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MATERIALS AND
TECHNOLOGY FOR
SPORTSWEAR AND
PERFORMANCE
APPAREL
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 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
MATERIALS AND
TECHNOLOGY FOR
SPORTSWEAR AND
PERFORMANCE
APPAREL

Edited by
Steven George Hayes
Praburaj Venkatraman

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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Version Date: 20150616

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Contents

Preface..................................................................................................................... vii
About the Editors....................................................................................................ix
Contributors.............................................................................................................xi

1. An Overview of the Sportswear Market....................................................1

Sam Dhanapala

2. Fibres for Sportswear.................................................................................... 23

Praburaj Venkatraman

3. Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics............................................ 53

Praburaj Venkatraman

4. Fabrics for Performance Clothing.............................................................. 87

Tasneem Sabir and Jane Wood

5. Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing........................................... 103

Jane Ledbury and Emma Jenkins

6. Smart Materials for Sportswear............................................................... 153

Jane Wood

7. Applications of Compression Sportswear.............................................. 171

Praburaj Venkatraman and David Tyler

8. Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential................................... 205

Praburaj Venkatraman and David Tyler

9. Seamless Knitting and Its Application................................................... 231

Kathryn Brownbridge

10. Garment Fit and Consumer Perception of Sportswear........................ 245

Simeon Gill and Jennifer Prendergast

11. Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear....................... 261

Praburaj Venkatraman

12. Application of Pressure Sensors in Monitoring Pressure.................. 289

David Tyler

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vi Contents

13. Body Scanning and Its Influence on Garment Development............. 311

Simeon Gill

14. Eco-Considerations for Sportswear Design........................................... 327

Jennifer Prendergast and Lisa Trencher
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Preface

Sportswear and other performance apparel arguably fill a specific niche mar-
ket and at the same time permeate all aspects of the fashion business. It is
easy to view it from the purely technical perspective of material specification
and performance, but that would fail to appreciate the importance of the
aesthetic in all its incarnations. To accommodate this it is usual to speak in
terms of performance or leisure sportswear, functional or fashionable, tech-
nical or consumer. But again, these distinctions miss the point: The aesthetic
appeal of the track athlete’s apparel, or that of the firefighter, has a bearing
on how they feel about wearing it, their performance and the way they are
perceived by those around them. In this book, we bring together aspects of
materials, performance, technology, design and marketing that we hope will
enable the reader to bridge this gap in appreciation. To do this effectively, the
reader should place the contents of this book within the context of a user-
centred design and concurrent product development process, with an eye
on design for manufacture. Several models exist to describe these methods;
choose the one that speaks to you most. Crucially, this approach allows you
to be focused on the user needs (be that an individual, a team, a service
group or a demographic) whilst avoiding the inherent pitfalls of a sequential,
opaque development process which has little consideration for the creation
of the garment as well as its conception.
A chronological list of chapters here would be superfluous, but it is worth
emphasising the scope of this book and the breadth of knowledge and ideas
brought to you. Within the text we move from the marketing scenario to the
eco-friendly dimensions of sportswear and performance apparel via consid-
eration of fibres, fabrics and fit with the inclusion of specific information on
smart materials, impact-resistant fabrics and pressure sensing. The focus on
fit incorporates research and practice into the use of 3-D body scanning and
its influence on pattern engineering for apparel product development. The
ability to evaluate materials for use in sportswear and performance apparel
is key, and as such permeates the whole text and is given specific treatment
in the latter section of the book. The chapters serve a purpose individually.
But as a whole we feel they consolidate all the important facets of materials
and technology for sportswear and performance apparel.
This book represents the efforts of many people from within the
Department of Apparel (Manchester Metropolitan University) – past and
present – without whom it could not have been realised: a heartfelt thanks to
all. However, praise must go to Dr. Praburaj Venkatraman for conceiving and

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viii Preface

driving the creation of this book. His inspiration and diligence have been
pivotal in its completion. Both he and I hope you find the book informative,
interesting and of use in whichever aspect of sportswear and performance
apparel you are involved.

Dr. Steve Hayes

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About the Editors

Steven George Hayes, BSc, PhD, CText FTI, FHEA, is a senior lec-
turer in fashion technology management in the School of Materials at The
University of Manchester, where he is engaged in all aspects of learning and
teaching, research and enterprise within the field of fashion technology and
management.
Dr. Hayes initially worked as a maintenance and then production engineer
in the garment manufacturing industry in the UK and Morocco. He was both
a student and a lecturer at UMIST and Manchester Polytechnic/Manchester
Metropolitan University. In 1997, he took up the post of senior lecturer
(manufacturing technology) within the Department of Clothing Design and
Technology at Manchester Metropolitan University and later became a prin-
cipal lecturer for technology where he was responsible for the management
and development of their technology provision.
His original research was concerned with the dynamics of lockstitch for-
mation, the on-line monitoring of stitch formation and the effect of machine
adjustments on thread consumption. Since then, his interests have diversified
and now include the study of ergonomic clothing comfort (functional cloth-
ing) from both a subjective and objective perspective, technology absorption
in newly industrialised countries, design for manufacture in the clothing
industry and the employment and economic implications of off-shore man-
ufacturing. He is the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Fashion Marketing and
Management and has co-authored, edited and contributed to several books
exploring the fields of fashion technology and management.

Praburaj Venkatraman (Prabu), PhD, is a textile technologist and a char-

tered member of the Textile Institute (CText ATI), a senior member at AATCC
(American Association for Textile Colorists and Chemists) and a professional
member of ITAA (International Textile Apparel Association) US, who has
a keen interest in the area of technical textiles with specific focus on func-
tional and performance apparel. He did his BTech (textile technology) from
KCT (Kumaraguru College of Technology), Coimbatore, India, and MSc in
technical textiles (2001) and his PhD in medical textiles (2005) both from the
University of Bolton. He is also a fellow of the Higher Education Academy,
UK. He worked in the apparel industry (India) for 4 years, which involved
technical textiles, and he specialised in nonwoven fabrics ranging from
material testing and product development to garment manufacturing.
Dr. Venkatraman has been a senior lecturer in textile technology at the
Department of Apparel, Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU), UK,
since 2010 and he has led the BSc (Hons) Fashion Materials and Technology
Programme since 2012. He has experience in the design and development

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x About the Editors

of protective garments for sportswear (rugby) using protective pads

and generating design principles of developing compression garments for
sportswear and to enhance well-being. His other areas of interest are in the
development of sustainable methods in denim manufacturing and finishing
process and development of smart wearable textiles for monitoring health.
He maintains research collaboration with academic institutes in Australia,
the United States and India. He has two PhD completions and currently
supervises two PhD students and an MSc research student. He also serves as
external examiner for PhD exams overseas and as a regular reviewer of jour-
nal articles and monographs. He supervises undergraduate projects, MPhil
students and MSc by research students. He widely disseminates his research
work in various journals, workshops and conferences. He teaches textile
materials, technical textiles – performance apparel, textile testing, garment
quality control and management – and product development to a wide range
of undergraduate and postgraduate students at MMU. He also provides tech-
nical support to industry in developing innovative textile materials.
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Contributors

Kathryn Brownbridge Tasneem Sabir

Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester Metropolitan University
Manchester, UK Manchester, UK

Sam Dhanapala Lisa Trencher

Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester Metropolitan University
Manchester, UK Manchester, UK

Simeon Gill David Tyler

University of Manchester Manchester Metropolitan University
Manchester, UK Manchester, UK

Emma Jenkins Praburaj Venkatraman

Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester Metropolitan University
Manchester, UK Manchester, UK

Jane Ledbury Jane Wood

Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester Metropolitan University
Manchester, UK Manchester, UK

Jennifer Prendergast
Manchester Metropolitan University
Manchester, UK

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1
An Overview of the Sportswear Market

Sam Dhanapala

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Definition of the Sportswear Market........................................................... 2
1.3 Sportswear Clothing Market......................................................................... 3
1.4 Competitive Position......................................................................................4
1.5 Consumers and Sportswear.......................................................................... 6
1.5.1 Women and Sportswear.....................................................................8
1.6 Branding Strategies........................................................................................9
1.7 Product Life Cycle......................................................................................... 10
1.8 Key Markets................................................................................................... 12
1.9 Channels to Market...................................................................................... 12
1.9.1 Wholesale........................................................................................... 12
1.9.2 In-Store Formats................................................................................ 13
1.9.3 Flagship Stores.................................................................................. 13
1.9.4 Factory Outlets.................................................................................. 13
1.9.5 Online................................................................................................. 13
1.10 Market Drivers and Emerging Trends....................................................... 14
1.10.1 Economy-Based Issues..................................................................... 14
1.10.1.1 Aging Population............................................................... 14
1.10.1.2 Growth of China, Russia, India and Brazil.................... 15
1.10.1.3 Major Sporting Events....................................................... 15
1.10.1.4 Sports Participation........................................................... 16
1.10.2 Celebrity Endorsement and Sports Sponsorship......................... 16
1.10.3 Technology......................................................................................... 19
1.10.4 Fashion versus Function.................................................................. 19
1.10.5 Mass Customisation......................................................................... 20
1.11 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 20
References................................................................................................................ 21

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2 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

1.1 Introduction
The sportswear market is fundamentally changing because of globalisation
and the popularity of sportswear as part of mainstream fashion. This has
opened up many opportunities for sports and fashion brands alike. This
chapter considers some of the core aspects of sportswear from its definition
to the market driver, considering aspects such as celebrity endorsement,
mass customisation and emerging economies.

1.2 Definition of the Sportswear Market

Sportswear or activewear by definition is about functionality, comfort and
safety with the specification developed and designed to deliver a product
that fits in with the performance needs of the sportsman and sportswoman.
In competitive sports, the implication of the performance of sportswear can
often be the difference between winning and second place.
However, sportswear today is far more than this; with the growth of sports-
wear as a fashion, the term has expanded to include clothing and footwear
worn for leisure as well as clothing and footwear worn by people watching
sports events. Hence, sportswear needs to deliver fashion and, in the process,
the marketplace has seen a convergence between performance, functionality
and fashion, providing further complexities and opportunities for compa-
nies operating in the market.
Size has delivered competitive advantage to the major players in the mar-
ket, such as Nike, Adidas and Puma, with the financial capability to inno-
vate through technology and fashion. Top athletes are often the face of these
brands, in a symbiotic relationship for mutual benefit. The status of sports-
men and -women as celebrities has grown; this, together with sportswear’s
inclusion into mainstream fashion, has allowed companies such as Nike to
capitalise on the trend, with sales growing from $3.9 billion to $27.8 billion
from 1993 to 2014 (Nikeinc.com, 2014).
Inspiring mainstream fashion, today’s sportswear design inspires aspects
of clothing from work wear to evening wear. An example of this is the recent
history of leggings. The introduction of Lycra® made leggings the staple basic
for aerobic fans of the 1970s and 1980s. Since then, leggings have become a
fashion staple and appear in all different guises, varying in length, material,
pattern, colour and texture. This chapter examines the sportswear market,
the companies operating in it and the consumers they serve, looking at the
drivers and issues in the marketplace.
Sportswear can be defined as performance-driven functional clothing
and footwear designed for and worn when playing sports or undertaking
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An Overview of the Sportswear Market 3

recreational pursuits. This is expanded to include sports clothing and foot-

wear design, inspired by performance and function, reflected in clothing
worn for fashion and leisure.
In examining the sportswear market, the focus is on both functional and
fashion sportswear that includes both clothing and footwear designed, man-
ufactured or distributed by sports brands as well as clothing chains’ produc-
tion of their own label sportswear brands. As the two areas of function and
fashion merge, it is increasingly difficult to distinguish one from the other,
with performance clothing and footwear being fashion oriented as well.

1.3 Sportswear Clothing Market

Sportswear is a global phenomenon, according to Euromonitor; as reported
in Retail Week, the sportswear market represented $282 billion worldwide in
2014, a 7% increase on the previous year and outpacing the growth of broader
apparel, which stands at 5.8% of the market (Bearne, 2014; Thomasson and
Bryan, 2014). At this rate, the sportswear market by the end of 2015 could be
worth over $300 billion globally.
Even though there is strong growth in China, India and Russia, by far the
largest market is the United States, which accounts for over 35% of sales glob-
ally (Kondej, 2013). It is predicted that growth in sports-inspired clothing
will be partially evident as function and fashion further converge.
The overall sportswear market can be broken down into sectors by sport-
ing pursuit and leisure wear:

• Outdoor pursuits include such things as cycling, hiking, mountain-

eering, snow sports and sailing, including a wide variety of leisure
wear for both function and fashion.
• Leisure wear excluding outdoor wear includes items like T-shirts and
polo shirts, sold under the sportswear brand or sportswear category.
• Team sportswear is items worn for football and rugby by the players
as well as the exponential number worn by the many supporters are
included in this category.
• In running there has been a surge in the running sportswear mar-
ket due to innovation in running gear. The growth in use amongst
women has been particularly noticeable as it is seen as a simple, fast,
accessible way to fitness and good health without the need of a part-
ner, special equipment, a gym membership or even much time.
• For aerobics and indoor fitness, weight loss is still the key driver that
instigated gym membership, together with a proliferation of aero-
bic type exercise classes. The rapid increase of obesity rates in most
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4 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

of the Western world has resulted in government intervention and

the aerobic industry targeting this sector. Even though this is not a
professional sport, the technology behind aerobic clothing, together
with its fashion, is an important driver.
• Swimwear includes performance swimwear, high-fashion bathing
suits and everything else in between. More so than most other
sportswear segments, aesthetics and fashion play an important role,
with the majority of sales being for women’s swimwear.
• In racket sports, stars such as Serena and Venus Williams have revolu-
tionised tennis sportswear, where the unconventional has become nor-
mal, with a deviation from the classic white suit. Venus has designed
her own collection, Eleven, and Serena has a range developed by Nike.
• In golf, the clothing market, dominated by Nike Golf, consists of a
range developed for the golfer that features performance, comfort
and fashion.

1.4 Competitive Position
There appears to have been a polarisation in the major sportswear brands
with Nike and Adidas being the largest globally, as seen in Figure 1.1. Nike’s
market share not only is the largest, but is also growing, with sales for the
year ending 31 May 2014 at $27.8 billion representing a 52% increase over the
previous 5 years.
The strong market position of Nike and Adidas points toward an oligopo-
listic market, where a few players control a large proportion of the market.
This has come about through high barriers to entry, where the investment
required for performance materials and technology and functional yet fash-
ionable design is high. Included in the barriers to entry are the extremely
high marketing budgets required for brand building, sponsorship and the
requirement to compete on a global level. To compete effectively investment
is required in most of these areas, not just one.
However, it is important to recognise that there are a number of relatively
smaller players in the top 20 companies – some operating worldwide, oth-
ers focusing on markets such as North America. VF Corporation, Puma
and Asics, although relatively smaller, are large competitors in the market
and represent a dominant force. It is interesting to note that Ante and Li
Ning, Chinese companies supplying predominantly the Chinese market, are
included in the list of top 20 sportswear companies.
Mainstream retailers have also recognised the potential opportunities
in sportswear, with H&M having developed a collection with the help of
Swedish Olympians for the Summer Olympics and Paralympics in Rio de
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An Overview of the Sportswear Market 5

Sales
revenue Type
2013/2014 of
Company Major brands in $ billion Headquarters company
Nike Inc Nike $27.80 USA Public
Converse
Hurley
Jordan
Adidas AG Adidas $18.63 Germany Public
Reebok
Rockport
VF Corp Timberland $6.10 USA Public
The North Face
Nautica
Vans
Puma SE Puma $3.84 Germany Public
Asics Corp Asics $3.02 Japan Public
Amer Sports Corp Amer $2.74 Finland Public
Jarden Corp Jarden $2.72 USA Public
New Balance Athletic New Balance $2.39 USA Private
Shoes Inc Warrior Private
PF Flyers
Under Armour Inc Under Armour $2.33 USA Public
Skechers USA Inc Skechers $1.85 USA Public
Quicksilver Inc Quicksilver $1.81 USA Public
Columbia Columbia $1.69 USA Public
Sportswear Co Sorel
Mountain Hardware
Mizuno Corp Mizuno $1.68 Japan Public
Hanes Brands Inc Champion $1.30 USA Public
Anta Sports Anta $1.19 Hong Kong Public
Products Ltd Fila*
Billabong Int Ltd Billabong $1.00
Li Ning Co Ltd Li Ning $0.95 Hong Kong Public
Fila Korea Ltd Fila $0.75 North or South Korea Private
(or both)
* Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau.

FIGURE 1.1
Top sportswear companies, their brands and sales revenue. (Individually sourced from com-
pany annual reports.)

Janeiro 2016. H&M has agreed to create the outfits for both the opening and
closing ceremonies, as well as a wardrobe for the sportsmen and -women to
wear around the Olympic village. The focus will be more about fashion than
functionality. Topshop has also seen the potential and gone into a 50/50 joint
venture with Beyoncé to launch Parkwood Topshop Athletic Ltd, formed to
produce a global athletic street-wear brand to launch in winter 2015 (Arcadia
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6 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Group, 2014). Whilst unlikely to pose an imminently serious challenge,

a holistic attack by mainstream retailers through price advantage has the
potential of chipping away at the sales of casual and fitness wear of major
sportswear brands such as Nike Inc. and Adidas AG.
Nike, Adidas and Puma have invested heavily in technical fabrics that
deliver improved sports performance. For example, H&M’s fitness tights,
although fashionable at half the price, can’t compare on performance with
the equivalent Adidas running tights made out of the German firm’s pat-
ented quick-drying Climalite material (Adidas, 2015).

1.5 Consumers and Sportswear

When examining the sportswear consumer, there are a number of differ-
ent aspects to consider; this includes the different perception of fashion
and sportswear across the world. In particular the Asian markets are sig-
nificant, with some Asian economies the fastest growing in the world. China
has become a particularly important market for retailers; with its economy
growing at approximately 7% per year, it is projected to become the largest
world economy by 2021 (Economist, 2014). Also, it is important to consider the
drivers and use of sportswear, as well as the profile of the consumers who
purchase sportswear.
As people take up sports as part of an active lifestyle, supporting health
and well-being, wearing sportswear represents an outward sign that you
care about your well-being and are striving to gain a better quality of life.
Maslow refers to clothing as one of the very basic elements in his ‘Hierarchy
of Needs’ (Maslow, 1954), as it is a basic need for survival and keeping warm
as shown in Figure 1.2. Fashion, on the other hand, is more to do with self-
esteem, where fashion represents image and personality. Sportswear to a
broad degree fits into self-esteem; however, brands such as Nike, using strap­
lines such as ‘Just do it’ and ‘Game on World’ reaches out and inspires the
type of consumer looking for self-actualisation.
This model views an individual as autonomous and free to make deci-
sions based in the main on personal desires and wants, perhaps a Western
perspective. However, this model does not always hold true when consid-
ering Asian cultures and peoples (Figure 1.3) (Schütte and Ciarlante, 1998).
Whilst the two lower levels remain the same, it is suggested that the three
highest levels emphasise the importance of social needs. Once an Asian indi-
vidual is accepted by a group, the ‘affiliation needs’ must be satisfied. The
next level, ‘admiration needs’, are fulfilled through actions in a group that
derives respect. At the top of the pyramid is status within society as a whole.
Luxury and branded sportswear displays a symbol of wealth and capability
that others will notice. This, to an extent, explains the growth of sportswear
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An Overview of the Sportswear Market 7

Morality,
creativity,
spontaneity,
problem solving,
lack of prejudice
Self-actualisation
Self-esteem, confidence,
achievement, respect of others
Esteem
Friendship, family intimacy
Belonging
Security of body, employment, resources,
Safety morality, family, health, property

Breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion

Psychological

FIGURE 1.2
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. (From Maslow, A. 1954. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper.)

West Asia

Self-actualisation Status

Prestige Admiration

Belonging Affiliation

Safety Safety

Psychological Psychological

FIGURE 1.3
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and the Asian equivalent. (From Schütte, H. and Ciarlante, D.
1998. Consumer Behavior in Asia. Washington Square, NY: New York University Press.)

and luxury goods in Asian countries. Whilst the growth in prosperity of

Asian economies correlates with the growth of sportswear and luxury in
these economies, there is evidence to suggest that a higher proportion of
income is spent on these items than in Western society.
The drivers to purchase sportswear can be grouped into the specific pur-
poses: firstly to actively participate in sports, secondly to wear sportswear
for fashion and thirdly to wear it for leisure and comfort. Each item of sports-
wear in a consumer’s wardrobe may have a different function and their func-
tions may not be mutually exclusive, as can be seen in Figure 1.4.
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8 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Sportswear
for active
participation

Sportswear
Sportswear
for comfort
for fashion
and leisure

FIGURE 1.4
Function of sportswear.

In order to understand who actually wears sportswear, it is possible to

use commercial segmentation systems such as Mosaic from Experian, which
is available in most of the major countries in the world (Experian, 2015).
Experian has gone one step further in the UK to devise ‘fashion segments’.
Using Experian’s fashion segments, it is possible to identify the profile of the
UK sportswear consumer. The profiling system classifies all 44 million UK
adults, split by gender into 20 female profiles and 15 male profiles catego-
rised by their attitudes and behaviour when purchasing clothing.
Using fashion segments it is clear that the male consumer has a younger
profile but is not necessarily sports active. Interestingly, most males under
35 years shop in sportswear stores and wear sportswear; the direct target
market represents about 30% of the UK male population. Women’s wear cloth-
ing is by far the largest clothing sector. Fashion segments identify 20 female
profiles, from which sportswear straddles across all profiles of women under
45 years, worn for casual leisure wear, fashion and sports exercise (Experian,
2009). This is represented by the strategy adopted by both Adidas and Nike,
for whom women have become a key opportunity for growth and gaining
market share, with not only products but also campaigns and sub-brands
created for this market.

1.5.1 
Women and Sportswear
The sporting arena has been dominated by men, especially in team sports
such as football, where the women’s teams are almost unknown. In fact,
in Brazil women’s football was banned between 1965 and 1982 by the rul-
ing military government. However, prominent sportswomen in individual
sports include Serena Williams and the IndyCar racer Danica Patrick. In
addition, there is a close affiliation between women and sports apparel, with
Jessop (2013) recently reporting women’s college sports apparel sales seeing
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An Overview of the Sportswear Market 9

triple-digit growth. The consumer apparel market is gender specific with

apparel brands overhauling their women’s apparel to create designs that
fit women’s bodies and appeal to their tastes not only aesthetically but also
functionally.

1.6 Branding Strategies
The dominant market position gained by Nike and Adidas has not taken
place by accident; it has come about through careful consideration of cus-
tomer needs and wants. In order to do this they have developed a portfolio
of brands, put together in a coordinated and complementary way so that the
customer perception of each brand is clear and distinctive. Sub-brands have
also been developed to take account of different consumer needs in terms of
performance, fashion and function.
However, the challenge is to manage a portfolio of brands in a way that
the cannibalisation of one’s own customers is minimised. Cannibalisation
means that marketing efforts are duplicated as well as confusing to the cus-
tomer. As the sportswear market has developed the needs and wants of each
customer, it has become more specific; sportswear is not just categorised
between men and women and footwear and clothing, but can also be seg-
mented by type of sport played, the level of technology and performance as
well as differing needs of performance against function and fashion.
Nike’s brand architecture reveals a distinctive portfolio. The Nike core
brand is broken down into sport and sportswear. Nike Sport splits products
by type of sport and training undertaken. The proposition appears to be
that the functional performance sportswear focus is on both clothing and
footwear. The Nike Sportswear range, on the other hand, focuses on fashion-
driven casual clothing. The Jordan range is a premium collection of sports-
wear inspired by Michael Jordan – but still very much part of Nike, with the
distinctive swish appearing alongside the Jordan logo. Converse, Hurley
and Nike Golf also have very distinctive propositions, differentiated from
the company’s core brand. In 2012 and 2013, Nike disposed of both Umbro
and Cole Haan brands. Umbro, even though very much soccer inspired, did
show a conflict with the Nike brands, so the disposal was understandable.
In comparison, brand architecture adopted by Adidas has a slightly differ-
ent orientation. Adidas Sports Performance focuses on the five key areas of
football, basketball, running, training and the outdoors with the aim of mak-
ing athletes ‘better by making them faster’ (Figure 1.5). Adidas Originals is
based on iconic and authentic sportswear, incorporating style and function-
ality. Sub-brands such as Neo and Y-3 focused on style and fashion rather
than function. Collaboration with Stella McCartney to create the premium
range ‘Adidas by Stella McCartney’ fits within the performance range and
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10 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Brand architecture portfolio strategy

Pure Athletic Athletic Brand Sport Style Style
performer stylite classic driven inspired adopter setter

Competitive Active Casual Sports

sports sports sports fashion

Brand differentiation

Football Running Basketball Tennis Olympic Regional and

sports American sports

Performance training

Fitness

Fitness Fitness
training Studio Classics running Walking

FIGURE 1.5
Adidas brand architecture portfolio strategy. (From Adidas Group. 2012. Annual Report.
[online] Available: http://www.adidas-group.com/media/filer_public/2013/07/31/gb_2012_en​
.pdf [accessed 17 February 2015].)

is seen as a synergy of performance with style, whereas Y-3, the success-

ful collaboration designed by Yohji Yamamoto which has been going on for
over 10 years, is more to do with sports-inspired fashion. Reebok fits within
the brand portfolio as the brand focusing on fitness. Looking at the overall
brand architecture it is clear that the company is reaching out to a broad
audience. The broad reach of Adidas and its sub-brands is set up to reach
almost anyone and positions Adidas well in its challenge to Nike to be the
leading sportswear brand in the world.

1.7 Product Life Cycle

Traditionally, products follow a life cycle. Kotler and Armstrong (2004) iden-
tify that through the life cycle a product goes from introduction to growth,
maturity and, finally, decline, and the timescale can vary; this can be seen
in Figure 1.6. Clothing is no exception, but due to the fast and fickle nature,
fashion products have short life spans and hence a shorter time for a busi-
ness to reap the rewards of a fashion trend. On the other hand, functional
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An Overview of the Sportswear Market 11

Introduction

Maturity
Growth

Decline
Sales

Time

FIGURE 1.6
Product life cycle. (From Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. 2004. Principles of Marketing. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.)

sportswear appears to have a longer product life cycle; historically, sports-

wear items are purchased as a replacement or a spare item. However, with
the influence of fashion and the different reasons for wearing sportswear,
the life cycle is shortening and now follows fashion life cycles more closely.
This could provide a rationale for growth in the market as spending per head
on sportswear increases.
The highly competitive nature of the market suggests that one brand will
innovate a product and then others will imitate and copy. It is suggested that
this process results in an increase in the life span of a product (Figure 1.7)
(Bass, 1969).

New adopters
Number of new adopters

Imitators

Innovator

Time

FIGURE 1.7
Innovation and imitation life cycle model. (From Bass, F. M., Trichy, V. K. and Jain, D. C. 1994.
Marketing Science 13 (2): 203–223.)
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12 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

1.8 Key Markets
The largest market for sportswear is the United States, which accounts for
over a third of global sales; China represents the second largest market,
with 10% share of sales and Japan is third with 7% (Kondej, 2013). The eco-
nomic growth of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China) is well
documented, with these countries expected to be profoundly influential for
sportswear.
As well as being the largest market, growth in the sportswear market has
steadily continued in North America. In 2010, the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC) in the United States reported 35.7% of American adults
and 17% of American children as obese; this had been the culmination of an
upward trend since the 1960s (Ogden and Carroll, 2011). This has instigated
a drive toward health and well-being in America, which has accelerated the
growth of the sportswear market.
The Chinese market provides an enormous opportunity for sports-
wear brands; Adidas recently commenced a mass media campaign tar-
geted at women, seeing this as a key area for sportswear growth in China.
Penetration into this market is seen as a major opportunity by sportswear
brands. Domestic brands such as Li Ning and Anta operate mainly in China,
yet they are in the top 20 in the world by sales. Japan, on the other hand,
spends more per capita on sportswear than most other nations – in fact six
times more than China (Kondej, 2013).

1.9 Channels to Market
1.9.1 
W holesale
In order to gain global reach, wholesale is a financially safe and fast option
to market. The major sportswear retailers have taken full advantage of this
approach, allowing them to cover nearly every country in the world through
independent distributors and licensees. Major wholesale customers include
Decathlon, Intersport and Footlocker.
Traditionally, the primary channel to market for sportswear brands has
been via wholesale. Proportionally, 81% of Nike’s revenue was via wholesale
in 2013 (including Nike direct to consumer via wholesale), but even though
it remains the major avenue, year after year there has been a fall in the
proportion of sales via this channel (Nikeinc.com, 2014). On the other hand,
wholesale for Adidas accounted for 65% of sales in 2014, even though sales
from wholesale has grown year on year as a proportion of overall sales,
there is a downward trend over the last 5 years.
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An Overview of the Sportswear Market 13

1.9.2 
In-Store Formats
The growth of online sales and the confidence of sportswear retailers such as
Nike and Adidas have resulted in the brand going straight to the consumer.
Adidas’s retail sales account for only 26% of all sales; clearly, it is a growing
channel even though there is still a heavy reliance on wholesale.

1.9.3 
Flagship Stores
These stores provide the opportunity to showcase the brand and have been an
important strategy in internationalisation, where the brand experience can be
gained by visiting the store. Flagship stores in key cities have been a highly suc-
cessful strategy for luxury brands focused on image. Likewise, sports brands
are able to use flagship stores to transcend the image the brand wants to por-
tray. Flagship stores allow control over brand portrayal and have a key role to
play in the brand strategy. The flagship is a showcase with the main objective
being to draw attention and build awareness and reinforce the brand identity.
In addition, it provides an experience to consumers so they can get wrapped
up in the true essence of a brand. It is identified by its prestigious location, and
by being large and opulent; it provides a shopping experience and, in terms
of visual merchandising, is usually an engaging feast for the eye. Adidas is
expanding the concept as part of its expansion across the UK. The company
has opened a flagship store in Leeds, UK, with the full range of Adidas prod-
ucts; this is a key moment in Adidas’s expansion drive with the vision to open
stores across all major cities in the UK. There is also a drive to make the stores
more women friendly, with plans to launch running clubs and yoga classes.
Similarly, the Nike flagship store ‘Niketown’, strategically placed in key
cities around the world, has the same impact in terms of developing brand
image. The location of these stores is critical: Having mainline brands in
close proximity in terms of location aligns with the theory of association.

1.9.4 
Factory Outlets
Such stores have also become a major strategy for sportswear brands. Similarly
to that adapted by luxury retailers, the outlet is usually the main channel for
clearance and excess stock and return, and it forms an important growth strat-
egy for both Nike and Adidas. Factory outlet shopping has become a major
shopping habit of North American consumers; having vast amount of land
to develop these outlets has also been a key driver. During 2011/2012, Adidas
had 45% of its direct sales (excluding wholesale) from factory outlets, with 47%
coming from concept stores and only 5% from online (Adidas Group, 2013).

1.9.5 
O nline
Online shopping has become the norm and part of everyday life. Shoppers
have the bargaining power where they are able to use the Internet to seek
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14 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

out the best prices and offers without national or international barriers. In
addition, the size of a business does not necessarily limit the opportunity to
trade online.
Nike’s first website was created as far back as 1996; sales from the web-
site form a tiny proportion of the company’s sales online (as with Adidas),
accounting for only 1.5% of total sales. Putting this into perspective, by look-
ing at retail sales overall in the United States across all sectors, it accounts
for nearly 6%, and in the UK online sales account for over 10% (­ Nikeinc.­com,​
2014). Even though sportswear brands have not taken full advantage of
online opportunities, there is a major opportunity for sportswear brands to
develop their online presence and increase sales through the web. The web-
site development seen by all five major sportswear brands has represented a
revolution. NikeID and MiAdidas take buying online to a new level, allow-
ing the customer to customise items on the website and have them delivered.
Companies such has Burberry are referred to as being omnichannel, seam-
lessly integrating all their channels; however, sportswear brands have not
been able to develop their offering to quite the same level yet, but this will
change over the next 5 years.

1.10 Market Drivers and Emerging Trends

1.10.1 
Economy-Based Issues
The global recession continues to leave its footprint on the world economy,
with much of the Western world still laden by mounting debt. The impli-
cations have been far reaching: Still relatively high unemployment in the
Western hemisphere together with suppressed consumer confidence and
consumer spending has resulted in challenging times for fashion retailing.
In the UK, the major victim on the High Street was JJB Sports. However,
interestingly, despite the obligatory drop in sales in 2009 after the impact of
the global banking crisis, at a local level both in the United States and other
key markets, there has been a growth in sportswear sales. The apparel mar-
ket has been affected by the recession, as have most sectors; however, after
the initial dip in 2008 and 2009, there has been steady growth in both apparel
and sportswear (Kondej, 2013). Hence, whilst the market may not be immune
from recessionary conditions, the brands and retailers that have ridden the
wave show its strength and endurance.

1.10.1.1 Aging Population

Overall, the world’s population is still increasing and within this, the aging
population (people aged 60 years or over) is set to increase from 11.7% of the
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An Overview of the Sportswear Market 15

world’s population in 2013 to 21.1% by 2050 (United Nations Department of

Economic and Social Affairs, 2013). Traditionally, there has been a negative
correlation between age and propensity to purchase clothing. In addition,
sportswear is purchased mainly as a replacement rather than an addition to
the wardrobe by the older market. The impact could be limited growth glob-
ally and, importantly, in developed growth nations.

1.10.1.2 Growth of China, Russia, India and Brazil

Growth will be significant in the developing nations. It is widely expected
that, by 2020, China will overtake the United States as the world’s larg-
est economy. The world population is over seven billion, of which nearly
20% are in China (Kondej, 2013). This, together with the growing economic
wealth of the country, will create a wealthier Chinese population and open
up new opportunities for sportswear brands. Brazil, India and Russia rep-
resent important growth markets. Nike’s sponsorship of the Indian cricket
team in the Bleed Blue campaign represents the passion felt by the team and
the hearts and minds of the millions of its fans. The passion for cricket in
India, a country with a population of over a billion people, is at all levels and
hence such advertising appeals to a mass audience. This provides Nike the
opportunity to develop mass appeal for its products (Figure 1.1).

1.10.1.3 Major Sporting Events

Consumers in the UK are 12% more likely to buy sportswear when a big
event is taking place (Clifford, 2011). The 2012 London Olympic Games was
a significant market driver and contributed to the growth of the sports-
wear market globally, especially as London 2012 positioned fashion at the
epicentre of the games with a shift from costume to fashion, with func-
tionality and practicality replaced by performance and design. The British
partnership with Stella McCartney positioned the UK as a market leader
of fashion-focused sportswear. The US team sported a Ralph Lauren look,
and Giorgio Armani was responsible for the Italian uniform (Figure 1.8)
(Ukman, 2012).
Sales of branded products increased 250% from the Beijing Games (Adidas
Group, 2012); in addition there was a 14% increase of demand for sports style
products as a result of the Olympics, indicating that the market still offers
opportunities for growth (Adidas Group, 2012). According to Simon Fowler,
managing director, John Lewis, Oxford Street:

London 2012 gave John Lewis the opportunity to tell our unique British
story for the first time to a global audience whilst being part of the great-
est show on Earth. While customer interest in 2012 was about official
merchandise, we are now seeing a great uplift in sportswear sales trig-
gered by the ‘Olympic effect’. (Somerville, 2013)
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16 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Brand Olympic Team Kit Sponsorship

Olympic Teams of Australia, France, Germany, Great Britain and South
Adidas
Africa
Anta Sports China Olympic Team
Asics Olympic Teams of Ireland, Japan and the Netherlands
Cedella Marley for Puma Jamaica Olympic Team
Dirk Bikembergs 4 Adidas
Ceremonial Outfits, France
SLVR
Fila Hong Kong Olympic Team; Hats, South Korea Olympic Team
Giorgio Armani Italian Olympic Team
Hudson’s Bay Ceremonial Outfits, Canadian Olympic Team
Hermès French Olympic Equestrian Team
Ceremonial Outfits, Sweden, Chinese Olympic Team; Basketball Teams:
Li Ning Argentina and Spain; Badminton Teams: Australia, New Zealand and
Singapore, Track and Field: Eritrea and Zimbabwe
Next Ceremonial Outfits, Great Britain
Brazil, Canada, China, Estonia, Germany, Russia, Qatar, Ukraine, US
Nike Olympic Teams; US Men’s Basketball Team; US and Russia Track and
Field Teams
Prada Italian National Sailing Team
Ralph Lauren Team USA
Stella McCartney
Team Great Britain
for Adidas

FIGURE 1.8
Olympics, London 2012 sponsorship of team kits. (Adapted from Ukman, L. 2012. The Fashion
Games. [online] Available: http://www.sponsorship.com/About-IEG/Sponsorship-Blogs/Lesa​
-Ukman/August-2012/The-Fashion-Games.aspx [accessed 17 February 2015].)

1.10.1.4 Sports Participation
Sports participation influences sportswear sales. Statistics from the US Sports
and Fitness Industry Association (2013) show that running, followed by bas-
ketball and then swimming, have the largest level of participation. In terms
of growth, running and jogging, shows a growth of 4.7% over the 5 years
ending 2012 (Sports and Fitness Industry Association, 2013). The picture in
the UK is different: The Olympic effect results in a growth in sports partici-
pation. According to Sport England (2014), in 2013/2014, 15.6 million adults
played a sport at least once a week; this is 1.7 million more than in 2005/2006.

1.10.2 
Celebrity Endorsement and Sports Sponsorship
Celebrity endorsement is a form of marketing communications where the
celebrity is the brand ambassador and represents the brand and its personal-
ity in his or her actions, words and images. Celebrity endorsement is a way
of harnessing the specialism, popularity and personality of the celebrity into
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An Overview of the Sportswear Market 17

the brand. Today celebrity endorsement represents far more than just being
a spokesperson for the brand; the celebrity and the brand have to be intrinsi-
cally connected. For global brands such as Nike, Adidas and Puma, this has
transcended nationalities and cultures. At a national level sports people’s
and athletes’ link to a brand can be very powerful for a brand, providing the
ability to enter a market and gain dominance.
Celebrity endorsement has become synonymous with major sports brands,
used as the main brand-building tool. In theory, sportswear is in synergy
with sports; in the same way there is a strong association with sportswear
and the athlete. By their very nature driven to perform and ultimately to
win, athletes have become celebrities in their own right. Icons in sports such
as David Beckham and Michael Jordan have resilience and longevity – so
much so that Beckham and Jordan have become brands in themselves. The
association of sports brands with such icons of sport can transcend an image
of a brand that is difficult to capture in any other way.
For a brand to successfully use the sponsorship of a sporting celebrity,
the celebrity first must have the capacity to win and succeed in the chosen
sport in order to have a positive impact on the brand, but this is not enough
in today’s world. The celebrity must be attractive or have enduring quali-
ties, have intellectual capability as well as a lifestyle that reflects and repre-
sents the brand and should also be credible with the target audience. This in
itself should suffice; however, for the celebrity to truly represent the brand
there should be a meaningful transfer between the brand and the celebrity,
thereby representing compatibility so that the brand is eventually synony-
mous with the sports person – almost a part of his or her DNA in terms of
identity, personality and positioning. It is also important that the sports per-
son connects with the target audience in order for the celebrity endorsement
to work effectively.
In the three-way relationship as shown in Figure 1.9, the celebrity endors-
ing the product should have credibility, have expertise in his or her field, be
trustworthy, attractive and successful. The celebrity should also be familiar

Consumer

Personality Brand

FIGURE 1.9
Three-way relationship between brand, personality and consumer.
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18 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

to the audience as well as have an affinity to the brand. The aim is to create
the appropriate consumer attitude toward the celebrity and hence the brand.
To find the perfect match between the celebrity and the brand is not sim-
ple; however, it is possible, even when there is not a perfect match, to focus
on the elements that do work. Wayne Rooney’s sponsorship with Nike has
been challenging at times; however, Rooney has emerged as a highly suc-
cessful brand ambassador, with passion for his sport, as reflected in the 2006
World Cup advertising campaign. The controversial advertisement showed
Rooney drenched in warrior style red paint. It was a powerful statement
representing the raw desire to succeed, which had a strong resonance with
Rooney’s personality.
The budget for a celebrity endorsement runs into millions. Usain Bolt’s
sponsorship with Puma is worth $8.6 million yearly (Weir, 2013). Puma not
only sponsored Bolt but also enlisted Cedella Marley to design the 2012
Olympic kit for the Jamaican team.
Once they are on top of their game sports stars are capable of fusing the
world of fashion and sport. Sometimes the relationship goes further and they
engage with fashion design as well. Serena Williams and David Beckham
are such examples.
More than occasionally, the sports personality does not live up to expec-
tations and, even worse, negative issues in his or her life can influence the
appeal of the brand. Lance Armstrong, Oscar Pistorius and Tiger Woods
have all had a negative influence and damaged Nike’s brand; in such cases
the brand dissolves the sponsorship and distances itself from the sporting
celebrity.
Yet sponsorship remains an important tool for sports brands. Sponsorship
without words implicitly links the brand with heroes of the hour as they are
seen wearing the logo. The International Events Group (IEG) $14.35 billion
was spent in 2014 on sporting sponsorship in North America; accounting
for 70% of the total spent overall for sponsorship in the region. On a global
level IEG estimates the sponsorship industry is worth over $55 billion in 2014
(Sponsorship.org, 2015). Clearly, sports sponsorship is important because it
is seen ultimately as a driver of sales for the respective brands. However,
there appears to be a swing in the type of sponsorship offered by sports
brands. Rather than sponsoring individual athletes, there appears to be a
shift toward sponsorship of teams and events.
Nike’s estimated $2.7 billion annual marketing budget is being spent
(Nikeinc.com, 2013) on supplying the NFL league with uniforms for all its
32 teams, and it is the official soccer ball sponsor for the English Premier
League, the FA Cup and the national football teams of Brazil, England, the
United States, the Netherlands, France and Portugal, to name but a few. In
addition, it sponsors major soccer teams such as Manchester United, Paris
St. Germain, Porto and Inter Milan. The company’s ‘Find Your Greatness’
campaign during the London Games focused on everyday athletes. There is
a growing belief that sponsorship of a team rather than an individual will
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An Overview of the Sportswear Market 19

bring about the required revenue. Nike is aggressively pursuing some of

Adidas’s team sponsorships as well, recently announcing that, beginning
in 2017, it will be the sponsor for the national UK Athletics team. The deal
makes it a bit less conflicting for British athletes such as Mo Farah, who wore
Nike shoes but was clothed in Adidas-branded team gear in his winning
Olympic 2012 races.

