances compared with organic material. For instance,
a telephone top-up card takes over 100 years to naturally degrade, while
an apple core requires just 3 months to be naturally transformed into
organic fertilizer. Due to the better degradability of biomass over con-
ventional plastics, polymer biomass blends were the first step in pro-
viding alternatives to help reduce plastic waste problems. Generally,
abundant biomass such as lignocellulosics and starches are blended

Figure 1.1 Trends of polymer development.

1: OVERVIEW OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AND POLY(LACTIC ACID) 3

with synthetic polymers. These polymer compounds are partially

degradable by microorganisms. However, after the biomass portion has
been consumed, the leftover polymer skeleton will still cause harmful
effects to the environment.
The focus now is on developing environmentally friendly polymers.
These polymers are naturally degradable when disposed of in the envi-
ronment. The carbon footprint for production of these polymers is mon-
itored to ensure sustainable environmental protection.
Biodegradable polymers can be divided into two categories—petro-
leum-derived and microorganism-derived biodegradable polymers (see
Fig. 1.1). Petroleum-derived biodegradable polymers, such as poly(vinyl
alcohol) (PVOH), use ethylene to produce vinyl acetate for polymeriza-
tion of poly(vinyl acetate) which is further hydrolyzed into PVOH. The
production cost of this polymer is very sensitive to fluctuations in crude
oil prices and it is not environmentally friendly due to the emission of
greenhouse gases during production. However, microorganism-derived
biodegradable polymers utilize the bioactivity of bacteria to convert
plant products, such as starch, into the starting product for polymeriza-
tion. Poly(lactic acid), also known as polylactide (PLA), is the subject
of this book, and is produced in this way, utilizing the activity of micro-
organisms. Polyhydroxylalkanoate is also the product of bacterial fer-
mentation. These polymers use renewable feedstock, and the production
process possesses carbon credit.
There are also some polymer products on the market called oxo-
biodegradable plastics. These so-called biodegradable plastics have
caused controversy and disputes with environmentalists. Oxo-
biodegradable plastics are actually degraded using a controlled catalyst
to kick-start a chain-scissioning reaction to attack the polymer macro-
molecules. This catalyst is created by a series of active organo transition
metals, which are added to the polymer. When oxo-biodegradable poly-
mers are exposed to ultraviolet light and free oxygen attacks, the chain-
scissioning reaction occurs extensively, finally reducing the plastic to
carbon dioxide. In the market, the oxo-degradation additives are mostly
added to polyethylene and polypropylene. The additives are present in
very small amounts (,1%) and are highly effective. Nevertheless, con-
troversy has also arisen about these types of “eco-friendly” plastics
because they are still derived from petroleum-based products and their
degradation still generates carbon dioxide, which is against the principle
of carbon credit products. In the short term, these plastics may help to
reduce the burden on landfill. However, the use of these oxo-
biodegradable materials also causes other environmental problems. The
4 POLYLACTIC ACID

most serious of these is that the plastics take time to be fully degraded
into carbon dioxide. During the early breakdown process, fragmentation
of the plastic causes soil pollution, and it can be accidentally consumed
by organisms living off the soil. Again, this has shown that a fully bio-
degradable polymer with carbon credit is crucial for a sustainable
future.
Prior to a more detailed discussion of PLA, several biodegradable
polymers will now be examined and compared with PLA, to determine
the reasons why PLA is currently the most popular among the biode-
gradable polymers. PVOH and PLA are the most widely produced bio-
degradable polymers, while other biodegradable polymers, such as
polycaprolactone (PCL) and polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), are produced
in small quantities on a the laboratory scale or at pilot plants. In 2006
the world production of PVOH reached over 1 million metric tons (MT)
per annum. However, PVOH is a petrochemical-type biodegradable
polymer. The major markets for PVOH are textile sizing agents, coat-
ings, and adhesives. Only a limited amount of PVOH is made for pack-
aging applications. The main reason for this is the hydrophilic behavior
of PVOH. Prolonged environmental exposure causes PVOH to absorb
moisture extensively. There are hydrolyzed and partially hydrolyzed
forms of PVOH. Both types of PVOH are soluble in water, and the sol-
ubility temperature of hydrolyzed PVOH is higher. The major producer
of PVOH is Kuraray, in the United States, which is responsible for
almost 16% of the world’s production. China still produces the most
PVOH, accounting for 45% of global output.
In the early 1800s PLA was discovered when Pelouze condensed lac-
tic acid through a distillation process of water to form low-molecular-
weight PLA. This is the early polycondensation process of lactic acid to
produce low-molecular-weight PLA and lactide. Lactide is a prepoly-
mer or an intermediate product used for the transformation to high-
molecular-weight PLA. This polycondensation process produces low-
yield and low-purity PLA. Almost a century later, the DuPont scientist
Wallace Carothers found that heating of lactide in a vacuum produced
PLA. Again, for high-purity PLA this process is not feasible on an
industrial scale due to the high cost of purification, which limits it to
the production of medical-grade products, such as sutures, implants, and
drug carriers. The ambitious company Cargill has been involved in the
research and development of PLA production technology since 1987,
and first set up a pilot plant in 1992. Late, in 1997, Cargill and Dow
Chemical formed a joint venture named Cargill Dow Polymer LLC to
further commercialize PLA. Their efforts have been fruitful, with the
1: OVERVIEW OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AND POLY(LACTIC ACID) 5

2500

2000

Data source from Scopus

Publications

1500

1000

500

0
1975
1976
19 7
1978
19 9
19 1
1972
19 3
19 4

1981
1982
19 3
1984

1991
19 2
1993

20 1
2002
2003

20 0
2011
20 2
20 3
1994
19 0

19 9
1990

2000

2009
19 5
19 6
1987
1988

19 5
1996
19 7
19 8
2099

20 4
2005
20 6
20 7
2008

2014
2015
20 6
17
7

7
7

7
7

1
1
8

8
8
8

9
9

0
0

1
19

Year
Figure 1.2 Research publications on PLA for 1971 2017 (47 years).