1.10.3 
Technology
There has been an intrinsic change in sportswear with a parallel evolution
in the technology used. Sportswear is getting lighter, more breathable and
improving in wicking, flexibility, fit and strength, to name but a few tech-
nological developments. Added to this there is a continuous drive toward
performance-driven design. This design is further enhanced to take account
of style and fashion – so much so that the crossover between sportswear and
fashion is increasingly seen in mainstream fashion. Rather than evolution-
ary, this could be a revolutionary change in the way sportswear is worn and
used and what it represents.

1.10.4 
Fashion versus Function
As the purpose of sportswear evolves and diffuses, fashion and sport have
an even closer association. Fashion influences are seen all the way from per-
formance sportswear to casual sportswear; similarly, the look and feel of
sportswear is present in many collections from couture to ready-to-wear to
mass market.
It can also be argued that sports clothing and footwear are now predomi-
nantly purchased with limited consideration of the products’ intended active
purpose and instead have been popularised for everyday use, further blur-
ring distinction between fashion and sportswear. The drive for this collabo-
ration of fashion and function had been customer and brand driven. From a
brand perspective, it presents an opportunity to expand product usage and
frequency of purchase as well as appealing to new market segments – hence,
the opportunity for growth. The consumer, on the other hand, has seen a
relationship between sportswear and the image it represents when worn. It
represents modernity, health and well-being, all linked to self-esteem and
fashion.
Bringing fashion into performance sportswear is about making clothing
worn for sports fashionable. The reasons are many: for example, to increase
the frequency of purchase so that sportswear is bought not just as a replace-
ment but also as an addition to the wardrobe. It also inspires individuals
to take up sport who might not have done so otherwise – thus growing the
market and hence sales and the profile of the brand in terms of standing out
from the competition. Whether seen being worn in the gym or running or
in taking part in a competitive sport, this clothing more and more needs to
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20 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

represent the individual’s fashion sense. Celebrity culture and the need to
look good no matter what the occasion is have, to a degree, fuelled this drive.
There is also a change in lifestyle where someone may need to go straight
from work to the gym. Yoga pants can be worn with boots to work and then
to the gym with trainers; it is this dual functionality that has come into
sportswear and hence a drive to be fashionable. On the other end, ideas from
sportswear performance design and technology are inspiring fashion. Yohji
Yamamoto’s decade-old collaboration with Adidas on the Y-3 collection is a
marriage of the avant-garde design of Yohji Yamamoto and innovation and
technology behind Adidas.

1.10.5 
M ass Customisation
Both Nike and Adidas have been offering mass customisation for over a
decade. However, the real opportunity for growth from mass customisa-
tion has come through advances in functionality of the websites, allowing
consumers to customise products online and see graphically what they are
producing. Traditionally, Nike and Adidas have had a vertically integrated
footwear strategy. Therefore, the structure was in place to facilitate this.
However, the ability for consumers to customise their own footwear on the
website makes it convenient and flexible. In addition, customers can play
around with the item to get the look they want. This closer contact between
the end consumer and the brand provides an engagement with the brand
and the end consumer, which is an important direction for both Nike and
Adidas as they strategically build their direct business in a drive to get closer
to the consumer – an opportunity that is difficult to create through whole-
sale channels. From the customer perspective the issue is that there is no
return unless the item itself is faulty and the lead times on average are about
3 to 4 weeks. In addition, there is no sales advisor to guide and advise them.
Nevertheless, this has been a strategic move by the larger players to engage
with customers directly and build their direct business.

1.11 Conclusion
It is clear that the potential of sportswear marketing is just being realised
and that, as competitors scrabble for market dominance, innovative ideas
and practices have resulted in sportswear that is both fashionable and func-
tional. This chapter has considered some of the current issues and future
directions that are emerging.
Responding to increased competition from High Street retailers, sports
brands are focusing far greater emphasis on direct consumer sales through
innovative in-store approaches and online developments that deliver an
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An Overview of the Sportswear Market 21

enhanced customer experience. In addition, sports brands are slick in their

capability to forge strong symbiotic links with key individuals through
celebrity sponsorships and designer collaborations.
Whilst the size and dominance of Adidas and Nike have shadowed many of
the other players in the market, globalisation and the growth of the Chinese
markets have seen the emergence of Asian brands such as Ante and Li Ning.
Is there an opportunity for these brands to capture a larger share of the rapidly
growing Asian market or even to enter Western markets with greater impetus?

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22 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

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2
Fibres for Sportswear

Praburaj Venkatraman

CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 24
2.2 Fibre Properties and Modifications............................................................ 26
2.3 Terms Used for Assessing Fibre Performance.......................................... 26
2.4 Physiological Parameters............................................................................. 29
2.4.1 Mechanism of Body Perspiration and Temperature
Regulation..........................................................................................30
2.4.2 Stretch and Recovery........................................................................ 31
2.5 Fibres for Sportswear................................................................................... 33
2.5.1 Microfibres.........................................................................................34
2.5.2 Hollow Fibres....................................................................................34
2.5.3 Bicomponent Fibres.......................................................................... 35
2.5.4 Thermoregulation Fibres................................................................. 36
2.5.4.1 Cellulose Blends................................................................. 40
2.5.5 New Developments in the Fibre Industry..................................... 40
2.6 Market Trend and Overview....................................................................... 41
2.6.1 Market Drivers.................................................................................. 41
2.7 Widely Used Fibre Types for Sportswear.................................................. 41
2.8 Fibre Types and Blends Affecting the Performance of Garments.........42
2.9 Moisture Management.................................................................................43
2.9.1 Moisture Management Fibres......................................................... 45
2.9.2 Wicking in Activewear Products.................................................... 46
2.9.3 Maintaining Body Temperature..................................................... 47
2.10 Discussion and Summary........................................................................... 47
References................................................................................................................ 49
Useful Resources.................................................................................................... 51

23
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24 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

2.1 Introduction
Fibres have a wavy undulating structure and contribute many characteristics
to the fabrics that are significant for the performance of functional clothing
and sportswear. Sportswear depicts a multitude of attributes; for instance,
it provides functional support, enhances performance, protects athlete from
strain/injury, promotes sporting activity, communicates fashion and style
and, more importantly, offers the wearer comfort. The most vital factor that
fibres/filaments contribute toward wearer comfort is moisture and thermal
balance leading to a suitable microclimate next to the skin. O’Mahony and
Braddock (2002) highlighted that in the UK, ‘sportswear’ often refers to active,
performance clothing designed and manufactured for sports-related activ-
ities. However, in the United States it includes casual leisure wear. In this
chapter, sportswear refers to those garments intended for professional sports.
Fibres influence the overall comfort of the wearer, mainly in providing a
balance between heat loss and body perspiration. In recent years, there has
been a tremendous increase in the development of new fibres to cater to the
fast growing sportswear and functional clothing market. The demand for
performance sportswear drives innovation in fibres and fabrics (Rigby, 1998).
Nylon was the first synthetic fibre (made in 1935 by E. I. DuPont de
Nemours, Wilmington, Delaware), and since then a number of fibres have
been produced. Nylon was originally used in toothbrush bristles, and the
first recognised textile product made of nylon was nylon stockings replac-
ing silk stockings. Commercial nylon stockings appeared in the market in
1938 (Humphries, 2009). Polyester had been used in sportswear since the
1970s because of its dynamic properties resulting in fabrics that are resilient,
dimensionally stable, easy care, durable and sunlight and abrasion resis-
tant. These properties make it ideal for an array of sportswear applications
(Kadolph, 2007). Synthetic fibres have been widely preferred for activewear
due to the multitude of performance enhancements they offer compared to
natural fibres (Kirkwood, 2013). Natural fibres are often blended with syn-
thetic fibres to achieve an optimised performance. For example, cotton is
used in apparel because it absorbs perspiration, but it saturates quickly,
causing discomfort due to fabric cling. Hence, cotton and polyester are often
blended to gain comfort without cling.
Today, highly functional fibres (Hongu and Phillips, 1997), microfibres
(Purane and Panigrahi, 2007), nanofibres (Brown and Stevens, 2007) and
smart fibres (Tao, 2001) have been used in functional clothing. Many claims
have been reported, particularly moisture management, thermoregulation
and performance-monitoring attributes. Fibres used in sportswear and func-
tional clothing are multidimensional and require a number of characteristics
apart from possessing a length-to-width ratio for making a yarn. In the fibre
industry, the parameters that influence performance are fibre fineness, fibre
shape, molecular structure and adding finishes (Hongu and Phillips, 1997;
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Fibres for Sportswear 25

Kadolph, 2014). Typical properties of fibres for sportswear include durability,

absorbance, high moisture regain, lightweight, extensible, colourfast, dimen-
sionally stable and washable. For instance, phase change materials are quite
popular among athletes for thermal regulation, as discussed in this chap-
ter. Hence, textile fibres contribute toward moisture control, thermal regula-
tion and breathability, cooling effects, softness, stretch and UV protection.
Synthetic fibres are found in countless applications in apparel and functional
clothing due to mechanical and chemical properties (Ravandi and Valizadeh,
2011) compared to natural fibres.
There is evidence that innovation in sportswear and performance prod-
ucts is limited in volume and that use of leisure wear and sports-related
fashion clothing is on the rise, which drives the mass market and increases
the consumption of fibres. This could be arguable in the sense of the mass
market reaching a broad population and whether mass customisation is
either a follower or driver in sportswear. Rigby (1998) described a volume
versus performance pyramid, which indicated how market volumes change
as fabric/garment performance increases and hence the price of garments.
However, the volume of garments under production remains higher for low-
performance sports-related street-wear clothing, whilst volume decreases
for high-performance sportswear but the price increases. Innovation is often
linked with product branding and is not related to volume of production.
Lenzing, a leading cellulose fibre manufacturer, reported that during 2012,
84 million tonnes of fibre were produced. According to CIRFS (the European
Man-Made Fibres Association), a review of the world production of cotton,
wool and man-made fibres (1991–2012) showed that the production of cotton
and wool decreased. Cotton production decreased from 46% in 1992 to 31%
in 2012, whilst wool production decreased from 5% in 1992 to 1% in 2012.
However, there were positive trends for production of man-made fibres,
which increased from 49% in 1992 (CIRFS, 2014). This indicates that the con-
sumption of man-made fibres is increasing globally.
In this chapter, widely used fibre types are highlighted and their charac-
teristics are critically appraised. Various technical terms used to ascertain
the performance of fibres are also explained. During intense activity, human
bodies generate heat and sweat, and it becomes essential to understand these
physiological changes in the context of sports activity. Sportswear require-
ments differ from those of fashion apparel and fibres are often blended to
utilise the combined effect of two or three fibres (a typical example would
be wool, polyester and elastomeric fibres). The effect of blending fibre types
on the performance of fabrics is discussed. New developments in the area of
fibres, such as Trinomax AQ®, Outlast®, Nilit® Breeze, Trevira® and TENCEL®,
are reviewed. The market trend for new and smart fibres is ever increasing and
is highlighted in the context of sportswear and functional clothing. The fibres
used in the area of moisture management, wicking and thermal regulation are
discussed and evidence from a wide range of resources is also presented in the
context of those garments worn next to the skin, such as base layer garments,
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26 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

compression vests and trousers, thermal underwear and stretch tights. The
information provided here should be regarded as essential for effective design
and development of performance clothing, particularly sportswear.

2.2 Fibre Properties and Modifications

Fibres possess a wavy undulating physical nature called crimp that can affect
the warmth and resiliency of fabrics. Gupta and Kothari (1997) describe a
textile fibre as a long, thin material which has a high degree of fineness and
outstanding flexibility. In addition, they add that fibres should have good
dimensional and thermal stability, acceptable strength and extensibility. Fibres
are broadly classified into natural, regenerated and man-made fibres (see
Denton and Daniels, 2002). Wool fibres possess a natural three-dimensional
crimp. In the case of synthetic fibres, a texturing process can impart crimp
to manufactured fibres or yarns. Fabrics made from crimped yarn or fibres
tend to be more resilient and have increased bulk, cohesiveness and warmth.
Cohesiveness is the ability of fibres to cling together and is important in
making yarns. Fibre resiliency is the capability of the material to spring
back to shape after being creased, twisted and distorted. Thick fibres pos-
sess greater resiliency because there is more mass to absorb the strain; in
addition, the fibre shape affects fibre resiliency.
US-based Invista promoted its Coolmax® fabric which is a popular brand
among athletes for its ability to wick moisture from the skin, to absorb and
spread moisture to enhance drying rates and to keep the wearer cool and
dry. It is made of lightweight hydrophilic polyester, which is channelled.
The perspiration wicks away from the skin due to capillary action of chan-
nelled fibres (tetra and hexa channels).

2.3 Terms Used for Assessing Fibre Performance

In order to understand the characteristics and performance of fibres, it is
essential to be familiar with the following technical terms (Collier, Bide and
Tortora, 2009; Denton and Daniels, 2002):

• Absorbency: ability to take in moisture (expressed as the moisture

regain), which is the amount of water a dry fibre absorbs from the air
under standard conditions of 21°C and 65% relative humidity
• Table 2.1 presents some widely used fibres and their moisture
regain
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Fibres for Sportswear 27

TABLE 2.1
Moisture Regain of Fibre
Fibre Type Moisture Regain (%)
Acetate 6.5
Acrylic 1.5
Cotton 7.0
Nylon 4.5
Polyester 0.4
Rayon 11.0
Rubber 0
Spandex 1.3
Wool 13.6
Source: ASTM D 1909-04.

• Absorption: a process whereby the liquid is fully absorbed by the

fibre through its structure that is quite common among hydrophilic
fibres (Figure 2.1)
• Adsorption: a process where liquid is taken up between the fibres
on their surface rather than being held within the fibre
• Wicking: the ability of fabric to transfer moisture adsorbed on
fibres from one section to another. Wicking can also occur if liq-
uid is absorbed within the fibre. A smooth surface reduces wick-
ing action. Cotton (hydrophilic) and olefin (hydrophobic) fibres
both possess a good wicking action. Fine fibres with channels are
capable of transporting liquids (e.g. four-channelled INVISTA
Coolmax fabric)
• Moisture regain: the ratio of the mass of moisture in a material to
the oven dry mass, usually expressed in percentage. A dry fibre
placed in a humid atmosphere will absorb moisture
• Hydrophilic: a fibre that has high regain (that absorbs water); also
referred to as ‘water loving’

Water molecules

Fibre Fibre

Adsorption of water Absorption of water

molecules on fibre molecules into the fibre
surface only

FIGURE 2.1
Mechanism of water adsorption and absorption.
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28 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

• Hydrophobic: a fibre that does not absorb water; referred to as ‘water

hating’. Regarding the dimensional stability in water, hydrophobic
fibres shrink less when washed than hydrophilic fibres. With regard
to stain removal, it is easier to remove stains from hydrophilic fibres
because water and detergent are absorbed into the fibre

Fibre absorption affects the overall comfort of the wearer, and some of the
relevant terms are discussed below:

• Skin discomfort: little absorption or wicking and movement of per-

spiration, resulting in a fabric clammy feeling
• Static buildup: fabric clinging to the body or sparks occurring with
fabric made of hydrophobic fibres because of no moisture content to
help dissipate the built-up charge on fibre surface (dirt also clings
onto the fibre surface)
• Water repellence: fibre that resists penetration of water or wetting
but that is not waterproof. Nonabsorbent fibres (polyester, acrylic)
help repel water. Water-repellent finishes (use of fluorochemicals) on
fabrics are popular
• Wrinkle recovery: better wrinkle recovery by hydrophobic fibres
when laundered as they do not swell or absorb water
• Hygroscopic: fibres that absorb moisture without feeling wet
• Thermophysiological: related to optimum balance between the
heat loss and heat generated by the body. This depends on the body
metabolism, thermal regulation mechanism and individual health
condition. One of the important properties of fibres used for func-
tional and activewear clothing is the elasticity and flexibility
• Fibre elasticity: the ability to increase in length under tension (elonga-
tion) and return to original length when tension is released. Stretch and
recovery of fibre/fabric makes a comfortable garment and causes less
seam stress. Complete recovery prevents bagginess in fabric (knees,
elbows), which can be noticed during a stretch and when wearing
close-fitting garments. Fibres that elongate 100% are elastomeric fibres
and typical examples are spandex, elasterell-p, lastol and rubber
• Fibre flexibility: the ability of fibre to bend easily and repeatedly
without breaking. Acetate fibre is a flexible fibre used in garments;
glass fibre is a stiff fibre widely used in technical textiles

Hence, in order to understand the performance of fibres, their charac-

teristics and properties – particularly in the design and development of
functional clothing and sportswear – it is necessary to be familiar with vari-
ous technical terms used in the industry as well as to utilise them during
communication.
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Fibres for Sportswear 29

2.4 Physiological Parameters
In this section, three important factors that are vital for the designing of
sportswear are discussed – namely, body sweat patterns, thermal heat-
ing patterns and stretch and recovery requirements of an athlete. Smith
and Havenith (2012) reported the body mapping of sweating patterns in
athletes: the regional sweat rates were compared between 13 aerobically
trained females and 9 aerobically trained males. For female participants the
regional sweat rate (RSR) showed highest at the central upper back, heels
and foot and between the breasts; the lowest RSRs were observed over the
breast and middle and lower back. These researchers further added that
despite some differences in distribution, both sexes showed highest RSR on
the central upper back and the lowest toward the extremities. Hence, when
designing garments with various fabric components, it is essential to consider
the sweat patterns of the body. For instance, in the case of a sports bra, it is
necessary to have a fabric made of filaments/fibres that wick away the body
perspiration – particularly in the lower central back – and facilitate breathabil-
ity whilst preventing fabric sticking to the body and inhibiting free movement.
Because designing functional clothing (particularly activewear) requires
knowledge of body heat patterns, designers can use the body mapping tech-
nology which W. L. Gore Associates have developed. The body mapping
provides information on heat and moisture formation on various zones of
the body (Performance Apparel Markets, 2012). According to the body map-
ping technology in the case of men (front side/anterior part), sweat zones
are higher in the central torso and shoulders, followed by limbs and arms.
On the back side, the central back, lower back, arms and shoulders are more
prone to sweat formation. In men, the heat zones are neck, shoulders, chest,
ribs, lower limbs and thighs and, in the back part, the upper back, shoulders,
lower back, back thighs and limbs. In the case of women, the heat zones in
the front include shoulders, neck, waist, lower limbs and arms. In the case of
the back side/posterior part, shoulders, central back, thighs and lower limbs
are affected. Hence, whilst designing garments for athletes, care should be
taken to ensure that the different needs of men and women are factored in
and, at the same time, that thermophysiological comfort is balanced by using
appropriate fibres/fabrics in clothing.
Swerev (2003) stated that comfort is not a subjective feeling as it is a physi-
ological process which the body attempts to balance between heat loss and
production. However, most researchers have defined comfort of clothing
differently; for instance, thermophysiological comfort is the way the cloth
helps to maintain heat balance during activity and skin sensational wear
comfort – mechanical contact of fabric with the skin (Saville, 1999). Ravandi
and Valizadeh (2011) added that comfort of clothing can also be affected by
constituents such as physical and chemical properties of fibres, filaments,
yarns and fabrics.
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30 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

2.4.1 Mechanism of Body Perspiration and Temperature Regulation

The human body perspires in two forms: insensible (in vapour form) and
sensible (in liquid form) perspiration, and, to be in a comfortable state, the
sports clothing worn next to the skin should allow both types of perspira-
tion to transmit from the skin to the outer surface (Das et al., 2009). Gleeson
(1998) reported that during intensive activity, body heat production exceeds
1000 W. Some of this heat is dissipated and the remaining heat raises the
body’s core temperature. This rise in temperature is sensed by the skin’s
thermoreceptors, which produce sweat to cool the body. Sweat evaporation
and increased skin blood flow are two of the body’s mechanisms to dissi-
pate heat (Figure 2.2). Inappropriate clothing may affect the ability to lose
heat from the body.
Swerev (2003) reported that in order to feel comfortable thermophysiologi-
cally, there must be an equilibrium between production and heat loss or else
the body’s core temperature changes. Approximately 10% of human heat
loss is due to breathing; the majority of heat loss is through the skin. This
can happen in the form of ‘dry heat transfer’ – through radiation and con-
duction and by ‘moist heat flow’ due to evaporation of perspiration. In both
of these methods, heat is lost via clothing. Swerev further added that how
heat is dissipated depends on fibre composition, yarn and fabric construc-
tion and cut of the garment. In addition, the microclimate between the fabric
and skin can be circulated (convection) and exchanged with the surrounding
air (ventilation). Outlast Technologies analysed the skin temperature in vari-
ous parts of the body and reported that the body’s core temperature is 37°C
and skin temperature is between 31°C and 35°C, including abdominal area
(35°C), head (34.4°C), shoulders and upper thighs (34.3°C), wrists (31.4°C),
hands (31.6°C), ankles (30.8°C) and feet (30.8°C–31.6°C). A small fluctuation
in temperature will lead to discomfort and affects performance (Swantko,
2002). Hence, it can be inferred that designing functional garments with
effective heat and moisture management depends on awareness of body heat
and sweat pattern.

Excess heat
dissipates

Need to
Exercise/ Sweat regulate body
Increases the Body
sporting production to perspiration External
metabolism produces heat
activity cool the body and regulate
heat environment

FIGURE 2.2
Mechanism of body perspiration and temperature regulation.
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Fibres for Sportswear 31

Gavin et al. (2001) investigated whether temperature regulation improved

during exercise (running and walking) in moderate heat when wearing
clothing (evaporative polyester fabric) which was supposed to promote
sweat evaporation compared to conventional cotton garments. No dif-
ferences were observed during and after exercise. It was concluded that
clothing did not affect the thermoregulation during exercise. However,
recently an Israel-based producer of nylon 6.6 yarns reported on its Nilit
Breeze (http://www​.nilit.com), which promoted its products, maintaining
the thermal balance. The filaments are made of a flat cross section that
quickly transfers body heat; the polymer contains inorganic particles that
increase surface area and promote cooling. Textured filament offers bulki-
ness for added ventilation and breathability. The producer further added
that the Nilit Breeze sleeve lowered the body temperature by 1°C compared
to a standard sleeve when tested on a thermal sweated mannequin. Hence,
there is mixed reaction with regard to regulation of clothing addressing
body temperature.

2.4.2 Stretch and Recovery

Stretch fabrics have become a staple in sportswear apparel due to the
increased comfort and fit the highly extensible fibre can offer. Voyce, Dafniotis
and Towlson (2005) explained how a person’s skin stretches considerably,
with some key areas of stretch including 35% to 45% at knees and elbows;
with sporting activities increasing such numbers, stretch of sportswear
apparel is key for comfort. Although elastomeric fabrics are used to improve
comfort, tighter compression garments are becoming more desirable in the
market. Normal body movement expands the skin by 10% to 50% and stren-
uous movements in sports will require least resistance from a garment and
instant recovery. Stretch and recovery of garments depends on the fibre con-
stituents (textured, elastomeric, microfibre), yarn formation (ply yarn or core
yarn), fabric structure (woven or knitted) and any fabric finishes. Elastane
yarns are characterised by their ability to recover from stretch and they are
often used in stretch fabrics. Figure 2.3 illustrates various body postures that
undergo stretch and require support.
BISFA (International Bureau for the Standardization of Man-Made Fibres)
has described elastane as ‘a fibre composed of at least 85% by mass of a seg-
mented polyurethane which, if stretched to three times its un-stretched
length, rapidly reverts substantially to the original length when the ten-
sion is removed’ (BISFA, 2014). Widely used elastane Lycra® was developed
by INVISTA. In a recent report INVISTA claimed that Lycra SPORT fab-
ric was specifically created to improve athletic performance and comfort.
It added further that sportswear characteristics, including compression,
freedom of movement and comfort, are essential for athletes of all levels
and in most sports, from the fastest sprinters and cyclists in the world to
swimmers, gymnasts or rugby players. INVISTA developed a three tiered
 32

(a)
(b)

FIGURE 2.3
Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Different body stretch movements: (a) men and (b) women. (Courtesy of Shutterstock.)

USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL

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Fibres for Sportswear 33

end use performance standard for athletes: ‘Lycra sport fabric’ for active
performance; ‘Lycra sport beauty fabric’, combining performance with
beauty and style to assist in ‘looking in shape while getting in shape™’;
and ‘Lycra sport energy fabric’, innovated for compression fabrics used in
high-intensity and high-energy-sports. Lycra sport energy provides 100%
stretch in both directions, to maintain freedom of movement as compres-
sion garments are worn tight. There are minimum recovery powers at 40%
and 65% of fabric stretch and normal hysteresis for consistency in stretch
and recovery (Lycra, 2012).
Elastane yarns are often covered with another fibre or filament and are not
used on their own. This provides more bulk and improves abrasion resis-
tance. The main end uses for the yarns are garments and other products
where comfort and fit are important. Typical examples are sports and leisure
wear, swimwear, elastic fabrics and stockings (BISFA, 2014). Generally, casual
garments are designed with 2%–5% elastane for added comfort and stretch;
however, sportswear such as tights have up to 10% elastane. However, com-
pression garments that apply mechanical pressure use up to 40% elastane.
Hence, based on the end uses, desired stretch can be designed by varying the
composition of elastane fibres.
Senthilkumar and Anbumani (2011) recently reported dynamic elastic
recovery (DER) of elastic knitted fabrics intended for sportswear at differ-
ent extension levels by determining the stress/strain of fabrics. They stud-
ied two types of fabrics with different types of yarn: spandex core cotton
spun (SCCS) yarn and spandex back-plated cotton (SBPC) yarn with identical
fabric geometry (wales per centimetre, stitch density, loop length, etc.) and
evaluated the DER behaviour. They found that at 20%–30% extension, the
fabric loop deformation can take place with no change in the residual energy
of elastane; however, at 40%–50% extension, fabric undergoes stretch, which
may cause yarn slip in the structure. They concluded that SBPC fabric had
higher DER value (higher stress) than SCCS fabric, claiming that SBPC fabric
had good elastic recovery, which enhances the wearer’s performance and
supports in muscle recovery. It can be inferred that clothing intended for
sportswear with strenuous activity requires stretch and recovery, particu-
larly those that are worn skin tight (e.g. compression garment) compared
to leisure wear or basic sportswear. Careful planning and factoring these
parameters results in a garment that is fit for purpose.

2.5 Fibres for Sportswear

This section discusses the importance of microfibres, hollow fibres and
bicomponent fibres used in functional garments, highlighting their charac-
teristics and typical uses.
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34 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

2.5.1 Microfibres
Fine-diameter fibres less than 1 denier are often termed microfibres and
have valuable properties. They are soft, durable and drapeable, possess high
absorbency and are used for high-performance end uses, especially sports-
wear. They are produced through melt spinning with strict process control,
resulting in a uniform and high-quality polymer. Fibres with <0.5 denier
cannot withstand tensile forces of melt spinning. Commercially, nylon, poly-
ester, acrylic and rayon are available in the market. Ultrafine fibres are less
than 0.3 denier per filament. Microfibres are manufactured by a bicomponent
process using two different polymers that do not mix (Collier et al., 2009;
Purane and Panigrahi, 2007). A typical example is by producing a bicompo-
nent fibre in islands-in-the-sea formation and then dissolution of the sea part
of the fibre leaves the tiny microfibres.

2.5.2 Hollow Fibres
Hollow fibres were introduced in the 1980s; their cross section is hollow and
available in round, trilobal or square shapes. The hollow fibres are resil-
ient, have better recovery, are bulky and provide better thermal insulation
by trapping air. Hollow polypropylene fibres are lightweight and soft and
offer good thermal insulation used in thermal underwear (Ravandi and
Valizadeh, 2011). Microfibres are finer than delicate silk and offer excellent
draping, luxurious handle, resistance to shrinkage, superabsorbency and
strength (Purane and Panigrahi, 2007). These properties enable them to be
used in a wide range of applications.
Hollow fibres are made of a sheath of fibre material with one or more
hollow spaces at its centre (Figure 2.4). It is produced using C-shaped spin-
neret holes; molten fibres relax after extrusion; open ‘c-form’ structure closes
to produce a hollow fibre. There is also a spinneret hole with a solid core

FIGURE 2.4
Hollow fibres. (Source: IBWCh.)
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Fibres for Sportswear 35

around which polymer flows and produces hollow fibre. Hollow fibres
offer increased absorbency and can act as filters for kidney dialysis, and as
carriers of carbon particles for safety clothing in contact with toxic fumes
(Collier et al., 2009).

2.5.3 Bicomponent Fibres
Bicomponent fibres have been in use as technical textiles for quite some time.
Fibres consist of two polymers which are chemically or physically differ-
ent or both. Bicomponent fibres can be produced with two variants of the
same generic fibre, two types of nylon, two types of acrylic or two generi-
cally different fibres of polyester or nylon, nylon and elastane. Based in
Belgium, Centexbel has an extrusion plant that manufactures bicomponent
fibres. Different types of bicomponent fibres are produced based on the end
use (see Table 2.2). Bicomponent fibres are made of two components distrib-
uted over the entire length of the fibre (Centexbel, 2014). They are available

TABLE 2.2
Different Types of Bicomponent Fibres
Name Bicomponent Fibre Characteristics and Uses
Concentric Used in melt fibres with sheath made from polymers
sheath core with a low melting point around a core with a high
melting point. During heating the sheath will melt;
consequent cooling will bind the structure. This is
used with fibres of different melting point, for
instance, sheath is made from polymers with a low
melting point around a core which has a high
melting point.
Eccentric As in the preceding description, two polymers are
sheath core used; however, the core is off centre. Due to
different shrinking ratios of polymers the fibre will
curl when heated in a relaxed state. It is possible to
add crimp and volume.
Side by side Both polymers share an equal part of fibre surface.
Fibre can develop more crimp than the eccentric
sheath/core.
Pie wedges This is made of 16 adjoining pie wedges. Each pie
wedge of polymer is flanked by another polymer.
Microfibres (0.1 to 0.2 denier) are produced by
splitting them by mechanical action. It is possible to
provide a hole in the middle of the pie wedge to
split the filaments more easily.
Islands/sea In this type, one polymer (gray) represents the island
and the other polymer (black) represents sea. This
structure allows producing fine microfibres by
dissolving the latter, which is easier than extruding
fine fibres directly.
Source: Centexbel © 2014. (Images reproduced with permission.)
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36 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

in staple, filament and microfibre formats. By extruding two polymers in

one single fibre, the different properties of both polymers can be extracted
(Figure 2.5). Bicomponent fibres are used in a wide range of functional prod-
ucts including sportswear.
Puma recently developed sportswear, including T-shirts, shorts and sweat-
shirts that incorporate patented Celliant® technology. Celliant is a brand
name for a bicomponent fibre made from polyester which contains a blend
of minerals and proprietary ingredients embedded in the core of the fibre
(Performance Apparel Markets, 2013). Celliant technology absorbs and stores
the electromagnetic energy emitted from the body (in the form of infrared
light) and releases it to be reabsorbed into the skin and tissue.

2.5.4 Thermoregulation Fibres
ADVANSA Thermo°Cool® is a combination of fibre shapes – channelled fibres
and hollow fibres – that creates additional spaces within the fibres that allow
better circulation of air, thus improving significantly the fabric’s evaporation
capability (Giebel and Lamberts-Steffes, 2013). Outlast Technologies’ PCMs
(phase change materials) are located in the fibre. The fibres are spun into yarns
and are intended for fabrics worn next to the skin. The Outlast technology
uses the PCMs, which absorb, store and release the heat for optimal thermal

Component B
Component A
Component A Component A
Component B

Side by side Sheath-core

FIGURE 2.5
Bicomponent filament extrusion.
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Fibres for Sportswear 37

comfort. Outlast technology has the ability to continually regulate the skin’s
microclimate. As the skin gets hot, the heat is absorbed, and as it cools, that
heat is released.
As illustrated in Figure 2.6, Outlast’s technology works on the principle
where excess heat generated by the body due to harsh external environment
or intense activity is absorbed by the Outlast microthermal fibres. The stored
heat is released back to the body as needed, maintaining the temperature.
The company claims that the fabric made of Outlast fibres offers a constant
microclimate next to the skin. Figure 2.7 shows the thermoregulation pro-
cess pictorially, highlighting three key stages.
Recently Jockey®, a US-based apparel manufacturer, incorporated PCMs
developed by Outlast into its underwear line to maintain good thermal
comfort and keep the wearer comfortable by balancing the heat produced
by the body. The PCMs melt when the surrounding heat rises and then
store surplus energy. When the physical activity decreases, the body cools
down and the PCM’s Thermocules™ solidify and emit the heat which was
stored. This results in improving the comfort of the wearer. Jockey has intro-
duced its product in men’s and women’s underwear (Performance Apparel
Markets, 2011a). Figure 2.8 illustrates the cross section of polyester fibre with
Thermocules; Figure 2.9 illustrate Outlast technologies – acrylic filament
with thermocules, whilst Figure 2.10 illustrate viscose filament with ther-
mocules; they enhance durability and can be laundered many times without
losing performance (Swantko, 2002).

How Outlast® Adaptive Comfort® works

Outside environment
1. Outlast®
Outlast Thermocules®
Thermocules absorb the
excess heat

2. Stored heat is
released to the
Microclimate body as needed
2
3
1

3. The result
is a constant
microclimate
Skin

FIGURE 2.6
Adaptive comfort – Outlast Technologies. (Courtesy of Outlast Technologies LLC.)
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38 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

How Outlast® technology works How Outlast® technology works

Outside
environment
Outlast®

Thermocules™
2 3
Heat is stored Outlast® Stored heat
material is released
1
1 Your skin is exposed to
Excess heat Microclimate temperature changes
is absorbed that affect the body’s
microclimate
Cooling effect
Skin

© Outlast Technologies LLC Skin

(a) (b)
How Outlast® technology works How Outlast® technology works
Outside Outside
environment environment
Outlast® Outlast®
Thermocules™ Thermocules™

2 3
When you overheat, Outlast® technology
Microclimate your body naturally Microclimate absorbs the excess heat
releases the excess body and stores it in patented
heat and sweats to cool Outlast® microcapsules
the skin called Thermocules™

Skin Skin

(c) (d)

FIGURE 2.7
Outlast technology utilizes phase change materials (PCMs) that absorb, store and release heat
for optimal thermal comfort. This is illustrated in panel a where it provides a cooling effect to
the skin. Outlast technology has the ability to continually regulate the skin’s microclimate. As
the skin gets hot, the heat is absorbed, and as it cools, that heat is released. When the skin is
exposed to temperature changes, it affects the body’s microclimate (panel b). When the body
is overheated due to intense activity or exposure to environment, the body naturally releases
the excess body heat and perspires to cool the skin (panel c); Outlast technologies absorb the
excess heat and store in the outlast micro-capsules called Thermocules (panel d). Outlast tech-
nology proactively manages heat while controlling the production of moisture before it begins.
(Courtesy of Outlast Technologies LLC.)

Celliant is a patented technology that absorbs and stores the electromag-

netic energy emissions from the human body and re-emits them back to the
body, where they are reabsorbed into the muscle tissue (Future Materials,
2013) through the use of fibres, converts the body’s natural energy (heat)
into infrared (IR) light and emits it into the body’s tissue and muscles. The
result is a responsive textile clinically proven to benefit the human body,
utilising a blend of minerals and proprietary ingredients embedded into
the fibre’s core. Celliant technology is a blend of proprietary ingredients
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Fibres for Sportswear 39

FIGURE 2.8
Outlast Technologies’ polyester fibre cross section with thermocules. (Courtesy of Outlast
Technologies LLC.)

FIGURE 2.9
Outlast Technologies’ acrylic filament with thermocules. (Courtesy of Outlast Technologies LLC.)

that recycles vibrant energy (heat) leaving the body into infrared light (IR)
and sends it back to the body where it is absorbed by the tissue and muscles.
IR waves are beneficial as they penetrate deep into the tissue. This energy
causes the body to increase circulation and oxygen wherever it is applied.
Celliant is a blend of 13 thermoreactive minerals, including titanium diox-
ide, silicon dioxide and aluminium oxide. Additional proprietary ingre-
dients are blended with polyester fibre to create a variety of staple fibres,
spun and filament yarns and fabric blends (Celliant, 2014). According to
Hologenix, a US-based company, Celliant technology has been shown to
increase oxygenation in the body tissue and reduce body aches and pains.
The technology uses electromagnetic energy emissions in the form of
infrared light produced by the human body. Celliant technology harnesses
the human body’s natural energy and is clinically proven (clinical trials) to
enhance tissue oxygen levels (Performance Apparel Markets, 2013).
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40 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 2.10
Outlast Technologies’ acrylic fibre showing embedded thermocules. (Courtesy of Outlast
Technologies LLC.)

2.5.4.1 Cellulose Blends
Generally, cellulose fabrics tend to absorb water within their fibre structure
and then become heavy and take a longer time to dry. This leads to stretch-
ing of fabric and its clinging to the skin. When the intense activity ceases, the
fabric leaves the wearer cold. However TENCEL® from Lenzing is a synthetic
fibre, which is solvent spun from cellulose widely used in moisture manage-
ment with improved aesthetics and is used in sportswear. Firgo, Suchomel
and Burrow (2006) reported that TENCEL can be used effectively in per-
formance sportswear if the fabric is carefully designed using double-layer
fabrics that have better moisture absorption, moisture spreading, a quick
drying rate, reduced wet-cling behaviour, better balance of water vapour
permeability and thermal comfort and, more importantly, less synthetic
appearance and handle. The two-layer fabric strategy which was tested is
based on the fact that the fabric is made of a hydrophobic inner layer in con-
tact with the skin where the sweat is pulled through the fabric by the hydro-
philic layer, which is the outer layer (made of TENCEL). This outer layer is
ideal for spreading (wicking) the moisture and evaporating it to the environ-
ment. Firgo et al. also reported that, after having researched a number of
blends with polyester, 30% TENCEL and 70% polyester blended yarn fabric
performed better in terms of absorbency, moisture spreading, drying rate, a
good wet-cling index and intermediate water vapour permeability.

2.5.5 New Developments in the Fibre Industry

Trinomax AQ® was recently developed by a joint collaboration between Nilit, an
Israel-based manufacturer of nylon 6.6, and LincSpun yarns, an Australia-based
developer of intelligent yarns and filaments. Trinomax AQ is made by twist-
ing together three types of fibres – Merino wool, textured Nilit nylon 6.6 and
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Fibres for Sportswear 41

Nilit Aquarius – using a proprietary LincSpun™ technology. The resulting yarn

is lightweight, durable and soft, has the ability to regulate body temperature
and wicks moisture. The company claims that performance is durable and lasts
through repeated laundering, and it is intended for a range of products such as
activewear, socks and sportswear (Performance Apparel Markets, 2011b).

2.6 Market Trend and Overview

According to the Research and Markets Report, the UK sportswear mar-
ket grew 5.4% in 2012 with apparel accounting for 71% of the market value
and footwear making up 29%. Among the retail stores, Pentland Group and
Sports Direct have a majority of the market share after JJB Sports entered
administration in 2012. Among sportswear brands Nike and Adidas lead the
market (WSA, 2012b). Euromonitor International reported that global sales of
sportswear are set to rise from US $245 billion in 2012 to US $300 billion by
2017 (Kondej, 2013).

2.6.1 Market Drivers
Major sporting events are drawing attention to various sportswear brands
including sports apparel and footwear companies who want to have a mar-
ket share in the following events.

• Winter Olympics, Sochi, Russia, 7–23 February, 2014

• FIFA Soccer World Cup, Brazil, 12 June–13 July, 2014
• Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 5–21 August, 2016

These events also promote activewear and replica products among fans, sup-
porters of sporting heroes and sports enthusiasts. In addition, the market
would be driven by increasing demand in Brazil, China, the United States
and India (Kondej, 2013).

2.7 Widely Used Fibre Types for Sportswear

In the past, cotton was widely preferred for a wide range of garments until
the advent of synthetic fibres such as polyester, nylon, polypropylene, acrylic,
etc. During the 1970s use of polyester fibres in sportswear predominated,
continuing in the 1980s and 1990s. Polyester is preferred in sportswear
because it is lightweight, cheap to produce, dye-fast, durable, easy to care for,
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42 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

quick drying, hydrophobic in nature and has wicking ability. In addition, the
polyester filament fabrics can be given hydrophilic coating. Hence, polyester
fibre-based fabrics with their hydrophobic cores and hydrophilic coatings
can wick moisture away from its contact with the skin to outer surface to
environment. Polyester is often blended with other natural fibres, mainly
to extract its benefits to maintain moisture management and durability.
CIRFS reported that among man-made fibres, polyester is a dominant fibre
(WSA, 2012a). Many sportswear brands are progressively moving toward
recycled polyester. Adidas was one of the companies that carried out a life
cycle analysis by conducting research on the environmental impact of poly-
ester. Mechanically recycled polyester has a better environmental profile
than chemically recycled fibres; however, chemically recycled fibres have a
wide range of applications in the industry.
Elastane is another synthetic fibre widely preferred for its elasticity (mainly
for stretch and recovery). The elastic nature of filaments is used in sports-
wear to compress muscles, offer stretch for body movements and support in
recovering from muscle soreness. A wide range of sportswear products, such
as foundation garments, swimwear, base layer products, compression tights,
etc. are made of elastane.
Merino wool is widely used in sportswear; for instance, superfine Merino
wool possesses superior water vapour permeability and quick-drying
properties. ADVANSA’s Thermo°Cool can be blended with Merino wool
(50%/50% or 70%/30%) for better thermoregulation and comfort (Giebel
and Lamberts-Steffes, 2013). Merino fibre can absorb up to 35% of its dry
weight in moisture vapour. During strenuous exercise or hot conditions, a
Merino wool garment closer to the skin actively transfers moisture vapour
away from the body. This causes the microclimate above the skin to become
less saturated with vapour, thereby making the wearer feel less clammy and
it is less likely for the vapour to form sweat droplets on the skin’s surface.
Recently, Pearl Izumi, a Japanese cycling and sports apparel company, pro-
moted its cycling jersey with Merino performance technology developed by
Australian Wool Innovation using 19.5 μm wool that promotes comfort and
warmth (Pearl Izumi, 2010).

2.8 Fibre Types and Blends Affecting

the Performance of Garments
The performance of fabrics is dependent on chemical and physical proper-
ties of constituent fibres, yarns and finishes used. Blending different types of
fibres enables utilisation of the advantages of each fibre, which in turn facil-
itates counteracting the disadvantages of other fibres, thus enhancing the
appearance, durability, comfort, maintenance, cost and overall performance.
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Fibres for Sportswear 43

Typical blending includes polyester/cotton, cotton/Lycra, polyester/viscose,

nylon/Lycra, wool blends, Merino wool/acrylic, etc.
Polyester and viscose are quite often blended in apparel applications, since
polyester has excellent durability and wrinkle resistance and is easy to care
for and maintain. Viscose fibres have good absorbency and poor durability
and wrinkle resistance. Das et al. (2009), who investigated the polyester and
viscose fabric blends, demonstrated that blending of fibres has an important
role in moisture-related comfort properties of clothing. The water vapour
permeability and absorbency of fabric increases with the increase in hydro-
philicity of material. However, the wicking decreases with the increase in
viscose proportion. The higher hydrophilic material (viscose) provides better
absorption; however, it reduces spreading, resulting in moisture accumula-
tion and a sticky feeling. Hence, if an athlete produces a lot of perspiration, a
higher proportion of polyester fibres and smaller percentage of viscose will
act as quick absorption of sweat from the skin, and polyester filaments will
help to spread the moisture to the outer surface.
Sampath et al. (2011) investigated the effect of optimum level on comfort
properties of knitted fabrics made of 150-denier polyester filament contain-
ing 34, 48, 108, 144 and 288 filaments. The fabrics were finished with a mois-
ture management finish and were assessed for wetting, wicking and moisture
vapour transmission. The researchers reported that when filament fineness
increases, wicking rate increases to a certain level. The yarn made of 108 fila-
ments had higher wicking. The moisture vapour transmission was higher for
finer fabrics than for fabrics made of coarser filaments. This study highlights
the fact that the number of filaments in a yarn and filament fineness should be
at optimum levels to promote moisture transmission. Filament fineness and
number of filaments in a yarn play a vital role in determining the comfort
characteristics of microdenier polyester knitted fabrics.

2.9 Moisture Management
One of the main requirements of sportswear is moisture management, and
an optimum microclimate (including temperature and humidity) between
the skin and clothing is necessary for an athlete to focus on the sport. To
facilitate the moisture management, the breathability and body tempera-
ture should be regulated. Breathability is the ability of the fabric/garment
to transport the moisture or perspiration from the skin to the environment.
However, intense exercise or sporting activity increases body heat and sweat
is produced to cool the skin’s surface.
Figure 2.11 illustrates the conventional materials that react to body heat
generation; during intense activity, sweat is produced and transported,
accumulated in the garment and results in discomfort. However, the Outlast
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44 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Reactive Proactive

Traditional
wicking fabric Intelligent
Outlast® fabric

Accumulated Excess body

heat is trapped heat is
absorbed
Sweat is Skin Sweat is
produced
minimised
Discomfort
Temperature
begins
is balanced
Sweat is Heat Heat
transported Comfort
is created

FIGURE 2.11
Moisture management between reactive and proactive materials. (Courtesy of Outlast
Technologies LLC.)

technology is proactive, absorbing the excess heat generated by the body;

sweat is minimised and temperature is balanced, resulting in better comfort.
If excess body heat is not removed from the body, the athlete’s performance
decreases; in extreme cases it may result in fatigue, heat stress disorders or
fainting. On the other hand, if the excess body perspiration is not removed
from the body, then the fabric clings to the body, and clothing saturated with
perspiration may rub the skin, resulting in blisters and rashes. The next sec-
tions highlight the importance of breathability and the effect of wicking in
sportswear.
Breathability is measured by determining resistance to evaporative
heat transfer (RET); the lower the RET value is, the higher is the fabric’s
breathability. Breathability can also be evaluated by determining the mois-
ture vapour transfer rate (MVTR), which is the rate at which a fabric allows
the moisture vapour through the fabric – that is, determining the amount
of moisture vapour in grams to pass through 1 m2 of fabric over a 24-hour
period. The Hohenstein Institute has produced results for RET values and
physiological human comfort as ratings of wear comfort (Table 2.3).

TABLE 2.3
Resistance to Evaporative Heat Transfer
RET Value Breathability Wearer Comfort
≤60 Highly breathable Very good
>60 but ≤130 Highly breathable Good
>130 but ≤200 Breathable Satisfactory
>200 but ≤300 Slightly breathable Unsatisfactory
>300 Not breathable Unsatisfactory
Source: Hohenstein Textile Testing Institute GmbH & Co. KG Hohenstein Institute, Germany.
2014.
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Fibres for Sportswear 45

The RET value for a nude person is zero and the value increases as the
clothing layers are increased, thus decreasing the overall breathability of a
fabric. It is necessary to know the breathability of materials whilst designing
layering of garments often used as outdoor sportswear.

2.9.1 Moisture Management Fibres

Trevira, a German-based fibre company, has developed Trevira Perform
Moisture Control, which has excellent moisture management properties.
Fabrics made of this fibre are intended for work wear and sportswear. The fibre
has a dual channel system (Figure 2.12) that accelerates transport of conden-
sation molecules given off from the skin, from inner to outer layer. Moisture
diffuses quickly to the fabric surface, where it spreads and evaporates rapidly.
The inner side of a fabric made of 100% Trevira Perform Moisture Control in
contact with the skin stays drier and prevents a chill effect. The following are
some of the properties that the company claims for its product:

• Very good moisture management

• Rapid dispersion and evaporation of moisture
• Quick drying
• Good pilling characteristics
• Easy care
• Washable, with good fastness standards
• Pleasant handle
• Good electrostatic properties
• Resistant to UV light and chlorine

Trevira Perform Moisture Control – dumbbell shaped with its dual chan-
nel system – accelerates the transfer of perspiration from the skin to the fabric
surface, where it evaporates rapidly; the inner surface of the fabric remains
dry (Trevira, 2014). The graph in Figure 2.13 illustrates the drying time for
woven fabric (at 22°C and 56% relative humidity) made of Trevira Perform

FIGURE 2.12
Trevira Perform Moisture control fibres. (Courtesy of Trevira GmbH.)
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46 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Drying time for woven fabric – air conditions: 22°C,

relative humidity 56%
Trevira Profile Filament PES 100%
120
Remaining moisture time in %

100

80

60

40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Minutes

FIGURE 2.13
Drying time for Trevira Profile. (Courtesy of Trevira GmbH.)

Moisture control fibres and 100% polyester filament yarns. The graph shows
that the drying time of fabric made of Trevira Perform Moisture control was
better than the garment made of 100% polyester filament yarns. Moisture
management using biomimetic pine-cone effect was reported recently,
where the fibres become porous when they absorb moisture, and in dry con-
ditions, the structure opens like a pine cone reducing the air permeability
and increasing thermal insulation property (Inotektextiles, 2014).
Teijin Limited recently reported its development of polyester fibres with
enhanced moisture absorption and quick-drying capabilities to prevent
post­exercise chilling and stickiness from body sweat. The product had been
recommended for sportswear (Teijin Limited, 2014). The fabric made of Teijin
fibres is composed of a three-layer structure with a hydrophobic contact
layer that has moisture-repellent polyester fibres, a moisture-absorbent mid-
dle layer and an outer moisture diffusion layer.

2.9.2 Wicking in Activewear Products

Wicking is the transmission of liquid through a textile by capillary action
(Collier et al., 2009). Wicking or liquid transport properties depend on fibre
type, yarn construction, fabric structure, density and structure of yarns, fin-
ishing treatment, viscosity, relative humidity of the atmosphere and ambient
temperature (Nyoni and Brook, 2010). The capillary channels in the interfibre
spaces and size of the pores greatly determine the wicking. Various stages
involved during the wicking process include (Nyoni, 2003):

1. Uptake of moisture from the skin surface

2. Removal of moisture from the skin and transport through the fabric
surface
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Fibres for Sportswear 47

3. Spreading of moisture within the fabric structure

4. Absorption of moisture within suitable fibres: ‘dynamic’ fabrics
usually
5. Containment of an outer layer of hydrophilic fibres to absorb and
store sweat away from the skin’s surface
6. Evaporation of moisture from the fabric surface

During the last decade or so, there were developments in fibre size and
shape, particularly introducing channels in filaments, such as hexa chan-
nels and tetra channels (e.g. Coolmax), where the capillary action enhances
­wicking action.

2.9.3 Maintaining Body Temperature

Ultimate performance of sportswear lies in providing the optimum micro­
climate next to the skin, and this applies to those garments worn closer to the
body, such as base layer products: sports vests, shorts, underwear, thermal
wear, socks, etc. Beringer (2014) from the Hohenstein Institute, an indepen-
dent laboratory in Germany, recently reported the innovative technology
from CoolCore LLC (http://www.coolcore.com), a company in Portsmouth,
New Hampshire, in providing cooling effects of textiles. Unlike the phase
change material or latent heat storage, CoolCore Technologies uses the
body’s own sweat to achieve cooling and is free from chemicals. Finishes or
chemicals deteriorate over prolonged usage in conventional materials; how-
ever, CoolCore uses the body’s own heat to achieve cooling.
CoolCore reported temperature-regulating fibres, which are engineered to
exploit the body’s own sweat or added moisture to achieve a cooling effect.
The CoolCore technology, which lasts the lifetime of the garment, works on
three principles: wicking (moves sweat from the body), moisture transporta-
tion (to avoid saturation and accelerate drying) and regulated evaporation
from the garment resulting in a greater cooling effect than that found in con-
ventional materials. In addition, the company claims that the garment does
not cling to the body due to quick wicking, making it suitable for intensive
sports such as cycling, running, etc.

2.10 Discussion and Summary

This chapter highlighted the importance of fibres in development of prod-
ucts designed for functional clothing, particularly sportswear. Fibres form
the basic constituent of a garment and garment performance relies on choos-
ing the right type of fibre composition by keeping up to date with modern
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48 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

developments in this field. During the last decade or so, the world produc-
tion of man-made fibres increased from 49% in 1992 to 68% in 2012 and
this trend is bound to continue as the demand for performance clothing
increases. This is due to the fact that, compared to natural fibres, man-made
fibres are engineered to meet specific requirements of the end user. The
properties and characteristics of man-made fibres differ based on the fibre-
forming substance and it is essential to know the various technical terms
used in the industry, which have been briefly presented with examples. It
could be argued that of the various developments in the fibre industry, fibre
shape and fineness have played a pivotal role in varying the performance of
fabrics – for instance, affecting moisture management, resiliency, bulkiness,
warmth and overall comfort to the wearer.
During the selection of fibre types for sportswear, it is essential to factor the
physiological parameters – particularly, sweat patterns, thermal regulation and
stretch and recovery for parts of the body. This has been highlighted by criti-
cally reviewing evidence pertaining to this area and offering new insight into
development of sportswear. For instance, awareness of body sweat patterns
and/or body mapping technology will enable designers to choose the most
appropriate garment design. The design will elicit the usage of mesh fabric pan-
els in the central back of garments, where the athlete sweats the most compared
to other body zones, thus facilitating quick wicking and evaporation of body
perspiration. In addition, it could be argued that multidisciplinary collabora-
tion among sports science practitioners, physiologists, textile engineers and
garment designers will enable development of products fit for this purpose.
The mechanism of body perspiration and regulation of body temperature
have been illustrated. The most heat is lost via clothing. The human body
aims to balance between heat production and heat loss, and any imbalance
results in discomfort. Hence, careful consideration has to be given in regula-
tion of body temperature for sportswear. A rise in body temperature induces
the body to produce sweat to cool the body. The garment should be able to
allow moisture breathability and quickly transfer the moisture from the skin
to the environment.
Athletes require stretch and recovery during training and sporting activ-
ity. The stretch enables the athletes to move freely without restriction and
offers support to the muscles and joints and prevents strain on the tissue.
The elastane fibres play an important role in providing 100% stretch, apply
compression to the muscle and prevent soft tissue injury. Fine microfibres,
hollow fibres and bicomponent fibres offer numerous possibilities to blend
different characteristics of two different polymers and vary shape, fineness
and size to cater to demands of the end user.
Latent heat storage (phase change materials) products using Thermocules
in filaments to provide optimum thermoregulation have been a breakthrough
in technology in absorbing body heat and releasing it when needed; they
have offered possibilities for designers to tailor products to the specific needs
of athletes. Newly developed cellulose fibre TENCEL continues to provide
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Fibres for Sportswear 49

new technologies, particularly in moisture management and appearance

and fabric handle. Widely used fibre types such as polyester, elastane and
wool blends will continue to be used in sports performance clothing, mainly
due to their properties. Blending of fibres and filaments has been a practice
in meeting the growing requirements of performance clothing. The blending
of fibres enables enhancement of performance, durability and maintenance
and reduction of the overall cost of the product; this trend in sportswear will
continue to grow.
Fibres that have dual channels to wick perspiration, avoid condensation,
accelerate drying and maintain body temperature using body heat will be
implemented in various athletic wear such as vests, underwear, base layers,
tights, etc. Hence, it becomes vital for apparel designers, technologists and vari-
ous stakeholders in the field of sportswear to carefully select different fibre
types based on the end use and requirements. Innovations in fibre technology
are fuelled by the ever growing thrust among athletes to outperform in their
respective fields. Recent technological developments to utilise the energy
produced by the body during an activity have been tested and resulted in
production of smart products with lifelong performance. It is anticipated that
textiles for sportswear will witness advances and smart developments in the
years ahead that will encourage athletes to wear smart garments that meet
their specific requirements and enhance their performance and appearance.

References
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American Society of Textile Materials, ASTM.
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Hohenstein Institute, Schloss Hohenstein, 74357 Bönnigheim, Germany.
BISFA. (2014). International Bureau for the Standardization of Man-Made Fibres.
Brown, P. and Stevens, K. (2007). Nanofibres and nanotechnology in textiles. Cambridge,
UK: Woodhead Publishing.
Celliant. (2014). Celliant Technology (http://www.celliant.com). Online resource
accessed on 6 June 2014.
Centexbel. (2014). Pilot line for research and prototyping, Bicomponent fibres. http://
www.centexbel.be/bicomponent-fibres.
CIRFS. (2014). Worldwide production of cotton, wool and man-made fibres, 1992–
2012. European Man-Made Fibres Association, Brussels.
Collier, B. J., Bide, M. and Tortora, P. G. (2009). Understanding textiles, 7th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Das, B., Das, A., Kothari, V. et al. (2009). Moisture flow through blended fabrics –
Effect of hydrophilicity. Journal of Engineered Fibres and Fabrics 4 (4): 20–28.
Denton, J. M. and Daniels, P. N. (2002). Textile terms and definitions, 11th ed. Manchester,
UK: Textile Institute.
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Firgo, H., Suchomel, F. and Burrow, T. (2006). TENCEL high performance sportswear.
Lenzinger Berichte 85: 44–50.
Future Materials. (2013). Responsive textile technology. Celliant, Future Materials,
issue 1, p. 20.
Gavin, T. P., Babington, J. P., Harms, C. A., Ardelt, M. E., Tanner, D. A. and Stager,
J. M. (2001). Clothing fabric does not affect thermoregulation during exercise
in moderate heat. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 33 (12): 2124–2130.
Giebel, G. and Lamberts-Steffes, E. (2013). Merino goes technical with ADVANSA
Thermo°Cool. A paper presented in Performance Days, Functional Fabric Fair,
Munich, Germany, 15–16 May 2013.
Gleeson, M. (1998). Temperature regulation during exercise. International Journal of
Sports Medicine 19 (Suppl 2): S96–S99.
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& Hall.
Hohenstein Institute. (2014). Body mapping technology. Hohenstein Textile Testing
Institute GmbH & Co. KG Hohenstein Institute, Germany.
Hongu, T. and Phillips, G. O. (1997). New fibres, 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead
Publishing Ltd.
Humphries, M. (2009). Fabric reference, Pearson Prentice Hall.
Inotektextiles. (2014). Biomimetics, Innotektextiles.com/technology.
Kadolph, S. J. (2007). Quality assurance for textiles and apparel, 2nd ed, Fairchild
Publications, New York.
Kadolph, S. J. (2014). Textiles, 11th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Kirkwood, B. (2013). Taking the lead. Sportech, Future Materials, official publisher
of Techtextil News, issue 6, pp. 8–9. World Textile Information Network Ltd.
(WTiN).
Kondej, M. (2013). The sportswear revolution – Global market trends and future
growth outlook. Webinar, Euromonitor International, London, UK.
Lycra. (2012). Lycra fibre revolutionizes sportswear, helping the fastest athletes in the
world, http://www.invista.com (accessed on 6 April 2014).
Nyoni, A. B. (2003). Liquid transport in nylon 6.6 yarns and woven fabrics used for
outdoor performance clothing, PhD Thesis, University of Leeds, UK.
Nyoni, A. B. and Brook, D. (2010). The effect of cyclic loading on the wicking per-
formance of nylon 6.6 yarns and woven fabrics used for outdoor performance
clothing. Textile Research Journal 80 (8): 720–725.
O’Mahony, M. and Braddock, S. E. (2002). SportsTech: Revolutionary fabrics, fashion and
design. Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, Outdoor performance fabrics, PhD
Thesis, University of Leeds, UK.
Pearl Izumi. (2010). Pearl Izumi includes Merino in its new cycling apparel range.
Asian Textile Journal 19 (4): 13.
Performance Apparel Markets. (2011a). Product development and innovations, 2nd
quarter. Textiles Intelligence Limited, Wilmslow, UK, pp. 11–31.
Performance Apparel Markets. (2011b). Product development and innovations, 2nd
quarter. Performance Apparel Markets, Textiles Intelligence Limited, Wilmslow,
UK, p. 23.
Performance Apparel Markets. (2012). Summer sportswear: Providing cool comfort,
Issue 41, 2nd quarter. Textiles Intelligence Limited, Wilmslow, UK, pp. 40–41.
Performance Apparel Markets. (2013). Product developments and innovations, 1st quar-
ter. Textiles Intelligence Limited, Wilmslow, UK, pp. 11–26.
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Fibres for Sportswear 51

Purane, S. V. and Panigrahi, N. R. (2007). Microfibres, microfilaments and their appli-

cations. AUTEX Research Journal 7 (3): 148–158.
Ravandi, S. A. and Valizadeh, M. (2011). Properties of fibres and fabrics that contrib-
ute to human comfort. In Improving comfort in clothing, ed. Song, G. Cambridge,
UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd.
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http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/ntskz6/sports_clothing.
Rigby, D. (1998). Development of performance fibres and fabrics – A proactive
approach. World Sports Activewear (WSA), pp. 13–17.
Sampath, M. B., Mani, S. and Nalankilli, G. (2011). Effect of filament fineness on com-
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Senthilkumar, M. and Anbumani, N. (2011). Dynamics of elastic knitted fabrics for
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/2010/10/26/1528083710387175.
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Swantko, K. (2002). Adaptive comfort. Knit Americas, Fall, pp. 20–21.
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vol. 31, pp. 1–23.
Tao, X. M. (2001). Smart fibres, fabrics and clothing, Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
Teijin Limited. (2014). http://www.teijin.com/products/advanced_fibers/online
resource (accessed on 6 June 2014).
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Shishoo, R., 205. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
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Useful Resources
BISFA, an international association of man-made fibre producers (http://www.bisfa​
.org/).
CIRFS, European Man-Made Fibres Association, is the representative body for the
European man-made fibres industry (http://www.cirfs.org/).
CoolCore, http://www.coolcore.com.
CSIRO, Fibre Science Research Program, Australia (http://www.csiro.au/Organisa​
tion-Structure/Divisions/CMSE/Fibre-Science.aspx).
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.com/fiber.html).
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
52 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Hohenstein Institute, Hohenstein Textile Testing Institute GmbH & Co. KG Hohenstein
Institute, Germany (http://www.hohenstein.com/en/home/home.xhtml).
IWTA, International Wool Textile Organisation (http://www.iwto.org/wool/).
Nilit Breeze, http://www.nilit.com.
Outlast Technologies, Outlast Europe GmbH, Germany.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
3
Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics

Praburaj Venkatraman

CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 53
3.2 Fabric Properties and Their Influence on Product Performance...........54
3.2.1 Essential and Desirable Properties of Fabrics............................... 57
3.3 Factors That Influence Fabric Behaviour...................................................64
3.3.1 Internal Factors Influencing Fabric Performance.........................64
3.3.2 External Factors Influencing Fabric Behaviour............................ 67
3.3.2.1 Dry State Measurements................................................... 69
3.3.2.2 Wet State Measurements................................................... 69
3.3.2.3 Commercial Examples – Fabrics for Outer Wear.......... 70
3.3.3 Fabric and Human Body Interaction.............................................. 71
3.4 Fabric Structure and Characteristics.......................................................... 73
3.4.1 Structural Influence and Effect on Performance.......................... 74
3.4.2 Special Multilayer Fabrics for Protection...................................... 74
3.5 Fabric Composition and Its Effect on Sportswear Performance............ 76
3.5.1 Importance of Fabric Composition in Sportswear.......................77
3.5.2 Natural Fibres and Their Effects on Fabric Performance............ 78
3.5.3 Synthetic and Smart Fibres Used in Sportswear.......................... 79
3.6 Discussion......................................................................................................80
3.7 Summary and Conclusions.........................................................................83
References................................................................................................................84

3.1 Introduction
A confident understanding of fabric behaviour and characteristics is vital
in the design and development of a functional garment – for instance, a
warp knit mesh fabric made of 100% polyester designed to wick moisture
away from the skin, with the quick-dry ability, making it ideal for everyday
wear and preferred in extreme performance requirements. On the other
hand, georgette is a balanced, plain-woven fabric generally made of 100%
polyester with high-twist yarns giving the fabric a less smooth appearance
used in fashion apparel. Textile materials have evolved in recent times

53
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54 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

and fabrics play a significant role in the development of the sportswear

industry. In fact, the materials reflects the quality of a brand and its iden-
tity. The primary focus of this chapter is to present the essential and the
desirable properties suitable for performance apparel, especially for sports-
wear. Various sportswear applications are discussed to enable the reader to
understand the rationale for each parameter. Generally, garments intended
for fashion apparel will have to fulfil the following characteristics: durabil-
ity, strength, colourfastness, aesthetics and so forth. These properties are
mandatory for everyday use and maintenance for fashion apparel. However,
in the case of performance apparel, the requirements are functional and
application-specific properties, such as moisture transmission, thermal
resistance, wicking, waterproofing and flame resistance. The reason for
requirements of such properties is because functional apparel is subjected
to a wide range of end uses such that a garment will be affected by internal
(fibres, yarn fineness, warp/weft movement, fabric density, thickness, fab-
ric count) and external (exposure to sunlight, wind, rain, cold weather con-
ditions and during use) factors. These factors affect the performance and
behaviour of functional apparel discussed in the sections with examples.
In addition, the interaction between the human body and garments is
significant; this is true for those close-fit garments such as base layer gar-
ments, where thermoregulation plays a vital role in the performance of an
athlete. Fabrics for sportswear are either woven or knitted and often blended
with synthetic and natural fibres with varying linear density to provide an
optimum performance. The heavyweight fabrics for outerwear are multilay-
ered (coated or laminated) and their properties differ from those of light-
weight fabrics. Parameters of these fabrics due to structural difference are
highlighted here with specific focus on functional apparel. Fabric behaviour
will be affected by its composition and this is presented with examples. This
chapter will empower the reader to understand the properties of fabrics for
various performance applications and how these parameters will affect the
overall performance of the garment.

3.2 Fabric Properties and Their Influence

on Product Performance
A number of fabrics are used in performance and sportswear apparel
including smart fabrics, which have an intelligent approach to high body
or ambient temperature; the warmer the material gets, the faster the mois-
ture management system functions – Burlington’s smart fabric temperature
management. The smart fabric technology uses micro-encapsulated phase
change materials to absorb and release heat to enhance comfort.
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Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 55

The section below lists the various type of fabrics suitable for sportswear
and performance apparel.

• Lightweight, stretchable and soft waterproof or breathable fabrics

• Fabrics made of fine microfibres with breathability
• Soft shell or three-layer fabrics, which are bonded as well as lami-
nated, and made of tricot warp knits or woven fabric for wind insu-
lation or waterproofing
• Knits with synthetic or natural fibre blends and up to 30% elastane
fibres for stretch and recovery
• Fleece and brushed knits made of synthetic fibres that have a natural
feel and stretchy and smooth surface
• Woven shirts with varying fabric weight (160 to 400 g/m2)
• Eco-friendly fabrics including recycled polyester
• Fancy fabrics with patterns, designs and finishes
• Laser or etched burnt out, 3D knits
• Honeycomb patterns and work wear and protective-wear fabrics
including durable rugged finish, cut resistant, flame retardant, resis-
tance to abrasion, reflective facings, etc.

Figure 3.1 illustrates the types of fabrics used for fashion apparel, which
include woven, knitted fabrics; braids; interlining; bonded fabrics and felt. It
should be noted that woven and knitted fabrics will perform differently due
to their structural variation, which is summarised in Table 3.1. Functional
apparel has a combination of fabrics made of woven and knitted fabrics to
suit various applications.
In order to understand the fabric properties of garments designed for
activewear it is necessary to explore the sports trends: types of sports pre-
ferred, frequency of activities and garments frequently purchased. In the UK,

Fabrics

Bonded
Woven Knitted Braids Interlining Felt
fabrics

FIGURE 3.1
Common fabric types for apparel end use.
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56 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

TABLE 3.1
Fabric Characteristics
Knitted Fabrics Woven Fabrics
• Series of interconnected loops made with • Two or more sets of yarns interlaced to
one or more sets of yarns. form the fabric structure. Yarns interlace
at right angles.
• Can be ravelled from top to bottom. • Can be ravelled from any cut edge.
Warp knits cannot ravel.
• Fabric can snag and run, bowed or skewed. • May be bowed or skewed.
• Usually heavier because more yarn is • Usually lighter in weight because less
used. yarn is used.
• Possess stretch and elasticity, adapts to • Possess limited stretch and adaptability
body movement. to body movement.
• Good recovery from wrinkles; air • Bulkiness and recovery from wrinkle
permeable. depend on weave structure.
• Possess open spaces between yarns and • Stable to stress, less air permeable,
bulky. especially with dense fabric.
• Porous and less opaque. • Provide maximum hiding power and
cover.
• Less stable in use and care. • More stable in use and care.
• Higher shrinkage unless heat-set. • May shrink less than 2%.

a number of sporting activities are preferred; amongst many, swimming, run-

ning, cycling, tennis, golf and aerobics are widely preferred (Mintel Group,
2011). Populations involved in sports are generally younger groups whose
ages range from 16 to 24 and this trend can be noted across various sports.
However, populations in the age ranges of 25 to 34 and 35 to 44 are also active,
particularly in swimming, using a gym, running, cycling and tennis.
There has been a gradual and consistent increase in the number of people
involved in sporting activities over the last 8 years (Figure 3.2). This includes

FIGURE 3.2
Number of adults taking part in sports, 2005–2014. (Source: Sport England.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 57

FIGURE 3.3
Top five sports played.

adults who take part once a month, once a week or two and three times a
week.
A Sport England (http://www.sportengland.org) survey on the most fre-
quently preferred sports in the UK reported that swimming was mostly pre-
ferred to stay fit and as a sporting activity (Figure 3.3), followed by athletics,
football, cycling and golf. In this chapter, specific focus will be given to those
fabrics used in the manufacture of garments for these sport activities.
It can be noted that most of sport loving populations purchase garments
for casual end uses or as fashion apparel rather than for sporting activities.
This trend was observed across all forms of garments, from trainers to fleece.
It should be noted that the survey was based on Internet users (n = 2000)
who were above 16 years of age; among these consumers, trainers, jogging
trousers, T-shirts, shorts, football shirts, sweatshirts and sports jackets were
popular. In addition, at the lower end of the segment, replica rugby shirts,
waterproof jackets, fleece, leggings and vests were also popular (Figure 3.4).
A recent report from the Mintel Group (2011) stated that 33% of consumers
purchased sportswear as comfortable leisure wear, 21% of consumers stated
they would prefer branded sportswear and 46% of consumers purchased
sportswear clothing to stay physically active and to enhance their perfor-
mance. This finding is interesting in that the sportswear market has a good
base, particularly among younger age groups and most prefer garments to
stay fit and support their performance. It is also necessary to note that adults
active in sports prefer functional garments for leisure activities.

3.2.1 Essential and Desirable Properties of Fabrics

A fabric property is a characteristic of a material which it should possess
for it to be used in a desired application satisfactorily. In other words, it can
also be termed as the requirement of a textile material for a certain pur-
pose. In this section, various fabric properties mandatory for performance
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58 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

70

60
% Internet users aged 16+

50

40

30

20

10

0
g

ym

ng

e
ol

e
ic
ni

on
in

in

th
ni

ob
n
cl
m

eg

N
O
Te
n

Cy
im

r
Ru
th

Ae
Sw

to
ng
oi

16−24 25−34 35−44 45−54 55−64 65+

G

FIGURE 3.4
Sports clothing purchased during 2010/2011 in the UK. (Source: Mintel, 2011.)

and sportswear are highlighted. In order to identify the desirable and essen-
tial property it is necessary to know the requirements of a specific sport
(Table 3.2). Essential properties are those that are necessary for a particu-
lar sport either due to regulations or user requirement. On the other hand,
desirable properties are those preferred by users for aesthetics and appear-
ance. Let us explore essential and desirable properties for some of the widely
preferred sports. It should be noted that each and every sport has differ-
ent requirements based on the nature and intensity at which it is played.
However, it is assumed these are at professional levels and include those
fabrics that are used for casual, fitness and sporting activities.
Some other properties of fabrics/garments required in performance
apparel include:

• Absorb moisture readily

• Appearance
• Attractive
• Bend repeatedly without breaking
• Conceal or protect
• Dimensionally stable
• Easy to dispose
• Easy to maintain
• Fabric hangs freely
• Good surface texture
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Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 59

TABLE 3.2
Major Sports and Fabric Parameters Required
Type of Sport Desirable Property
and Garments Used Essential Property of Fabric of Fabric
Football
Typical garments include • Moisture (sweat) management • Aesthetics
tops, trousers, base layer • Breathable • Sensory comfort
tights, socks, compression • Anti-cling • Soft next to the skin
tops and shorts, • Anti-static
soft-shell jacket and • Lightweight fabric
knee support • Anti-odour
• Durable
• Washable
• Colourfast

Golf
Shirts, trousers, jackets, • Comfort • Colourfast
waterproof jackets and • Moisture management • Smooth to skin
socks • Thermal insulation • Aesthetics – crease
• Durable recovery and stiffness
• Soil resistant

Cycling
Bib shorts, cycling shoes, • Stretch and recovery • Long-lasting fit
short-sleeved jersey, base • Sweat absorption • Durable (good
layer vests, fingerless • Wicking bursting strength)
gloves, socks and cap • Compression • Fabric stability
• Breathable
• Windproof
• Anti-odour
• UV protection

Swimming
Swimsuit, board shorts, • Chlorine-resistant fabric • Soft feel to the skin
jammers, racer-back • Low moisture absorption rate • Shape retention
suits, swim briefs, • Colour fast • Improved comfort
bodysuits and soft-shell • Quick drying • Support in garment fit
jackets • Improved elasticity • Anti-bacterial
• Drag resistant • UV protection
• Four-way stretch

Athletics
Bodysuits, tops, T-shirts, • Lightweight • Snag resistance
shorts, tracksuits, • Keep cool • Aesthetics
leotards, sports bras • Sweat management (wicking) • Colourfastness
• Breathable • Water repellent
• Sustainable (natural fibres)
• Waterproof (jackets)
• Thermal insulation (fleece)
• Compression (base layer)
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60 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

• Impact protection
• Lustre
• Nonabsorbent
• Protect the body
• Resilient
• Resistant to insect damage
• Resistant to mildew
• Resistant to shrinkage
• Soft next to the skin
• Stretch without breaking
• Transfer electric charges
• Transfer or maintain heat

Fabric
properties

Durability Aesthetics Comfort Maintenance

Tensile Breathability – Colour-

Drape air and water Storage
strength vapour fastness

Resistance to Stiffness
Water Resistance to
Washing
abrasion repellent moths

Resistance to Resistance to
Stability Waterproof Rubbing
snagging stains

Tearing Crease Thermal

Light
strength recovery insulation

Bursting Stretch and

Perspiration
strength recover

Surface
friction

FIGURE 3.5
Fabric properties.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 61

• Wick moisture readily

• Withstand degradation from sunlight
• Withstand pulling force
• Withstand use

Figure 3.5 illustrates the properties of fabrics classified into four sections:
durability, aesthetics, comfort and maintenance of a garment on a day-to-day
basis. The terminology of various fabric properties is presented in Table 3.3
with specific application.

TABLE 3.3
Fabric Properties and Their Applications
Textile
Category Parameter Definition Suitability
Durability Breaking The force required to break a Woven fabric
strength fabric when it is under tension.
Tearing The force required to continue a Woven fabric
strength rip already started in the fabric.
Bursting The amount of pressure required Knitted fabric, felts,
strength to rupture a fabric. nonwoven fabric,
lace
Abrasion Resistance to wear away of any All fabric and
resistance part of material when rubbed applications
against another material.
Pilling Formation of pill or fuzz on the Hydrophobic fibres
resistance surface of the fabric. and fabrics with
inferior yarn quality
Surface The ability of the fabric to offer Fabrics with low
friction resistance to rubbing force or yarns per inch
sliding action.
Aesthetics Fabric drape The ability of the fabric to drape Woven and knitted
or to hang on its own weight to fabrics
follow the body contours and
graceful folds/curves.
Stiffness It determines the bending length Woven, nonwoven
(fabric of the fabric or ability of the fabrics in both
handle) fabric to bend under its own directions
weight at a specified angle.
Crease The ability of the fabric to resist Wool/silk – high
recovery creasing. resistance to creases,
cellulose fibres’ poor
resistance
(Continued)
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62 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

TABLE 3.3 (CONTINUED)

Fabric Properties and Their Applications
Textile
Category Parameter Definition Suitability
Dimensional The ability of the fabric to remain Woven and knitted
stability stable without change in its fabrics
dimension after washing.
Comfort Air The ability of the fabric to allow Dense woven fabric
permeability passage of air through its surface
at a specified pressure difference
over a certain period.
Moisture The ability of the fabric to allow Fabric with finishes
permeability moisture vapour to pass through with certain coating
its structure. for water penetration
Thermal The ability of the fabric to Garments for outdoor
conductivity conduct heat (W/m.K); implies wear
the quantity of heat that passes
in unit time through a particular
area and thickness.
Waterproof The ability of the fabric to resist Fabrics with film/
water penetration. membrane coating
Stretch and The ability of the fabric to stretch Knitted fabrics with
recovery under deformation and recover elastane composition
to its original position after
removal of deformation.
Maintenance Colourfastness It is a measure of how permanent Mild to dark colour/
to washing a colour remains on the fabric shaded woven/
during washing. knitted fabrics
Colourfastness To determine the effect of Woven and knitted
to rubbing colourfastness in wet and dry fabrics that are
rubbing action. bright or dark
coloured
Colourfastness To determine the effect of Woven and knitted
to light colourfastness during fabrics that are
continuous exposure to light bright or dark
source. coloured – outdoor/
swimwear
Colourfastness To determine the resistance of the Woven and knitted
to textiles to human perspiration. fabrics that are
perspiration bright or dark
coloured worn next
to the skin – socks,
tights, etc.
Storage Resistance to The ability of the fabric to resist Fabrics with animal
moths/ from moth and insects during fibre composition
insects storage.
Resistance to The ability of the fabric to Woven/knitted
stains staining during long-term fabrics
storage.
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Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 63

CASE STUDY: FABRIC REQUIREMENTS

FOR A CYCLING ENTHUSIAST

The cross-country cyclist illustrated in the picture (image reproduced

with consent) is a regular cyclist who uses bike training twice a month.
Each occasion can involve from 5 to 7 hours of intensive cycling. The
garments that the cyclist uses include bib-shorts and tops. In addition,
elbow support and shinbone protection are part of the kit. Some of the
properties that the cyclist prefers in garments are

1. Lightweight
2. Economical
3. Durable
4. Washable
5. Easy to wear
6. Soft next to the skin
7. Breathable
8. Moisture absorbent
9. Practical (fit for purpose)
10. Economical
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64 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

It could be noted that the cyclist, who is a professional, wants to be

involved in the sport as a recreation as well as to keep fit. The cyclist
pays significant attention to the clothing gear and desires to wear gar-
ments that allow free movement as well as protect from injuries.

3.3 Factors That Influence Fabric Behaviour

Functional apparel will be subjected to a wide range of end uses such that
a garment will be affected by internal (fibres, yarn fineness, warp/weft or
course/wale movement, fabric density, thickness, fabric count) and external
(external environment – exposure to sunlight, wind, rain, cold weather con-
ditions, fabric/human body interaction) factors. These factors affect the per-
formance and behaviour of functional apparel, which are discussed in the
following sections with examples.