120,000 109,437
Intellectual properties

100,000

80,000
53,051
60,000

40,000
14,753 14,683
20,000
675
0
USPTO JPO WIPO EPO UKPO
Figure 1.3 Number of patents published about PLA. EPO, European Patent
Office; JPO, Japanese Patent Office; UKPO, United Kingdom Patent Office;
USPO, United States Patent Office; WIPO, World Intellectual Property
Organization.

introduction of products branded as Ingeo. As part of this joint venture,

Cargill has made efforts to improve the hardening time for products
made of PLA, while Dow has focused on the manufacture of PLA
(Economic Assessment Office—National Institute of Standards and
Technology, 2007). Generally, PLA’s monomer, lactic acid, can be
obtained from the fermentation of dextrose by bacteria; dextrose is
derived from plant starch. Thus PLA is a polymer made from renewable
sources, and has the potential to reduce our dependence on conventional
plastics made from fossil-based resources. In recent years, PLA research
has developed tremendously, with many inventions and publications
globally (see Figs. 1.2 and 1.3).
In addition to PVOH and PLA, there are some other biodegradable
polymers on the market; these are listed in Table 1.1. These polymers
Table 1.1 Some Common Biodegradable Polymers in Market

Chemical
Polymer Composition Producer Applications Biodegradability
PCL DURECT Corporation: Lactel Ethicon-Monocryl: Suture .12 months
Daicel Chemical Industry: Capronor: Contraceptive implant
Celgreen Agrotec:Agrothane: Paint and
Union Carbide Corporation: TONE metal protection film
Solvay Group: CAPA
Purac: Purasorb PC 12
Polyglycolide or PGA Purac: Purasorb PG 20 Dolphin: Petcryl: Sutures .3 months
Teleflex Incorporated Bondek: Sutures
Kureha Corporation Dexon: Sutures
DemeTech: Sutures
Polyhydroxyalkanoate, Metabolix/ADM: Telles Mirel Compost bags 3 12 months
PHB, and PHBV Ningbo Tianan Biologic Material: Consumer packaging
(PHB) Enmat Agriculture/horticulture film
Copersucar: Biocycle Rubbermaid, Calphalon,
Biomer: Biomer PaperMate
BioTuf
(PHV) EcoGen
 PDO Ethticon DemeTech sutures ,7 months
Samyang Duracryl sutures
D-Tek sutures
Surgeasy sutures
Ethicon PDS II sutures
OrthoSorb pin
Cellulose acetate Celanese Cigarette filter ,24 months,
Rhodia Textile dependent on
Spectacle frames acetate content
Film media
Wound dressing: ADAPTIC
Bioceta Toothbrush

PCL, ε-Polycaprolactone; PGA, polyglycolic acid; PHB, polyhydroxybutyrate; PHBV, polyhydroxyvalerate; PDO, polydioxanone.
8 POLYLACTIC ACID

Biodegradable polyester

Aliphatic Aromatic

PLA PCL PHA PBS Modified PET AAC

PHB PHV PHH PBSA PBAT PTMAT

Renewable
PHB/PHV PHB/PHH
Nonrenewable

Figure 1.4 Biodegradable polyester family. AAC, Aliphatic aromatic

copolyesters; PBAT, poly(butylene adipate/terephthalate); PBS, poly(butylene
succinate); PBSA, poly(butylene succinate/adipate); PCL, ε-polycaprolactone;
PET, poly(ethylene terephthalate); PHB, poly(hydroxy butyrate); PHH, poly
(hydroxy hexanoate); PHV, poly(hydroxy valerate); PLA, poly(lactic acid).

are only produced on a small scale, primarily for biological applica-

tions, but also for exploration of their commercial potential. Most bio-
degradable polymers are in the polyesters group. Biodegradable
polymers can be derived from renewable and nonrenewable sources
(see Fig. 1.4). Useful biodegradable polymers are not limited to neat
polymers, but also include copolymers (polymerization of different
monomers), the latter having improved biodegradability and structural
properties. PCL, polyglycolic acid (PGA), and polydioxanone (PDO)
are common biodegradable materials for sutures, pins, and drug carrier
implants. Generally, PGA and PDO are preferable to PCL in biomedical
applications because PCL takes longer to be resorbed in vivo. A clinical
study of the PCL-based implantable biodegradable contraceptive
Capronor, containing levonorgestrel, remains intact during the first year
of use and is finally degraded and absorbed by the body (Darney et al.,
1989) after 2 years.
PHB and poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate both belong to the
polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), which are also being developed using
biological fermentation of dextrose. A joint venture between Metabolix
and ADM, under the name of Telles, has produced PHB with the trade
name Mirel. Their PHB compost bags take 6 12 months to be naturally
1: OVERVIEW OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AND POLY(LACTIC ACID) 9

degraded. Sanford, the international stationary manufacturer, uses PHB

in their famous PaperMate product range. PHB is not easily degraded
under normal conditions of usage or storage, even in a humid environ-
ment. However, when a PaperMate pen made of PHB is buried in soil
and compost the pen decomposes in about a year.
Cellulose acetate is commonly used for cigarette filters, textiles,
spectacle frames, and film media. Since the early part of the 20th cen-
tury, cellulose acetate has been a very important base material for the
photographic film industry. Over the decades, the application of cellu-
lose acetate has changed. Nowadays, a modified cellulose acetate has
been produced that is suitable for injection molding to produce biode-
gradable plastic articles. Some ranges of sunglasses marketed by Louis
Vuitton are made of cellulose acetate. This material comes in a wide
variety of colors and textures and has the ability to be adjusted easily;
however, it tends to become brittle with age. A knitted cellulose acetate
fabric treated with a specially formulated petrolatum emulsion is used
as a wound dressing—this helps to protect the wound and prevents the
dressing from adhering. Prolonged exposure of cellulose acetate to
moisture, heat, or acids reduces the acetyl (CH3C) groups attached to
the cellulose. The degradation process causes the release of acetic acid
in what is known as “vinegar syndrome.” This is why when cellulose
acetate film is stored under hot and humid conditions there is a release
of saturation acetic acid, resulting in smelt. The release of acetic acid
further attacks the polymer chain and deteriorates the cellulose. A study
of cellulose acetate reported by Buchanan et al. (1993) showed that cel-
lulose acetate was biodegraded in a wastewater treatment assay by
approximately 70% in 27 days to cellulose diacetate; the rate of degra-
dation also depended on the degree of substitution of acetate. A high
degree of substitution of acetate requires a longer exposure.
Most of the biodegradable polymers described above belong to the
polyester group (see Fig. 1.4). This is due to the ester-containing cova-
lent bond with a reactive polar nature. It can be broken down easily by
the hydrolysis reaction. The biodegradable polyesters can be divided
into aliphatic and aromatic groups, with members of each group being
derived from renewable and nonrenewable sources. PLA and PHA are
both aliphatic polyesters from renewable agricultural sources, while
PCL and poly(butylene succinate)/poly(butylene succinate/adipate)
(PBS/PBSA) are aliphatic polyesters produced from nonrenewable feed-
stock. Most of the PCL on the market is used in biomedical applica-
tions. PBS/PBSA as marketed by Showa Denko, under the trade name
Bionolle, is supplied for Japanese local government programs for
10 POLYLACTIC ACID