3.3.1 Internal Factors Influencing Fabric Performance

Fabric is either interlaced with one or more sets of yarns or interconnected
with loops of yarns, which are composed of fibres and filaments, and this
is the fundamental element. In performance apparel a wide range of syn-
thetic filaments such as nylon, polyester, elastane, acrylic and so forth are
widely used. Fabric behaviour is affected by fibre blends and their fineness
(McGregor and Naebe, 2013). Similarly, yarn quality (count) is pivotal in
producing a uniform fabric texture. Some yarn quality parameters, such as
yarn twist, number of folds and yarn count, affect fabric characteristics. For
instance, a fine quality yarn made of fine denier filament will possess a sup-
ple and pliable fabric that has a low drape coefficient. On the other hand, a
coarse yarn will produce a stiff fabric that has a high drape. Fibre type, yarn
quality and fabric attributes have an effect on fabric performance. McGregor
and Naebe (2013) reported the comfort properties of 81 single jersey knitted
fabrics with varying fibre, yarn and fabric attributes. The research studied
the comfort properties of wool knitted fabrics with 27 types of fibre blends,
16 types of yarn and 30 different fabrics. The authors reported that tighter
fabrics were less comfortable and that progressive blending of cashmere
with wool progressively increased comfort assessment. The tactile comfort
properties were assessed using a Wool Comfort Metre (WCM). They further
added that fabric thickness, yarn elongation and yarn quality (thick and thin
places) affected fabric comfort properties (Figure 3.6).
It should also be noted that finer fibres (linear density) influence the behav-
iour of fabric and its performance, especially in sportswear. A fabric is also
termed a micro-fabric when it is made of filaments whose fineness is less than
1 decitex. The term ‘micro-denier fibre’ is widely used in Asia and the United
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 65

Factors influencing fabric performance

Fibre/filaments Yarn formation Fabric structure

Filament Yarn count

fineness
Fabric density

Hydrophilic Yarn
linear density
Fabric type 
Hydrophobic woven/knitted

Amount of
Fibre shape  yarn twist
capillary action
Fabric finishing

Yarn blends
Filament
finish

FIGURE 3.6
Internal factors affecting fabric performance.

States. Micro-denier fibres have excellent flexibility and yarns are of better
regularity. This parameter enables yarns to be knitted and resulting fabric
is soft and pliable (Chattopadhyay, 1997). In addition, knitted fabrics with
micro-denier fibres have better dimensional stability and wick the moisture,
resulting in better comfort. This makes the micro-fabric ideal for sportswear.
Srinivasan et al. (2005) investigated the performance of polyester micro­
denier knitted fabrics compared with normal polyester. The study reported
that microfibre fabrics possessed excellent drape, moisture transmission
property and wicking and were dimensionally stable. Such properties make
it ideal for active sportswear fabric (Figure 3.7).
In addition, fibre fineness and yarn quality affect the fabric behaviour, par-
ticularly the comfort characteristics – wicking and moisture vapour trans-
mission. Such a parameter is essential in maintaining comfort levels of an
athlete wearing a base layer. Sampath, Mani and Nalankilli (2011) investi-
gated the effect of filament fineness on comfort properties of knitted fab-
rics made of 150-denier polyester filament containing 34, 48, 108, 144 and
288 filaments. The fabrics were finished with a moisture management finish
and were assessed for wetting, wicking and moisture vapour transmission.
These researchers reported that when filament fineness increases, wicking
rate increases to a certain level. The yarn made of 108 filaments had higher
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66 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

(a) (b)

FIGURE 3.7
(a,b) Knitted fabric with vents.

wicking. The moisture vapour transmission was higher for finer fabrics than
for fabrics made of coarser filaments. This study highlights the fact that the
number of filaments in a yarn and the filament fineness should be at an opti-
mum level to promote moisture transmission. Filament fineness and number
of filaments in a yarn play a vital role in determining the comfort character-
istics of micro-denier polyester knitted fabrics. Mori and Matsudaira (2000)
highlighted that fabric density was an essential factor in determining the
fabric handle of wool fabrics.
Fabric density greatly affects performance; for instance, a high fabric count
has good abrasion resistance, fabric cover and dimensional stability. In addi-
tion, the fabric has excellent resistance to wind and reasonable strength.
Such a property is widely preferred in work wear and trousers. On the other
hand, low-count fabrics possess poor abrasion resistance, low fabric cover,
low stability (leading to shrinkage) and low resistance to wind.
Matsudaira et al. (2009) investigated the effects of weave density, yarn
twist and yarn count on fabric handle of polyester woven fabrics by using
an objective evaluation method. Plain-woven fabrics made of polyester used
for women’s wear, such as taffeta, Dechine, Georgette 1, pongee, Yoryu and
Georgette 2, were selected. Various fabric handle properties such as stiff-
ness, antidrape stiffness, crispness, scroopy feel and flexibility with soft
feel were studied. Stiffness increased with increase in weft yarn density
(2000 to 5000 picks/metre) for all fabrics; anti-drape stiffness also increased
with increase in weft yarn density (2000 to 5000 picks/metre). Fabric soft
feel decreased as the weft density increased from 2000 to 5000 picks/metre.
Hence, weft density is inversely proportional to fabric soft feel. Fullness and
softness did not show any change with the variation in weft density. Larger
weft density is needed to produce lower crispness. There was no difference
in scroopy feel of the fabric with increasing weft density. The effect of yarn
twist was noted in crepe de chine and Yoryu fabrics. In the case of crepe de
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Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 67

chine the stiffness and anti-drape stiffness decreased with the yarn twist;
however, in the case of Yoryu fabric, little change was noted in all the param-
eters. The effect of yarn count on taffeta and Georgette, where stiffness and
antidrape stiffness decreased with increase in yarn count, was noted.
Prakash and Ramakrishnan (2013) explored the effect of fibre blend ratio,
fabric loop length and yarn linear density on thermal comfort properties
of single jersey fabrics. Three yarn count qualities (20s, 25s, 30s: Ne) were
produced with blends of cotton and bamboo fibres. Investigators reported
that thermal conductivity was reduced as the proportion of bamboo fibre
increased; lowest thermal conductivity was observed with 100% bam-
boo yarns. For a given fabric of a certain composition, the air permeabil-
ity increased as loop length increased. In addition, air permeability of 100%
bamboo fabrics was 200% that of cotton fabric. Fabrics made of bamboo
blended yarns had a lower thickness and fabric density than cotton fabrics.
The water vapour and air permeability improved with the increase in the
composition of bamboo fibre content. Water vapour permeability, the trans-
mission of water vapour through fabric from the skin to the outer surface by
diffusion and absorption–desorption processes (Das et al., 2009), determines
breathability of the clothing material. As the yarn linear density increased,
thermal conductivity decreased because fibres trapped more air. Finally, as
the yarn linear density increased, the relative water vapour permeability
increased particularly for bamboo blended fabrics. Researchers noted that
increase in water vapour permeability can be attributed to lower fabric den-
sity and thickness. When the yarn count was coarser, the fabric density and
thickness increased resulting in lower water vapour permeability. Karahan,
Oktem and Ve Seventekin (2006) stated that natural bamboo fibre provided
functional properties due to its excellent moisture absorption, quick evapo-
ration and anti-bacterial properties. This shows that a number of internal
factors, including fibres, yarn and fabric structure, affect the fabric character-
istics, and designers/garment developers should pay particular attention in
the selection of appropriate fabric. In the next section, evidence pertaining to
external factors affecting the performance of the fabric is discussed.

3.3.2 External Factors Influencing Fabric Behaviour

Performance apparel is exposed to a wide range of external conditions,
including sunlight, rain, wind and cold/warm weather conditions or during
intense physical activity interaction with the human body. Generally, fab-
rics meet common requirements such as strength and durability; however,
fabrics with special properties require them to be used in special applica-
tions intended for high-performance apparel. Typical performance apparel
for activewear involves wearing clothing layers and various requirements of
fabrics are outlined in Figure 3.8.
Wang et al. (2007) reported a wearer trial using clothing layers (four struc-
tures). They reported that the moisture management property of fabrics
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68 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Should keep body warm and dry ensuring efficient moisture transport
1
to the next layer

Should keep the body comfortably dry through effective moisture

Clothing layers and
their requirements

2 transport and allow exchange of heat between body and the

external environment

Should maintain body temperature by insulation and allow

3
exchange of heat with external environment by ventilation

Insulate the body from wind, rain and cold, allow passage of moisture vapour
4 from body to outside environment, i.e. resist liquid penetration and allow
moisture and air movement; layer should be strong, durable and easy to care

FIGURE 3.8
Clothing layers and their requirements.

significantly affected the moisture diffusion and temperature distributions

in cold protective clothing systems and influenced the thermal and moisture
sensations, when the wearer was exposed to a climate chamber maintained
at –15°C.
Investigators Long and Wu (2011) reported that cotton fabric coated with
nanoparticles made of a compound of titanium dioxide and nitrogen breaks
down dirt and kills microbes when exposed to light. In the past, the invention
was only applicable when fabrics were exposed to certain ultraviolet rays.
But researchers reported that they intend to develop fabrics when exposed
to ordinary sunlight. The fabric removes orange dye stain upon exposure to
sunlight. Fabric coating is durable and remains intact after several washings
and dryings.
Some of the other external factors that affect the wearer particularly when
exposed to long and continuous amount of sunlight are discussed. Ultraviolet
rays can cause damage to textiles as well as cause acute skin damage (Thiry,
2002). It should be noted that the Earth’s atmosphere absorbs harmful wave-
lengths, and only 5% reach the Earth’s surface (Rajendrakumar, Aggarwal
and Bansal, 2006; Xin, Daoud and Kong, 2004). Researchers Sundaresan
et al. (2011) recently investigated UV protection using nano-TiO2 as well as
the anti-microbial and self-cleaning properties of cotton fabrics. The fabrics
treated with 12 nm particles exhibited higher ultraviolet protection factor
(UPF) values than the fabric treated with 7 nm particles. The durability of
the imparted function was in the range of 32 to 36 washes for antimicrobial
activity and UV-protection property. In the case of self-cleaning activity, the
smaller nanoparticle size TiO2 derived using a sol-gel technique exhibited
better self-cleaning activity as compared to large nanoparticles of nano-sol
TiO2.
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Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 69

When a garment is wet, the comfort is affected and this depends on ther-
mal properties, moisture vapour resistance of clothing and the percentage of
moisture accumulated inside the clothing. Hence, during wet conditions, the
physiological comfort depends on the thermal resistance in the wet state and
the active cooling resulting from the moisture evaporation from skin through
the clothing and from direct evaporation of sweat from the fabric surface.
Onofrei, Rocha and Catarino (2011) reported the thermal comfort proper-
ties of elastic knitted fabrics produced with functional yarns (Coolmax® and
Outlast®) that have thermoregulating effects. The measurements were made
at dry and wet states, and the moisture transfer between the fabrics and a
wet skin was assessed. Thermal parameters such as thermal resistance, ther-
mal conductivity and absorptivity were reported. Two knitted fabrics were
assessed: polyester (Coolmax)/elastane (Creora) and viscose (Outlast)/­cotton/
elastane (Creora).

3.3.2.1 Dry State Measurements

The air permeability of Coolmax fabric was lower than that of Outlast fabric
due to the higher thickness of the Coolmax fabric. The higher surface area
of the fibre increased the resistance to air flow, which resulted in lower air
permeability. Thermal conductivity of a fabric represents the ability of the
fabric to transport heat and results due to a combination of fibre conductivity
and structural characteristics of the fabric. In a dry state, the Coolmax fabric
exhibited higher thermal resistance, lower thermal conductivity and lower
thermal absorptivity when compared with the Outlast fabric. Outlast knit
fabric exhibited higher thermal absorptivity values, giving a cooler feeling at
first contact with the skin.

3.3.2.2 Wet State Measurements

The rate of air flow through the wet fabric decreased when the fabric mois-
ture increased. The authors reported a decrease in Outlast fabric porosity
due to fibre swelling and replaced air spaces with moisture. Both fabrics
in a wet state had higher values of thermal conductivity than in dry state.
The thermal conductivity and thermal capacity of water is much higher
than those of the fibres and air entrapped within the fabric, which leads
to a higher heat conduction. For the Coolmax fabric, the effect of increas-
ing moisture content above the ‘sweating sensation’ was not significant for
thermal conductivity and resistance. In the case of Outlast, the increase in
moisture content significantly raised thermal conductivity and decreased
the thermal resistance. Researchers reported that Outlast fabrics were
more prone to significant changes in thermal properties due to moisture
uptake than the Coolmax fabrics were. In addition, 60% moisture content
acts as a threshold to major changes on Outlast fabrics’ thermal proper-
ties. Hence, it can be noted that the influence of moisture can affect the
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70 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

thermophysiological comfort of the wearer, and this is applicable to those

functional yarns that have thermoregulating effects. Outlast is a thermally
active material (phase change material) with viscose fibre structure and ther-
moregulating effect depending on heat absorption and heat emission of PCMs
(Outlast: http://www.outlast.com). Thermoregulation of Coolmax depends
on moisture management due to the shapes of fibres (multichannel), which
depends on capillary theory – absorb sweat and moisture away from the
skin and transport it to the fabric surface, leading to evaporation (http://
www.coolmax​.invista.com).

3.3.2.3 Commercial Examples – Fabrics for Outer Wear

Table 3.4 outlines some of the recent developments in fabrics with specific
properties that prevent or protect the wearer from exposure to extreme
weather conditions.

TABLE 3.4
Fabrics with Specific Properties
Specific Fabric Property Description
Sunlight Protection
Sun reflector – UV Coldblack with a special finish reduces absorption of heat rays
protection and provides a minimum of 30 UPF protection without
From Schoeller – Solar+ and affecting appearance and sensation.
coldblack
http://www.coldblack.ch

Rain/Water Repellent
Ecorepel for outdoors from Ecorepel is biodegradable and offers natural protection from
Schoeller stain and water. The fabric is breathable and soft and is made
http://www.ecorepel.ch of fibres with long paraffin chains that wrap themselves like
Water repellent and spirals around filaments and reduce surface tension of water
breathable droplets and even mud runoff.

Water Resistance and Thermal Insulation

Primaloft fibres – thermal PrimaLoft fibres adsorb 100%–250% weight in water and
insulation and water insulate under wet conditions. They are resistant to wind and
resistant compressible. The fibres trap a large volume of air resulting in
http://www.primaloft.com superior thermal performance.

Extreme Cold Weather

Extremely cold conditions – The fabric is made of three layers: a protective outer layer that
Polartec Alpha is breathable, a middle lofty layer, which traps air, and a
smooth inner lining fabric. It dries quickly to minimise heat
loss and insulates even when wet. It is appropriate for a broad
range of activities as a mid- or outer layer and is wind
resistant and machine washable.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 71

3.3.3 Fabric and Human Body Interaction

Clothing physiology is the interaction of clothing and the human body in
various environment. Fabrics used for performance clothing should possess
a reasonable fabric handle to facilitate the ease of wear. The interaction of
fabric/clothing with the skin is regarded as a comfort factor by experts in
this field. The human body remains comfortable at 37°C ± 0.5°C and under
normal conditions produces heat continuously. Physical activity (exercise)
may raise body core temperature by 3°C, whilst exposure to cold may lower
core temperature by 1°C. Beyond this range, the human body is susceptible
to hypothermia – where the skin or blood is cooled enough to lower the body
temperature, slow down the metabolic and physiological process, reduce the
heart rate and blood pressure, as a result consciousness is lost, which is life
threatening.
Normally, when the core temperature increases higher than what it can
disperse, the body reacts by producing perspiration from the skin. The
evaporation of sweat results in a cooling effect. The body shell and core
temperature in a warm environment remains at 35°C; however, in a cold
environment the innermost core body temperature remains at 36°C. The
boundary of core temperature shrinks to preserve the heat in the brain,
thorax and abdomen; temperature of the limbs falls (Pocock and Richards,
2009), especially those in distal regions. Smith and Havenith (2011) investi-
gated the sweat patterns of nine male Caucasian athletes during exercise
in warm conditions. They reported that sweat rate increased significantly
with exercise intensity in all regions except the feet and ankle. The lower
back (posterior torso) consistently showed the highest sweat rates over the
whole body. Highest sweat rates were observed on the central and lower
back (posterior torso) and forehead whilst the lowest values were observed
toward the extremities. These sweat pattern data would facilitate in design-
ing thermoregulatory clothing (particularly for athletes), providing a com-
fortable microclimate through adequate ventilation, sweat absorption and
moisture evaporation. When the surrounding temperature is below the core
temperature, the body may lose heat and such heat losses be counteracted
by wearing a garment with good insulation properties that can trap air and
prevent heat loss.
Base layer clothing, which is often termed ‘second skin’, interacts with the
body, and a number of parameters were investigated relating to physical, psy-
chological and tactile sensation. These include fabric softness (Zhang et al.,
2006), fabric–skin friction property (Wang, Liu and Wang, 2010) and tactile
properties and subjective measures for next-to-skin knitted fabrics (Mahar,
Wang and Postle, 2013). The fabric softness generally depends on fineness
of filaments, finishes applied on fabric and the ability of fibres/filaments to
transport or wick moisture away from the skin. Mahar et al. (2013) conducted
a survey on descriptors of the fabric handle of approximately 50 next-to-skin
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72 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

knitted fabrics. The following bipolar descriptors were identified to describe

the fabric handle:

• Smooth – rough (surface property)

• Soft – hard/harsh (flexural property)
• Heavy/thick – light/thin (mass/bulk property)
• Clean – hairy (surface property)
• Cool – warm (perceived temperature)

Yao et al. (2011) conducted an investigation of the interaction of skin and

clothing using four cotton/polyester pyjamas (underwear) for three weeks
under mild cold conditions. The wearer trial measured skin physiological
parameters, subjective sensory response, stress level and physical proper-
ties of clothing fabric. Fabrics were treated with hydrophilic or hydrophobic
treatment. Subjective sensations were obtained from a questionnaire by rat-
ing six sensations (dampness, coldness, itchiness, softness, breathability and
overall comfort). A framework was established and the researchers reported
that fabric properties influence skin physiology, sensation and psychological
response. They further added that physiological effects from overall comfort
sensations, sleep quality and stress also influenced skin physiology in terms
of skin surface pH and sebum. They explained the relationships among fab-
ric, skin physiology and psychology (Figure 3.9).
A garment plays a vital role in providing physical comfort to the wearer
and offering a microclimate air cushion between the skin and garment. When
a garment surface is not uniform, this may result in a tickling sensation or
blistering in severe conditions where there is constant rubbing between the
skin and garment. Pan et al. (2005) presented a simulated model for physi-
cal and psychological interactions between skin and fabric including con-
tact and friction as well as during motion such as walking or running. They

Garment/fabric
interaction

Physiology of Wearer’s
skin psychological
perception

FIGURE 3.9
Fabric–human body interaction.
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Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 73

reported that the primary factors contributing to comfort and well-being of

the wearer include fabric friction, fabric density, space between skin and fab-
ric and elastic modulus of the fabric.
Investigators Qian and Fan (2006) reported the interaction of surface heat
and moisture transfer from sweating/nonsweating mannequin under vary-
ing climatic conditions and walking speeds. Thermal mannequin simulates
the human body temperature, the body movement and maintains a skin
which is porous that allows the moisture vapour to permeate. The water is
pumped to simulate body sweat. The researchers reported that surface ther-
mal insulation was not affected by moisture transfer. The surface moisture
vapour resistance at isothermal conditions was greater than those under
nonisothermal conditions at wind velocity less than 2.0 m/sec.
The moisture accumulation due to condensation or absorption in sports-
wear clothing is a concern when the clothing is worn during cold conditions.
Hence, it is necessary to know the underlying cause of moisture accumulation
while constructing a multilayer assembly of garments, which can maximise
moisture transmission and minimise condensation and moisture retained by
clothing, as this will cause discomfort to the wearer. As this will cause dis-
comfort due to chill effect. Wu and Fan (2008) established a theoretical model
of heat and moisture transfer for multilayer assembly of fabrics. Two multi-
layer fabric assemblies were investigated: (1) GORE-TEX® inner fabric + mul-
tiple ply wool battings + multiple ply polyester battings + GORE-TEX outer
fabric + (2) GORE-TEX inner fabric + multiple ply polyester battings + multi-
ple ply wool battings + GORE-TEX outer fabric. It was reported that garment
assembly which had wool batting in the inner region closer to the body and
polyester batting in the outer region (away from the body) reduced moisture
accumulation within and the total heat loss through the clothing assemblies.
The information from this research is very useful to the design of multilayer
padded jackets for cold weather conditions.

3.4 Fabric Structure and Characteristics

Structural variations of the fabric can affect the performance of fabrics,
particularly in facilitating the thermoregulation of the human body. These
include, yarn quality, fabric design, fabric layers, and coating on its surface.
Özdil, Marmarali and Kretzschmar (2007) highlighted that knitted fabrics
made from varying yarn count (linear density), yarn twist and process-
ing (combed/carded) of fibres can affect the thermal properties of 1 × 1 rib
fabrics. These rib knit fabrics are produced from finer yarns (yarn count)
and have lower thermal conductivity and higher water vapour permeabil-
ity values, as well as warmer feeling property. As the yarn twist increased,
the thermal absorptivity and water vapour permeability also increased,
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74 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

resulting in a cooling effect. But the thermal resistance values decreased as

the twist coefficient of yarn increased. Thermal resistance values of fabrics
knitted with combed cotton yarns are lower than for fabrics knitted with
carded cotton yarns. It was reported that fabrics knitted with combed yarns
displayed higher thermal absorptivity values because the hairiness of this
yarn was less and these samples gave the coolest feeling.

3.4.1 Structural Influence and Effect on Performance

Phase change materials have the ability to change their state within a tem-
perature range intended for use in astronauts’ space suits to provide thermal
protection against extreme climate fluctuation (Mondal, 2008). PCMs absorb
energy during the heating process as the phase change takes place, or this
energy can be transferred to the environment in the phase change range dur-
ing a reverse cooling process. Textiles containing PCMs react to the changes
in the environment; when a rise in temperature occurs, the PCM micro­
capsules react by absorbing heat and storing this energy in the liquid state.
When the temperature falls, the microcapsules release this stored heat energy
and PCMs convert to solid state (Mondal, 2008). The PCMs are used in the
thermoregulation of performance apparel where synthetic fibres containing
PCM microcapsules are extruded (e.g. Schoeller®-PCM™). The melting point
of PCMs is 28°C. PCMs are also incorporated in the form of lamination, coating,
bicomponent fibres or foam. Researchers Wang et al. (2006) reported the effect
of integrated application of PCMs and conductive fabrics in clothing using a
bionic skin model. Clothing assembly of various thickness consisted of

1. Nonwoven fabric plus conductive fabric without heating

2. Nonwoven fabric coated with PCM plus conductive fabric without
heating
3. Nonwoven fabric with conductive fabric with heating
4. Nonwoven fabric with PCM and conductive fabric with heating

Conductive fabric was controlled in such a way that it switched on when

the temperature of the second layer (2) fell below 27°C; when temperature
increased above 29°C it switched off. These researchers reported that the use
of conductive fabric can enhance the thermal insulation of clothing and keep
the wearer warm by preventing heat loss from the body while using clothing
assembly coated with PCMs.

3.4.2 Special Multilayer Fabrics for Protection

Table 3.5 highlights that different types of fabric formation will have vary-
ing responses and outcomes under different climatic/weather conditions
(Figure 3.10a–d).
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 75

TABLE 3.5
Waterproof Breathable Fabrics with Specific Fabric Properties
Densely woven Fabrics constructed using hydrophobic and Ventile, fabrics from
fabrics nonabsorptive fibre/yarns with high microfibres
weave density and interyarn spaces should
be small to protect against wind/rain.
Microporous Microporous membranes have pore size GORE-TEX, SympaTex
membranes and much smaller (2–3 μm) than the size of
coating rain drops (100 μm) and water vapour
(40 × 10–6 μm). Coated fabrics are
composite materials whereby a polymer
coating is applied to the fabric surface –
polyurethane, polytetrafluroethylene
(PTFE), acrylic, polyamino acids, whose
pore sizes range from 0.1 to 50 μm. PU
coating is widely preferred due to its
flexibility, durability and ability of film to
suit various end uses.
Hydrophillic This is based on chemical chain reactions Durable, possess good
membrane and between moisture molecules and strength, resistant to
coatings nonporous film. The property is obtained chemicals, can be
by incorporating hydrophilic backbone in designed for higher
the coating material, which increases the breathability than
affinity of polymer to the water molecule microporous material
and with good breathability. (e.g. SympaTex film)
Biomimetics Mimicking the analogy of leaf stomata, Stomatex is used in
which has the ability to open and close its conjunction with
structure, the moisture vapour SympaTex for
transmission increases in open state and waterproof insulating
reduces in closed state. barrier.
Stomatex is a closed foam made of neoprene
with a series of convex domes vented by a
tiny aperture at the apex. Domes mimic the
transpiration process similarly to a leaf
providing a controlled release of water
vapour, enhancing comfort.
Source: Mukhopadhyay, A. and Midha, V. K. (2008). Journal of Industrial Textiles 37 (3): 225–262.

The following list highlights some of the range of coated/laminated fab-

rics from the Frizza Group (2013), which are suitable for work wear and outer
layer jackets. For instance, Venti Bi-stretch is a lightweight fabric with a dry
film Teflon® lamination and has the ability to offer stretch for added comfort.
Cordura 1100 is a woven, water-repellent fabric with Teflon lamination and
is intended for work wear (Figure 3.11a–c).

1. Venti Bi-stretch – dry film S + Teflon 72 gsm; 65% nylon, 11% elastane
and 24% polyurethane
2. Cordura 1100 – dry film bonded to woven fabric with Teflon coating –
410 gsm; 80% polyamide (nylon) and 20% polyurethane
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
76 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

(a) (b)

Back side Middle layer – Face side

porous membrane

(c) (d)

FIGURE 3.10
Microporous membrane – GORE-TEX. (a) Face side of the GORE-TEX fabric. (b) Backside of the
fabric. (c) GORE-TEX de-laminated layers. (d) The face side of the fabric with a water droplet.

3. Polystretch – a micropile fabric with Teflon coating 346 gsm; 85%

polyester, 14% polyurethane and 1% elastane (Figure 3.11d)
4. ASPEN – dry film + Teflon – 245 gsm, 82% nylon, 7% spandex and
11% polyurethane

3.5 Fabric Composition and Its Effect

on Sportswear Performance
Fabric behaviour and characteristics are influenced by fabric composition. Some
of the fabric properties that are affected are thermophysiological comfort in the
form of water vapour permeability, moisture absorption, wicking and air perme-
ability. The hydrophilic property of fibres also influences moisture absorption
and transmission (wicking). The following section presents some of the recent
findings along with commercial examples of natural and synthetic fibre blends.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 77

(a) (b)

Technical back side Technical face side

(knitted) (woven)
Fleece side of the fabric Back side of the fabric
(c) (d)

FIGURE 3.11
(a–c) Multilayer fabrics. (d) Polystretch micropile fabric with Teflon coating.

3.5.1 Importance of Fabric Composition in Sportswear

Troynikov and Wardiningsih (2011) investigated the liquid moisture man-
agement properties of knitted fabrics made of different fibre blends – wool/
polyester and wool/bamboo – of varying ratios for base layer sportswear.
The researchers reported that blending wool fibres with polyester or wool
with bamboo improved the moisture management properties of the fabrics
in comparison to 100% wool and 100% bamboo fabrics.
Generally, blending fibres in clothing offers an optimum balance between
durability and comfort properties. Investigators Das et al. (2009) explored
the effect of fibre blends (polyester/viscose) on the moisture flow of eight
different plain woven fabrics (varying the blend ratio of polyester/viscose).
Air permeability, water vapour permeability, moisture regain, absorp-
tive capacity and horizontal and vertical wicking were measured. They
reported that, as the viscose proportion increased, the absorbency of the
material increased linearly, similarly to the effect of moisture regain. They
further added that as the fabric structure (cover factor, porosity) was simi-
lar among the test samples, the increase in the moisture absorption and
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78 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

regain can be attributed to the increase in the amount of hydrophilic fibres.

Air permeability of all the test fabrics was similar, which confirms that the
fabrics were similar in their construction. It was also reported that in the
case of wicking, a small proportion of polyester fibre (hydrophobic – fibre
does not bond with the absorbing group of water molecules) in the fabric
increased the vertical wicking due to capillary flow. In the case of 100%
viscose fabric, which is hydrophilic in nature (has good affinity to water;
when the water molecule reaches it, it forms a bond with the absorbing
group of fibre molecules), the wicking was less, due to the fact that fibres
swell due to absorption resulting in the inhibition of capillary flow along
its surface or between interfibre spaces. This resulted in less movement of
moisture along the fabric surface.
This confirms the fact that when the hydrophilic proportion of fibres is
increased, the fabric will offer quick absorption from the skin; however, the
hydrophilic nature causes poor wicking, which accounts for moisture accu-
mulation resulting in dampness and wet sensations next to the skin. Hence,
in the case of activewear, where sweating levels are high, a higher propor-
tion of polyester fibres will wick away the moisture and keep the wearer dry
and a small proportion will facilitate quick absorption from the skin (typical
fabric composition 80% polyester and 20% viscose).

3.5.2 Natural Fibres and Their Effects on Fabric Performance

Wool fibre has been used for outdoor apparel for its warmth, comfortable
handle and superior performance. Some of the advantages of Merino wool
include wrinkle recovery, water repellent, antistatic, durable and resil-
ient. The Südwolle Group recently reported its high-performance fibre,
Thermo°Cool®, offered by ADVANSA, a leading fibre producer in Europe.
They added that for high-intensity sports activity the wearer can benefit
from its Duoregulation™ fibre technology with Merino wool.
The combination of ADVANSA Thermo°Cool with Merino wool offers the
possibility of light, breathable, exceptionally soft fabrics with a warm, natu-
ral, luxurious feel, and good comfort. ADVANSA Thermo°Cool is made with
smart fibre cross sections. Fabrics from this blend do not absorb moisture as
much as pure Merino wool and are well suited for aerobic sports. The blend
of ADVANSA Thermo°Cool with Merino wool is suitable for warm and cold
conditions and ideal for layering garments, socks and midlayer fleece. Wool
fibres also provide natural odour control when sweat levels are high. The
wearer feels fresh, as the fabric (ADVANSA Thermo°Cool) wicks the moisture
away from the skin and dries quickly compared to 100% wool fabric. During
intense activity, ADVANSA Thermo°Cool evaporates moisture faster than
other materials and allows enhanced air circulation, focussing energy on the
evaporation process. On the other hand, in the case of low activity, ADVANSA
Thermo°Cool acts as a buffer which protects the wearer from changes in
external temperature. This supports the wearer from postexercise cooling
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Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 79

and allowing excess heat to dissipate into the air (Giebel and Lamberts-
Steffes, 2013). Some of the brands by the Südwolle Group include

• Yarn in motion
• Biella yarn

Thermo°Cool has a blend of channelled fibre cross-section and hollow

fibres, which creates interfibre spaces, which enables better circulation of air,
and channelled filaments wick moisture away from the skin. The improved
air permeability allows vapour to reach the exterior, preventing condensa-
tion, which affects evaporative cooling, and avoiding excess heat.

3.5.3 Synthetic and Smart Fibres Used in Sportswear

Dyneema®, from DSM, is a polyethylene fibre with ultrahigh molecular ori-
entation which has high breaking strength and is reported to be 15 times
stronger than steel (on a weight-for-weight basis) and resistant to cuts, as
well as being lightweight and extremely tear resistant (Henssen, 2013).
Figure 3.12 reveals that Dyneema is approximately eight times as resistant
to tearing as Cordura (high-tenacity nylon) and three times stronger com-
pared to Kevlar (para-aramid).
Abrasion resistance results at various cycles of rub are presented for Kevlar
and Dyneema in Figure 3.13. The fabric surface distortion is less for Dyneema
at 8000 cycles compared to Kevlar, whereas Kevlar fabric reveals thread
breaks at 180 cycles. The illustration in Figure 3.16 shows that Dyneema fab-
ric is water repellent.
Finally, Figure 3.15 reveals that fabric made of Dyneema offers better ther-
mal conductivity and comfort, helping to keep the body cool while it is exer-
cising if a higher proportion of Dyneema is used in the fabric. Hence, fabric
made of Dyneema is a high-performance material made of synthetic fibres
which is resistant to tearing, lightweight, abrasion resistant, soft and supple
EN388 tear resistance (N)
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
100% Kevlar 100% Cordura 100% Dyneema

FIGURE 3.12
Tear resistance of fabric made of 100% Dyneema. EN388, European Standard for test require-
ments of safety gloves. (Source: Dyneema.)
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80 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Kevlar fabric abrasion resistance

Original 40 cycles 80 cycles 160 cycles 180 cycles

Dyneema fabric abrasion resistance

Original 100 cycles 500 cycles 2000 cycles 8000 cycles

FIGURE 3.13
Abrasion-resistant fabric with Dyneema. (Source: Dyneema.)

FIGURE 3.14
Dyneema is hydrophobic. (Source: Dyneema.)

next to the skin, hydrophobic and fatigue or bending resistant; it offers better
thermal conductivity, which makes it ideal to be used in high-performance
sportswear and performance work wear.

3.6 Discussion
This chapter has highlighted the importance of fabric characteristics in the
design and development of performance apparel, particularly for sportswear.
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Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 81

40°C
104 F

36°C
97 F
0% 50% 95%

The more Dyneema, the cooler the hand.

FIGURE 3.15
Glove with Dyneema: high thermal conductivity. (Source: Dyneema.)

Recent developments in technology have resulted in the development of

high-performance fibres/fabrics. Fabrics for performance apparel include
waterproof or breathable fabrics, multilayer fabrics, knitted fabrics, fleece or
brushed knits, smart fabrics and eco-friendly and hard-wearing fabrics for
work wear. Fabric behaviour varies during use and manufacture. It should be
noted that there are numerous requirements from a user perspective using
high-performance apparel, and it is not possible to incorporate every pos-
sible need. In this context, this chapter has highlighted essential parameters
that should be fulfilled in addition to desirable parameters. Widely played
sports in the UK were chosen and various essential and desirable properties
were presented. The case study also revealed that garments for cycling are
multidimensional and functional. Market trends for sports garments are on
the rise, as the number of adults involved in sports over the last few years
has increased, as highlighted through the Mintel Group’s report. There are
a number of reasons behind this increased participation, but among many
it is due to health benefits; for example, Sport England has stated that physi-
cally active adults have a reduced risk of chronic illnesses such as heart dis-
ease, diabetes or musculoskeletal concerns. Five major sports were identified
as most preferred – swimming, running, football, cycling and golf. Most of
these sports require specific clothing gear to support their performance.
A number of internal and external factors were highlighted with evidence
and examples to facilitate a better understanding of fabric parameters. Some
of the internal factors, including fibre type, blend, fineness, yarn quality,
fabric density, thickness and structure, were presented. It was highlighted
that in the case of wool-blend knitted fabrics, tighter knit fabrics were less
comfortable. Fabrics made of synthetic microfibres were ideal for sports-
wear – particularly for athletics, as they had excellent moisture transmission
properties, wicking and dimensional stability. In addition, the microfibre
fabrics have excellent fabric handle, soft and pliable. The fineness of filaments
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82 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

influenced wicking and moisture transmission. In the case of woven fabrics,

increase in the yarn density (weft) increased the stiffness of the fabric and
the fabric was not smooth. The fabric stiffness decreased with the increase
in the yarn fineness. It was also highlighted that fabrics with bamboo yarns
had low thermal conductivity. Air permeability for knitted fabrics with bam-
boo fibres was much better than for fabrics with cotton fibres. Hence, it can
be inferred that fabric structure affects its performance, particularly with
regard to moisture- and/or thermally related comfort.
Various external factors were highlighted, including exposure to severe
cold conditions, exposure to continuous sunlight and measurements of fabric
properties in wet and dry states. The fabric properties differ when exposed
to cold conditions, especially thermal and moisture sensation. Durable fab-
rics with TiO2 nanocoating with self-cleaning ability and protection from UV
rays and intended for high-performance outdoor apparel such as that used
in mountain climbing or cross-country biking were also presented. It was
also interesting to note the comfort measurements in the wet and dry states,
and variations were presented. In the wet state, fabric porosity was reduced,
resulting in low air permeability. A number of commercial examples were
also presented with regard to UV protection, water repellency and thermal
insulation.
The effect of fabric and human body interaction should be considered
during the design and development of performance clothing, particularly
for sportswear. It has been shown that a garment should be able to absorb
sweat levels (particularly from the central and lower back), wick the mois-
ture away from the skin, allow moisture evaporation, prevent excess heat
loss from the body, avert condensation due to accumulation of moisture and
body heat, provide an optimum microclimate between the skin and cloth-
ing and, most importantly, provide tactile comfort to the wearer. It was also
highlighted that fabric properties influence the psychological well-being
of the wearer and tactile sensation. These fabric properties are critical in
the selection of appropriate fabrics – taking into consideration the fibre
blend, quality, yarn structure, fabric density, fabric structure and lamina-
tion or coating techniques used to optimise thermoregulatory comfort of
the wearer.
Various types of fabric structures used in sportswear were also presented
with commercial examples and illustration. Materials such as PCMs, biomi-
metics, microporous coatings and membranes are getting popular among
those interested in professional garments. Fabric composition in the form of
fibre blends also influences the comfort properties, such as moisture regain,
water vapour permeability, air permeability and wicking. The fabric mois-
ture absorptivity is influenced by the proportion of hydrophilic fibre blended
with hydrophobic fibres. Natural fibres such as Merino wool have also been
reported to possess properties suitable for activewear. Pure Merino wool
has been blended with varying fibre cross sections to regulate absorption,
wicking, air circulation and insulation and to enhance the comfort of the
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Fabric Properties and Their Characteristics 83

wearer. Synthetic fibres with ultrahigh molecular orientation with superior

performance (high breaking strength, lightweight, abrasion resistant, tear
resistant) were also highlighted with illustration and their applications were
presented. It is anticipated that the reader will benefit from this review of
fabric properties, which has presented research relating to fabric properties
for sportswear.

3.7 Summary and Conclusions

Fabric properties refer to a set of requirements fulfilled by a material intended
for a specific application. Fabric knowledge is essential in the selection,
design and development of a garment range for performance apparel and
is highlighted in this chapter with examples and visual illustrations. Fabric
properties and characteristics vary based on their texture, pattern, design
and structure. Fabric knowledge is important for those involved in textile
design, garment manufacturing, fashion design, product development, fash-
ion buying, merchandising, quality control, fabric supply and sales. It also
becomes a unique selling point for marketing and promoting various claims
of a new technology. Garment manufacturing involves a combination of pro-
cesses; for example, whilst sewing, various settings have to be carried out
to prevent seam distortion or puckering. Fabric properties also affect cut-
ting, laying-up of fabric layers and slip caused while handling fine-denier or
microfibre fabrics. Understanding fabric behaviour and characteristics will
enable technicians, technologists and designers alike to produce a garment
fit for purpose and with the desired aesthetics.
Hence, if a company/designer prefers to design a range of base layer gar-
ments, the choice of a fabric will be based on a number of factors as high-
lighted in this chapter: internal and external factors, fabric structure, fibre
blend ratio, fabric composition and, moreover, the interaction between the
garment and skin. The typical fabric choice will be lightweight and made of
microfibres, with a uniform yarn quality, and knitted fabric (medium to fine
gauge), which has the ability to wick the moisture from the skin, allow air
transmission and, at the same time, prevent excess body heat loss. However,
for an outdoor garment, the fabric choice is heavyweight, coated or lami-
nated or multilayered woven/knitted fabric (sometimes quilted) and possi-
bly PCM, which has the ability to resist wind penetration, to repel water and,
at the same time, to allow moisture vapour transmission. In addition, the
designer should also assess the fabric–skin interaction under dynamic con-
ditions (running, walking) and climatic conditions (wind/extremely cold/
warm) to verify its suitability. Therefore, it becomes mandatory for design-
ers to have a wider understanding of fabric properties and characteristics
as highlighted in this chapter so that they produce a performance garment
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84 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

ideal for the chosen application. It is anticipated that the reader, after review-
ing this chapter, will be equipped with new ideas and be motivated to fur-
ther his or her vision in designing functional and performance apparel for
future generations.

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4
Fabrics for Performance Clothing

Tasneem Sabir and Jane Wood

CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 87
4.2 Fabric and Its Application in Functional Clothing.................................. 88
4.3 Basic Structures and Their Influence on Sportswear Performance....... 89
4.3.1 Conventional Woven Structures..................................................... 89
4.4 Conventional Knitted Structures...............................................................90
4.4.1 Classification of Knit Structures..................................................... 90
4.4.1.1 Weft Knitting...................................................................... 91
4.4.1.2 Warp Knitting..................................................................... 92
4.4.2 Properties of Warp- and Weft-Knitted Structures....................... 92
4.5 Wovens versus Knits – A Case Study: The Speedo Story....................... 93
4.6 Application of Fabric Structures in Sportswear....................................... 95
4.7 Future Developments in Woven and Knitted Fabrics............................. 96
4.7.1 Nanotechnology in Fabrics.............................................................. 97
4.7.2 Fabric Developments........................................................................ 97
4.8 Conclusions.................................................................................................... 99
References.............................................................................................................. 100

4.1 Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the differences between
woven and knitted structures and their application in sports garments.
Furthermore, the chapter will provide the reader with basic terminology
and structural details with their related properties. It further explains the
application of woven and knitted structures using examples of some well-
known sports brands. A case study on Speedo® explains the development
of a swimsuit and the most innovative and controversial suit worn by the
Olympic swimmer Michael Phelps. Finally, the chapter will go on to discuss
the future of performance fabrics in the area of fibre and fabric developments.

87
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88 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

4.2 Fabric and Its Application in Functional Clothing

There are many ways in which fabrics can be constructed; however, gener-
ally, fabrics can be categorised into three basic structures: woven, knitted
and nonwoven (Eberle et al., 2008). Each of the structures has its own attri-
butes and drawbacks and careful selection is required to ensure that opti-
mum performance is attained for the end user.
In the field of sports and performance wear, woven fabrics dominated
early developments as the yarns available were of natural origins and there-
fore relatively coarse in terms of yarn count. Silks, cottons and wools were
all popular as they imparted both protection and performance properties
in varying degrees alongside desirable tactile features. However, they were
not without their drawbacks and many limitations were apparent (Kadolph,
2007). Swimwear was particularly difficult to produce as the natural fibres
absorbed moisture readily, leading to garments that quickly sagged and
moved out of shape (Gedeon, 2007).
Around the time of the Second World War, synthetic fibres were devel-
oped to such a degree that they became accessible to the mass market.
The relatively high durability and low cost of the majority of synthetic
fibres made them an appealing option to the consumer (O’Mahony
and Braddock, 2005). Whilst most widely available synthetics lacked
appeal in sportswear due to their poor breatheability and handle, there
was one manufactured fibre that had a major impact on sportswear
fabrics.
The creation of Lycra® revolutionised woven fabrics and saw the dawn
of a new era in terms of woven close-fitting garments due to their newly
found elastic properties (Invista, 2013). By the time of the 1972 Munich
Olympics, swimwear had been developed using Lycra-containing knit-
ted fabrics (Stefani, 2012). This sparked a trend in the widespread use
of knitted fabrics with improved stretch throughout the sportswear
industry.
As technologies developed and the synthetic fibre market became more
advanced, the ability to produce extremely fine synthetic filaments encour-
aged the progression of knitting technology. In conjunction with the
advances in synthetic fibres to enhance comfort properties, knitted fabrics
became the popular choice for many sports apparel applications. Knitting
is seen as the third largest fabric structure after woven and nonwoven
structures. In recent times, advances in the technologies of fabric creation,
alongside the use of innovative yarns and fibres, has seen interest refocus
on woven fabrics, with many new applications being explored within the
sports apparel market.
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Fabrics for Performance Clothing 89

4.3 Basic Structures and Their Influence

on Sportswear Performance
4.3.1 Conventional Woven Structures
Conventional woven fabrics are constructed from two sets of yarns: a warp
(vertical) set and a weft (horizontal) set, which are interlaced at right angles
to each other to form a sheet structure. The regularity with which the yarns
interlace determines the nomenclature and influences some of the basic
properties of the weave. The most basic woven structure is the plain weave,
which involves the interlacing of alternate warp and weft yarns as shown in
Figure 4.1.
This structure, although the most basic, is the most commonly found weave
in apparel due to its relatively low cost and speed and ease of manufacture
alongside its versatility (Elsasser, 2010). Twill and satin weaves, derivatives of
plain weave, are also found in apparel and are used to give surface interest
and to impart specific properties such as durability (twill) and drape (satin)
to the structure.
It could be suggested that woven fabric construction itself does not have
to be complicated in order to achieve fabrics displaying high performance.
Fabrics created using a basic woven construction can be engineered for a mul-
titude of end uses by clever selection of fibre, yarn and finishing techniques.
One of the earliest types of plain woven fabric known for its protection
of the body against wind and moisture is known as Ventile. This fabric is
a 100% long, staple-fibre cotton, densely woven basket-weave construction

FIGURE 4.1
Plain woven structure.
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90 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

(a version of plain weave). When in contact with water, the cotton fibres swell,
closing any gaps in the woven structure to such a degree that relatively high
pressure is required for liquid to penetrate through to the skin. This imparts
a degree of waterproofing to the fabric without any type of chemical finish.
The gaps are still sufficient for water vapour to pass from the body to the
outer environment, thus allowing the body to ‘breathe’ and be comfortable
(Chaudhari et al., 2004).
Woven structures such as twill and satin have been developed for spe-
cific sportswear applications. Racing car driver suits were created by using a
blend of carbon, polyester and cotton fibres (Abd El-Hady and Abd El-Baky,
2011). However, it was shown that the selection of the weave structure was
of secondary importance to that of the fibre. In this case, the carbon fibre
and excellent heat resistance, rather than the weave structure, imparted the
specific performance properties required.
Similarly, in the case of performance swimwear garments, the weave struc-
ture was of secondary importance as the inclusion of a high proportion of
elastane fibre was found to alter the shape of the body, rather than the weave
structure itself.

4.4 Conventional Knitted Structures

Sports development encompasses improving the athlete’s performance by
seeking ways of studying the human body and engineered garments. By
creating innovative fibres and fabrics, the textile industry has supported
the development of functional clothing to enhance the level of an athlete’s
performance. The early adoption of knit structures was by luxury brands
wanting to create figure-hugging garments. The early part of the 1980s saw
the introduction of knits to the sportswear market (Abd El-Hady and Abd
El-Baky, 2011). Many of the fabrics produced used high-quality fibres, yarns
and complex structures, and these helped to improve the functional proper-
ties of garments for the sportswear market. In recent years, the development
of both knitted and woven structures has appeared in the same garments,
although many of today’s highly engineered garments have opted for the
knit structure.

4.4.1 Classification of Knit Structures

In contrast to woven fabrics, which can be defined as structures developed
from the interlacing of yarns, knitted fabrics are those derived from the
interlooping of yarns (Choi and Powell, 2005). Circular and flatbed knitting
machines, using needles, distort yarns into loops, which are then interlooped
with each other to form the knit structure.
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Fabrics for Performance Clothing 91

Knit structures were once thought of as inferior to their woven counter-

parts due to their relative instability; however, innovations in both yarn and
machine technologies have elevated knitted materials, in some cases, to have
properties that far outweigh those offered by woven structures. Many brands
in today’s global market are utilising knit structures due to their advanced
properties (Power, cited in Fairhurst, 2008). The rise and popularity of knit-
ted fabrics in sportswear applications offer properties that lend themselves
to casual leisure activities as well as to extreme performance sports. Knitted
fabrics fall into two categories – warp and weft knitting, formed from a sin-
gle yarn or from many yarns in either a weft-wise or warp-wise direction.

4.4.1.1 Weft Knitting
This form of knitting was commonly associated to hand knitting. Weft knit-
ting is a method where a single yarn is used to generate a row of loops. The
interlooping yarns are carried horizontally to form loops in rows as seen in
Figure 4.2.
Weft knit structures can use multiple yarns to create complex pattern
designs. Generally, the properties of weft-knitted fabrics are that they are
soft and pliable and have good handle and drape. These materials have a
tendency to unravel course by course and are extremely stretchy. General
end use for weft-knitted garments includes socks, T-shirts and sweaters, car-
digans and outwear garments (Gao, 2009). Most materials produced are in a
tubular form.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4.2
Weft knit structure: (a) face and (b) reverse.
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92 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

4.4.1.2 Warp Knitting
In warp knitting, yarns are attached to the top of the machine, running verti-
cally to create the knitted loops in a lengthwise direction, interlooping the
yarns to form columns of loops. The formation of loops and properties dif-
fers significantly between each of the warp-knitted structures.
These materials have little stretch and are less likely to unravel. Warp-knitted
structures are stronger and more stable than weft-knitted structures. End uses
of these structures are technical applications, sportswear and underwear. Most
warp-knitted materials are manufactured flat or in open width form.

4.4.2 Properties of Warp- and Weft-Knitted Structures

The properties of both knitted warp and weft structures are highly depen-
dent on the fibres, yarn type and constructional details. Due to the mobility
of the loops in weft-knitted structures, they excel in the thermal properties.
The demand of many garments, in particular sportswear, requires the fab-
ric to bend and stretch freely. This is achieved by the constructional details

TABLE 4.1
Weft Knit Structures and Applications
Weft knit structures offer plenty of movement and flexibility, although due to their unstable
structures, they can have a limited appearance and can sag unless suitably laundered and
stored. The basic weft knit structures are jersey knit (plain), rib knits, purl knits and
interlock. These structures make up many of the fabrics in today’s apparel market.
Weft Knit Structure Properties and Applications
Jersey knit (plain) Jersey (plain) knit is the most economical structure to produce. These
structures can be manufactured as lightweight to heavyweight
fabrics. The structure allows the fabric to stretch both crosswise and
lengthwise (more so in the crosswise direction) and has good drape.
In sportswear, this structure is generally associated with polo-shirts,
shorts, skirts and jackets.
Rib structure The constructional details of these fabrics are complex, making its
production slower than for plain single jersey. The properties of the
fabrics include elasticity and stretch (considerably in the crosswise
direction), which are important features in fashion garments. In
sportswear, this structure is generally associated with collar, cuffs,
neckline, shorts and socks.
Purl structure Purl fabrics are considered the most expensive to manufacture of the
basic knits as they require more production time. Purl fabrics have
good stretch in all directions; however, due to the elasticity, the
fabrics can be stretched out of shape easily. The fabrics can be quite
decorative and are used heavily in children’s wear.
Interlock structure This is a stable fabric structure with limited crosswise stretch.
Nowadays, this structure is rarely used in fashion garments (Power,
cited in Fairhurst, 2008) but it has found a place in technical textiles.
This structure has also been used in activewear, shorts and tops.
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Fabrics for Performance Clothing 93

TABLE 4.2
Warp Knit Structures and Applications
Tricot and Raschel are two types of knitting machines which produce the vast amount of
warp knitted structures in the textile industry. Many fabrics correspond to the two machines
as seen in this table. Tricot is associated with plain tight structures, whereas Raschel lends
itself to open, jacquard and fancy structures.
Warp Knit Structure Properties and Applications
Tricot knits Tricot knitted fabrics account for most of the warp knit structures. It is
essential that high-quality, uniform filament yarns are used to create
these structures. The characteristics of these structures are uniform in
weight and appearance, displaying a tightly knitted structure. Tricot
fabrics have little stretch.
Raschel knits Raschel fabrics are similar to tricot, but are available in a variety of
patterns and textural designs. The structure allows for heavy yarns to
be used and creates open structures.
Note: In sportswear, these structures are generally associated with activewear, sportswear
(seamless), sports shoes, swimwear, undergarments and compression garments.

provided by the knitted structures offering excellent elasticity, comfort and

absorption ability (Chen, 2013). Warp-knitted fabrics are generally more
stable than weft-knitted structures. However, weft-knitted structures often
encounter problems with dimensional stability, as the mechanical stresses
applied during washing can distort the fabric. Conversely, the application of
finishes to the surface of the fabrics can minimise this behaviour. Tables 4.1
and 4.2 explain the knit structures.

4.5 Wovens versus Knits – A Case Study: The Speedo Story

Speedo is a manufacturer and distributor of swim apparel, with head offices
in Nottingham, UK. The company has been a strong innovator of swimwear
and sponsors several national swimming teams. Its innovations in swim-
wear began in 1932, focusing on garment design, with Arne Borg’s racer-
back swimsuit (Stefani, 2012).
Speedo became synonymous with swimsuits and the development of new
fabrics which saw the reduction of drag and turbulence and the introduction
of a swimwear bodysuit. Once the swimsuit had covered less; now the gar-
ments covered the entire body (Stefani, 2012).
Speedo created one of the most exciting swimsuits, known as the Speedo
Fastskin™, which was designed to enhance performance of the swimmer
by reducing the effects of friction drag in the water (Toussaint et al., 2007).
The Fastskin ‘sharkskin-based design’ fabric was developed in conjunction
with Fiona Fairhurst (a former competitive swimmer) and was a knitted
base structure with features that were said to mimic sharkskin to improve
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94 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

the speed of the wearer in the water. It was marketed as ‘the world’s fastest
swimsuit’, as seen in Figure 4.3 (Stefani, 2012, p. 14).
The product was successful and saw improvements in racing times for
the wearers. The Fastskin was considered a super lightweight suit and saw
Michael Phelps beat his own 200-metre butterfly world record wearing the
garment (Speedo, 2013). However, the Speedo development team realised
that there was still room for further improvement.
A woven fabric ‘LZR Pulse’, which Speedo claimed to be ‘the world’s light-
est woven swim fabric’ was the next innovation, launched in 2008 (Speedo,
2013). The fabric was a densely woven microfibre nylon/elastane blend
(Rodie, 2008). Containing two-way stretch, it was highly compressive and the
areas of compression were concentrated in the suit at critical points to alter
body shape and allow a more streamlined form in the water. Additionally
the fabric was treated using nanotechnology to improve its water repellence/
absorption, and the enhanced chlorine resistance meant that any degrada-
tion of properties such as compression or strength was kept to a minimum.
Clever garment engineering techniques, such as bonded seams, flowed with
the contours of the body to further enhance the reduced drag resistance in the
water. However, a major ‘drawback’ of the suit was that swimmers reported
it took up to 20 minutes to dress due to the tightness of the fit. The Speedo
LZR Pulse fabric was used in competition and swimmers wearing the suit
broke a total of 46 world records, whilst at the Beijing Olympic Games, 94% of
the swimming races were won by competitors wearing suits made from the

Patterns in shark skin help

in reducing longitudinal and
transverse vortices of water,
limiting degree of movement
transfer Microanatomy of shark’s skin
exhibits unique pattern and
arrangement of V-scales which
provide special functional
features in shark to compensate
Drag-reducing and
dense sea-water drag
non-adhesive surface
to microbial cells can be
designed in modern swimsuits

FIGURE 4.3
Sharkskin swimsuit design.
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Fabrics for Performance Clothing 95

fabric (Stefani, 2012). This led to the international swimming federation (FINA)
imposing a controversial international ban on the ‘performance-enhancing’
swimsuit (BBC, 2009; Marinho et al., 2012).

4.6 Application of Fabric Structures in Sportswear

The period of the 1980s saw a rise in modern sportswear (Abd El-Hady and
Abd El-Baky, 2011). A single fibre or simply coating the fibre/fabric provided
the functional characteristics for many garments in sporting activities. Over
time, the creation of innovative fibres and complex structures has allowed
for a wide variety of properties to be incorporated in one single garment.
The application of knitted fabrics in sports garments has increased due to the
demand for stretchable, wrinkle-resistant and snug-fitting garments. With
advances in digital technology, this has opened the market to create innova-
tive patterns, efficiently and practically. As the living standards of people
have increased, their leisure activities have also seen growth where people
are more health conscious. The demands for multifunctional clothing to
incorporate comfort and health benefits are on the rise (Liu and Liu, 2012).
In any sporting activity, many factors need to be considered to per-
form at the optimum level. Three main attributes in the success or failure
of a sport relate to (1) the athlete’s ability, (2) equipment and facilities and
(3) engineered clothing (Chowdhury et al., 2012; Yan et al., 2011). According
to Feng and Liu (2012) and Onofrei et al. (2011), the most important charac-
teristic of functional clothing is to create a stable microclimate close to the
skin to support the body’s thermoregulatory system in any physical environ-
ment. Tactility (hand) and aesthetics (appearance) are considered important
qualities in garments (Emirhanova and Kavusturan, 2008). Understanding
the fibre properties and the effects on the fabric is fundamental to the gar-
ment. Based on these characteristics, knitted fabrics are commonly preferred
(Mikučionienė and Milašiene, 2013).
Some of the well-known engineered garments have amalgamated both
science and technology to create functional sportswear. The intricate struc-
tures combined with material composition meet the demands of sportswear
designs and performance. The structural details and mapping of the prop-
erties have led sports companies to concentrate on different aspects of the
body. Nike (2013) launched a range of warp-knitted garments to provide
breathable and cooling zones within their sports garments. The research and
development team mapped the zone areas of females. The data generated
allowed an engineered warp mesh structure to apply heated zones to certain
parts of the torso.
X-BIONIC® was another recognized sportswear company specializ-
ing in incorporating aspects of nature in its most innovative and highly
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96 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

functional clothing range. In 12 years, X-BIONIC has revolutionised func-

tional clothing (X-BIONIC, 2013). Most of the garments manufactured use
intricate warp knit structures to create muscle control, support tissue and
create partial compression, to name a few. The sophisticated mapping of
the tightly knitted warp structures sends signals along the spine to the
brain, enabling the body to cool through perspiration. Although this is
considered a ground-breaking innovation in the apparel industry, very
little research or published literature is available to verify the claims
made concerning this clothing.
Woven structures have found a place in sports apparel as ‘outer’ or protec-
tive fabrics, rather than those lying in direct contact with the skin. Woven
fabrics have proven particularly useful in protection against wind and rain
whilst allowing breathability to enhance wearer comfort. However, it has
been the development of fibres, yarns and finishes rather than the woven
structure itself that has led to technological advances.
Microfibre woven fabrics are commonly used as ‘soft shells’ in sporting
activities. The ‘shell’ is the garment forming the outermost layer of cloth-
ing, whilst the ‘soft’ is attributed to the tactility of the microfibre fabric. The
development of microfibres has allowed the principle of the densely woven
fabric structure to be further explored. Developments by companies such as
Invista (2013) are typical examples:
Coolmax® is a microfibre polyester with a ‘grooved’ cross section which
allows moisture to flow away from the body; THERMOLITE® is another
polyester-based microfibre, this time with a hollow cross section which
imparts insulation properties to the woven structure (ADVANSA, 2013). The
microfibres themselves are pleasant to the touch whilst the polyester imparts
strength and durability to the fabric. Additionally, the fineness of the fila-
ments enables a tightly woven structure to be developed, which can impart
properties such as windproofing without compromise to handle or breath-
ability (O’Mahony and Braddock, 2005). Further fibre developments can be
found in Chapter 2.

4.7 Future Developments in Woven and Knitted Fabrics

Integrating both woven and knit fabrics into a sports garment upgrades the
wearability, function and design aesthetics of a garment (Chen, 2013). The tex-
tile industry is constantly seeking ways of improving garments to enhance
performance levels. By combining material engineering and clothing, science
has assisted in the physiology and physiological well-being of an athlete. The
future developments in woven and knitted fabrics generally lie in its most
basic element – the fibre and then further into the complex composites.
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Fabrics for Performance Clothing 97

4.7.1 Nanotechnology in Fabrics
Developments in sportswear are to study and understand its core mate-
rial, the ‘fibre’. Variations in fibres are based on their dimensions (fineness/
length), shape and constitution to increase functional properties required
for the sports market including antibacterial, moisture regulation, comfort,
breathable and soft and durable, leading to smart and functional designs.
According to Nanostart (2013), nanotechnology brings about transforma-
tional change to the new era of sustainable energy. Engineered at the molec-
ular level (1 to 100+ nm), the fabrics are manipulated to repel dirt, grease
and oil (Wu and Li, 2004). Nanotechnology is being incorporated more into
sportswear by reducing the stresses applied to the body or by improving
comfort. Nanotechnology can improve textiles by creating a barrier against
elements such as dirt, soiling and chemical attacks. Nanotechnology has also
seen application in areas of medical and protective clothing. Nanoenhanced
materials have incorporated silver to inhibit the growth of bacteria and
reduce odour (Gorga, 2010). One of the most novel nanotech textiles was seen
in the sharkskin swimsuit worn by the Olympic swimmer Michael Phelps. The
suit included a nanoplasma layer, which significantly repelled water molecules
and enhanced the swimmer’s glide through the water (Nanomagazine, 2010).
Nano-optimised particles have also been incorporated in the latest genera-
tion of clothing for skiing, water activities and golfing.

4.7.2 Fabric Developments
Variation in fabric constructions can be achieved by three methods. One
method is to alter the weave or knit construction. This can take the form of
complex structures of weaves and knits to more elaborate technical struc-
tures seen in 3D and spacer fabrics. 3D weaving is seen as the next big step
in development of woven fabric structure. 3D weaving can be defined as ‘a
fabric, the constituent yarns of which are supposed to be disposed in a three-
mutually-perpendicular-planes relationship’ (Khokar, 2001, p. 196). This
can be taken to mean any one of a variety of structures but it is commonly
accepted that the structure is not of the ‘flat’ planar type usually associated
with woven materials used for garments.
This type of woven structure has a noticeable ‘depth’ to its structure, in effect
adding a third dimension to the fabric (Chen and Hearle, 2013). Another way
of visualising a 3D woven structure is that of a preformed shape. This technol-
ogy is predominantly used in highly engineered functions, such as air foils,
fan blades and even car manufacture (Ceurstemont, 2011). It has also found use
in ballistics protection and body armour (Kaufman, 2012) (Figure 4.4).
Many sportswear products are derived from sources that are associated
with strong engineering backgrounds, such as the automotive or aeronauti-
cal industries. The development of the Speedo LZR Pulse fabric used tech-
niques more commonly found in the development of cars to assess frictional
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98 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 4.4
Warp knit military mesh.

drag of fluids. It is therefore reasonable to assume that 3D fabric could have

potential in the sportswear apparel market. Ballistic protection has been
explored in depth using 3D fabrics (Chen and Hearle, 2013); this could eas-
ily translate into protective wear such as shin pads for cricket, helmets for
cycling or body armour type apparel used in American football (Marshall
et al., 2002). Chen (2013) reports that even sports apparatus has been explored
using 3D woven fabrics, with the development of lightweight golf clubs.
According to Sheikhzadeh et al. (2010), spacer fabrics can be described as
two layers of knitted fabrics joined together by monofilament yarn. The fab-
ric can also be referred to as a sandwich with the third layer tucked between
the two other layers. The unique feature of the middle layer can take the form
of tubes, pleats or engineered forms. The built-in pockets allow the zones to
create layers of air, which act as insulation with thermoregulation effects. In
the sportswear industry, warp- and weft-faced spacer fabrics can be found
in applications such as functional clothing, sports shoes, shoulder pads and
knee and elbow protectors (Chinta and Gujar, 2013). Figure 4.5 illustrates a

FIGURE 4.5
Warp knit spacer fabric.
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Fabrics for Performance Clothing 99

spacer fabric constructed by Mayer & Cie. This is double jersey structure,
which is very stable and has seen its application in shoe manufacturing.
‘New science that has studied nature’s creation has modelled or taken
inspiration from these designs to solve human problems’ (Benyus, 2002).
Biomimetics is a science of using nature to solve human problems, creating
innovative products. By observing nature we can mimic the living in sports
clothing. A well-known example includes Velcro – a biomimetic example
inspired by burs. Moisture management is extremely important in the
sportswear market. The opening and closing of vents in clothing have mim-
icked pinecones. Nike introduced clothing incorporating the pinecone effect,
the likes of which Maria Sharapova and Roger Federer wore at the 2006 US
Open Tennis Championships.
Composite fabrics use a combination of different fibres or combine differ-
ent fabrics’ construction in one garment. Cloverbrook Fabrics is a leader in
performance fabrics. A number of its garments include two-layer cellular
construction where each layer is composed of a natural and synthetic fibre.
Dry wool is one of the latest fabric developments from Cloverbrook; it uses
a combination of Merino wool and synthetic fibres, leaving the body dry
and comfortable.

4.8 Conclusions
Early sportswear was dominated by fabrics of natural origin like silk, cot-
ton and wool woven into garments with a degree of performance. With
the development of synthetic fibres came about the creation of sportswear
using knitting technologies. Advances in comfort properties have led to the
industry embracing knitting as a popular choice of constructional methods.
However, interest has been refocused on woven fabrics and, using both con-
structions, many sportswear applications have improved performance.
Sport clothing has to consider not only the athlete but also the environment
and activity. Therefore, the application of woven and knitted fabrics works
well in this area. Woven materials are classified as the interlacing of yarns
at right angles. Basic structures include plain, twill and satin. Each of the
weaves has its own benefits and drawbacks. The latest generation of sophis-
ticated clothing, using advanced knit structures have enabled controlled
muscle tissue and compression, leading to increased oxygen and blood flow,
and comfort. Similarly to woven fabrics, knitting has basic constructions in
warp and weft directions. Many of the fabrics today are warp knitted and
have been cleverly engineered to incorporate different degrees of tension to
improve the optimum performance level of an athlete.
Some well known engineered garments in the marketplace have come
from leading sportswear brands – for example, Nike, Speedo and X-BIONIC.
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100 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

The evolution of technology and science has led to further advancements in

fibres and fabrics where the incorporation of nature or a combination of com-
plex structures has seen athletes perform at an optimum level. Woven and
knitted structures both share benefits and limitations but the combination
in one garment has led to the most successful and innovative garment in the
sportswear industry: the Fastskin sharkskin swimsuit. The future in sports
developments is to engineer garments that allow improved performance and
functionality but remain aesthetically pleasing.

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5
Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing

Jane Ledbury and Emma Jenkins

CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 104
5.1.1 Laminates and Coatings................................................................ 105
5.1.2 Microencapsulation........................................................................ 105
5.2 Application of Composite Fabrics............................................................ 106
5.2.1 Composite Fabrics for Protection and Survival.......................... 106
5.2.2 Chemical and Biological Protection............................................. 106
5.2.3 Physical and Mechanical Protection............................................ 107
5.2.4 Flame and Heat Protection............................................................ 107
5.2.5 High Visibility................................................................................. 108
5.2.6 Outdoor Clothing and Sportswear............................................... 108
5.3 Human Physiological Response and Functional Requirements
of Composite Fabrics.................................................................................. 108
5.4 Composite Fabrics for Functional Outerwear........................................ 109
5.4.1 Technologies.................................................................................... 110
5.4.2 Functionality Considerations........................................................ 111
5.5 Measurement Techniques and Comparison of Performance............... 113
5.5.1 Water Resistance............................................................................. 113
5.5.2 Water Vapour Permeability........................................................... 114
5.5.3 Performance Comparisons............................................................ 114
5.6 Innovation in Composite Fabrics for Functional Outerwear............... 114
5.7 Case Study: Jackets for Hill Walkers........................................................ 116
5.7.1 Performance of Composite Fabrics for Hill Walking Jackets..... 116
5.7.2 Consumer Requirements for a Hill Walking Jacket.................. 117
5.7.2.1 Consumer 1....................................................................... 117
5.7.2.2 Consumer 2....................................................................... 118
5.7.2.3 Consumer 3....................................................................... 118
5.7.2.4 Consumer 4....................................................................... 120
5.7.2.5 Consumer 5....................................................................... 120
5.7.3 A Ventilation Design Feature for Jackets for Hill Walking...... 121
5.7.4 Evaluation of a Prototype Hill Walking Jacket........................... 121

103
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104 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

5.8 Composite Fabrics: Considerations for Garment Design

and Development........................................................................................ 130
5.8.1 Design Features............................................................................... 131
5.8.2 Assembly Techniques..................................................................... 132
5.9 Case Study: Survival Clothing for Military Flight Crew...................... 133
5.9.1 Current Clothing Analysis............................................................ 133
5.9.2 The Design Brief.............................................................................. 134
5.10 Challenges of Designing Cold Weather Clothing Systems
for Aircrew................................................................................................... 135
5.10.1 Environmental Considerations..................................................... 135
5.10.2 Human Factors Affected by Cold Weather................................. 137
5.10.3 Thermal Balance and Layered Clothing Systems...................... 138
5.10.3.1 Base Layer......................................................................... 139
5.10.3.2 Midlayer............................................................................ 139
5.10.3.3 Outer Protective Shell...................................................... 139
5.11 Design Process............................................................................................ 139
5.12 Composite Materials for Cold Weather Survival Clothing................... 141
5.12.1 Selection of Fabrics and Materials................................................ 141
5.12.1.1 Protection Layer............................................................... 143
5.12.1.2 Comfort Layer................................................................... 144
5.12.1.3 Insulation and Ventilation.............................................. 144
5.12.1.4 Mobility............................................................................. 146
5.12.1.5 Fit........................................................................................ 146
5.12.1.6 Construction..................................................................... 146
5.13 Conclusions.................................................................................................. 147
Acknowledgements............................................................................................. 148
References.............................................................................................................. 148

5.1 Introduction
Composite fabrics comprise two or more materials which are bonded together
to produce a structure with entirely new characteristics. Composite fabrics
are composed of a textile base, strengthening resin, a stabilising filler and
chemical additives, which provide additional or improved functional prop-
erties (Lawler and Wilson, 2002). Materials are combined that are dissimilar
and which have distinct mechanical properties, in order to produce the best
possible blend of high-performance properties for a range of applications/
functions. Composites are constructed utilising methods used in the pro-
duction of coated and laminated fabrics, such as surface coating, impregna-
tion, and lamination (Fung, 2002). Composite, laminated and coated fabrics
are used for a broad range of applications in functional and protective cloth-
ing, and are often referred to as ‘technical textiles’. Protective apparel, which
includes military clothing, personal protective equipment (PPE), personal
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 105

protective systems (PPS) and sportswear, represents a substantial portion of

the technical textiles market (Fung, 2002).

5.1.1 Laminates and Coatings

An important development in waterproof breathable clothing was when
GORE-TEX®, a microporous polymeric film made from polytetrafluoroethyl-
ene (PTFE), was introduced to the market in 1976 (Shishoo, 2002). The micro-
porous film provides a barrier to water droplets (rain) whilst allowing the
diffusion of moisture vapour through the film. GORE-TEX film is used in
both two-layer (fabric bonded to one side of a fabric) and three-layer (fab-
ric bonded to both sides of the film) construction in order to produce high-­
performance materials (Shishoo, 2002).
Microporous composite fabrics, constructed from PTFE laminates, have
the greater share of the outdoor clothing market. PTFE laminates generally
prevent rain penetration, whilst allowing moisture to be transferred from
the inner to the outer environment. In addition to microfibrous membranes
such as GORE-TEX, microporous coatings (coated fabrics) and hydrophilic
membranes (laminated fabrics) offer similar functions, preventing the pas-
sage of rain through the textile, whilst allowing the transmission of water
vapour to the outer environment.
According to Shishoo (2002), developments in multifunctional coated
and laminated fabrics have resulted in new and innovative (smart) textiles
for protective clothing which offer waterproof, breathable and heat insula-
tion, as well as heat protection or antistatic properties for functions such
as firefighting and military applications. Schoeller®Textiles developed
NanoSphere®, which allows water and oil to run off the surface of the fabric
and prevents staining. NanoSphere is a finishing technology which mimics
the self-­cleaning effect and water repellence of plants; dirt cannot adhere to
the finely structured surface of the fabric (Schoeller, 2014).

5.1.2 Microencapsulation
Thermal comfort plays an important part in performance for both flight
crew and hill walkers, therefore micro-encapsulation will be considered
briefly within this chapter. Phase change material (PCM) used in outdoor
clothing and sportswear was originally developed by Outlast® Technologies
for NASA. Phase change materials, which can change from a solid to liq-
uid state, are microencapsulated and enclosed permanently in a polymer
shell (Outlast, 2014), which can be coated onto fabrics or incorporated into
a polyurethane foam. The microencapsulated PCM absorbs and stores sur-
plus body heat and releases excess heat back to the body in order to regu-
late the body’s microclimate (Outlast, 2014). PCMs are useful for sportswear
and work wear applications, where phases of physical exertion, which gen-
erate heat, are followed by periods of inactivity, resulting in rapid cooling.
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106 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Other microencapsulated materials used in sportswear applications include

antimicrobial, moisturising and deodorising chemicals, fragrances and
aromatherapy oils. Additionally, nanocomposites provide antisoiling prop-
erties for a range of work wear and sportswear applications (Fung, 2002).
Micro-encapsulated materials, such as PCMs, originating from NASA in the
development of apparel for space travel, remain crucial considerations in the
design of clothing for military applications.

5.2 Application of Composite Fabrics

5.2.1 Composite Fabrics for Protection and Survival
‘Protective clothing refers to garments and other fabric-related items designed
to protect the wearer from harsh environmental effects that may result in
injuries or death’ (Adanur, 1995, cited in Zhou, Reddy and Yang, 2005). The
application of technical textiles for survival is concerned with protection and
ranges from complex military apparel to work wear such as personal protec-
tive equipment (PPE), which may include flame, chemical and biological pro-
tection. Protective clothing can be uncomfortable, bulky, heavy and restrictive
(Fung, 2002); however, significant improvements have been made with the
development of new composites enabling designers and product developers
to satisfy increasing demand for protective clothing that meets user needs
and is comfortable. Wearers of protective clothing may demand garments
which offer protection against extreme and harsh environments (both hot
and cold), contaminants, physical hazards and impact. The designer must
source materials which satisfy the need for protection as well as comfort.
Hazards are generally categorised as chemical, biological, physical/
mechanical, radiological, flame and thermal. These categories are used to
establish national and international standards and performance specifica-
tions. The selection of textiles which are fit for purpose is critical to the func-
tion, use and care of protective and survival clothing. An appreciation of the
working environment and functional requirements, together with knowl-
edge of textiles, is crucial to the successful development of PPE and apparel
for first responders against chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and
explosive (CBRNE) hazards (Shaw, 2005).

5.2.2 Chemical and Biological Protection

According to Shaw (2005), textiles for chemical protection can be woven
or nonwoven, laminated to membranes, coated, bonded or laminated with
plastic films or rubber. In order to minimise risk to the wearer, materials
are selected that provide resistance to penetration or permeation of chemical
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 107

contaminants, thereby preventing dermal exposure. Demand for barrier mate-

rials for clothing in the health industries has increased over recent years due
to risk of exposure to blood-borne pathogens (HIV and hepatitis B). Barrier
materials for protection include laminated nonwovens and microporous
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) films laminated to nonwovens (Fung, 2002).

5.2.3 Physical and Mechanical Protection

Physical and mechanical hazards encompass stab, ballistic and abrasion
protection. Antistab materials require a dense construction, which provides
resistance to penetration from sharp objects. Alternatively, a protective
coating of hard particles (silicon carbide) may be added to the fabric. The
purpose of the particles is to blunt sharp objects, adding to the penetration
resistance of the material. Recent developments to protect against abrasion
include small domes of strong resin, which are bonded to the outer surface
of the fabric or garment (Buckley, 2005). X-BIONIC® has produced apparel for
road racing which uses a similar technique with a base of boron carbide for
its ‘Black Diamond’ cycle road-racing suit.
Ballistic protective vests comprise many layers of fabric; however, some
garments include a composite plate to reduce bulk. The plate is designed to
spread the area of impact and reduce soft-tissue damage. Despite effective
protection, composite plates are rigid and impermeable, which may have an
impact on thermal burden and comfort for the wearer (Buckley, 2005).

5.2.4 Flame and Heat Protection

Flame and heat thermal protective clothing requires materials that have
intrinsic flame-resistant properties; additionally, a multilayer construction
is used, with each layer fulfilling a particular purpose (Shaw, 2005). Current
firefighters’ clothing in the United States is constructed of three layers
laminated together with an aramid outer layer, a barrier midlayer of neo-
prene-coated aramid or a GORE-TEX film laminated to nylon and a thermal
insulating layer. Whilst the layered garment has proved efficient, the pos-
sible deterioration of the barrier film is a cause for concern, as this would
leave the wearer vulnerable to risk (Fung, 2002). Where a finish is applied
in order to protect the wearer, the durability of the finish is of prime impor-
tance as it may ultimately affect the performance of the product (Shaw, 2005).
Military and fire services currently use FR aramid or aramid/FR viscose
blend yarns, which have essential flame-resistant properties in materials for
protective outerwear, as the fabrics are both strong and durable (Buckley,
2005). According to Shishoo (2002), it is possible to combine the functions of
different fibre qualities such as p-aramid, which provides high strength, and
m-aramid, which offers flame and heat resistance, to form the basis of pro-
tective clothing with exceptional strength and temperature resistance which
can be used by the fire service and for military applications.
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108 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

5.2.5 High Visibility
Other applications of textile coatings for PPE include high-visibility mate-
rial. Two types of high-visibility material can be produced by textile coating,
either by incorporating pigment into resin, which is applied as a coating,
or by a preprepared film containing pigments that may be laminated onto
fabrics. A third type of high visibility is produced through reflective micro-
prisms, which are integrated into a film to reflect light. The emergency ser-
vices and first responders, as well as sportsmen and -women, commonly use
reflective material such as Scotchlite® in order to enhance road safety (Fung,
2002).

5.2.6 Outdoor Clothing and Sportswear

The use of composite fabrics for outdoor clothing is concerned with protec-
tion against the elements, primarily wind and precipitation. In tandem with
these primary considerations, it is necessary to take into account the thermo-
physiological comfort of the wearer. Composite fabrics used in sportswear
may include protection against impact or other hazards and may incorporate
aspects of performance. A commonly used composite textile for sportswear
is neoprene, which is used predominantly for wetsuits in a range of water
sports.

5.3 Human Physiological Response and Functional

Requirements of Composite Fabrics
Heat generated by the body during exercise is proportionally similar to oxy-
gen consumed (Johnson, Benjamin and Silverman, 2002). This is because the
conversion of chemical energy into mechanical energy during muscle con-
tractions is an inefficient process. Even in optimum conditions 75% of energy
is released as heat, causing the participant to start warming up (Cheuvront
and Haymes, 2001). In response, the hypothalamus region of the brain redi-
rects blood flow to the skin, where heat can be transferred to the surround-
ing environment by conduction, convection and radiation (Robinson, 2000).
However, this is dependent on a favourable thermal gradient and the pres-
ence of convection currents, which can be inhibited by clothing. Therefore,
the principal means of heat exchange in humans is by sweating.
Evaporation is the process by which molecules change from a liquid to
a gaseous state. This requires heat to raise the kinetic energy of molecules
and break the bonds connecting them (Cengel, 1997). The latent heat for
vaporisation of sweat is taken from the body surface, providing a substantial
cooling effect. Low relative humidity and convection currents speed up the
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 109

process by increasing vapour diffusion away from the skin (Cheuvront et al.,
2004). Outerwear garments must therefore have high air and water vapour
permeability. If the fabric or design prevents this, sweat and water vapour
may accumulate within the underlying clothing layers and limit evaporative
power by increasing local relative humidity (Spencer-Smith, 1978; Havenith,
1999; Chen, Fan and Zhang, 2003). This leads to tactile sensations of discom-
fort related to the buildup of heat and moisture, such as clamminess and
prickliness (Yoo and Barker, 2005).
Water collected in the underlying clothing layers also displaces trapped
still air, which would ordinarily provide insulation. This significantly
reduces thermal resistance by conducting heat away from the skin along the
path of water flow (Brownless et al., 1995). The net reduction in insulation
is related to volume of water accumulated (Hall and Polte, 1956; Chen et al.,
2003). Therefore, the outer garment must also prevent rain, snow and drizzle
entering the clothing system.
Insulation is also diminished by wind. Heat is conducted to the cooler
air and transferred away from the body by the moving stream. This forced
convective cooling is intensified by lower air temperatures and higher wind
speeds. Another function of the outer layer must therefore be to provide a
shield against the effects of wind chill.