packing domestic solid waste before collection. Generally, all aromatic

polyesters are produced from petroleum. Some consider the petroleum-
based biodegradable polymers to be more viable than bio-based
biodegradable polymers. The reason for this is that the manufacture of
bio-based polymers has led to competition between the food supply and
plastic production, and this continues to be an issue as many people in
the developing world are still living with food shortages. However, this
view should not be an obstacle to the development of bio-based poly-
mers, because a small step in this direction has the potential to lead to a
giant leap in reducing our dependence on fossil resources.
BASF has introduced their aliphatic aromatic copolyester (AAC)
product under the name Ecoflex. This material is widely used to pro-
duce compostable packaging and films. According to BASF’s corporate
website, annual production of Ecoflex has risen to 60,000 MT to keep
up with the demand for biodegradable plastics, which is growing at a
rate of 20% per year. At the same time, BASF also produces a blend of
polyester and PLA—a product called Ecovio. This high-melt-strength
polyester PLA can be directly processed on conventionally blown film
lines without the incorporation of additives. Moreover, Ecovio has
extraordinary puncture- and tear-resistance and weldability. Another
company, Eastman, has also produced AAC, with the trade name Eastar
Bio. Eastar Bio has a highly linear structure, while Ecoflex contains
long-chain branching. Late in 2004 the Eastar Bio AAC technology was
sold to Novamont S.p.A. Eastar Bio is marketed in two different grades:
Eastar Bio GP is mainly for extrusion, coating, and cast film applica-
tions; Eastar Bio Ultra is marketed for use in blown films. A study
reported by BASF Corporation (2009) shows that the AAC of Ecoflex
has comparable biodegradability to cellulose biomass, which is 90%
degraded in 180 days as per CEN EN 13432. This has shown that a
petroleum-based biodegradable polymer can be as good as a natural
material in terms of degradability.
Conventional polyethylene terephthalate (PET) takes hundreds of
years to naturally degrade. However, the situation is different for PET
with appropriate modification, such as comonomer ether, amide, or ali-
phatic monomer. The irregular weak linkages promote biodegradation
through hydrolysis. The weaker linkages are further susceptible to enzy-
matic attack on the ether and amide bonds (Leaversuch, 2002). Such
modified PET materials include polybutylene adipate/terephthalate
(PBAT) and polytetramethylene adipate/terephthalate. DuPont has com-
mercialized Biomax PTT 1100 with a plastic melting point of 195 C
for high service-temperature applications. This product is suitable for
1: OVERVIEW OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AND POLY(LACTIC ACID) 11

use as fast-food disposable packaging for hot food and drink. In general,
the development of biodegradable polymers is still in the preliminary
stages and it is anticipated that this will expand in the near future.

1.2 Market Potential of Biodegradable

Polymers and Polylactic Acid
Plastics manufacturing is a major industry worldwide. Every year,
billions of tons of virgin and recycled plastics are produced. Fig. 1.5
shows that the production of polymers has increased year on year, with
the exception of 2008 09, which showed a reduction in plastic produc-
tion due to the global financial crisis. The demand for plastics soon
recovered with the rebound of the world economy. This is evidenced by
the fact that the giant global producers Dow Chemical, ExxonMobil
Chemical, and BASF showed double-digit gains in sales and volumes
(Plastics Today, 2010). Dow Chemical Company reported sales up 15%
in all geographic areas in the fourth quarter of 2010. This was contrib-
uted to by the high growth in the automotive industry and the need for
elastomer materials for the increased demand for vehicles worldwide.

Figure 1.5 Plastics industry production in EU28 index years 1992 2017
(EuropePlastic, 2017).
12 POLYLACTIC ACID

BASF reported an increase in sales of 26% in the first quarter of 2010

due to substantial volume gains from the automotive and electrical/elec-
tronic sectors. Sales of the giant chemical company ExxonMobil rose
38%, or US$6.3 billion, in the first quarter of 2010 due to the larger
chemical margins, with a large portion contributed by its plastic
business.
Overall, the worldwide demand for plastic was forecast to be 45 kg
per capita by 2015 (PlasticsEurope, 2009). The plastics market is still a
large cake to be shared among the existing players, and newcomers will
also have the opportunity to gain a market share. From research data
provided by the global management consulting company Accenture
(2008), the highest growth in polymer consumption is in the electrical/
electronics sector. The highly sophisticated electrical/electronic pro-
ducts on the market, such as smartphones, computers, and entertainment
appliances, require durable and lightweight parts, which make polymers
crucial for use in their design. Plastic products, both liquid and solid,
including packaging, toys, containers, and stationery, remain the sector
with the highest polymer consumption, with forecasts reaching
78,361,000 MT per annum (see Table 1.2).
These figures provide strong evidence that the demand for plastic
products will grow further in the future. However, the majority of poly-
mers on the market are petroleum-based products. Although the current
price of crude oil has returned to an affordable level since the price
hike to US$147 per barrel in July 2008, the price of many petroleum
commodity products, especially polymers, has reached a historical high.
Today, many believe that another petroleum price hike is very likely to
happen in the next decade, due to the limited crude oil reserves.
Continual exploitation of these natural resources has also caused serious
global warming. Thus the search for alternative sources of energy and
nonpetroleum-based products is crucial for a sustainable economy and
environment.
As mentioned previously, biodegradable polymers can be derived
from both petroleum and renewable sources. Both types of biodegrad-
able polymers have attracted attention in the industry. Petroleum-based
biodegradable polymers may help to overcome the accumulation of
nondegradable plastic waste. However, renewable biodegradable poly-
mers do not only possess biodegradability—the polymers are also
derived from sustainable sources with environmental credit.
Many countries have imposed regulations to reduce or ban the use of
nondegradable plastics for environmental protection. For instance,
China, the largest polymer-consuming country and with a population of
1: OVERVIEW OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AND POLY(LACTIC ACID) 13

Table 1.2 World Polymers Consumption (Thousand metric tons)

2006 16 Compound
Annual Growth
Market Sector 2006 2016 Rate (%)
Food 42,025 71,774 5.5
Textiles 32,176 51,630 4.8
Furniture 13.687 22,993 5.3
Printing 780 1220 4.6
Plastic products 43,500 78,361 6.1
Fabricated metals 1.519 2259 4.0
Machinery 2397 3.658 4.3
Electrical/electronic 13,810 25,499 6.3
Other transportation 9330 16,181 5.7
Vehicles and parts 10,746 15.625 3.8
Other equipment 3852 6334 5.1
Other 21,238 33,569 4.7
manufacturing
Construction 45,886 72,919 4.7
Total 240,947 402,022 5.3

Source: Data from Accenture, 2008. Trends in manufacturing polymers: achieving high
performance in a multi-polar world. Accessed at ,www.accenture.com..