5.4 Composite Fabrics for Functional Outerwear

Composite fabrics are engineered to protect the clothing system from pen-
etration by rain and wind, but to allow water vapour from the evapora-
tion of sweat to diffuse to the external environment. Historically, this has
been achieved through application of close-woven fabrics constructed from
highly processed yarns in densely packed plain weave structures (Lomax,
1991; Holmes, 2000). However, modern composites have now all but replaced
these in the marketplace due to their improved water resistance, breathabil-
ity, weight, durability and versatility.
Composite fabrics have become a staple for outerwear performance where
a number of specific functional attributes are required from one garment.
This is particularly true for outdoor sports where protection from the
weather and maintenance of comfort are paramount for both safety and
comfort. Recent market research indicates that customers would invest in
clothing designed specifically for their chosen sporting activity and are
prepared to spend more money on innovative fabrics to improve their com-
fort and performance (Mintel Group, 2011, 2013). This is supported by the
European Outdoor Group (2013), which suggests that the annual turnover
of outdoor goods across Europe in 2012 exceeded €10 billion, with 53% of
this value being attributed to clothing (as opposed to footwear and other
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110 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

accessories). Furthermore, the market specifically for waterproof breath-

able fabrics is expected to grow by approximately 5% per annum until 2016
(Anon, 2013a).
Products in the UK outdoor sportswear market can be broadly categorised
into garments for mountaineering, hill walking, fast and light activities (such
as mountain biking, fell running and adventure racing) and snow sports. The
primary function of all these garments is to maintain a comfortable micro-
climate for the wearer. However, their performance specifications change
according to variables in the use environment and the heat and moisture
generated by the intensity of the activity performed. Moreover, the shape
and design of the garment are also partially dictated by the type of activity
being undertaken. For example, jackets for mountaineering will generally
be extremely water and abrasion resistant and the fit may be slightly longer
and wider to allow for layering. In contrast, the jackets used for fell running
will tend to be highly breathable with a slimmer fit, and the incorporation of
design features is kept to an absolute minimum to save on weight.
The conventional approach to achieving and maintaining comfort in
all these sports is by active adjustment of a layered clothing system. This
consists of a base layer worn next to the body and engineered to rapidly
wick moisture away from the skin, insulation midlayers designed to trap
air and retain warmth and an overlying outer layer for protection from the
elements. This outer layer is predominantly composed of composite mate-
rials. In this chapter, application of composite fabrics is presented in the
context of functional apparel. Recent innovations in the area of composite
fabrics are described in relation to human physiology responses to outdoor
sports. Focus group responses from five outdoor wearers are presented to
highlight specific requirements for their chosen activity. An in-depth analy-
sis of hill walking jackets is discussed with specific user requirements, and
appropriate assembly techniques are discussed with regard to whole gar-
ment performance and functionality. The case study on survival clothing for
military crews examines the design and development of a low-burden, high-­
performance survival jacket which forms part of the cold-weather clothing
system for military flight crews. It further highlights the requirements of
air crews that are unique, which demands a structured approach with user-
centred clothing design to ensure satisfying user needs as well as facilitating
the survival of the user in cold weather conditions, and offers to carry out
their primary task.

5.4.1 Technologies
Composite fabrics are constructed from a base fabric with a polymer bonded
to the reverse side, next to the skin. The polymer confers the performance
characteristics to the base fabric and can be coated, or laminated in place.
Methods of coating allow the liquid polymer to be directly applied to the
base fabric and include knife systems (direct coating), transfer from release
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 111

paper and rotary screens. In a laminated fabric, the polymer is incorporated

into a film or membrane, which must then be joined to the base fabric using
an adhesive, with heat and pressure (Fung, 2005).
The structure of the base fabric must be selected for its durability. During
normal use, it can be expected that the garment will be constantly abraded by
the repetitive flexing action of the exercise and against rucksacks, harnesses
and rock faces. It is also at risk from snagging by thorns and other hazards in
the use environment. The fibres must therefore be strong, dimensionally sta-
ble and resistant to rotting, and the fabric structure must be densely woven.
Contemporary waterproof and breathable fabrics are broadly classified
as microporous or hydrophilic. Microporous fabrics incorporate polymers
manufactured from expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) or cheaper
polyurethane (PU) (Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2008). They add a system of
micropores and channels, which are permeable to water vapour and imper-
meable to liquid water (Lomax, 1991; Holmes, 2000).
Hydrophilic fabrics are manufactured using polyurethane, or polyester
polymers. These do not have pores and water vapour is diffused through
them from the inside to the outside face by a molecular process. Very thin
hydrophilic layers can be added to the face of microporous fabrics to improve
water and contaminant resistance, without compromising breathability
(Lomax, 1991). This is often referred to as a bicomponent, olephobic coating
or membrane.

5.4.2 Functionality Considerations
Several studies have shown that waterproof breathable fabrics can be ranked
according to their capacity to transfer water vapour to the ambient environ-
ment. These agree that ePTFE laminated membanes are most permeable, fol-
lowed by hydrophilic and PU microporous laminates and then PU coatings
(Holmes, Grundy and Rowe, 1995; Ruckman, 1997a,b). Laminated fabrics also
provide increased flexibility with regard to the structure of the base fabric
(e.g. they can be incorporated into stretch fabrics) and present superior han-
dle and drape (Fung, 2005). However, coated fabrics are cheaper to manufac-
ture and estimated to account for approximately 80% of the total waterproof
breathable fabric market (Anon, 2013a).
Membranes and, to some degree, coatings are both relatively fragile and
must be protected from repeated abrasion and contamination from oil
and dirt (Weder, 1997). This can take the form of a loose lining in the gar-
ment, or additional materials incorporated into the laminated structure.
Carefully selected, these can increase the functionality of the composite
(see Table 5.1).

Two-layer laminates: Two layer laminates are prevalent in the middle

market for skiing, hiking and fashion applications. They are cur-
rently being redefined as new ‘basics’ that have the potential to
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112 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

TABLE 5.1
Composition, Function and Application of Laminated Composite Fabrics
Classification Composition Function Application
2-layer Base fabric + membrane Waterproof, windproof Middle-market
and breathable hiking,
mountaineering,
skiing and fashion
2.5-layer Base fabric + membrane + Lightweight, Fast and light,
raised printed backing compressible, high-intensity
waterproof, windproof activities
and breathable
3-layer Base fabric + membrane + High durability, Premium hiking,
soft tricot backing flexibility, waterproof, mountaineering and
windproof and skiing
breathable
Soft shell Base fabric (+ membrane Insulation, flexibility, Multifunctionality
or coating) + soft windproof, breathable and high-intensity
backing and water resistant activities
4-layer Base fabric + membrane + Insulation, waterproof, Hiking, skiing,
insulation + soft tricot windproof and mountaineering and
backing breathable fashion
Drop lining Membrane + lining Waterproof, windproof Middle-market
and breathable hiking, skiing and
fashion

combine high performance with a directional look. For example,

canvas, herringbone and denim effects can be incorporated into the
base fabric. Loose linings must be added to these garments and tend
to be warp-knitted mesh constructions to promote airflow. Brushed
finishes also add insulation and improve hand feel. Taffeta is com-
monly used in the sleeves and trouser legs, to increase the ease of
donning and doffing the garment, and adding a PU coating at the
hem and cuff will prevent rain wicking into the interior.
2.5-layer laminates: Another method of protecting the laminate mem-
brane is to print it with a raised pattern, to provide a barrier between
the skin or other clothing layers (see Figure 5.9 later in this chapter).
This is called a 2.5-layer construction and removes the requirement
for a loose lining. Therefore, subsequent garments are much lighter
and more compressible and applicable to fast and light activities,
such as fell running and mountain biking.
Three-layer laminates: Three-layer systems sandwich the mem-
brane between the base fabric and a soft tricot scrim backing.
It produces a heavier fabric, with reduced drape, but increased
durability (Mukhopadhyay and Midha, 2008). It also allows the
designer to incorporate a level of elasticity, which would otherwise
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 113

be impaired by use of a fixed lining. Performance garments incor-

porating these fabrics are currently very important in the outdoor
sportswear market and promoted as exclusive high-­performance.
Soft shells: The three-layer construction also encompasses another
class of composite, referred to as ‘soft shell’. These integrate the
warmth, flexibility and high breathability of fleece, with wind and
water resistance. Densely constructed stretch materials are selected
for the base fabric and thermal, or high wicking, materials for the
reverse. Membranes and coatings can be sandwiched in between
to give waterproof performance. However, durable water-repellent
(DWR) finishes are more frequently used so that the highest level
of breathability can be maintained. Recent innovations include the
use of Merino wool for its hygroscopic properties and soft handle.
Garments often have an active fit that is cut close to the body, to max-
imise the function of the inside face. They are designed for multi­
functionality and high-intensity activity.
Four-layer laminates: Four-layer fabrics extend the soft shell concept
by adding a layer of insulation. They comprise a base fabric, water-
proof breathable membrane, thermal padding and soft backing.
Manufacturers claim that the construction also stabilises the ther-
mal batting without conventional quilting so that it does not migrate
or bunch (Fratitex, 2015).
Drop liners: Drop liners are a lining fabric laminated with a water-
proof, breathable membrane. This allows the shell fabric to be entirely
separate and selected for its appearance and drape, which is ideal for
more fashion-focused applications. The lining is positioned so that
the membrane is inherently protected by its orientation within the
garment construction (Holmes, 2000).

5.5 Measurement Techniques and Comparison of Performance

5.5.1 Water Resistance
The British Standard method for measuring the water resistance of compos-
ite fabrics uses the hydrostatic head test (BS EN 20811:1992). The fabric is
clamped in a rubber gasket and water is applied under pressure to the face
of the specimen. The water pressure is increased until penetration occurs in
three places. Other tests (Bundesmann and WIRA shower test) may replicate
rainy conditions more accurately, but the hydrostatic head test has the ben-
efit of being simple and fast. It can also be used to gauge the effect of loaded
rucksack straps, sitting or the pressure of elbows on the fabric (Holmes, 2000).
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114 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

5.5.2 Water Vapour Permeability

The main techniques for measuring the vapour permeability of fabrics are
the upright cup, inverted cup and guarded sweating hot plate methods.
However, the values obtained from each method are not comparable due to
differing test conditions, which drive vapour transfer at dissimilar rates and
favour particular fabric types. Therefore, one method must be selected and
adhered to (McCullough, Kwon and Shim, 2003).
The British Standard (BS 7209:1990) employs the upright cup method. The
fabric to be tested is sealed over a cup of water and the mass lost over a
given time period is equated to vapour diffused through the fabric. The cup
is rotated on a turntable to maintain a favourable vapour pressure differ-
ence and sustain diffusion through the fabric. The premise for the inverted
method is similar. However, the cup is upturned, causing the water to touch
the fabric specimen. This simulates a wet clothing layer and is therefore
favourable to hydrophilic fabrics. The principle of the guarded sweating hot
plate is different. A water-saturated porous plate is heated to skin tempera-
ture to imitate a sweating human body. The power required to maintain the
plate at a constant temperature whilst water evaporates from the surface and
permeates a fabric specimen is measured. This value is used to calculate the
resistance to vapour transfer (Saville, 1999).

5.5.3 Performance Comparisons
Anecdotally, it is accepted that manufacturers select vapour transfer test meth-
ods that favour the performance characteristics of their product. Therefore, as
intertest results are not comparable, it is notoriously difficult to assess the
effectiveness of different branded fabrics. However, it is important to note
that increasing the water resistance of a fabric reduces the corresponding
permeability to water vapour (Lomax, 1991).

5.6 Innovation in Composite Fabrics for Functional Outerwear

ePTFE: GORE-TEX produced the first composite fabric manufactured
from an ePTFE membrane. It revolutionised waterproof, breath-
able fabric performance when released in the 1970s and continues
to innovate its product range, offering 2-, 2.5- and 3-layer laminate
options. Its most recent product, called GORE-TEX® Pro, is claimed
to yield a further 10%–28% increase in breathability (Anon, 2013b;
GORE-TEX, 2014b).
GORE-TEX continues to dominate the market for performance
clothing. However, alternative fabrics are now much more visible.
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 115

For example, eVent®, manufactured by General Electric, is also con-

structed with an ePTFE membrane. However, individual ePTFE fila-
ments are finished with an oleophobic coating rather than a film,
which the manufacturers claim allows for Direct Venting™ of mois-
ture to the outside fabric face and superior performance (Anon, 2012;
eVent, 2014).
Biomimetic fabrics: Biomimetic fabrics are designed to mimic the struc-
ture and function of naturally occurring materials and processes.
Plant mechanisms have been of particular interest to research-
ers developing fabrics to improve clothing microclimate comfort.
Schoeller Technologies have developed a waterproof breathable
membrane called c-change™ modelled on the natural response of
pinecones to increased heat and humidity. It is claimed that hot
ambient conditions or periods of high activity induce the polymer
structure to open and facilitate higher rates of water vapour transfer.
In contrast, the structure will close in cooler conditions. The com-
pany is also responsible for a water-repellent finish called Ecorepel®,
which is said to imitate the oily secretions produced by water fowl to
keep their feathers dry (Schoeller Technologies, 2014).
UV absorbing and reflecting fabrics: Finishing treatments that utilise,
or block the warming effect of ultraviolet (UV) radiation, without com-
promising the breathability of composite fabrics, are available from a
number of manufacturers (Anon, 2013b,c). However, PolychromeLab
has incorporated the capacity for both into one material. It is a revers-
ible three-layer, waterproof, breathable fabric comprising a silver face,
membrane and dark matt face. The manufacturers claim that the sil-
ver side can reflect up to 28% of radiating light, whilst the matt side
can absorb approximately 98% of radiating light, providing a buffer-
ing effect dependent on the orientation of the fabric (PolychromeLab,
2014).
Thermally adaptive fabrics: Thermoregulatory fabrics adapt to tem-
perature changes and produce a buffering effect. However, this is
temporary (approximately 12.5–15 minutes) and they are therefore
most suitable for sports that are characterised by bursts of high
activity and rest (e.g. skiing; Shim, McCullough and Jones, 2001). The
market leader is a PCM called Outlast, which can be incorporated
into waterproof breathable fabrics using a range of methods and is
described in detail in Chapters 2 and 6.
Sustainability: Many of the coatings, membranes and finishing treat-
ments conventionally used to create waterproof breathable perfor-
mance in composite fabrics contain fluorochemicals that are potentially
carcinogenic to humans. In response to programmes designed to elim-
inate their use, manufacturers have altered their composition, using
fluorocarbons that are considered less damaging. However, these
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116 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

have reduced performance implications. Therefore, it is thought that

demand for fluorine-free performance will drive innovation in this
sector (Anon, 2013a). This is supported by the growing trend for sus-
tainable products, with high-profile prizes being awarded to brands
that source fabric responsibly (Anon, 2013d).

5.7 Case Study: Jackets for Hill Walkers

Hill walking is defined as a recreational activity to traverse summits, requir-
ing little or no specialist mountaineering skills and equipment. Areas popu-
lar with hill walkers are likely to be in national parks with concentrations of
high peaks such as the Cairngorms, Loch Lomond; the Trossachs, Snowdonia;
the Lake District and the Peak District. These regions offer a diversity of ter-
rain typified by rocky outcrops and ridges, upland fells, peat bogs, heather
moors, woodlands, river gorges, lochs, lakes and fertile valleys.
Weather conditions in these parks may vary seasonally between average
temperatures of below freezing during the winter to approximately 17°C in
the summer. Increased rainfall and wind speeds are associated with active
weather patterns due to proximity to the Atlantic. Topography can also fur-
ther affect daily weather conditions. Ambient temperatures decrease by
0.5°C for every 100 metres ascended and, whilst wind accelerates over peaks
and exposed high ground, the moist air carried with it can cool and con-
dense to form cloud and rain.
Even in optimal conditions the conversion of chemical energy into mechani-
cal energy during muscle contractions is inefficient and generates heat (Ainslie
et al., 2002; Minetti et al., 2002). Climbing hills requires muscles to lift the body
against gravity and the work done is increased by traversing yielding terrain
such as bog, peat moor-land or high vegetation, which necessitates changes
to gait and stride patterns (Givoni and Goldman, 1971; Creagh, Reilly and
Nevill, 1998; Lejeune, Willems and Heglund, 1998).
Therefore, during a hill walk a range of exertion is required over a con-
siderable period of time, requiring occasional stops for navigation, resting
and refuelling. This presents unique challenges for thermoregulation of the
clothing system, which is further complicated by rapidly changing climatic
conditions.

5.7.1 Performance of Composite Fabrics for Hill Walking Jackets

Studies agree that PTFE laminates are most permeable – capable of transfer-
ring 4400–5550 g/m² of water vapour in 24 hours. This can be improved if
a favourable vapour pressure difference is maintained between each fabric
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 117

TABLE 5.2
Approximate Work Rates, Perspiration Rates and Water Vapour Transfer Rates
Associated with Hill Walking
Rate of Water Vapour
Work Rate Perspiration Transfer Required
Activity (watts) Rate (g/24 h) (g/m 2 /24 h)a
Active walking carrying a light pack 400 15,200 6080
on the level
Active walking carrying a heavy 500 19,000 7600
pack on the level
Active walking carrying a heavy 600–800 22,800–38,400 9120–15,360
pack in the mountains
Source: Keighley, J. H. (1985). Journal of Coated Fabrics 15:89–104.
a Based on assumption that a man’s medium jacket will use approximately 2.5 m2 of fabric and

will cover the torso, head and arms, from which most water vapour will be lost.

face (Holmes et al., 1995; Ruckman, 1997a,b). However, when compared with
Table 5.2, which shows approximate work and sweat rates associated with hill
walking, it is clear that water vapour will not be completely diffused, even
at the lowest activity rate. Furthermore, rain reduces performance because
vapour pressure above the fabric surface is increased (Keighley, 1985; Holmes
et al., 1995). Fabrics may stop breathing altogether in prolonged precipitation
as pores on the outer fabric surface can become blocked (Ruckman, 1997c). In
addition, condensation may form at low temperatures, which also blocks the
micropores (Ruckman, 1997a; Bartels and Umbach, 2002). Therefore, capacity
for moisture vapour transfer through PTFE composite fabrics is limited in
the circumstances when a raincoat would be required during a typical hill
walk in the UK.

5.7.2 Consumer Requirements for a Hill Walking Jacket

The performance limitations of waterproof breathable fabrics are further
illustrated by qualitative data collected in focus groups with hill walkers,
mountaineers, fell runners and members of the mountain rescue organ-
isation. Content analysis revealed key customer needs, which should be
addressed to optimise the function of hill walking jackets:

5.7.2.1 Consumer 1
The jacket will allow the clothing system to remain free from moisture. With the
exception of fell runners, all participants were concerned with protecting
their clothing systems from rain. A water-resistant hard shell was always
taken on the hill, regardless of the weather. However, most were ultimately
disappointed with the water vapour permeability of these garments and
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118 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

claimed that ‘you just get soggy from the inside out, so there’s no point in
it’. The fell runners demonstrated the extreme of this argument. They chose
to wear a windproof shell because they believed the heat and moisture
they generated were beyond the moisture management capability of a fully
water-resistant garment. One fell runner described the experience of wear-
ing a water-resistant garment as follows: ‘You can’t tell if the water’s coming
from the outside or inside’.

5.7.2.2 Consumer 2
The jacket will allow the wearer to make effortless, sensitive adjustment to the com-
fort of the clothing system. Jackets were primarily modified by operation of
the centre front zipper on the outer shell. This was described as a rapid and
simple way of ventilating the clothing system, with a degree of fine-tuning.
Some participants owned smock-style jackets. However, most felt that these
retained more heat than their full-zip counterparts, which allowed the entire
front section of the subsequent garment layer to be exposed to ambient air.
Half zips were preferred on the mid- and base layers to permit cooler air
directly on the skin of the neck and upper torso if required.
Other types of zipped ventilation were also considered advantageous in
outer shells. However, again it was very important that these should be easy
to use and swiftly effective. Mesh vents on the torso and zipped side seams
were regarded as useful. One hill walker described how, when he was hot,
he would unzip the side seams of his jacket and then use the hip belt of his
rucksack to hold open the hemline, allowing ambient air into his clothing
system. Some participants also owned jackets with zips to open the arm-
pit region of the garment (pit-zips). However, these were judged difficult to
reach and operate. Consequently, most tended not to use them and relied
upon the ventilation provided by the centre front zipper instead.
Other means of adapting clothing to improve thermal comfort included
loosening and tightening cuff tabs and waist and hem cords, putting the
hood up or down, pulling the sleeves down over the hands or pushing them
up to expose other clothing layers or the skin to cooler air and tucking or
untucking the clothing layers covering the upper body into trouser layers.
Participants understood the benefits of ventilating their clothing systems,
but it was clear this action did not keep them sufficiently comfortable whilst
working hard. Ultimately, most resorted to removing and carrying a clothing
layer. One participant described how ‘if it’s not raining I’d take my jacket off
if I was getting too hot. If it is then I keep it on and take a different layer off’.

5.7.2.3 Consumer 3
The jacket will allow the clothing system to remain comfortable in relation to the vari-
able metabolic demands of hill walking in the UK. Participants identified diver-
sity of terrain as the fundamental reason for changing energy expenditure
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 119

and understood that this placed considerable comfort demands upon their
clothing. They reported that climbing hills produced increased amounts
of heat and sweat, but described subsequent ridge and descent sections as
less physically challenging. This caused a drop in heat generation and made
them feel cooler, which is illustrated by the following conversation:

You are destined to be a sweaty mess by the time you get to the top.
And that’s when you start cooling down again.

In fact, several participants recounted similar experiences when stops had not
been made for fear of getting cold. These actions initiated cognitive mistakes
due to tiredness and consequently forced changes in pace and stops, which were
associated with more intense feelings of cold. The mountaineers proposed that
less fit people required longer and more frequent stops and suggested that this
caused problems in mixed-ability groups, when fitter people were more likely
to get cold.
All participants layered their clothes to keep themselves comfortable. They
accepted that their sport involved varying levels of heat generation and there-
fore selected several lightweight wicking and insulating layers and a water-
resistant, windproof shell. Additional midlayers were habitually carried in
case participants began to feel uncomfortably cold. These were high-insulation,
lightweight, compressible garments to cover the torso (e.g. a wool jumper, fleece
gilet, or down- or synthetic-filled gilet or jacket). They claimed that they used
this layered system to easily regulate their temperature. One participant stated,
‘I don’t really mind getting hot; I just take off a layer’.
However, in practice it appears that the hill walkers, fell runners and
mountaineers were reluctant to stop and change their clothing layers and
the mountain rescue team did not have the opportunity. Compromises were
often made to maintain a comfortable clothing microclimate. Male partici-
pants reported how they would deliberately underdress for conditions at
the beginning of a session on the hill. This was to prevent their becoming
uncomfortably hot later. They commented that ‘if you’re right for that first 5
to 10 minutes, you’re going to be wrong for the rest of it, guaranteed’.
Most frustrations related to water-resistant shells. Some participants stated
that they preferred to start an outing with these garments on, because they
did not want to ‘faff’ about later. Others would wait until it began to rain
and then put the jacket directly over the clothes they were already wear-
ing, even if they were previously comfortable. This was because they did not
want to get wet and cold while they stopped and removed and stored layers.
However, the subsequent increase in heat and moisture generation would
then exceed the moisture vapour permeability of the water-resistant shell, as
described by the following quote:

Well, to be honest, those team jackets are better than any other shell
waterproof I’ve come across for breathability. But most of them, you’re
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120 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

working hard and you’ve got a lot of kit with you and then you stop and
it just all runs down the inside and you just get soggy from the inside
out, so there’s no point in it.

Some participants did not don their waterproofs until it was too late or not
at all.
Because of this perceived problem with water-resistant shells, some partici-
pants had invested in soft shells, which they wore as single, warm, breathable,
windproof and shower-proof layers. However, all those who owned these also
took a traditional water-resistant jacket with them in case of heavier rain, further
increasing the amount of kit they carried.

5.7.2.4 Consumer 4
The jacket will protect the wearer from the effects of wind chill. All participants had
experienced the effects of wind chill. They understood that this was a conse-
quence of the terrain they were exercising in. One hill walker explained, ‘If
you’re going reasonably high, there’s always likelihood that the wind will be
quite high and the temperature a lot lower’. Therefore, a windproof top was
regarded as essential kit and all members of the mountain rescue team were
automatically equipped with one. This item of clothing was typically taken on
the hill despite the season or weather conditions at the beginning of an outing.

5.7.2.5 Consumer 5
The jacket will allow the clothing system to remain comfortable within the range
of average daily temperatures expected in mountainous regions of the UK. The
changeable nature of the British weather was a frustration to all participants.
They found it difficult to select garments which would allow them to remain
thermally comfortable in all the weather conditions encountered. This was
considered most problematic during the summer, when the risk of getting
wet and cold was balanced against the weight of the kit carried.
The fell runners and mountain rescuers tended to make compromises with
their clothing. They often judged these incorrectly and three of the four fell
runners admitted they had been dangerously cold due to poor choice of kit.
The hill walkers and mountaineers were much more cautious. They tended
to check a reputable weather forecast and then took clothing to account for
all the weather conditions they were likely to confront. The following quote
illustrates the dissatisfaction these groups felt:

I think it’s more annoying packing for the summer because, you know,
especially in Scotland, you never know if it’s going to rain. Well, I mean
you can assume that it’s going to rain at some point. So you know, I end
up packing my bag and thinking, ‘Why am I taking all this stuff’? This
is just as much as I take in winter, but it’s all stuff you might need at
some point.
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 121

In addition, participants suspected that summer clothing was inferior.

They tended to use the same water-resistant jacket year round, but indicated
this was uncomfortable during the warmer months: ‘I think that the water-
proof and windproof clothing in the summer is so … is much less comfortable’.

5.7.3 A Ventilation Design Feature for Jackets for Hill Walking

It is clear that waterproof, breathable fabrics do not fully meet the customer
needs described. An alternative solution is to increase the ventilation inside
hill walking jackets and improve evaporation of sweat by increasing con-
vective heat loss and lowering relative humidity (Cheuvront et al., 2004).
Diaphragm pumps have been identified as a viable method of achieving this
by drawing air from the external environment and forcing it through the
clothing microclimate. They also have the benefit of being cheap, simple and
reliable with no moving parts to add unnecessary weight and complexity
(Karassik et al., 2001).
The example represented in Figure 5.1 has a series of small diaphragm
pumps arranged in parallel inside the back of the jacket. It utilises the com-
bination of rucksack movement against the counter-rotation of the hips and
shoulders to compress the pumps and drive fluid flow (Rose and Gamble,
2006). This allows for autonomous operation proportional to the speed of
walking. Valves prevent backflow and direct external air into the centre
back of the jacket. A vent positioned above the pumps and opening directly
through the jacket shell allows the warmed, moisture-laden air to be forced
out as the pumps are compressed by the rucksack (Fourt and Hollies, 1970).

5.7.4 Evaluation of a Prototype Hill Walking Jacket

A prototype hill walking jacket incorporating the diaphragm pump arrange-
ment has been tested in a controlled laboratory wearer trial based on frame-
work established by other researchers (Reischl and Stransky, 1980; Ruckman,
Murray and Choi, 1999). The following physiological and microclimate
parameters were measured during an experimental protocol that included
a 30-minute acclimatisation period, 35 minutes of brisk level walking on a
motorised treadmill and a 10-minute recovery period:

• Temperature and relative humidity of the clothing microclimate

were measured using a Signatrol SL54TH data logging button sus-
pended in a mesh bag pinned to the jacket lining.
• Mean skin temperature was measured using thermistors positioned
on the skin at the chest, abdomen and upper and lower back.
• Amount of sweat retained within the clothing system was calcu-
lated from the difference in clothing weight immediately before and
after the protocol.
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122 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Pump operation
Pump inflating
Pump compressed

Ambient air
Ambient air
drawn through Outlet valve Inlet valve
forced out of
inlet valve is closed is closed
outlet valve

Jacket back view

A B
Section A-A Section B-B
Mesh lining Vent Mesh lining

Vent
Body Jacket
Body
shell

Pump

Jacket Inlet
shell valve
Outlet
valve

Pump

Inlet
valve Outlet
Pump
valve

Ambient air
into pump A B
Ambient air
out of pump
Microclimate Note:
air Jacket sleeves and rucksack omitted for clarity

FIGURE 5.1
Schematic diagram showing pump operation and integration with prototype hill walking jacket.

A 20-litre rucksack weighing approximately 2 kg was used during the

exercise period to operate the pumps. Two waterproof, breathable composite
shell fabrics were analysed in the experiment: PTFE laminate and PU coated
nylon. These were both tested with and without the pump arrangement.
Six males participated in the wearer trial and a within-subjects design was
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 123

used to address variations in fitness. The experimental results were analysed

using two-way analysis of variance for a within-subjects repeated measures
design.
The graph shown in Figure 5.2 and analysis of variance shown in Table 5.3
demonstrate that the pumps significantly reduced the rate of increase in air
temperature during the warm-up period. They continued to do so during
exercise, indicating that cooler air was drawn from the external environment
and into the garment microclimate. The air temperature then remained sta-
ble during recovery. This was a significant effect, which correlates with the
results for relative humidity during this period (Figure 5.3 and Table 5.4). It
suggests that the air trapped in and around the pumps increased thermal
insulation and also presented resistance to moisture vapour transfer through
the jacket shell (Spencer-Smith, 1977). This argument is maintained by the
results for mean skin temperature at the upper back, shown in Figure 5.4
and Table 5.5.
At the chest (Figure 5.5 and Table 5.6), where the jacket is compressed against
the body by the rucksack straps, the rate of temperature increase is signifi-
cantly lower in the PTFE fabrications. This demonstrates that superior mois-
ture vapour transfer through the jacket shell is most important for temperature
regulation in this area. The pattern continues at the abdomen, although Figure
5.6 and Table 5.7 indicate that pumps did have a small impact on the rate of
temperature increase here. It is proposed that the pumps were able to stimulate
airflow around the side seams in the lower portion of the jacket (Vokac, Kopke
and Keul, 1973). This would promote dry heat exchange and subsequent
evaporation of sweat and moisture transfer through the hemline.
At the lower back (Figure 5.7 and Table 5.8), where airflow is not restricted,
the pumps significantly reduced the rate of temperature increase during

6
Warm-up period Exercise period Recovery period
5
Mean temp change (˚C)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (minutes) PU pump
PU no pump
Gore-Tex pump
Gore-Tex no pump

FIGURE 5.2
Mean change in air temperature measured inside all jackets.
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124 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

TABLE 5.3
Analysis of Variance for Change in Air Temperature inside Jackets
during Warm-Up, Exercise and Recovery Periods
Type III Sum
Source of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Warm-Up Period
Fabric 0.936 1 0.936 0.490 0.515
Error (fabric) 9.561 5 1.912
Pump 26.634 1 26.634 11.772 0.019
Error (pump) 11.312 5 2.262
Fabric * pump 0.336 1 0.336 0.349 0.580
Error (fabric * pump) 4.810 5 0.962

Exercise Period
Fabric 6.059 1 6.059 0.885 0.390
Error (fabric) 34.219 5 6.844
Pump 73.516 1 73.516 5.571 0.065
Error (pump) 65.977 5 13.195
Fabric * pump 5.701 1 5.701 0.953 0.374
Error (fabric * pump) 29.905 5 5.981

Recovery Period
Fabric 6.064 1 6.064 1.558 0.267
Error (fabric) 19.457 5 3.891
Pump 65.867 1 65.867 12.273 0.017
Error (pump) 26.833 5 5.367
Fabric * pump 51.959 1 51.959 11.521 0.019
Error (fabric * pump) 22.549 5 4.510

30
Mean humidity change (% relative humidity)

Warm-up period Exercise period Recovery period

25

20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
–5

–10
Time (minutes) PU pump
PU no pump
Gore-Tex pump
Gore-Tex no pump

FIGURE 5.3
Mean change in relative humidity measured inside all jackets.
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 125

TABLE 5.4
Analysis of Variance for Change in Relative Humidity inside Jackets
during Warm-Up, Exercise and Recovery Periods
Type III Sum
Source of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Warm-Up Period
Fabric 0.625 1 0.625 0.003 0.955
Error (fabric) 906.920 5 181.384
Pump 343.826 1 343.826 5.249 0.071
Error (pump) 327.531 5 65.506
Fabric * pump 45.753 1 45.753 0.417 0.547
Error (fabric * pump) 548.358 5 109.672

Exercise Period
Fabric 145.002 1 145.002 0.134 0.730
Error (fabric) 5426.058 5 1085.212
Pump 8.835 1 8.835 0.010 0.926
Error (pump) 4571.221 5 914.244
Fabric * pump 903.215 1 903.215 1.783 0.239
Error (fabric * pump) 2533.019 5 506.604

Recovery Period
Fabric 398.713 1 398.713 1.377 0.293
Error (fabric) 1447.466 5 289.493
Pump 1287.881 1 1287.881 5.966 0.058
Error (pump) 1079.376 5 215.875
Fabric * pump 640.071 1 640.071 1.414 0.288
Error (fabric * pump) 2263.090 5 452.618

2.50
Warm-up period Exercise period Recovery period
Mean change in upper back temp (˚C)

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

–0.50
Time (minutes) PU pump
PU no pump
Gore-Tex pump
Gore-Tex no pump

FIGURE 5.4
Mean change in skin temperature measured at the upper back.
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126 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

TABLE 5.5
Analysis of Variance for Change in Skin Temperature at the Upper Back
during Warm-Up, Exercise and Recovery Periods
Type III Sum
Source of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Warm-Up Period
Fabric 2.862 1 2.862 3.843 0.107
Error (fabric) 3.724 5 0.745
Pump 0.462 1 0.462 0.461 0.527
Error (pump) 5.016 5 1.003
Fabric * pump 0.245 1 0.245 0.486 0.517
Error (fabric * pump) 2.526 5 0.505

Exercise Period
Fabric 6.268 1 6.268 1.787 0.239
Error (fabric) 17.535 5 3.507
Pump 7.714 1 7.714 2.613 0.167
Error (pump) 14.758 5 2.952
Fabric * pump 0.932 1 0.932 0.318 0.597
Error (fabric * pump) 14.649 5 2.930

Recovery Period
Fabric 0.163 1 0.163 0.061 0.815
Error (fabric) 13.375 5 2.675
Pump 0.257 1 0.257 0.083 0.784
Error (pump) 15.391 5 3.078
Fabric * pump 0.776 1 0.776 0.260 0.632
Error (fabric * pump) 14.948 5 2.990

2.50
Warm-up period Exercise period Recovery period
2.00
Mean change in chest temp (˚C)

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

–0.50
Time (minutes) PU pump
PU no pump
Gore-Tex pump
Gore-Tex no pump

FIGURE 5.5
Mean change in skin temperature measured at the chest.
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 127

TABLE 5.6
Analysis of Variance for Change in Skin Temperature at the Chest
during Warm-Up, Exercise and Recovery Periods
Type III Sum
Source of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Warm-Up Period
Fabric 0.441 1 0.441 7.052 0.045
Error (fabric) 0.313 5 0.063
Pump 0.004 1 0.004 0.016 0.905
Error (pump) 1.275 5 0.255
Fabric * pump 0.011 1 0.011 0.016 0.904
Error (fabric * pump) 3.429 5 0.686
Exercise Period
Fabric 11.532 1 11.532 22.854 0.005
Error (fabric) 2.523 5 0.505
Pump 0.945 1 0.945 0.539 0.496
Error (pump) 8.769 5 1.754
Fabric * pump 0.133 1 0.133 0.164 0.702
Error (fabric * pump) 4.072 5 0.814
Recovery Period
Fabric 0.858 1 0.858 0.298 0.609
Error (fabric) 14.398 5 2.880
Pump 1.726 1 1.726 0.486 0.517
Error (pump) 17.766 5 3.553
Fabric * pump 1.388 1 1.388 0.643 0.459
Error (fabric * pump) 10.799 5 2.160

2.50

Warm-up period Exercise period Recovery period

Mean abdomen temp change (˚C)

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (minutes)
PU pump
PU no pump
Gore-Tex pump
Gore-Tex no pump

FIGURE 5.6
Mean change in skin temperature measured at the abdomen.
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128 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

TABLE 5.7
Analysis of Variance for Change in Skin Temperature at the Abdomen
during Warm-Up, Exercise and Recovery Periods
Type III Sum
Source of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Warm-Up Period
Fabric 3.896 1 3.896 2.381 0.183
Error (fabric) 8.182 5 1.636
Pump 0.621 1 0.621 0.684 0.446
Error (pump) 4.540 5 0.908
Fabric * pump 0.556 1 0.556 0.713 0.437
Error (fabric * pump) 3.901 5 0.780
Exercise Period
Fabric 56.170 1 56.170 3.829 0.108
Error (fabric) 73.354 5 14.671
Pump 4.563 1 4.563 0.904 0.385
Error (pump) 25.241 5 5.048
Fabric * pump 0.176 1 0.176 0.059 0.818
Error (fabric * pump) 14.927 5 2.985
Recovery Period
Fabric 26.129 1 26.129 3.921 0.105
Error (fabric) 33.320 5 6.664
Pump 0.015 1 0.015 0.013 0.912
Error (pump) 5.564 5 1.113
Fabric * pump 0.459 1 0.459 0.194 0.678
Error (fabric * pump) 11.796 5 2.359

4.00
Warm-up period Exercise period Recovery period
3.50
Mean lower back temp change (˚C)

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (minutes)
PU pump
PU no pump
Gore-Tex pump
Gore-Tex no pump

FIGURE 5.7
Mean change in skin temperature measured at the lower back.
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 129

TABLE 5.8
Analysis of Variance for Change in Skin Temperature at the Lower Back
during Warm-Up, Exercise and Recovery Periods
Type III Sum
Source of Squares df Mean square F Sig.

Warm-Up Period
Fabric 0.095 1 0.095 0.586 0.479
Error (fabric) 0.812 5 0.162
Pump 0.163 1 0.163 0.226 0.655
Error (pump) 3.601 5 0.720
Fabric * pump 0.452 1 0.452 0.935 0.378
Error (fabric * pump) 2.416 5 0.483
Exercise Period
Fabric 2.083E-5 1 2.083E-5 0.000 0.997
Error (fabric) 5.648 5 1.130
Pump 9.075 1 9.075 9.452 0.028
Error (pump) 4.801 5 0.960
Fabric * pump 1.055 1 1.055 0.248 0.640
Error (fabric * pump) 21.305 5 4.261
Recovery Period
Fabric 0.117 1 0.117 0.050 0.832
Error (fabric) 11.675 5 2.335
Pump 1.442 1 1.442 0.738 0.430
Error (pump) 9.765 5 1.953
Fabric * pump 8.588 1 8.588 1.071 0.348
Error (fabric * pump) 40.094 5 8.019

exercise. This area of the jacket is loose and unaffected by the rucksack and
a bellows effect created by the slack fabric may enhance the airflow gener-
ated from the pumps. In addition, the proximity to the hemline facilitates a
ready exchange of microclimate and environmental air. Therefore, dry heat
exchange, sweat evaporation and moisture vapour transfer out of the cloth-
ing system are all enhanced. All jackets experienced a large drop in skin
temperature at the lower back during the recovery period. This is associated
with the rapid evaporation of moisture. It is indicative of inadequate provi-
sion for moisture vapour transfer from the back of all garments, leading to
collection of sweat around the sensor (Ruckman et al., 1999).
The graph shown in Figure 5.8 and the analysis of variance shown in
Table 5.9 demonstrate significantly less sweat collected in the jackets fabri-
cated from the PTFE composite. However, the pumps reduced accumulation
by an average of 7.5% in the PU jacket and by 10.7% in the PTFE jacket and
confirmed that airflow generated by the pumps also facilitated moisture
vapour transfer from the clothing.
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130 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

40.0

35.0

30.0
Mean sweat mass (g)

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
PU pump PU no pump Gore-Tex pump Gore-Tex no pump
Jacket type Jacket
Experimental clothing

FIGURE 5.8
Mean mass of sweat accumulated within the clothing system after the experimental protocol.

TABLE 5.9
Analysis of Variance for Mass of Sweat Accumulated in the Clothing System
after the Experimental Protocol
Type III Sum Mean
Source of Squares df Square F Sig.
Fabric 3468.251 1 3468.251 20.933 0.006
Error (fabric) 828.417 5 165.683
Pump 23.860 1 23.860 0.890 0.389
Error (pump) 134.066 5 26.813
Fabric * pump 3.383 1 3.383 0.118 0.745
Error (fabric * pump) 143.185 5 28.637

5.8 Composite Fabrics: Considerations

for Garment Design and Development
Functional outerwear must be waterproof and facilitate the evaporation
of sweat and dispersal of water vapour for maintenance of user comfort.
Performance composite fabrics prevail as the main commercial solution.
However, these have operational limitations, leading to some customer
dissatisfaction.
Pumps incorporated into functional outerwear can improve microclimate
and user comfort where air may freely flow. However, it is clear that better
integration between garment or component design and appropriate fabric
selection is key to optimising complete product performance.
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 131

5.8.1 Design Features
Other design features important to functional outerwear for outdoor sports
are shown in Figure 5.9 and Table 5.10. These include secure pockets that are
large enough to store essentials such as a compass, map, whistle, hat, gloves
and energy snacks. Pockets must be easy to reach and operate whilst on the
move, but not look bulky.
Fixed or removable hood designs are both acceptable. However, they be
must carefully shaped and adjustable to maximise head coverage, whilst
maintaining a maximum field of vision at all times. Participants of some
sports, such as climbing and skiing, will also require the hood to fit over a
helmet and goggles. In fact, the position of fasteners, vents and pockets must
always be considered in respect of other equipment which may be used by
the customer (e.g. rucksacks and climbing harnesses).
Other features commonly found on functional outerwear include snow
skirts, high-cut collars, storm flaps and adjustable cuffs. It is important that
the design of these components is inherently water resistant, to prevent
unintentional passage of moisture into the clothing system. Some composite
fabric brands will only seal their products for production after the entire gar-
ment assembly has been lab tested to standard performance criteria.
Special accessories augment performance and add design interest. Waterproof
zippers, cord stoppers, pullers, eyelets and reflective trim are available in a
huge variety of colours, patterns and textures. However, these must be applied
with regard to safety, ensuring they do not hang in the field of vision, or snag
during garment use.