1.3 billion, has banned the use of plastic bags. Major supermarkets do
not provide free plastic bags to their customers. These actions have
helped to save at least 37 million barrels of oil per year. In Europe, sev-
eral regulations have driven forward organic waste management to help
reduce soil/water poisoning and the release of greenhouse gases.
Recycling of biowaste is the first measure to reduce the generation of
methane (a greenhouse gas) from landfills. Directive 1999/21/EC on the
Landfill of Waste requires European Union members to reduce
the amount of biodegradable waste to 35% of 1995 levels by 2016. The
second measure is to increase the use of compostable organic materials,
so that they become useful in helping to enrich the soil. This can help
replace the lost carbon from the soil as emphasized in Directive 2008/
98/EC on Waste (Waste Framework Directive). Following the introduc-
tion of Directive 94/62/EC on Packaging and Packaging Waste, which
imposed requirements for plastic and packaging waste, plastic and pack-
aging waste should now fulfill the European standard EN 13432, with
these materials to be declared as compostable prior to being marketed
to the public (European Bioplastics, 2009).
14 POLYLACTIC ACID

Ireland was one of the first countries to introduce a plastic bag levy.
Ireland’s Department of Environment, Heritage and Local Government
introduced a charge of 15 cents on plastic bags in 2002. This move had
an immediate effect, reducing the usage of plastic bags from 328 to 21
bags per capita. After this encouraging outcome, the Irish Government
increased the levy to 22 cents, further reducing the usage of plastic bags
(IDEHLG-Ireland Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local
Government, 2007). Although biodegradable plastic bags degrade more
quickly than standard ones, the Irish Government did not distinguish
between the two in their laws. However, reusable plastic bags sold in
the shops are exempt from the levy, with the condition that they should
not be sold for less than 70 cents.
Because the use of plastic bags is not entirely avoidable in modern
life, the production of reusable plastic bags made of a
compostable material is recommended, so that disposal will not burden
the environment. As people have become more aware about using
compostable packaging, many companies have tried to make their pro-
ducts at least appear to have such packaging. Consequently, various
types of “eco-packaging” are available in the market. Such eco-plastic
products need to undergo a series of tests to verify their biodegradabil-
ity and compostability. In the European Union, compostable packaging
must fulfill the requirements of EN 13432, while other countries have
their own standard to be met in order to allow the use of a
compostable logo (see Table 1.3). Due to the biodegradability of PLA,
the use of PLA as a packaging material was initially focused on the
market for high-value food and beverage containers and cups, rigid
thermofoams, high-cost films, etc. Although PLA is a biodegradable
polymer material which could replace nonbiodegradable polymers in
packaging applications, the application of PLA as a packaging material
is still very limited due to its higher production cost (Auras et al.,
2004).
The production of biodegradable polymers has increased tremen-
dously over the past few decades. In an overview of the products and
market of bio-based plastics by Shen et al. (2009) known as PRO-BIP
2009, the global output of bio-based plastics was 360,000 MT in 2007.
This represents only 0.3% of the total amount of plastic produced
worldwide. However, the production of bio-based plastics has grown
rapidly, at a rate of 38% annually between 2003 and 2007 (Shen et al.,
2009). Shen et al. (2009) have predicted that bio-based plastic produc-
tion will increase to 3.45 million MT in 2020, and will be primarily
made up of starch plastics (1.3 million MT), PLA (800,000 MT),
Table 1.3 Certification of Compostable Plastic for Respective Countries

Certification Body Standard of Reference Logo

Australia Bioplastics Association (Australia) EN 13432: 2000
www.bioplastics.org.au
Association for Organics Recycling (United Kingdom) EN 13432: 2000
www.organics-recycling.org.uk
Polish Packaging Research and Development Centre (Poland) EN 13432: 2000
www.cobro.org.pl/en
DIN Certco (Germany) EN 13432: 2000
http://www.dincertco.de/en/
Keurmerkinstituut (The Netherlands) EN 13432: 2000
www.keurmerk.nl
Vincotte (Belgium) EN 13432: 2000
www.okcompost.be

Jätelaito-syhdistys (Finland) EN 13432: 2000

www.jly.fi

Certiquality/CIC (Italy) EN 13432: 2000

www.compostabile.com

Biodegradable Products Institute (United States) ASTM D 6400-04

www.bpiworld.org
Table 1.3 Certification of Compostable Plastic for Respective Countries—cont’d