External view Internal view

Details:
Water-resistant zipper and pocket bag are bonded
to the shell

Fixed hood with

high collar and Internal storm flap
concealed cord and chin guard
adjustment Shape is created
Seams are 301 lock stitched and
taped on reverse with minimal
seams

Snow skirt is stitched to seam tape

and then bonded to the shell

Bonded facings

Adjustable cuffs

Water-resistant front zipper Hem adjustment is diverted into the pocket bags

FIGURE 5.9
The anatomy of an outdoor hill walking jacket.
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132 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

TABLE 5.10
Design Features Commonly Found on Functional Outerwear
Design Feature Position Function
Pockets External and internal chest, side Storage of map, whistle, snacks,
hips compass, etc.
Hood Fits over the head and around the To protect the head from wind, rain and
face snow and to prevent water entering
the jacket through the neck opening
Ventilation Under armpits, chest pockets To control airflow into and out of the
features jacket
Snow skirt Internal – seals around the waist To prevent wind and snow entering
and hips the jacket through the hemline
High collar Around the neck and chin To control airflow into and out of the
jacket and prevent rain entering the
garment through the neckline
Cuff adjustment At the sleeve hem (typically a self To control airflow into and out of the
fabric or moulded rubber tab jacket and prevent rain entering the
with hook and loop fastening) garment through the cuff
Hem adjustment At the jacket hem (typically an To control airflow into and out of the
elastic, eyelet and cord-lock jacket and prevent rain entering the
system) garment through the hemline
Storm flap Internal, external or combination – To prevent rain entering the jacket
covering the centre front zipper through the zipper tape, or teeth

5.8.2 Assembly Techniques
The majority of composite fabrics are reasonably easy to sew using a 301 lock
stitch and superimposed seam construction. Therefore, complex shapes are
routinely incorporated into functional garments at an acceptable cost. Lap
felled seams can also be used where additional strength is required in a
straight run (e.g. shoulder seams).
Polyester or core spun polyester thread with a water-resistant finish is
commonly used for sewability, strength and durability that matches the
expected life span of the composite fabric. The thread must also be resistant
to mould and mildew due to potential issues relating to the use and stor-
age conditions. Coats Epic thread is a good example; however, demand for
higher specifications is also driving innovation in this sector and GORE-TEX
has recently marketed an innovative thread manufactured from the ePTFE
fibres, called Tenara®. This is claimed to be highly resistant to UV light and
extreme weather conditions, extending the expected life of the seam and con-
tributing to the continued performance of the garment (GORE-TEX, 2014a).
The needle should be the smallest diameter possible, with an acute, round
point to ensure the resulting stitch hole is as small as possible, thus reducing
the potential for damage to the fabric. The coating or laminate on the com-
posite fabric may stick to the needle and create friction. This will dull the
point relatively quickly and create burrs, which may ultimately damage the
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 133

fabric, creating a weaker seam. An antiadhesive coating such as Teflon® and

frequent needle changes will address this problem. Use of a Teflon presser
foot will also reduce friction and maintain correct movement of fabric plies
through the sewing machine.
Waterproof tape applied to the reverse side of the seam maintains the
water resistance of the fabric by sealing the stitch holes. The tape typically
comprises two or three layers, incorporating an adhesive film, a waterproof
breathable membrane and a backing layer. A patterned tape printed to match
a 2.5-layer laminated fabric is detailed in Figure 5.9. The tape is applied using
a hot air sealing machine and should be positioned centrally and overrun
the end of the seam to prevent leaks. Additionally, any thread ends must be
cut flush and folds in the fabric or the tape should be avoided to prevent the
formation of channels, which may allow water to enter the garment. Seam
tape can also be used to attach design features without stitching through the
shell of the garment. For example, snow skirts and gaiters can be stitched to
the tape and then subsequently bonded in place (see Figure 5.9).
Recently, technologies have become available which facilitate the joining
of composite fabrics without compromising their water resistance. Hot air,
hot wedge or ultrasonic energy may be utilised to melt thermoplastic ele-
ments within the fabric, or an added thermoplastic film. Subassemblies are
compiled using narrow lapped or butted constructions and then pressure
is applied over a given time period to weld or bond the seams together. The
effect is a low-profile seam, which is also flexible and lightweight to provide
a performance edge (Tyler, Mitchell and Gill, 2012). Examples of bonded zip-
pers, pocket bags and facings are shown in Figure 5.9.

5.9 Case Study: Survival Clothing for Military Flight Crew

This section examines the design and development of a low-burden, high-
performance survival jacket, which forms part of a cold weather clothing sys-
tem for military flight crew. The needs of aircrew are unique and a structured
approach to user-centred clothing design is required in order to ensure that
the garment will not only satisfy the user’s need, but will also facilitate the
survival of the wearer and make possible the continuation of the primary task.

5.9.1 Current Clothing Analysis

Thermal burden is a considerable problem when survival garments are
worn in warm conditions prior to flying to colder regions, where thermal
insulation is required and when the aircrew are required to perform more
physical activities. Current cold weather clothing systems can be bulky and
uncomfortable to wear for long periods of time, particularly when seated and
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134 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

strapped into the confines of an aircraft cockpit (Oliver, 2012). As indicated

in the preceding information from Oliver, garments supplied to aircrew are
heavy, bulky and can be restrictive when in motion. Additionally, the cur-
rent system comprises up to seven layers of clothing, which significantly
increases thermal burden for the wearer.

5.9.2 The Design Brief

New lightweight, high-performing materials and technologies are currently
emerging and the design brief was to exploit these new technologies in the
development of an improved lightweight, cold weather clothing system,
which would introduce and integrate ‘new to market’ materials and manu-
facturing techniques into conceptual garments.
The cold weather clothing system can consist of a single garment, or, more
traditionally, a two-piece garment (upper and lower). The system design may
consist of a layered approach, with underlying thermal garments designed
to optimise their interface with other garments within the system to intro-
duce flexibility in order to accommodate all environmental conditions.
Flight clothing for military aircrew is complex and must be considered
alongside flight equipment and the confines of the cockpit, and as seen in
Figure 5.10, additional survival garments such as ‘anti-G’ trousers and body
armour carrier systems, may be worn within the system, which can have a
significant impact upon thermal burden and the comfort of the wearer.
Flight clothing must be comfortable whilst the wearer is seated in the cock-
pit or rear of the aircraft, be durable enough to survive possible ejection from
the aircraft and provide protection in hostile environments, post evacuation.
In addition, outer layer materials must be flame retardant, underlying gar-
ments must be nonmelt and all materials must be antistatic in order to avoid
the generation of explosive sparks. The set of primary design criteria in the

FIGURE 5.10
Example of pilot’s flight clothing. (Courtesy of Ariel Bravy/Shutterstock.com.)
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 135

following list was established in consideration of the needs of the body, the
impact of the environment and the requirements of activities undertaken
both in flight and outside the aircraft.
Extreme cold weather survival system for military aircrew key ranking
criteria based on user needs (see list below):

1. Minimise/eliminate water ingress

2. Minimise/eliminate wind penetration
3. Improved thermal insulation with lower weight penalties
4. Reduce bulk, improve mobility
5. Introduction of lighter weight, breathable, durable materials
6. Flame retardant outer garments
7. Nonmelt materials for underneath garments
8. Antistatic materials to avoid explosive spark
9. Layering systems to enable flexibility in the levels of protection
provided
10. Lowered heat stress and thermal burden during physical exertion by
the introduction of air channelling and ventilation within the cloth-
ing system
11. Ergonomic considerations – improved mobility and comfort
12. Ergonomics considerations – predominant posture (seated in one
position for extended periods of time)
13. Ease of donning and doffing
14. Survival clothing to integrate with other garments and equipment
which may be worn by aircrew
15. Equipment stowage pockets
16. Urination/toilet provision – particularly during remote operations
and escape and evasion scenarios
17. Use by both male and female aircrew
18. Consider legislation and standards

5.10 Challenges of Designing Cold Weather

Clothing Systems for Aircrew
5.10.1 Environmental Considerations
Military operations require flexibility, dependability and a wide range of
performance from their clothing and equipment (Scott, 2009). Flight crew
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136 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

must wear, use and transport a wide range of apparel to accommodate sur-
vival in a variety of harsh environments, varying from arctic conditions to
mountainous regions and high altitudes to hot, dry deserts (Scott, 2009).
Thermal burden presents unique challenges for the design of cold weather
clothing systems for aircrew; in addition, these may vary between types of
aircraft, such as fast jet (FJ) and nonfast jet (NFJ). Fast jet aircraft may take
off in hot environmental conditions, with the crew enduring cold conditions
during flight operations and with possible extremely cold weather post ejec-
tion from the aircraft, during survival on land. Nonfast jet flight conditions
vary according to the crewmember; during flight, the pilot is predominantly
sedentary, whilst rear crew require more mobility to carry out operational
activities (Oliver, 2012).
Additionally, there is a constant change between physical work and sed-
entary periods of inactivity (e.g. seated during transit); this is further com-
plicated by doors being open during flight operations with the consequent
wind chill factor, as well as a rotor downdraft. The designer must therefore
accommodate a wide variation in conditions, ranging from extreme heat
to extreme cold through the careful selection of materials and innovative
design.
Essentially, operational range of conditions can include:

• Cold, wet conditions and effects of wind chill

• Cold, dry conditions and effects of wind chill
• The cold, wet environment – rain, snow and sleet
• Extremes of environment – hot to cold (Oliver, 2012)

The cold weather survival suit must ultimately be able to protect against
extreme environments in harsh conditions. Environmental considerations
must include protection against wind chill, water penetration and extreme
cold and provide thermal protection, comfort and mobility, camouflage and
concealment, as well as having low noise signature. Further considerations
for escape and evasion, after aircraft abandonment, include an ability to vent
garments during periods of intense activity and the facilitation of urination/
toilet provision with the minimum of doffing. Garments must be quick dry-
ing, whilst offering head, hand and foot protection as well as adequate stor-
age for survival equipment (Oliver, 2012).
Further challenges for the designer are presented through conflicting
requirements of utility and performance, an example of which, might be
reduced weight and bulk and greater insulation. Although insulation materi-
als have become thinner and less bulky over recent years, the designer must
look to innovative methods of providing insulation in order to minimise
both weight and bulk. Additionally, the wearer must carry essential survival
equipment and rations in equipment stowage pockets, which increases both
weight and bulk.
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 137

FIGURE 5.11
Flight gear in the confines of a cockpit. (From Stocktrek Images, Inc./Alamy.)

According to Scott (2005), the requirement for lighter weight materials in

turn conflicts with the need for fire retardance as lighter weight materials
such as polyester and nylon cannot easily be made fire retardant. Generally,
cold weather clothing requires that the outer protective layer be loosely fit-
ted, in order to avoid compression of the insulation (mid) layer. This conflicts
with the necessity to design closer fitting garments for flight crew, in order
to prevent snag hazards due to the equipment present within the confines of
the cockpit (Figure 5.11).
The need for air permeability is compromised through wind and water-
proof materials; therefore, newly developed materials and design innovation
needed to be exploited in order to minimise conflicts in order to deliver the
best possible product to the user.

5.10.2 Human Factors Affected by Cold Weather

Cold presents a danger to health and can affect body function and perfor-
mance and potentially life (Holmér, 2005). Cold weather apparel must pro-
tect the wearer from loss of body heat resulting from exposure to dry cold,
wind, rain, snow or sleet. A layered clothing system provides flexibility and
insulation in order to counteract the damaging effects of cold temperatures.
It was necessary for the designer to find a clothing solution in order to bal-
ance heat loss and heat produced during exercise, as heat production may
increase by a factor of 10 during intense activity (Thwaites, 2008), resulting
in possible heat stress, despite prevailing cold conditions.
Cold weather can primarily be divided into three types:

1. Wet cold: +10°C down to −10°C

2. Very cold: 10°C down to −30°C
3. Extremely cold: 30°C and below, down to −60°C
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138 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

The body core temperature is generally 37°C. With the onset of cold, blood
flow to the extremities is reduced in order that the body core temperature can
be maintained (Thwaites, 2008). Loss of blood flow and subsequent cooling
can result in discomfort, reduced manual dexterity, vagueness and eventu-
ally frostbite and hypothermia (Bougourd and McCann, 2009). As the body
can lose heat through convection, radiation, conduction and evaporation, it
was incumbent on the designer to design apparel which could prevent the
body losing heat faster than it could be produced. This might be achieved
by reducing heat loss through the provision of optimum insulation and the
facilitation of controlled moisture transmission produced by perspiration
(Hu and Murugesh Babu, 2009).

5.10.3 Thermal Balance and Layered Clothing Systems

Thermal balance can be maintained through layered clothing systems,
which offer flexibility due to the donning and doffing of garments as
required. Layered clothing enables air to be trapped between garments; the
air trapped between layers often provides greater insulation than the lay-
ers themselves (Hu and Murugesh Babu, 2009). Although this case study is
concerned only with the development of a protective outer-layer jacket, the
garment was considered as part of an integral clothing system.
The cold weather clothing system is a complex layering system that aims
to protect the body from a range of conditions and has evolved from military
combat clothing to provide thermal protection from varying activities, envi-
ronmental conditions and climatic pressures (McCann, 2005). The assembly
becomes an interface for the body to maintain protection through the physi-
cal and physiological interactions in the microclimate between the body,
clothing and environment. The main purpose of the clothing system is to
provide protection from the environment and to compensate for any adverse
changes that occur in the microclimate during the interactions (Pan, 2008).
Thermal comfort is dependent on the thermophysiological properties of
textile materials as the body regulates its temperature by sweating dur-
ing periods of exercise and activity; which facilitates evaporative cooling.
Clothing presents a barrier to moisture dissipation, which in turn can lead
to condensation resulting in wet garments and loss of thermal insulation
(Scott, 2009). The cold and inactivity necessitate additional insulation, whilst
exercise and activity require that clothing allow heat to escape through ven-
tilation or doffing in order to maintain thermal comfort.
Layering within the clothing system can optimise the comfort of aircrew
by enabling clothing combinations to be selected in accordance with opera-
tional conditions and mission requirements to be encountered.
A typical clothing ensemble will require:

• Base layer/underwear
• Mid (insulation) layer
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 139

• Outer protective shell

• Accessories

5.10.3.1 Base Layer
The primary requirements of the base layer are to provide breathability,
insulation and wicking in order to provide moisture management and to be
comfortable next to the skin. The specific needs of aircrew include nonmelt
materials, to avoid drip hazard, and biostatic to prevent explosive sparks.
The base layer is a sanitary layer and therefore antimicrobial properties and
ease of care (for frequent laundering) were desirable.

5.10.3.2 Midlayer
The midlayer of the clothing system is primarily concerned with providing
insulation and should be lightweight and breathable. The particular needs of
aircrew comprise flame-retardant materials, low bulk and a low noise signa-
ture. A modular or scalable approach to vary insulating characteristics based
on conditions and operational requirements was necessary.

5.10.3.3 Outer Protective Shell

Clothing engineered for protection against the cold is dependent upon the
selection of textile materials and carefully considered design characteristics
(Kapsali, 2009). The primary functions of the outer shell are to offer protec-
tion against precipitation (rain, snow and sleet) by preventing water ingress,
to retain heat provided by the insulation layer and to manage moisture gen-
erated by the wearer. Whilst design features are important in order to retain
heat and also to allow rapid periodic ventilation of heat through openings
and vents, composite textile materials have a key role in managing the user’s
personal microclimate.

5.11 Design Process
A structured user-centred approach to design (De Jong, 1984) was repeated
by Niessing (2012) in the development of a cold weather survival jacket for
military flight crews. The first stages of research and analysis examined cur-
rent clothing provision, the needs of the body, the requirements of the activ-
ity and the impact of the environment, which enabled the designer to gain
a broad view of the design situation. Design criteria were developed based
upon exploration of the design problem through analysis of research in the
initial stages of the design process (Table 5.11).
 140
TABLE 5.11
Design Process
General Request
Extreme Cold Weather Jacket for Aircrew

Exploration of the Design Situation

General Objective Review of Literature Problem Definition

Design and evaluate extreme • The design process • Input from industry partner as military
cold weather jacket for aircrew • Aircrew task requirements clothing provider
• Aircrew safety and comfort • Primary research
Problem Structure

Literature Search User Input Materials Analysis Market Analysis

• Thermal regulation • The design process • Compliance with Tencate as • Evaluation of current garments on the market
• Ventilation • Aircrew task requirements fabric provider – based on
• Aircrew safety and control company visit
Design Specifications

Safety/Protection Comfort Durability Production

• Weather protection • Low weight • Long life cycle • Acceptable cost
• Heat and flame resistant • Air permeable • Physical properties (strength) • Low maintenance and easy care
• Antistatic for explosion risk • Water vapour permeable • Abrasion resistance • Components readily available
• Water, oil and petrol • Moisture management • After wash appearance • Repairable
repellent • Thermally insulating • Resistance to pilling • Ease of production
• Fit and mobility • Colourfastness
• Feels soft and supple
• Good handle and drape
Interaction of design criteria established
Prototype development
Design development

Source: Adapted from De Jong (1984) by Niessing, L. (2012). Cold weather jacket. Unpublished coursework, MSc dissertation, Manchester Metropolitan University.
Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 141

5.12 Composite Materials for Cold Weather Survival Clothing

As described earlier, the needs of aircrew are unique and further compli-
cated by the range of environment, which might be encountered on a single
mission. It was therefore important to select appropriate materials in order
to meet the needs of aircrew. Current product analysis revealed that sur-
vival clothing provided to military aircrew met essential criteria such as
protection against the elements, heat and flame. However, in order to pro-
vide essential protection the garments were often both heavy and bulky and
therefore compromised comfort and mobility.

5.12.1 Selection of Fabrics and Materials

A review of textiles indicated that composite materials, which offered the
combined properties of protection against the elements and high levels
of breathability, as well as defence against heat and flame, would provide
the most suitable area for selection. It was established that criteria 1–8
from the ‘Criteria for Extreme Cold Weather Survival System for Military
Aircrew’ chart would be satisfied through appropriate fabric selection.
Material requirements for the cold weather survival jacket were identified
and ranked as follows (see list below).

1. Windproof – moisture vapour permeable (MVP) membrane – 100%

windproof
2. Breathable – MVP material, water vapour, air permeable
3. Flame retardant – inherently flame retardant or improved flame-
retardant surface finishes
4. Antistatic – carbon fibres in weave construction to reduce electro-
static discharge (ESD)
5. Lightweight – approximately 180g/m2
6. Camouflage/colour – multiple dying processes: producer coloured
to improve colourfastness and reduce infrared reflective (IRR)
7. Low noise signature – flexible materials with good drape and handle
8. Maintainable – easy to mend or repair in the field Figure 5.12

Following research, it was established that there were limited materials fit
for purpose that met all of the established design criteria. A range of MVP
membranes were available; however, lightweight fabrics with improved FR
properties were limited. Additionally, some of the MVP membranes did
not fulfil the requirement for low noise signature which, although a lower
ranking criterion, is crucial for operational manoeuvres. TenCate: Defender
M9180 was identified as being the composite fabric which offered the best
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142 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 5.12
Example of current clothing for FJ aircraft. (Courtesy of Matt Cardy/Stringer/Getty Images.)

properties. It was considered that the fabric selected met design criteria 1, 2,
5, 6 and 8 and acknowledged that user trials would confirm whether the tex-
tiles performed to the required standards and therefore satisfied the needs
of the wearer; however, this was outside the scope of the small-scale research
project, as the design brief only required an initial prototype. FR materi-
als are selected with regard to the limiting oxygen index (LOI) test method,
which provides an indication of the flammability of materials. Importantly,
the selected fabric, Defender M9180, met the ISO 13506-2008 standard for
burn injury prevention tested on a thermal mannequin, with aramid solu-
tion predicted to be 28% compared to Defender M at 8% (TenCate, 2012);
which indicates that the chosen fabric provides extra seconds of protection
and a lower risk of burn injuries.
Following selection of the outer shell materials, consideration was given to
providing insulation for protection against extreme cold. Variable insulation
was investigated as preflight comfort in hotter climates needed to be con-
sidered. Initial exploration included an ‘air vest’, based on a concept devel-
oped by W. L. Gore and marketed as ‘Air Vantage’. A gilet was sub­sequently
developed by BMW for motorcycle clothing. Insulation was provided by air
pockets, captured between two laminated fabrics, in a series of small cells.
The wearer could fill the pockets, by blowing air through a tube in the collar
of the garment, to inflate the vest when required and it could be released or
emptied of air through a valve when cooling was needed. Further research
indicated that although this method could provide variable insulation, the
nature of the laminates (in order to trap and retain air) could compromise
breathability of the jacket. It was established that as this compromised textile
criteria 2, this would be an area for further research, and alternative methods
of variable insulation such as body mapping were to be investigated.
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 143

TABLE 5.12
Fabric Selection Based upon Selection Criteria and Testing
Fabric Selection: Two-Layer System
Area Protection Layer Comfort Layer Comfort Layer Comfort Layer
Product name Defender Defender M 5.5 Polartec Thermal Polartec Power
M–DM9180 156 g/m2 (±5%) FR Stretch FR
fabric stretch mesh
knit
Company TenCate TenCate Polartec Polartec
Composition 64% Lenzing FR 64% Lenzing FR 93% Meta-aramid 68% Modacrylic
24% Para-aramid 24% Para-aramid 5% Para-aramid 29% Rayon
10% Polyamid 19% Polyamide 2% Carbon 3% Spandex
2% Antistatic 2% Antistatic
Weight 180 g/m2 (±5%) 187 g/m2 237 g/m2 396 g/m2
Width 163 cm (+2/–1 cm) 142 cm 147 cm
Construction 2/1 Twill Mesh Double velour Jersey/grid
Flame ISO 15025:2000 ISO 15025:2000 ISO 14116 ISO 14116
resistance No flaming No flaming (EN 533) (EN 533)
debris; debris; Index 3/ Index 3/
no flaming edge; no flaming edge; After flame: After flame:
no hole no hole <2 sec <2 sec
formation formation No flame spread No flame spread
After flame: After flame: to top or side/​ to top or side/​
>2 sec >2 sec no hole no hole
After glow: >2 sec After glow: >2 sec formation formation
Source: Niessing, L. (2012). Cold weather jacket. Unpublished coursework, MSc dissertation,
Manchester Metropolitan University.

The cold weather survival jacket was designed on a two-layer integrated

principle consisting of a protective layer and a comfort layer, and fabric was
selected in consideration of fabric properties, test results and specification as
can be seen in Table 5.12.

• Protection layer: outer shell to provide protection against the weather

and other hazards
• Comfort layer: inner shell to control moisture and airflow and to
provide insulation (Niessing, 2012)

5.12.1.1 Protection Layer
Military clothing demands high standards of safety and durability; there-
fore, textile tests were carried out on five selected fabrics (Figure 5.13).
TenCate Defender M9180 was deemed the optimum fabric for the protec-
tion layer of the jacket. Defender M9180 is intrinsically flame resistant, self-
extinguishes, does not shrink, melt or drip and offers protection equivalent
to that of Kevlar but with a lesser risk of burn injury (Niessing, 2012). This
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144 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Co/PES Aramid fabrics TenCate Defender MTM

FIGURE 5.13
Flame resistance – EN 15025. (Courtesy of Niessing, 2012. With permission.)

was preferred to flame-retardant treatments, which, according to Sudhakar,

Krishnaramesh and Brightlinigstone (2008), are not permanent and therefore
not fit for purpose. Additionally, Defender M9180 is available in a laminate
version, which offers foul-weather protection, has a low noise signature and
allows camouflage print with high standards of colourfastness (TenCate,
2012). Subsequent textile testing for flame resistance established that protec-
tion offered by Defender M9180 was equivalent to that offered by fabrics
such as Kevlar and aramid, with a lower risk of burn injuries (Niessing, 2012).

5.12.1.2 Comfort Layer
The comfort layer was developed based on body mapping, which identi-
fied areas in need of insulation and areas requiring venting and airflow.
The body needs thermal protection in areas surrounding vital organs. The
fabric selected was a Polartec Thermal FR R2206 flame-resistant fleece fab-
ric that provided insulation through a velour construction, which traps air
and retains body heat. Polartec Powerstretch FR 2400 was chosen for the
side panels for flexibility. The Powerstretch was a midweight, meta-aramid
Nomex fibre, which offers excellent insulation and is inherently nonflam-
mable. TenCate Defender M9180 (180 g/m2) mesh for ventilation was selected
in order to provide behaviour consistent with the protection layer. Pattern
construction for the comfort layer was mapped according to Figure 5.14 and
in addition was smaller than the outer layer in order to reduce bulk and
enhance airflow within the jacket. A mesh construction formed a bridge
between the protection layer and the lining in the shoulder, sleeve and upper
torso area (Figures 5.14 and 5.15).

5.12.1.3 Insulation and Ventilation

As previously described, the cold weather survival jacket for aircrew must
accommodate both sedentary and intense activities; insulation provided
within the mapped construction traps air and thereby conserves heat. It was
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 145

Cold weather system - construction inside

Standing collar for weather
and hazard protection
Anti slip lining in shoulder and sleeve area
for improving donning and doffing
Round shape in the
front for comfort

FR mesh in back part and

armwhole for breathability and
venting
Inside pocket for personal stuff
FR fleece in front and back
for protection of organs

FR stretch on sides for

improved mobility
Rib at the back - no rib in front for
comfort in sitting position

FIGURE 5.14
Description of inner jacket construction. (Courtesy of Niessing, L., 2012.)

Cold weather system - thermal layer

TenCate:
Defender
M9180
Fleece
FR thermal
(comfort)
Fleece
FR stretch
(mobility)
Fleece + lining
FR and thermal
(anti-stick)
Mesh
FR + antistatic
(ventilation)

FIGURE 5.15
Fabric mapping of the jacket inner. (Courtesy of Niessing, L., 2012.)

necessary to facilitate ventilation for the release of heat during periods of

activity in order to maintain a safe body temperature and comfort. As the
jacket is primarily worn in the seated position and with an inertia harness,
opening the jacket at the neck for ventilation could be difficult. Consequently,
adjustable openings are a more efficient way to control heat and moisture than
by passive diffusion through garment layers. According to Niessing (2012),
during exercise, airflow between the shells aids ventilation and heat released
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
146 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

through the mesh construction within the comfort layer and vented to the
atmosphere via adjustable openings in the front upper sleeves. Following
evaluation of the initial prototype, an additional vent was added to the chest
area as, according to Ruckman et al. (1999), openings near the chest may be
most effective in creating ventilation.

5.12.1.4 Mobility
Taking into account the complexities previously described, a range-of-motion
study was conducted through indirect observation (video footage and film) and
indirect interview, through a leading manufacturer of military apparel. It was
established that the survival clothing for aircrew must facilitate a wide range
of movement, including full abduction of the limbs, and allow free manipula-
tion of the joints (knees and elbows) without restriction. Concepts were devel-
oped accordingly, which provided for predominant posture whilst seated in the
aircraft as well as articulation at the elbow joints to accommodate the range of
activities undertaken whilst in the aircraft as well as in a survival situation post
ejection. A stretch FR fleece was used to enhance mobility and accommodate
body movement in the back and side panels. Clothing insulation changes with
motion (Lotens and Havenith, 1992, cited by Niessing, 2012), so the mesh ‘bridge’
between the outer and lining was designed to accommodate movement, with-
out affecting the protection layer and consequently the insulation.
In addition to range of motion, consideration was given to speed of donning
and doffing the garment in order to optimise safety and comfort, as time can
be critical in emergencies. According to Niessing (2012) and Ashdown (2007),
the main considerations for donning and doffing are pattern construction
and fabric selection. The initial design proposed a diagonal zipper to allow a
larger opening; this was later evaluated and modified. Easy-glide lining was
placed inside the shoulder and sleeve areas in order to reduce frictional drag
and ease speed of donning and doffing.

5.12.1.5 Fit
As previously described, in providing insulation within a layered system, it is
important that the outer layer does not compress the inner garments, resulting
in the effective insulation of the clothing assembly. The inner layer must be
able to provide insulation and wick away moisture. As the comfort layer was
incorporated into the outer shell, a closer, more ergonomic fit was achieved;
this provided insulation and moisture transfer capability, whilst effectively
reducing the risk of snag hazards presented by loose-fitting garments.

5.12.1.6 Construction
Design criteria had established that the jacket offer protection against wind
and rain and therefore sewn seams required sealing with impermeable or
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Composite Fabrics for Functional Clothing 147

microporous tape. Despite continuous development in waterproof taping,

sealed seam tape inevitably adds weight to a garment and therefore alterna-
tive methods of joining were initially explored.
The laminated version of Defender M9180 selected for the protective layer
was heat and flame retardant and offered potential for ultrasonically welded
seams. The first prototype was constructed using traditional sewn joining
techniques; it was proposed that a subsequent prototype would employ
ultrasonic welding, which would be tested for strength and durability.
Construction of the comfort layer utilised traditional sewn seams using a
401 chain stitch and a twin-needle 406 cover stitch for elasticity, durability
and strength, whilst creating a flat seam.

5.13 Conclusions
In this chapter, consumer requirements for functionality have been dis-
cussed in relation to composite fabric construction and performance, with
particular reference to outer layer garments for outdoor sports and military
survival situations. This illustrates well the ‘technology transfer’ that occurs
between military and commercial uses of composite fabrics in apparel design
and development.
High-performance outerwear jackets are essential to protect the end user
from prevalent weather conditions whilst they enjoy safe participation in
their sport. However, to remain comfortable, these garments must facilitate
the evaporation of sweat and dispersal of water vapour in relation to the
increased metabolic demand generated by the associated terrain and activity.
Composite fabrics provide a solution to these requirements, and develop-
ments in recent years have become increasingly innovative. However, their
performance can be limited in the unique atmospheric conditions created
through the interaction of outdoor sporting activities with the use environ-
ment, which can lead to dissatisfaction amongst end users.
Designers and product developers should select and position high-­
performance composite fabrics in relation to physiological demands specific
to the sporting activity and consider the use of ventilation design features
to optimise comfort. In addition, the application of specialist assembly tech-
niques is essential for supporting the integrity of composite fabrics and
maintenance of complete garment performance.
The case study on a military flight crew demonstrates the application of
a user-centred approach, which better meets user needs in terms of ther-
mal burden, weight and clothing comfort. Protective garments insulate the
wearer from adverse weather, heat and flame, but can retain heat and mois-
ture buildup, compromising the body’s ability to maintain thermal balance
and resulting in heat stress and the ‘plastic wrap effect’ (Sudhakar et al.,
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
148 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

2008:323). In response to user needs, a cold weather jacket was designed to

maximise airflow and ventilation between the layers and maintain thermal
comfort, thereby minimising risk of heat-related illness.
Lightweight, waterproof, breathable and (additionally to the application
for outdoor clothing) durable FR materials and the TenCate composite lami-
nated version of Defender M9180 provided optimum properties for meeting
military needs. Polartec thermal FR R2206 flame-resistant fleece provided
lightweight insulation, whilst Polartec PowerStretch FR offered insulation
and enhanced mobility. Challenges within the design process include find-
ing the most appropriate innovative materials, with a fire-retardant ability,
which meet stringent military needs and which reduce both bulk and weight.
As can be seen in the case studies presented in Chapter 5, the advancement
of composite materials has led to the provision of clothing with additional
properties, which can enhance both comfort and performance.

Acknowledgements
With gratitude, the authors would like to acknowledge Paul Oliver, chief
designer, Survitec Group, for his generosity in sharing his expertise and
Linda Niessing, Product Design and Development, X-Technology Swiss
Research & Development AG, for her kind contribution.

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6
Smart Materials for Sportswear

Jane Wood

CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 153
6.2 The Definition of Smart Materials............................................................ 155
6.2.1 Power Supplies................................................................................ 155
6.2.2 Conductive Yarns............................................................................ 156
6.2.3 Integrated Sensors.......................................................................... 157
6.3 The Influence of Smart Materials on Sportswear Performance........... 158
6.3.1 Health and Performance Monitoring........................................... 158
6.3.2 Automatic Adjustments................................................................. 159
6.3.2.1 Shape Memory.................................................................. 159
6.3.2.2 Phase Change................................................................... 160
6.3.2.3 Chromic Effects................................................................ 163
6.4 Specific Applications in Sportswear........................................................ 163
6.4.1 Athletics........................................................................................... 163
6.4.2 Ski Wear........................................................................................... 164
6.5 Future Developments in Smart Materials............................................... 166
6.6 Discussion.................................................................................................... 166
6.7 Summary...................................................................................................... 168
References.............................................................................................................. 168

6.1 Introduction
‘Smart’ and ‘intelligent’ textiles are terms that are frequently used inter-
changeably. The first intelligent clothing systems comprised a power
source, wiring and electronic devices being concealed within the gar-
ment’s construction. This was merely a meeting of two technologies, rather
than a true amalgamation. Although this gave an element of convenience
to the wearer through clever garment construction and ease of opera-
tion of the electronic device, it could not be seen as a true development
of technology. Garments such as the Philips ICD+ jacket are examples of
technologies being used in this way for the mass market, and although
at their launch much media interest was created, the consumer quickly

153
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154 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

lost interest in the novelty value of such garments (Tuck, 2000). Since this
starting point, much research has been undertaken to seamlessly merge
fabrics, clothing and information technology concepts, resulting in truly
smart materials. The ‘wearable motherboard’ garment, developed pri-
marily for use by the US military, is considered one of the first smart
garments as it incorporated the majority of electronic components within
the fabric structure and was described as ‘The Wearable Motherboard™:
The first generation of adaptive and responsive textiles’ (Gopalsamy et al.,
1999:152).
From these beginnings, the scope for the potential use of smart and intel-
ligent fabrics has widened. The development of smart textiles in the area of
healthcare to aid the monitoring of soldiers upon injury quickly translated
into a domestic healthcare setting, with products being developed to enable
patients to be monitored remotely. These developments enabled products to
be targeted toward the mass market, enabling consumers to monitor their
own health through their clothing.
Sport has become more popular as a leisure activity and the promotion of
health and well-being are a high priority on government agendas (Mintel
Group, 2013). However, research has also shown that whilst participation in
sports such as cycling and athletics showed strong growth in the years lead-
ing up to the London Olympic Games in 2012, this pattern is now in decline.
Various reasons can be outlined for this decline in the market, one being
that motivation can be a limiting factor. It is suggested that visual repre-
sentations of the benefits of physical activity can be great motivators and
this is an area in which smart textiles are finding a rapidly growing market.
Consumers can use technologies incorporated into their clothing not only to
see their progress during the activity, but also to set personal goals which
can act as a strong driver to improve commitment to the sport (Mintel Group,
2013). It is therefore not surprising that the major sports brands, such as, for
example, Nike and Adidas, have developed footwear and clothing housing
inbuilt sensors that can be linked to wristbands and mobile phone apps to
enable wearers to track their progress during physical activities or intensive
training.
The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of current smart and
intelligent textile technologies. It commences with a broad definition of
smart textiles and then explores how such garments can be powered and
how information can be collected and transmitted. The chapter will then
further present how smart textiles can respond to the changes within the
body and adapt to these to enhance comfort and performance, with specific
reference to sportswear applications. A case study will be used to illustrate
the applications of smart textiles in the sportswear market. Finally the chap-
ter will go on to discuss the future for smart textiles and the limitations of
the technologies.
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Smart Materials for Sportswear 155

6.2 The Definition of Smart Materials

It is generally considered that the term ‘smart material’ refers to a material
that is able to sense changes in its surroundings and react to these changes
accordingly. However, Tao (2001) suggests that smart materials can be sub-
categorised into three divisions as follows:

• Passive smart materials can be thought of as sensory devices; that is,

materials of this type can sense changes in the environment, but do
not have the capabilities to react to these changes.
• Active smart materials are able to both sense external stimuli and
react accordingly.
• Very smart materials are able to sense, react and adapt themselves
according to the changes in their surroundings.

There has been much work on the development of smart materials in the
medical industry, where major innovations have been noted in the monitor-
ing of patients. Similarly, the military have found smart materials extremely
useful in the monitoring of soldiers in combat, enabling medical aid to be
targeted to those whose need is greatest (Park and Jayaraman, 2003). The
major part of these developments can be used and adapted to enhance the
use of smart materials in the sportswear industry.
As the potential applications of smart materials are so diverse, there are
many solutions offered to the issues of power supplies, conductive yarns and
integrated sensors – each of which will now be discussed in turn.

6.2.1 Power Supplies
A limiting factor in the development of smart textiles has been the amount
of power required to allow the textile ‘system’ to operate. Early smart gar-
ments were simply garments engineered to allow wires to be hidden within
the garment structure so that, for example, the wires connecting the head-
phones to an MP3 player could be concealed within the garment structure.
Later developments, particularly in ski wear, such as jackets produced by
Spyder™, used Eleksen™ ‘softswitch’ technology (Peratech, 2013). These jack-
ets concealed the electronics required to connect the fabric keyboard to the
MP3 player, with the output via either headphones or an inbuilt speaker sys-
tems within the structure of the garment collar. Another garment produced
collaboratively by Phillips and Levis was the ICD+ jacket (Van Langenhove
and Hertleer, 2004). This jacket allowed the wearer access to his or her mobile
phone and MP3 player via an inbuilt microphone and hidden wires within
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156 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

the garment structure (Tuck, 2000). However, in all cases the issue of power
was met by the batteries of the MP3 player or mobile phones themselves.
As technology has developed beyond entertainment systems, the issue of
power source has been a difficult one. Smart garments require a source to
power integrated systems and, in some cases, to transmit the data generated
by these systems.
Traditional mains power sources from an AC/DC supply have been
explored. These can easily meet the demands of the smart garment sys-
tem, but require hard wiring to the power source. In a medical environ-
ment, where the patient is confined to bed, this is not considered an issue.
However, even in a medical context, restriction of movement causes dis-
comfort to the wearer, which renders this method totally unsuitable for the
sportswear garment.
Lithium ion batteries, such as those used in MP3 and mobile phone tech-
nologies, have been successfully used in smart garments. The problem with
this type of power source is the relatively limited life span and need for fre-
quent recharging due to the power demands of the systems being supplied.
This issue caused researchers to try to find alternative power supplies (Lam
Po Tang and Stylios, 2005).
Solar energy harvested using photovoltaic (PV) cells has been an area of
much interest. Traditional materials for PV cells, such as crystalline silicon,
gave hard, brittle structures that were not suitable for a garment end use.
Developments in nanotechnologies have meant that materials based on sili-
con can be used to produce thin films or even be spun into fibres, thus incor-
porating the PV component into the textile substrate itself. The advantage of
this sustainable power source is that it has limited impact on the environ-
ment, with the minimum of harmful by-products being produced. An addi-
tional advantage is that wearers in remote locations can still have access to
this abundant source of power (Taieb, Msahli and Sakli, 2009). This also leads
to a drawback: Those locations which do not have a large amount of strong
sunlight may have difficulty in charging the cells to the degree required to
power the smart textile systems.