Certification Body Standard of Reference Logo

Bureau de normalisation du Québec (Canada) BNQ 9011-911/2007
www.bnq.qc.ca

Japan BioPlastics Association (Japan) Green Plastic Certification system

www.jbpaweb.net

Biodegradable Products Institute (North America) ASTM D6400 or ASTMD6868

www.bpiworld.org
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
the stable-yard will be silenced that night. Have no qualms or fears;
your Majesty will only have to traverse the two furlongs of ground
between the inn and the rocky cape, whereat our craft will rest till we
have embarked.
"One other matter however I wish your Majesty to understand. Is it
not the case that you dispatched a manuscript to Earth some three
years ago?" (I nodded assent.) "That scroll was duly delivered on
Earth, was found, read, discussed and printed, with the only possible
result that could arise therefrom. The person who gave your
narrative to the world was one Edward Cayley, a learned recluse,
and he was naturally only accounted a credulous fool for his pains.
The book was certainly published, and though the absurd venture
scarcely deserved their serious attention, our envoys here have
contrived to destroy nearly all copies of the volume. Perhaps also
Cayley himself might have succumbed later to some of our peculiar
methods of removal, had he not suddenly expired of the heart
disease from which he had long suffered. The whole matter of your
communication from Meleager has however been entrusted
unconditionally to myself, and as I apprehend no danger whatsoever
from anything you may publish, it is open to you to act freely in this
connection. Here is Mr Cayley's book—keep it for any purpose you
may require. I assure your Majesty I fear no ill result will accrue
either from the late Mr Cayley's romance or from the manuscript
which you yourself" (here I gave a start of genuine astonishment)
"have been inditing almost daily in your chamber at Glanymôr. I
cannot conceive either the contemporary pleasure or the ultimate
object of your Majesty's constant occupation with the pen; it may be
the old literary bacillus of Earth that is not yet eradicated from your
semi-divine system; it may be some fanciful desire to benefit the
planet of your birth by showing its leaders that human happiness is
not necessarily involved in human progress, which is the
fundamental error of these modern Herthians; it may be that a sheer
sense of humorous amusement prompts you to this action. But
whatsoever your goal, it is clear that you intend to charge your
excellent friend Dr Wayne with the editing of your manuscript."
(Again I gave an involuntary start.) "Be it so. I have not the wish or
the intention to thwart your Majesty in this innocuous pastime; nor
shall I seek to disappoint Dr Wayne in his hungry expectation of the
unveiling of the complicated enigma whose nature he dimly realises.
Indeed, I am anxious to do a service to that interesting man, for
whose hospitality to our errant King on Earth I am grateful, and
whose rare spiritual qualities I admire and respect. Let him publish
what you have written here in Glanymôr; what benefit can happen to
you or what injury to us from proclaiming such a farrago of the
impossible and the improbable? Very few will read the book, and
none will give credence to its contents. Yours is not so much a mad
world, as it has been arraigned by your leading poet, as an
unbelieving world, which rejects with fury of derision all evidence of
whatsoever is not obvious to its recognised scholars and
astronomers."
I acquiesced in silence. It was astounding to me to learn that so
much was known of my most private concerns, and I saw little use in
arguing or asking questions. It was evident too that Fajal regarded
my return to Meleager as a settled matter past all debate, and this
mental admission induced in me a welcome sense of peace and
deliverance.
Thus we stood on this misty solemn October afternoon beside the
grey placid sea, surely the most extraordinary pair of mortals—if as
mortals we could be faithfully so described—on the surface of the
globe. No sound save the regular silvery tinkle of the tiny waves
lapping on the beach and an occasional movement from the stolid
cart-horse beside us broke the spell of oppressive stillness, so that
when finally Fajal spoke, his voice seemed to proceed from some
far-off unseen place, which had no connection with our present
environment.
"Has your Majesty no other aim than to escape the terrors of the
grave in thus deciding once more to exchange your Mother Earth for
Meleager? Do the loyalty and the prayers of your subjects weigh as
nothing in the scales of your predilection? Has your abandoned
palace no remembered charms? Our temple bells, our sunlit city, our
shining harbour, our dawns and our sunsets, do these count for
naught? O King, have none of the fibres of your once generous heart
struck root in our soil? Have you already forgotten your splendour,
your kingdom, your people, your friends in these few weeks spent
upon your blood-soaked insurgent Earth?"
With a look of sorrowful reproach accompanying these words of
rebuke, Fajal bade me examine a small tablet of crystal or of some
transparent substance that he held in the hollow of his left hand. I
gladly lowered my ashamed and burning face in its direction, but
could perceive no more than a mass of variegated colours that
seemed to be perpetually shifting and changing. I strained my eyes
for long, vainly seeking to identify any of the minute objects thus
depicted, till at last I ceased from the attempt in despair of success.
With a sigh of resignation, Fajal now presented me with a pair of
large horn-rimmed spectacles, which I adjusted to my eyes, with the
immediate result that the scenes in the crystal seemed enlarged and
clarified. I saw distinctly my palace at Tamarida with the warm
sunbeams flickering on marble pillars and dancing in golden bars on
the frescoed vaulting; I saw the gardens, cool and umbrageous, with
their many fountains spurting their foamy jets upon the drenched
fronds of fern and palm; I saw my aery balcony with its table of
audience and faithful Hiridia standing disconsolate beside my
favourite chair; under the external awnings of blue and yellow I saw
the deep purple line of the harbour beyond the enclosing balustrade.
A veritable wave of nostalgia seemed to engulph me, as I watched
thus every familiar scene of my Meleagrian existence pass in
procession before my gaze.
As a lost soul might gaze on Paradise I beheld the pillared court of
the great temple displayed before me, with its sunlit space filled with
the usual throng of worshippers upon a holy day. There was the
medley of colours, like some huge bed of gorgeous tulips, the white
of the hierarchy, the crimson of the nobles, the green of the
merchants, and the many varied tints of the garments of the
populace; what past memories of my reign did not such a vision
evoke in me! I fretted to be gone, so as to regain that rich and varied
crowd beneath that glowing sky, to reassume my accustomed place
of honour and adoration in their midst. And then, even as I yearned,
chafing at the ties which still bound me to Earth, my companion was
able to inflame yet further my longing to return. With his disengaged
right hand he searched the pocket of his coat and a moment later I
beheld in his fingers a strange-looking instrument bearing some
resemblance to the mystical sistrum of ancient Egypt. Bidding me
continue to fix my eyes on the crystal before me, Fajal waved aloft
this curved and stringed spherule, whereupon a soft murmuring
seemed to fill the languid heavy autumnal air, and this muttering
again developed into advancing waves of harmony that concentrated
in an ultimate crashing note of triumph in my very face. The sounds
now appeared to shrink and retreat, now to advance and expand in
volume, but after some moments of vague, desultory, erratic come-
and-go the music at length seemed to collect and pour as through
some invisible funnel into the actual crystal lying in Fajal's palm. The
ambient air was now completely free of its reverberations, and the
music subsided into moderate compass, convenable with the scale
and setting of the variegated scene that still lay exposed on the
crystal tablet. Finally, the compressed sound blended with the
multitude of figures in this miniature reproduction of the temple of
Tamarida, so that I could distinguish the articulation of the many
worshippers as well as the canticles of the choristers wafted from
afar to my ears. So might the Olympian Zeus in heroic days have
heard the daily orisons of his earth-born suppliants, and have sought
for the sparse note of sincerity amidst that vast uproar of human
prayer ascending from a thousand altars to his ivory throne set
amidst the unattainable clouds of highest heaven. But here from
Meleager the issuing petition rang out unanimous, solemn and
unfeigned....
I had heard and seen sufficient; there was no more room nor any
need for further colloquy with Fajal. I have but a dim impression of
my hands being saluted, and of my striding rapidly with downcast
head from the beach, leaving my fate behind me in the person of the
humble Indian labourer with the horse and cart. In the waning light of
the October evening I hastened back to the inn, and threw myself on
my bed to digest my latest experience, the ultimate phase of my
unique mission. In an hour's time I had shaken off the bewilderment
of my encounter by the beach, and was able to converse naturally
with Dr Wayne. It was now merely a matter of waiting seven days for
the call, and there was nothing to prevent my passing this brief span
of time pleasantly and profitably. I hope I have done what lay in my
power to conciliate Dr Wayne, with whom I enjoyed some interesting
walks in the mild drizzling weather along the summits of the rocky
coast. Once or twice the notion arose in me of taking the good man
into my complete confidence, but eventually I decided against this
course, and confined my efforts to preparing him for the task of
publication of my second manuscript and of Mr Cayley's book which
I shall leave behind me when I am called to quit this Earth. I have an
overwhelming desire to see this purpose fulfilled, and as Fajal has
given me express permission to do so, why should not I indulge this
innocent whim of mine, however useless and trivial it may be
deemed? I think it was Dean Swift who once declared that the man
who contrived to make two blades of grass grow where but one had
bloomed before bestowed more solid advantage on the human race
than all the combined clique of the politicians. So, if I can attract one
convert into seeing through my own experienced eyes that what is
called progress is not the sole thing needful and desirable for this
sorely tried old world of my birth, I shall have accomplished my most
modest aim. I shall have sown a seed of arresting reflection amidst
the rampant tares of self-sufficiency and materialism which now clog
the Herthian soil.

It is my last night, my last hour on Earth. Midnight has struck some

time ago, and already the air is resonant with that strange haunting
musical susurration that Fajal's spherule has made familiar to me.
My few preparations are all completed, and I have but to descend
quietly, loosen the bolt of a certain door, cross the haggard, and
follow the path to the headland where the royal vessel awaits the
King of Meleager who now bids farewell for ever and for ever to the
World and all that therein is.
 EPIGRAPH
By Charles Wayne, M.D.
The reader who has persisted so far in the present volume will
doubtless recall the fact that the first portion is heralded by a short
foreword from one Edward Cayley, who therein expresses his full
belief in the narrative he publishes. In this preface also he makes
allusion to the traveller Sir W—— Y——, the original finder and
owner of the manuscript. For the sake of convenience and
explanation therefore I shall state here that the Editor of Part I. is the
late Mr Edward Cayley, F.S.A., an official employed in the British
Museum, whose book was issued in the early months of 1913. How
this obscure work came into my possession I shall explain in due
course, but I should like to add here that the book in question evoked
no public interest whatsoever, and that such scanty notices of it as
appeared were invariably unfavourable or contemptuous. Such a
fate seems natural enough to me, for I have long observed how in all
publications concerning the occult, nine out of ten readers are to be
found scoffers and unbelievers, whilst the tenth is over-credulous.
But a few weeks after the appearance of the volume, its editor
himself was far beyond the range of hostile jest or criticism, for one
March evening he was found dead of heart disease in the railway
carriage wherein he was returning to his home at Harrow. Of "the
exquisitely prepared roll of vellum covered with close crabbed
writing," as also of its containing cylinder of some exotic white metal,
I have been assured by Mr Cayley's executor that of neither can a
trace be found—"suddenly, as rare things will, they vanished,"
though I am inclined to think that these gentlemen in common with a
good many others of Mr Cayley's friends have never credited their
existence save in the brain of their late owner. Indeed, I am told not a
few persons openly denounced the ill-fated volume as an indiscreet
jeu d'esprit of which Cayley himself was both author and editor. As to
Sir W—— Y—— I see no reason to withhold the full name of Sir
Wardour Yockney, head of an ancient Kentish house which received
its baronetcy so long ago as the reign of Charles the Martyr. Sir
Wardour was a fine shot, an ardent mountaineer and no mean
scholar—alas! that I must use the aorist here in so speaking of him,
for Sir Wardour, who started for Flanders with a motor car soon after
the outbreak of the War, was described as "missing" so long ago as
last October, nor have any further tidings reached his household
concerning his fate.
These two principal witnesses therefore being no longer available,
there remains none to whom I can apply for information, none with
whom it would prove worth my while to communicate. It lies therefore
with myself alone to deal as I may think fit with the manuscript, which
is practically a continuation or sequel of the extraordinary story
already accepted and published as solid truth by Mr Cayley. This
second manuscript was found by me under circumstances I shall
presently relate in the bedroom of a sea-side inn in South Wales.
With the narrative was also a letter addressed to me wherein the
writer thanked me in warm and sincere language for the small
amount of assistance and sympathy it had been my privilege to
vouchsafe to him during our past twelve weeks of companionship on
Earth, but the contents of the letter shed no further light on the
subject-matter of the manuscript. In addition to these there was a
copy of Mr Cayley's book, which is already become so scarce as to
be almost unattainable. The contents of this little volume I have
therefore placed at the beginning of the present publication, so that
the reader can follow in due sequence all the amazing adventures of
the writer from the date of his first departure from the Earth to the
stars until the very moment when he voluntarily chose a second time
to quit this planet in order to resume a state of sovereignty whose
tragical interruption he has already described with his own pen.

I have always reckoned myself with perfect contentment as a private

person of no importance; de me igitur nefas omninò loqui.
Nevertheless, I have been propelled willy-nilly into obtruding some
portion of my personal affairs before the public and in what I
conceive to be the public's true interest. For I myself have been
requisitioned, so to speak, for the solution of some gigantic problem
which is of deep import to our race, and my realisation of this
unsought attention on my part must serve as my excuse for the short
biographical details that follow.
I was born in the year 1853, one of a respectable family of dalesmen
in Cumberland, and after a boyhood wherein the passionate love of
solitary wandering over the wild north country fells seems the only
trait I think worth recording, I was sent to study medicine at
Edinburgh. Here I had a successful if not a distinguished career, and
after taking the required degrees I departed to the East to practise
my profession and to amass the conventional fortune. In the former
object I trust I have performed my duty satisfactorily; and as to the
second, I have at any rate acquired a sufficient pension for the
needs of my evening of life. I have also found alleviation and no
small degree of pleasure in my chosen science, especially in the
study of certain tropical diseases, though my natural inclination for
privacy has hitherto prevented my publishing some interesting notes
and observations covering many years' research in this particular
section of medicine. In my domestic life however I have been less
fortunate, for having married an estimable woman with every
prospect of a joint happy existence before us, we were both deeply
wounded in the deaths at rapid intervals of our four children, a series
of blows that I myself, thanks to my profession and other interests in
life, was able to bear with tolerable courage. Not so my poor partner;
from the date of her last boy's loss at Singapore she could support
this prolonged visitation of malign fortune no longer, and after a short
but terrible attack of violent dementia she relapsed into a permanent
condition of apathetic melancholy, from which she either could not or
would not be diverted. I hope and trust I did all that was possible by
patience and calmness to soften her hard lot; but, needless to say, it
was a cheerless home wherein I moved, until after many years my
suffering wife was at last called to rejoin her lost children.
From the date of her death I devoted myself with increased ardour to
my duties, whilst I occupied my many spare hours in studying with
care and intelligence such literature as deals with the cult of the
supernatural, which has always possessed a singular fascination for
my mind, and has, I feel sure, helped me to sustain with equanimity
hitherto so many slings and arrows of outrageous fortune on this
Earth. The years rolled by, so that in due course I became eligible for
my retiring pension, yet even then I was in no haste to turn my back
on the East, where I had passed practically the whole of my life since
adolescence, for during thirty-seven years of service I had only twice
returned home on short leave. And now, when in professional
decency and according to the custom of my caste I was expected to
resign, I felt small inclination to revisit my native land, where the only
contemporary relative I owned was a married sister living at
Aberdeen. Of my various nephews and nieces I knew nothing, and I
felt a not unnatural dread of being exploited or patronised by a
coterie of self-satisfied young persons of the present generation. At
times I thought of migrating to some sparsely peopled British colony,
such as Western Australia or Tasmania, where the advent of an
elderly widower might possibly be welcome, if only as tending to
swell the meagre tale of the approaching census. I was still
hesitating and pondering, when in July 1914 the tedious question
was solved for me rather arbitrarily in the following manner.
A friend of mine about to revisit England had already engaged and
paid for his passage from Rangoon, and was eagerly looking forward
to his intended holiday, when almost at the last moment the poor
fellow met with a shocking accident, whereby he was so unfortunate
as to break both his legs. Visiting the patient at his house in the
capacity of friend and not as physician, I found Mr —— in a pitiable
state of lamentation over the money spent on his passage home,
which he regarded as practically lost; indeed, this particular matter
seemed to oppress the invalid even more heavily than his other far
more serious disaster. I reflected a while on the situation, and then
deeming it a special opportunity for me to break from my thraldom of
indecision and simultaneously to perform a real kindness to a brother
in distress, I offered to relieve my sick friend of his ticket and to have
his cabin transferred to myself. As a result of this suggestion I had at
least the satisfaction of the injured man's warm gratitude, though I
confess the homing instinct within me had grown so faint that I could
summon up little or no enthusiasm at this new prospect of a speedy
return to the land of my birth. One external ray of consolation
however I was able to draw from this new arrangement, which was
that the Orissa of the Pheon Line, the boat selected by my friend,
was timed to sail on the seventeenth day of the seventh month of the
year. I have long held a secret veneration for the figure seven, and in
this case the circumstance of the benign figures was combined with
certain stellar conjunctions in the heavens on which I need not dwell
here.
Be that as it may, this tardy decision to sail on the Orissa at least put
an end to my trials of irresolution, of which I could not help feeling
heartily ashamed; and as the very brief intervening time was fully
employed in packing my effects and in making other preparations for
departure, I was spared the usual cycle of farewell visits of ceremony
which I greatly dreaded. On the day appointed therefore I found
myself settled on the Orissa, a comfortable boat, and we proceeded
on our homeward voyage, which proved wholly uneventful until we
reached the Suez Canal. Here for the first time we received ominous
reports of a colossal upheaval amongst the Great Powers of Europe,
whilst our natural alarm was increased tenfold on learning at Port
Said of the impending declaration of war between England and the
German Empire. I shall not linger over the seething excitement on
board our ship as we hurried at full speed through the Mediterranean
in hourly fear of being sighted by the Goeben or some other German
cruiser. It was therefore with an immense sense of relief that we
found ourselves under lee of the guns of Gibraltar before we
emerged thence into the waters of the Atlantic. We were about a
day's sail from the Straits, with the weather still very hot and
enervating, although we were north of the tropics, when at my usual
hour for retiring I sought my cabin. I am generally a light but restful
sleeper, and have rarely experienced even in its most transient form
the curse of insomnia; but on this particular night, which was the
seventh of August, I found myself a prey to a perfect demon of
unrest. It was not the effect of the heat, to which I am thoroughly
accustomed; nor was it the strain and stress of the late intelligence
of war, for my extensive reading in the domain of the supernatural
has long divested my mind of all sublunary foreboding; no, it was, I
am convinced, the close approach of some event of the first
magnitude in which I was marked out to play a considerable part.
(But perhaps I am describing my predominant sensations by the light
of subsequent happenings; still I can at least faithfully aver I was
conscious of some imminent crisis that demanded my fullest
energies.)
For several hours I lay thus in my berth, my brain active and alert
and prepared to detect the smallest sound or motion that was
suspicious amid the ordinary routine of ship life during the night
watches. But no such occasion arose, nor was there any
conceivable excuse for my nervous tension and distressing
wakefulness, which grew so unbearable that the first luminous flush
of early dawn forced me to leave my bed. With a deep sigh of relief I
vaulted to the floor, donned my overcoat and slippers, seized my
pipe and tobacco pouch, and thus lightly equipped sought the open
air.
Day was breaking with more than the usual riot of variegated colour
over a calm, glassy sea when I reached the boat deck, which I set to
pace hurriedly in order to quieten the throbbings of my unrested
brain. Scarcely had I thrice tramped the planks before I heard a
sharp shrill call from the bridge, and casting my eyes in the direction
of the sound, I observed the officer on watch staring intently at
something high in the air on the port side of the vessel. Leaning over
the taffrail I quickly espied an object in the sky at no great distance
from the Orissa—an object which I can best compare in shape to a
huge carp and of a silvery hue in the encroaching sunlight. Even as I
gazed intently, I perceived the thing fall swiftly in a wavering course
till it touched the sea, its actual collapse synchronising with the blast
of the officer's whistle and the tinkle of two bells, for it was just five
o'clock in the morning. All was now bustle, though without confusion;
the steamer's reversed engines echoed with resounding thuds; the
boat deck was peopled by bare-footed seamen who were
disengaging one of the boats from its davits; there were calls for this
person and that, including the ship's doctor, who I knew to be heavily
sleeping off the potations of the previous night. All the hands
required were quickly on the spot with the sole exception of the
dissipated surgeon, whom a steward had hurried below to awaken.
But the captain was too impatient to brook the least delay, and
suddenly turning to myself, begged me to enter the waiting boat
instead of the laggard absentee, a proposal I willingly accepted. Our
boat was now lowered to the water; our swift strokes brought us
closer and closer to the scene of the late mishap; we duly reached
the spot. Not a sign of any wreckage, not a ripple on the surface,
only the figure of a solitary survivor swimming or floating in the tepid
crystalline sea.
We steered straight towards the supposed aeronaut and soon pulled
him aboard without difficulty. He was certainly a remarkable man;
slender but of immense height and clothed in a strange outlandish
attire such as I had never seen before; yet he appeared to be of
English or possibly of Scandinavian nationality from the extreme
whiteness of his skin and the flaxen yellow of his hair, which was of a
prodigious length. His eyes were tightly closed and the face was
pallid, but I quickly reassured myself on testing the action of the
heart and pulse that our derelict was practically uninjured by his
recent fall. During our passage back to the Orissa, I placed the
rescued man in as comfortable a pose as I could contrive, keeping
his head with its dripping golden mane on my knees. I tried to pour
brandy down his throat, but failed to open the clenched white teeth
that resisted stoutly, and I saw no special reason to persist in my
endeavour. Once during our transit my patient for an instant opened
a pair of great sapphire-blue eyes and smiled faintly up to my face;
and the strangeness of that fleeting glance increased the
compassion and curiosity and interest which had already, naturally
enough, been awakened in me.
Conveyed to my cabin, the strange man had to be stripped of his
soaked garments consisting of a tunic and under-vest of fine texture;
a small bag depending by a chain from his neck he fiercely
defended, but otherwise was tractable enough, and seemed grateful
for our attentions though he never uttered a word. With no small
difficulty I managed to dismiss inquisitive stewards and fellow-
passengers and ministered myself to the needs of my unexpected
guest, who finally fell into a deep refreshing sleep.
Towards evening he awoke, smiled on me graciously, and then
extended his right hand towards me with a gesture that was at once
half-wistful, half-imperious; but when I grasped it according to wont,
he seemed manifestly surprised. This puzzled me, but since that
time I have grown to learn and understand many matters, great and
small, which I failed to comprehend in these early days of our
acquaintance. At first, I confess, I harboured some doubts as to the
sanity of my mysterious stranger, but I soon perceived that though
he spoke English in somewhat halting fashion and his brain worked
with some degree of deliberation, yet of the acuteness of his
reasoning powers there could be no question. In certain appeals of
mine he deferred eventually to my arguments and acknowledged
their justice, submitting amongst other things to have his thick
chevelure clipped to a more conventional length, in order to avoid
vulgar comment. After some reflection too he ultimately agreed with
me as to the desirability of his adopting some name in consonance
with the regulations for landing at Liverpool. Nevertheless, he utterly
refused to declare his identity, but merely kept repeating with a
smiling face, "Call me King!" to which pseudonym of his choice I
ventured to add the Christian name of Theodore, promptly recalling
the case of the impoverished King of Corsica on whom "Fate
bestowed a kingdom yet denied him bread," for (quite erroneously) I
then deemed him fully as destitute as that historic royal pauper.
I do not think I need dwell on our subsequent adventures in London
and in Wales, for they have all been amply and faithfully set forth in
the narrative of "Theodore King" himself. In his manuscript he
mentions my name on many occasions in kindly but perhaps not
always in highly flattering terms. Not that I rebel, for I am now well
aware how often my petty scruples and my lack of perception must
have irritated the Superior Being whom I was thus privileged to
assist during his brief sojourn on our Earth. Nor shall I attempt here
to analyse the causes that operated to attach me so closely to the
service of one who drew first my interest, then my devotion, and
lastly my whole fund of loyalty. Imagine me then at an early stage of
our strange alliance as placing myself wholly at the disposal of this
stranger, whose semi-divine attributes I was quick to perceive and
acknowledge; and merely venturing at certain times to proffer such
humble aid in mundane details and trifles as would naturally fall
beneath the notice of a King of Meleager, transported to Earth and
torn with celestial anguish as to his future duties towards his
relinquished realm. And in this blind mental servitude I refuse to see
anything dishonourable; on the contrary, my feeling is that of a man
who has for a few moments been permitted of grace so to clutch at
the fringe of the robe of the Superhuman; as a child of Earth who
has succeeded in tracking the rainbow to its hidden source and
bathed his hands in its fabled shower of golden dew.
Whither our strange alliance was tending or what would eventuate
with regard to my companion, I purposely refrained from debating
even with myself. I merely stood aside and awaited all developments
with perfect calm. I never sought to pry into the nature of the visits of
the outlandish wanderers who pursued our steps both in London and
at our quiet Welsh retreat. Yet I was fully aware of the gradual
unravelling of some wondrous skein of Fate, wherewith I had only an
indirect and subsidiary interest. For "Theodore King" was usually
silent, and it was only during his last days prior to his final
disappearance that he ever exhibited the smallest desire to take me
into his confidence, and even then his statements to me were vague,
and rather hinted at services to be rendered by me in the future than
at an elucidation of the past. At the same time I was not overtaken by
surprise when the final event supervened, and I awoke one morning
to find my Superior Being flown from this Earth whereon he felt so
little inclination to linger.
In the manuscript the reader will observe the writer describes his
feelings and movements till the supreme moment of leaving his
abode in order to sail back to Meleager. Up till that point therefore I
shall not presume to interpose my own account, and there is little
further to report after that climax to my unique adventure. It was my
daily custom to enter "Theodore King's" bed-chamber at about eight
o'clock, and on fulfilling my normal visit on the morning of 27th
October I saw at once the bed had never been slept in, whilst a large
package addressed to myself lay in a prominent place on the table. It
contained the manuscript, the copy of Edward Cayley's book, a
private letter to myself and the bag of gems. At the same time I
found in another place an envelope containing a short but perfectly
drafted will signed by Theodore King and witnessed by two persons
at Pen Maelgwyn farm, bequeathing everything he possessed to "his
excellent friend and physician, Charles Wayne, late of Rangoon."
Nor had I later on the least difficulty in obtaining probate. Apparently
there was nothing of value to leave, for I did not think it necessary to
mention the existence of the Meleagrian jewels to any outsider,
whilst I was touched and flattered by the kind thought. I have my own
intentions with regard to applying the considerable sum of money
represented by those splendid gems; and if God in His mercy be
pleased to bring back our unhappy land into the old paths of peace
and prosperity I hope to carry out my plan. But this lies altogether
outside the pale of my present task.
Having mastered the contents of the letter and the concluding
portion of the manuscript I duly aroused the household, affecting an
anxiety I did not feel, for of course I thoroughly understood what had
occurred. An excited crowd, we searched hither and thither for traces
of the missing stranger, and it was not long before Deio, the old
ostler, had made a discovery which did not in the least astonish me.
This was the finding of some clothing held down with heavy stones
at the edge of the promontory only a quarter of a mile from the inn.
Here the demented man, long recognised as an eccentric by the
neighbourhood, must obviously have committed the act of self-
destruction by throwing himself over the cliff into the cold grey surge
below. Although it was wet and stormy, boatmen attempted to find
further evidences of the suicide at the base of the crags, but
needless to add their search was fruitless. There followed the usual
tale of police inquiries ending in nothing; of long columns in the local
journals, and of short paragraphs in the bigger organs of the Press,
concerning the mysterious affair at Glanymôr; but all this excitement
died down with a rapidity that might only have been expected in that
period of tense anxiety which marked the furious campaign on the
Belgian frontier towards the close of October. Interest in the strange
occurrence soon flickered out before such engrossing themes of
comment and speculation, even in so remote a spot as Glanymôr.
Certainly a farm-hand at Pen Maelgwyn affirmed he had heard the
buzzing noise of an aeroplane that very night above the Glanymôr
cliffs, despite its being too dark for him to distinguish any object; and
though everybody belittled or disbelieved this statement, its author
stoutly maintained to the last that he was positive he had not been
mistaken in his surmise.
I know John Lewis, the cow-man, was right; and I also know it was
the call of the craft wherein my late companion, the King of
Meleager, went up into a world of light and left me alone and
sorrowing here.

THE RIVERSIDE PRESS LIMITED, EDINBURGH

NEW NOVELS
NARCISSUS

By Viola Meynell

THE IRON AGE

By F. Brett Young

MAKING MONEY

By Owen Johnson

THE KING'S MEN

By John Palmer

L.S.D.

By Bohun Lynch

CASUALS OF THE SEA

By William McFee

THE TRUE DIMENSION

By Warrington Dawson

THE CREATED LEGEND

By Feodor Sologub
MARTIN SECKER

MCMXVI
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