6.2.2 Conductive Yarns
In order for smart garments to progress from those which cleverly hide wir-
ing within the garment structure, the textile itself needed to become the
‘wiring system’. Conductive yarns, such as those illustrated in Figure 6.1,
appeared to offer the solution to this problem, but were not without initial
problems of their own. Early work focused on metallic fibres and yarns, such
as copper, steel, nickel and silver, which were known for their conductive
properties. However, issues were quickly found with the flexibility of these
fibres, thus impacting on the drape and handle and ultimately the comfort
of the textile. Additionally, cost was a prohibitive factor in the development
of these fabrics due not only to the price of the raw materials themselves, but
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Smart Materials for Sportswear 157

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 6.1
Metal conductive fibres: (a) spun metal and metal polyester blend, (b) woven spun metal yarns
and (c) nonwoven metal fibre fabric. (From Lam Po Tang, S. and Stylios, G., 2005. International
Journal of Clothing Science and Technology 18 (2): 108–128, p. 120.)

also to the additional costs of the excessive damage sustained by machinery

during fabric production (Lam, 2005).
Further developments involved polymer-based filament yarns. These
yarns can be created by the traditional method of melt spinning, with the
active conductive polymer component being added at the doping stage.
Coating yarns using conductive polymers was also explored, with some suc-
cess being found by coating polyethylene Dyneema® yarns with polyaniline
(PANI) salts (Devaux et al., 2009). Polypyrrole (Ppyr) has also been used as
a successful conductive coating for polyester in fabric form, thus expanding
the possibilities for the development of truly integrated electronic systems
(Mokhatari and Nouri, 2012).
Another approach to integrating the electronic circuit into the textile is
the use of embroidery techniques. Various researchers have explored this
field and have used the yarns for embellishment as well as functionality.
Researchers at Nottingham Trent University have used silver-coated yarns
to embroider antenna onto garments to facilitate wireless megahertz radio
frequency data transmission, with some success (Cork et al., 2013).
Another possible solution to the issue of integrated conductivity is that
of conductive ink printing. This allows specific circuits to be printed as
required, but there is still much development required in this field to ensure
such circuits are completely effective and reliable (Moonen, Yakimets and
Huskens, 2012).

6.2.3 Integrated Sensors
Sensors as part of a garment need to be innocuous, particularly in sportswear,
so as to not distract wearers from their activity, which could be detrimental to
performance. Developments in textile technology mean that the textile itself
can now be considered as the sensor, rather than trying to discreetly house an
external sensor within the body of the garment or textile structure.
Researchers such as Coyle et al. (2009) used existing moisture wicking fab-
rics as a means of collecting sweat from the athlete during activity. Using a
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158 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

colorimetric pH indicator, an LED detector and a wireless transmitter, the

researchers were able to monitor the rate of fluid loss from the body. Such a
system could be useful for athletes to monitor hydration levels (which have
a profound effect on performance), particularly in environments where the
temperature and humidity are markedly different from that in which the
athlete normally trains and competes.
Respiratory rate is considered a key indicator of performance in sports activ-
ity. Fabrics that can measure pressure strain can be used in monitoring the
movement of the ribcage and therefore give an indication of respiratory rate.
Piezoelectric fibres (those which generate an electrical potential when under
strain) are considered the best types of fibres for this end use. Natural fibres
such as silk can display these properties to some degree, but synthetic polymers
such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polyproplylene (PP) and poly­ethylene
terephthalate (PET) can be engineered to display piezoelectric properties
(Vatansever et al., 2011). Typically, these textiles need to be incorporated as a
strap within the garment structure, positioned firmly around the ribcage, to
give the best respiratory measurements. Additionally, piezoelectric fibres can be
used to monitor the movement of the athlete during an activity. Traditionally, the
movement of the athlete and his or her posture during training and competition
is monitored by the coaching team and discussed watching postperformance
video footage. Smart textile monitors can be used to give real-time feedback
to both the athlete and the coaches, enabling adjustments to posture and tech-
nique to be made whilst the athlete is undertaking activity. For example, using
piezoelectric sensors in shoes has enabled feedback to be gained on walking and
running gait; similarly, piezoelectric wristbands have enabled tennis players to
adjust their racket grip and wrist posture (Coyle et al., 2009).
Garments with integrated sensors are becoming more commonplace.
Companies such as Smartlife (Smartlife, 2013) have developed a commercially
available garment, the Smartlife healthvest®, which contains integrated sen-
sors to monitor heart rate, respiratory rate and temperature with the potential
to also provide electrocardiogram (ECG) readings if required. The technol-
ogy allows users to download the information to their personal smartphone
or computing device, allowing personal monitoring of vital signs.

6.3 The Influence of Smart Materials

on Sportswear Performance
6.3.1 Health and Performance Monitoring
Health monitoring has been a key area for the development of smart textiles.
Placing textiles directly against the skin and hard wiring them to a monitor
has been a technique used for several years in the monitoring of vital signs
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Smart Materials for Sportswear 159

such as heart and respiratory rates. However, more recent developments have
seen advancements in wireless technologies, eliminating the need for hard
wiring to an external piece of equipment and thus increasing the potential
for mobility of the patient, in turn improving patient comfort and therefore,
as some research suggests, decreasing recovery times (Zheng et al., 2007).
These technologies are easily transferrable to the field of sportswear.
Incorporating the sensors within the body of the garment and wirelessly
transmitting information can provide critical information on vital signs and
thus the performance of the athlete. This can provide valuable information
for the athlete during the preparation phase of the competitive season and
training sessions can be tailored to enhance performance, without impeding
activity. Similarly, the performance of the athlete can be monitored during
competition with analysis of data providing a platform with which to build
a strategy for future events. However, it is critical that the sensors cannot
be detected by the athlete as this could cause distraction or discomfort and
ultimately cause a reduction in performance.
The limitation in this type of technology is the mode by which the wireless
data are transported. Traditional wireless protocols consume large amounts
of energy and thus the size of the battery to support this proved prohibi-
tive. Recent developments in wireless protocols ANT™ (Dynastream, 2013;
Stylios, 2013) require a much reduced amount of energy for operation and
therefore enable power sources to be small enough to be incorporated into
the garment and frequency of recharging reduced to an acceptable level.

6.3.2 Automatic Adjustments
The definition of a true smart material is that it is one able to detect and
respond to external stimulus, adapting itself accordingly. There are various
types of materials that could fall into this category.

6.3.2.1 Shape Memory
Shape memory textiles exhibit the ability to be deformed by external stimuli
(usually temperature) into a temporary form and then return to their orig-
inal shape (Kim and Lewis, 2003). Such materials are manufactured from
polymers that are heated to a specific temperature (the temperature of defor-
mation) at which they are set into shape. The material is then allowed to cool.
During use, if the material is heated to its temperature of deformation, it will
then lose its set shape and thus change the properties it imparts. This process
is entirely repeatable as the changes are within the morphology of the struc-
ture (Figure 6.2) and not due to the degradation of the polymer (Hu, 2007).
In sportswear applications, such textiles can be useful in the thermoregu-
lation of the body. Schoeller® c-change materials are biomimetic structures
based on the movement of the opening and closing of pinecones due to envi-
ronmental conditions. The fabric structure opens as the body temperature
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160 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

(a) (b)

FIGURE 6.2
Schematic diagram of shape memory effects: (a) closed structure at low temperature and (b) open
structure at high temperature. (From Lam Po Tang, S. and Stylios, G. 2005. International Journal
of Clothing Science and Technology 18 (2): 108–128, p. 112.)

rises, allowing heat and moisture to travel away from the body and facilitat-
ing cooling. As the environment and body cool, the structure closes, thus
trapping air between the garment and the body and allowing thermal insu-
lation to occur (Schoeller, 2013).

6.3.2.2 Phase Change
Phase change materials are those which have the ability to change state when
absorbing or releasing thermal energy, thus acting as thermoregulators in
fabric and garment form. Typically, these materials are based on a wax type
of compound encapsulated within a fibre (Figure 6.3), although this is not
the only type of material and technique that can be used. Alongside paraffin
waxes, compounds such as hydrated inorganic salts, linear long chain hydro-
carbons and polyethylene glycols have been considered in the development
of textiles with enhanced thermoregulatory properties, with techniques

FIGURE 6.3
Outlast phase change material encapsulated in (left) viscose fibre and (right) polyester fibre.
(Images courtesy of © Outlast Technologies LLC.)
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Smart Materials for Sportswear 161

FIGURE 6.4
Fabric coated with Outlast phase change material. (Image courtesy of © Outlast Technologies
LLC.)

such as lamination and coating (Figure 6.4) being explored by researchers as

alternatives to fibre encapsulation.
The critical factors required for a phase change material to be effective in a
textile clothing application are as follows:

1. A melting point between 15°C and 30°C

2. A small difference between melting and solidification points
3. Stability during repeated melting and solidification
4. Excellent thermal conductivity

Additionally, health and safety factors such as low toxicity, resistance

to flammability and effects on the environment are key considerations.
Ultimately, for the mass market, cost is the deciding factor (Mondal, 2007).
As body and environmental temperatures rise, the compound absorbs the
thermal energy and, as it does so, changes state from solid to liquid, draw-
ing heat away from the body and allowing cooling to occur. Conversely, as
temperature drops, the compound emits thermal energy and it transforms
from liquid to solid state, allowing heating of the surrounding area. Careful
engineering of the garment is required to ensure it is the body that benefits
from the movement of thermal energy and not the surrounding atmosphere
(Lam Po Tang and Stylios, 2005).
Currently, the amount of phase change material that can be incorporated
into textile weights common in garments (approx. 150–400 g2) is such that
only approximately 15 minutes of effectiveness can be achieved. However,
this could be of use in sportswear applications for garments worn immedi-
ately after warm-up to ensure muscles are not allowed to cool before activity.
There has been some development using this technology in heavyweight
garments such as those used in extreme sports in colder climates; gloves
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162 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 6.5
The hand before the test. (Image courtesy of © Outlast Technologies LLC.)

for snowboarding and skiing have successfully used phase change materials
such as Outlast® to impart thermal comfort (Outlast, 2013).
The images in Figures 6.5 through 6.7 show the results of experiments
carried out with Outlast phase change materials incorporated into a glove.
The images are taken using an infrared camera, which can track thermal
emissions; red depicts areas of high thermal emission (warm areas) moving
through to yellow and green as the heat gradient decreases. Blue depicts
lower thermal emission (colder regions) which progresses to black as the gra-
dient decreases further. The first image (Figure 6.5) shows the hand before
the test where the warm regions can clearly be identified.
The second image (Figure 6.6) shows the effects of placing the hand on
an ice block for 5 minutes whilst wearing the Outlast glove. There are still
warm regions visible showing the hand being ‘protected’ from the cold by the
phase change material.
The final image (Figure 6.7) shows the effects on the hand being placed on
the ice block for 5 minutes wearing a non-phase-change material glove. The
loss of heat can clearly be seen, which in turn could lead to wearer discomfort.

FIGURE 6.6
Hand, wearing a phase change material, placed on ice block for 5 minutes. (Image courtesy of
© Outlast Technologies LLC.)
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Smart Materials for Sportswear 163

FIGURE 6.7
Hand, wearing a non-phase-change material, placed on ice block for 5 minutes. (Image cour-
tesy of © Outlast Technologies LLC.)

6.3.2.3 Chromic Effects
Materials experiencing a change of colour due to external stimuli are known
as chromatic. The specific category of chromatic function is dependent on
the stimulus as follows:

Photochromatic – colour change due to light

Electrochromic – colour change due to electrical currents
Piezochromic – colour change due to mechanical deformation
Solvachromic – colour change due to moisture
Thermochromic – colour change due to heat

Thermochromic textiles have been used to some degree in the medi-

cal industry in the monitoring of body temperature and could be used in
sportswear in a similar way and aid performance monitoring. Similarly sol-
vachromes could aid sportswear performance, being used to monitor the pro-
duction of perspiration and thus advise the wearer on necessary rehydration.
To date, the use of chromic textiles in apparel has been limited to a niche
market in novelty fashion items.

6.4 Specific Applications in Sportswear

6.4.1 Athletics
Professional athletes require perfect conditions in both their own bodies and
the external environment to perform at their optimal level (Hassan et al., 2012).
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164 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Smart textiles can offer monitoring techniques in the training environ-

ment which are noninvasive and therefore do not distract wearers from their
performance (Cho, 2010).
However, monitoring of the body’s response to exercise is not in demand
exclusively by professional sportspeople. Sport as a recreational activity is
commonplace, with many participants having a keen interest in monitor-
ing their performance. Many companies have recognised this ‘High Street
demand’ for such monitoring devices and several are now available for use
in both the leisure and professional sportswear market.
Companies such as SmartLife have developed the HealthVest. The T-shirt
type garment is constructed from a knitted fabric base containing elastane
to improve fit and comfort properties. In the front portion of the garment,
ECG electrodes and a respiratory monitor are knitted into the fabric struc-
ture alongside the circuitry, which is created from silver-coated polyester
yarns. The vest can provide real-time monitoring and data output, which
can enable athletes to understand and adapt their performance and training
regimes (SmartLife, 2013).
In a similar way, NuMetrex has developed the ‘sports bra’. The sensors
and conductive components are all inherent in the garment, thus minimis-
ing any distractions that could be caused by the monitoring equipment. The
information is transmitted wirelessly to a watch via a clip-on transmitting
device, enabling the wearer to monitor heart rate in real time. Additionally,
the garments and watch accessory can be purchased in a variety of colours to
cater to the fashion requirements of the wearer (NuMetrex, 2013).

6.4.2 Ski Wear
The sport of skiing involves periods of high activity (skiing downhill) fol-
lowed by those of relative inactivity (resting at the end of the ski run, or the lift
climb to the top of the slope). Ski wear therefore must be thermoregulatory –
­supplying the wearer with both cooling and insulating properties.
Phase change materials lend themselves perfectly to the shorter ski runs
associated with recreational skiing. Where the downhill ski runs and lift
climbs are short (less than 10–15 minutes), enough phase change material
can be incorporated into the clothing to allow effective thermoregulation to
take place. Ski clothing is generally thicker than everyday wear; however,
the wearer still requires clothing that is flexible enough for normal body
movement, thus restricting the amount of phase change materials that can
be incorporated into clothing covering the arms and legs (and torso to some
degree).
Areas of the body where heat loss due to conduction is known to be
greatest in cold climates are the hands and the feet. In the case of the feet,
less apparel flexibility is required; thus the textiles used can be thicker and
more phase change materials can be incorporated, increasing the length
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Smart Materials for Sportswear 165

of the effectiveness of the material. A degree of manual dexterity is still

required in skiing; however, more phase change material can be incorpo-
rated in the body of the glove to improve insulation without compromising
movement.
A critical factor in mountain sports is protection from the wind, which
can cause accelerated heat loss and hypothermia if the body is not suffi-
ciently shielded. Coupled with this, it is essential that moisture produced
by the body is allowed to escape through the garments to allow cooling
when required. This moisture must be allowed to escape and not held
either on the skin or within the textile structure as this can again accel-
erate the cooling effects of the surrounding environment. Shape memory
polymers, such as those discussed in Section 6.3.2.1, would serve a use-
ful purpose in this case, with the structure being closed if wind chill is a
threat, whilst opening up to allow moisture out if the temperature of the
body begins to increase.

CASE STUDY: COLUMBIA OMNI-HEAT™

Omni-Heat (Columbia, 2013) is another smart approach to thermo­
regulation, using materials that are

• Reflective – a series of metallic dots printed onto the fabric

reflect heat back toward the body, thus aiding thermal reten-
tion and reducing the thickness required of a traditional insu-
lation layer (Rodie, 2010). As the body begins to heat up and
humidity increases within the garment, the foil dots are acti-
vated as conductors to transmit heat away from the body, thus
preventing overheating and excessive perspiration.
• Moisture wicking – the main fabric is a polyester/elastane
blend which enables moisture wicking via the cross-sectional
shape of the polyester fibre.
• Air permeable – the main fabric structure allows the free flow
of air to assist thermoregulation.

Columbia has used this technology and combined it with a smart

application in footwear. The Bugaboot™ contains the preceding tech-
nology, plus a flexible carbon fibre heating element, powered by a lith-
ium (mobile phone type) battery, which is charged using a mains AC
adaptor (Rodie, 2010). The heating element can be operated via a push
button on the side of the boot and can supply heat to the foot for up to
8 hours.
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166 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

6.5 Future Developments in Smart Materials

The majority of developments in smart textiles centre around the miniatur­
isation of the electronic components used for the monitoring of the wearer.
The miniaturisation of microchips and processors has enabled researchers,
such as those at Nottingham Trent University, to incorporate chips into yarn
structures. Whilst more traditional incorporation of electronics into textiles
has involved a ‘face’ and a ‘back’ to the textile (the back being the side of the
textile on which all the componentry can be seen). The tiny microchips work
in conjunction with the yarns, which act as conductors themselves, meaning
that the textile structure is inherently the electronic circuit which supports
the smart operation (Cork et al., 2013).
From the perspective of truly new developments in the field of smart tex-
tiles, the use of graphene as a substrate holds great promise. Research is cur-
rently being undertaken to develop graphene as a novel electronic device. As
graphene is only one atom thick, it is extremely flexible and therefore could
bring great leaps forward in the incorporation of electronics with textiles
and garments. The US Army research lab is currently exploring the options
of grapheme-based devices as wearable electronics (Dubey, Nambaru and
Ulrich, 2012). As was discussed earlier in the chapter, many sportswear
applications of smart textiles began life as military research and this could
prove to be an exciting new era for smart textiles in sportswear.
Further developments see researchers working on flexible batteries, which
would remove the current need for a pocket in a garment in which to house
the battery power source (Kwon et al., 2012). Highly flexible batteries open
exciting new possibilities in clothing design and could offer large improve-
ments in clothing comfort, without a compromise in functionality, a critical
area for consideration in sportswear.

6.6 Discussion
The market for smart textiles is growing, particularly in those industries,
such as sportswear, in which there is a need for the wearers to be monitored
and the information collected to be analysed.
The fashion industry has yet to find a real use for such technology, and
smart textiles are still frequently used as novelty items. There is a danger
that the fashion industry will continue to see such developments as a ‘gim-
mick’ using the technologies to support structures such as those with LEDs.
However, designers such as Angella Mackey are keen to explore the concepts
of fashion meeting function meeting technology and are creating highly
functional, fashionable apparel which incorporates electronic illumination
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Smart Materials for Sportswear 167

(Vega, 2013). Improvements in the flexibility of the fabrics which incorporate

the componentry to enable operation of the smart garment are also allowing
designers to create garments more easily. In early developments the wiring
of the components was the deciding factor in the garment design (as seen
with the ICD+ jacket), which led to smart garments being heavy and bulky.
Conductive yarns, componentry and sensors are now all readily available in
flexible forms off the shelf, enabling lighter weight garments to be produced,
which are more comfortable to wear (Ohmatex, 2013).
The apparel industry still encounters problems with power sources for
smart textiles and as such is limited in the progression of the technology
until a viable option is found (O’Mahony and Braddock, 2002). Some encour-
agement should be taken from the mobile phone industry where much work
is being done to improve battery life whilst reducing battery size. Companies
such as Apple and Samsung are market leaders in the smartphone arena
where their products are providing an increase in functionality with no
increase in battery size (Apple, 2013).
Alternative power sources should not be disregarded. Traditional recharge-
able batteries, which draw their charge by being plugged into the mains sup-
ply for a period of time, could be replaced with more sustainable alternatives.
Solar power has seen great leaps forward in the last few years, with solar
cells decreasing in size and, as discussed in the previous section, increasing
in flexibility. The ‘charge whilst you wear’ concept would be appealing to
consumers, who are quick to highlight their frustrations with the traditional
methods of recharging batteries.
In order for the smart textile to become a reliable product for the diagnostic
and medical aspects of the sports industry, improvements in wireless integ-
rity still need to be made. There is a perception that wireless technologies are
still not as reliable as their hard-wired counterparts and, in order for such
textiles to gain credibility, absolute reliability of data transmission is critical
(Hunter, 2008). Whilst this is based largely on perception rather than hard
fact, wireless technologies do have room for improvement.
Finally, the environmental impact should be considered. In a world where a
conscious effort is being made to reuse and recycle, is there really a place for
textiles which contain added technology? And what shelf life do these garments
have? It could be suggested that in terms of performance sportswear, there will
always be a need to monitor athletic performance – be that through heart rate,
blood pressure, respiratory rate or one of the other functions discussed previ-
ously in this chapter. However, as the technologies are developing at such a rate,
will this mean garments can be upgraded as the technology develops, or will
current garments be deemed obsolete in a couple of years’ time? In this case,
does this mean that garments now will go to a landfill site or can they be recy-
cled? An argument could be put forward that, as the garments are the sensors
and are transmitting the raw data, it is the processing software that will change
and, as such, the garment will have a longer life than that initially thought. This
issue will only be brought to light as the smart textile market widens.
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168 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

6.7 Summary
Smart materials have an important part to play in the future of sportswear.
There have been many developments since the integration of electronics into
a garment in the late 1990s and, although the novelty factor of this garment
was quickly dismissed by the consumer, it served as a basis for innovation.
Developments in military and medical applications easily translated into
sportswear products. Sports performance monitoring was the first to be con-
sidered and the development of integrated sensors and piezoelectric fibres
enabled professional athletes to monitor their activity in real time, recording
their data for analysis and enabling training sessions to be adapted accord-
ingly. This quickly led to mass market adaptation with products such as the
NuMetrex sports bra (NuMetrex, 2013).
In addition to performance monitoring, smart textiles have also been devel-
oped to enhance comfort, with shape memory and phase change m ­ aterials
being used. These technologies have allowed apparel with exceptional thermo­
regulatory properties to be established which adapt in line with wearers’
individual needs.
However, the concept of fashion versus function cannot be ignored.
Advances in performance technologies cannot be successful without similar
developments in garment design. Apparel designers are now embracing such
developments and the value of the aesthetics offered by smart textile tech-
nologies, such as thermo-, photo- and electrochromic dyes or incorporated
illuminations, can be seen in fashion. As these technologies are embraced by
fashion, the ease of incorporation of performance technologies into garments
is developed and the ‘gimmick’ factor is replaced by true functionality and
ease of garment creation.

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7
Applications of Compression Sportswear

Praburaj Venkatraman and David Tyler

CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 171
7.2 Background and Rationale........................................................................ 172
7.3 Compression and Its Influence on Physiology....................................... 173
7.4 Compression for Medical Uses................................................................. 175
7.5 Evaluation of Compression for Sportswear............................................ 178
7.5.1 Effects of Using Compression Garments..................................... 181
7.6 Applications of Compression Garments in Sportswear........................ 183
7.6.1 Cycling.............................................................................................. 183
7.6.2 Skiing................................................................................................ 184
7.6.3 Rugby Sport..................................................................................... 185
7.7 Market Trends in Compression Sportswear........................................... 188
7.8 Contextual Factors Affecting Compression Garment Performance.... 192
7.8.1 Garment Sizing............................................................................... 193
7.8.2 Body Shapes..................................................................................... 194
7.8.3 Sizing and Designing with Stretch Fabrics................................. 195
7.8.4 Fabric Panels.................................................................................... 195
7.9 Summary and Conclusions....................................................................... 196
References.............................................................................................................. 200

7.1 Introduction
Sports and exercise involves physical movement of the body (torso, upper
and lower limbs) and, in some cases, amateurs and professionals alike endure
soft-tissue injury. At the elite level, improved individual performance during
a tournament or a game is vital. Many athletes consider that compression
of muscles to support and enhance muscle alignment and improve the effi-
ciency of muscle movements is essential. They also strap the injured body
part to assist recovery from injury. In recent years, there has been an increase
in usage and demand for compression garments for a number of sportswear
applications and recreational activities due to their ability to offer functional
support to the wearer.

171
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172 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

The main aim of this chapter is to present research relating to compres-

sion garments and highlight the recent developments relating to specific
sports such as cycling, skiing and rugby. The benefits of compression gar-
ments were documented in various settings (sports, clinical and nonclini-
cal), although convincing evidence remains elusive. The reported benefits
of using compression garments were mainly in enhancing blood circula-
tion, reducing the recurrence of injury, aiding recovery, providing mus-
cle support and reducing muscle soreness. However, the claims made by
manufacturers in boosting athletes’ performance are debatable and the
evidence gathered so far is less than convincing. The research relating to
the benefits and limitations of using compression garments for sportswear
is critically reviewed in this chapter. Most studies used different settings
and small sample sizes and it is necessary to question whether the findings
should be extrapolated to a wider group. Contextual factors that influence
garment design and development such as body shapes, fabric panels, mate-
rials’ properties, sizing and comfort are discussed. In addition, market
trends in compression sportswear and factors affecting new product devel-
opment are discussed in the context of designing innovative compression
sportswear.
The main purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of compression
garments available for active sports, including rugby, cycling and skiing. The
contents of this chapter will equip readers to understand the use of compres-
sion garments for sportswear and specific applications and will further their
creative thoughts toward developing innovative functional apparel.

7.2 Background and Rationale

Compression modalities in the form of elastic compression bandages have
been used in healthcare to control the oedema or swelling of tissues and
to aid the return of venous blood from the lower limb to the heart. Several
benefits of compression therapy in healthcare have been noted, including:
assisting calf muscle to perform its function by restoring damaged valves to
function properly, promoting comfort and quality of life of the patient and
enhancing the condition of skin. Compression modalities vary the amount
of stretch and elasticity, both intrinsically and extrinsically, in the manner
in which they are applied (Figure 7.1). Recent developments in fibres, fab-
rics and finishing technologies enabled researchers to develop compression
sportswear that is based on a graded application of pressure to the extremi-
ties of the body in order to pump the blood back to the heart faster. Some of
the claims of the compression garment developers include improved circula-
tion and performance and reduced recovery times, reduced muscle soreness
and enhanced lactic acid removal.
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Applications of Compression Sportswear 173

FIGURE 7.1
A pair of compression stockings. (Courtesy of Shutterstock, Inc.)

The rationale of this chapter is to provide an overview of compression

garments available for active sports, including rugby, cycling and skiing. It
should be noted that compression garments are also widely preferred for
aesthetic reasons, particularly scar minimisation, reduction of postsurgery
infection risk, pain reduction and slimming support. Compression panties
that provide firmness to the tissue and mask any abdominal bulge are also
used in hernia patients (Haldane, 2013). It should be noted that whilst com-
pression modalities have demonstrated their effectiveness, the focus of this
chapter is on sportswear compression garments.

7.3 Compression and Its Influence on Physiology

The principle of compression garments is analogous to compression therapy
treatment for lower limbs that involves applying a known amount of pres-
sure to aid the return of venous blood to the heart.
Compression therapy is based on the Laplace equation, which states that
pressure is directly proportional to the amount of tension and number of lay-
ers applied and inversely proportional to the limb circumference and width
of the material applied. The effectiveness of compression therapy is well doc-
umented. However, evidence of the effectiveness of compression garments
remains elusive and fragmented. A graduated compression is required to
encourage the blood flow from the lower limb toward the heart (Figure 7.2).
Unlike compression therapy, which is intended to aid the return of venous
blood by applying sustained and gradual pressure to lower limbs, the claims
for compression garments are overly optimistic, ranging from improved per-
formance of athletes to accelerated recovery following an injury. It should be
noted that garments applying pressure locally on the body can only support
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174 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Compression lower
at the shoulder region

Compression higher
at the ankle region

FIGURE 7.2
Vascular system and compression pressure gradient – highest at the lower limb and lowest at
the shoulder region. (Courtesy of Shutterstock, Inc.)

physiological processes (increased blood circulation or assisting the recov-

ery of muscle injury) and cannot be guaranteed to enhance and accelerate
the performance of athletes, as there are many variables that can affect an
athlete’s performance (Figure 7.3).
More frequently, elite athletes are determined to achieve personal bests,
including breaking world records at each competitive event. Compression
has been used since the nineteenth century to treat medical ailments

FIGURE 7.3
Athlete wearing compression sports bra and tights. (Courtesy of Shutterstock, Inc.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Applications of Compression Sportswear 175

FIGURE 7.4
Typical compression base layer clothing. (Courtesy of Dreamstime.)

(Thomas, 1998; Ramelet, 2002) and has been featured increasingly since the
1980s, when the use of fabrics with elastane gained popularity. This chapter
also discusses the benefits and limitations of compression garments used
for sportswear. The benefits of compression garments are physiological
as well as psychological and evidence from studies is critically evaluated for
its usefulness.
A typical compression garment has an intimate and anatomical fit
(Figure 7.4), provides support by applying pressure to muscles, increases
blood circulation, and reduces blood lactate levels. Athletes require healthy
venous blood return. Figure 7.5a and b draws attention to observation that
athletes frequently incur hamstring and calf sprain if no garment support is
worn.

7.4 Compression for Medical Uses

It is interesting to note that although compression therapy has been
widely used in healthcare since the nineteenth century (Thomas, 1998;
Ramelet, 2002), the use of bandages for venous diseases can be dated back
to 450–350 BC (Van Geest, Franken and Neumann, 2003). Medical prac-
tice has found the use of graduated compression favourable, particularly
as it works with the muscles to encourage blood flow toward the heart
(Moffatt, Martin and Smithdale, 2007). Other notable benefits of compres-
sion therapy are
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176 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Athlete
experiencing
injury

(a)

Cramps in leg
calves or sprained
calf on triathlete
runner

(b)

FIGURE 7.5
(a) Sports injury with running man. (b) Sports Injury – cramps. (Courtesy of Shutterstock, Inc.)

• Absorption of exudate (fluid) from the wound (Thomas, Fram and

Phillips, 2007)
• Reduction of scar size and improvement of scar appearance
(Wiernert, 2003)
• Relief of the symptoms associated with venous disease (Moffatt,
2008, p. 339)
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Applications of Compression Sportswear 177

Compression therapy is achieved using two methods: by traditional ban-

daging techniques or by specially manufactured garments such as medical
elastic compression stockings (MECS) (Ramelet, 2002; Van Geest et al., 2003;
URGO Medical, 2010). Van Geest et al. (2003) explained how these categories
can be classified as elastic or inelastic. Although inelastic bandages may be
worn for 24 hours due to low resting pressure, elastic compression should
be removed during a 24-hour period to avoid pressure sores resulting from
constant compression.
An inelastic bandage, also known as a short-stretch bandage, applies light
pressure for a short period of time. Due to its inability to conform to the leg
shape, much of the pressure applied decreases over time (Ramelet, 2002;
Moffatt, 2008). Elastic, or long-stretch bandages, sustain pressure provided for
a longer period of time due to the flexibility of the structure (Moffatt, 2008);
however, they are more likely to cause discomfort to the wearer (Ramelet, 2002).
MECS are available in a variety of lengths dependent on the requirement of
the user. MECS are classified for prescription with the pressure delivered to
the ankle varying from 10 to ≥49 mmHg depending on the treatment neces-
sary (Van Geest et al., 2003). Van Geest et al. (2003) reported the classification
of the Medical Elastic Compression System (MECS) as light (10–14 mmHg),
mild (15–21 mmHg), moderate (23–22 mm Hg), strong (34–46 mmHg) and
very strong (≥49 mmHg) based on the pressure applied at ankle. Current
classifications of bandages do not solely incorporate those for compression.
Made-to-measure MECS are recommended for those patients who have very
specific needs in terms of fit (Ramelet, 2002). Additionally, ready-to-wear ver-
sions are available in a range of classifications. Ramelet (2002) explained that
some patients find MECS hard to wear, particularly the higher classification
garments; however, devices are available to deal with this problem and are
generally well tolerated.
Although bandages and MECS are the most commonly used forms of
compression therapy in medicine, the use of other compression clothing is
often associated with the treatment of burns and hypertrophic scarring. Its
successful use was investigated in the early 1970s (Wiernert, 2003). Wiernert
(2003) reported that compression clothing is available in many forms, includ-
ing all-in-one body suits and gloves, and is habitually worn throughout the
day.
The discussion on the effectiveness of compression therapy for medical ail-
ments is apparent (Weller et al., 2010; Feist, Andrade and Nass, 2011; Miller,
2011). Watkins (2010) highlighted the importance of ensuring that each patient
is wearing the correct size compression garment. Miller (2011) pointed out the
need for a standardised method for measuring limbs, mainly to ensure that
patients are fitted correctly. The lack of fit not only is a cause of discomfort for
the wearer but can also result in lack of the desired amount of pressure being
applied; thus it could harm rather than treat. Watkins (2010) also explained how
a patient’s limbs can be measured for postoperative compression garments
prior to surgery unless a significant change in body shape or size is predicted.
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178 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Feist et al. (2011) and Miller (2011) have reported that in order to achieve
complete cure through compression therapy, patient adherence is significant,
although discomfort was regarded as one of the main reasons why patients fail
to comply with the treatment. Miller (2011) explained that patient awareness
is a key factor for a successful treatment. Understanding compression therapy
with regard to how long patients must wear bandages or garments and possi-
ble problems resulting from removing them prior to this were not highlighted
in the majority of cases observed. Furthermore, 100% of the cases observed
did not receive any written information relating to compliance. Venkatraman
et al. (2005) studied the importance of patient compliance and awareness of
compression therapy using a questionnaire in determining the effectiveness of
compression modality. However, the continued success of compression ther-
apy is perhaps the main reason as to why sportswear manufacturers began to
incorporate similar theory into sporting apparel. The expansion of compres-
sion garments in the sportswear market is apparent and growing.

7.5 Evaluation of Compression for Sportswear

Compression garments for sportswear and leisure applications have become
widely available, providing increased comfort, fit and muscle support.
Voyce, Dafniotis and Towlson (2005) reported that human skin stretches con-
siderably, especially 35% to 45% at knee and elbow regions, and that exten-
sible garments are essential to provide comfort during intense body stretch
(Figure 7.5b). Normal body movement expands the skin by 10% to 50% and
strenuous movements in sports are facilitated by low resistance from gar-
ments and instant recovery. Knitted fabrics are designed in such a way that
they possess elastic properties so that the garment offers compression and
stretch in both lengthwise and crosswise directions.
In addition, it is important to note that an athlete will stretch in various
ways depending on body movement, which is highlighted in Figure 7.6.

15%–22%
13%–16%
12%–14%
4%–6%
35%–45%

35%–45%

FIGURE 7.6
Key areas of stretch. (Courtesy of Elsevier, 2005.)
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Applications of Compression Sportswear 179

Different stretch positions include leg, lower back, thighs, shoulders, abdo-
men, arms, etc. A compression garment should support numerous different
muscles during intense physical activity (Figure 7.7).
A number of brands have promoted compression wearables such as SKINS,
2XU, CEP, Zensah, CW-X and compression-x. Application of compression
sportswear in major events has been widespread; for instance, in the 2000
Olympic Games at Sydney, the sports enthusiasts were focused on Fastskin
swimsuits, which were both praised and criticised during the games. The
skintight compression body suits by Speedo, which aimed to reduce drag
whilst allowing full body movement, were worn by almost 85% of the gold
medal winners in swimming during the games (Swim-Faster.com, 2012).
Craik (2011) reported that the controversy surrounding the suits, which gave
the wearers an increased ability to break personal best and world records,
led to its ban during 2010. However, this ban was not enforced until after

FIGURE 7.7
Different types of body stretch. (Courtesy of Shutterstock, Inc.)
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180 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

much development of the suits and the introduction of other models includ-
ing the Fastskin FSII, Fastskin FS-PRO and, most notably, the ‘world’s fast-
est’ suit, the LZR Racer Suit (McKeegan, 2008). Speedo’s LZR Racer, which is
made from an ultralightweight fabric called LZR pulse, has low drag and is
both water repellent and fast drying. It was worn by the majority of medal
winners at Beijing 2008, including US swimmer Michael Phelps, who tallied
up a collection of eight gold medals.
Cipriani, Yu and Lyssanova (2014) investigated the opinion of experienced
cyclists on the perceived influence of a ‘posture cueing shirt’ on comfort and
recovery. It was found that the athletes reported increased benefits in riding
posture, postride posture, spine discomfort and recovery. Duffield, Cannon
and King (2010) reported that muscle recovery after sprinting and exercise
over 24 hours showed minimal effect on performance, but lowered levels of
muscle soreness. It can be noted that compression garments assist in posture
support and post-training muscle recovery and in reducing muscle soreness.
Compression garments sparked media attention not only in swimming
at this time but also in other sports including track and field. The all-in-
one, head-to-toe Nike Swift Suit aims to provide athletes an advantage, in
a way similar to swimsuits, with reduced drag and increasing aerodynam-
ics (Bondy, 2000). American athlete Marion Jones wore a Nike suit to run
competitively (Mayes, 2010); however, the trend for head-to-toe suits for run-
ning events does not seem to have the prolonged success as with swimming.
Similarly, Nike Swift Suits were used in other sport disciplines, including
speed skating and cycling, and demonstrated positive effects (Voyce et al.,
2005).
The introduction of compression T-shirts has been well received by
rugby players (Voyce et al., 2005). The much tighter fit of the shirts, com-
pared to the traditional rugby jersey, meant that not only the players ben-
efitted by the compression physically, but also that other players could not
easily grip the tops. McCurry (2004), Shishoo (2005), Cole (2008) and the
Mintel Group (2009) stated that public demand for performance sports-
wear has increased in recent years and all note a rise in compression gar-
ments being sold. Walzer (2004) described how compression garments
have advanced since the 1990s to include a wider variation of products
and colours for all genders, identifying factors that explain the greater
demand for such products.
Cortad (2011) reported that although the new garment ‘Quicksilver’ has the
conventional appearance of board shorts, there is a hidden compressive short
underneath with taping ergonomically positioned to support muscles. The
shorts, which utilise the technology usually seen in other sports, are prov-
ing successful for surfing champions wearing them. Quicksilver explosive
technology uses a four-way stretch dobby fabric that has less contact with
the skin, promotes blood flow, increases lymphatic drainage and supports
muscle recovery (Explosive board shorts, 2015). Furthermore, compression
sportswear garments are diversifying. The Proskins Co. (2012) has created
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Applications of Compression Sportswear 181

a range of compression clothing with ingredients such as caffeine and vita-

min E incorporated into the fabric to help reduce cellulite. Proskins are mar-
keted for use as day-to-day clothing as well as for sports training. As the
compression market continues to grow in popularity in both the professional
and consumer markets, the benefits often cited in marketing are continually
questioned.

7.5.1 Effects of Using Compression Garments

In the following section, various research reports on the effects of using com-
pression garments during sports and exercise were critically reviewed. As
has been noted there is an increasing trend to wear compression sportswear
for increasing blood flow and aiding muscles whilst training. However, there
is much debate over the effectiveness of wearing such garments for sporting
activities. Many compression sportswear companies claim that the garments
will improve circulation, improve performance and reduce recovery times
(2XU Pty Ltd, 2009; Skins™, 2012).
These claims have led to a plethora of research in the area. But there still
needs to be a holistic agreement on the benefits of performance and recov-
ery because of conflicting results emerging from many of the investigations.
Brophy Williams et al. (2014) used a strain gauge to assess changes in limb
volume among active males while they wearing compression socks, leggings
or no compression garment. They reported that both compression leggings
and socks are effective in reducing the limb swelling and that further investi-
gation was required to assess whether these changes affect exercise recovery.
This study indicated that the compression garments had an effect on blood
flow, particularly in the lower limb. Hill, Howatson, van Someren, Leeder et
al. (2014) reported a meta-analysis to investigate the effects of compression
garments on recovery following exercise. They evaluated 12 studies where
assessments were taken at 24, 48 and 72 hours post exercise regime. The
research concluded that compression garments were effective in enhancing
recovery from muscle damage.
de Glanville and Hamlin (2012) investigated the effect of wearing gradu-
ated compression garments during recovery on subsequent 40 km time trial
performance. During the study, the participants wore either a graduated
full-leg-length compressive garment (76% Meryl elastane, 24% Lycra®) or a
similar-looking non-compressive placebo garment (92% polyester, 8% span-
dex) continuously for 24 hours after performing an initial 40 km time trial in
their normal cycling attire. The participants had a second trial with garments
following a 24-hour recovery period. A week later, the groups were reversed
and tests repeated. The performance time in the second trial was substan-
tially improved with compression garments compared to placebo garments.
The researchers concluded that graduated compression garments during
recovery were useful and less likely to be harmful for well-trained endurance
athletes. Compression garments can influence wearer proprioception (which
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182 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

is an unconscious perception of movement and spatial orientation arising

from stimuli within the body itself). Hooper et al. (2015) investigated whether
wearing compression garments would enhance proprioception and comfort
affecting sports performance, especially on high-level athletes. The athletes,
who wore either a compression garment or a non-compression garment, were
involved in baseball and golf activities. Researchers reported that comfort and
performance can be improved with the use of compression garments in high-
level athletes, who are most likely to be influenced by improved propriocep-
tive cues, especially while engaging in upper body movements.
Luke and Sanderson (2014) undertook a meta-analysis to determine whether
wearing compression clothing affected athletic performance by increasing
endurance and aerobic activity as measured using VO2 max (maximum oxy-
gen consumption/uptake) and heart rate. They included only those studies
that examined continuous running. Of the four studies considered, only one
concluded that wearing compression garments improved performance, and
three studies reported that compression garments were highly effective in
reducing muscle soreness and oedema. The authors concluded that wearing
lower extremity compression socks can be very effective in reducing oedema
during or after exercise.
Duffield and Portus (2007) monitored the effects of full-body compression
garments. Participants in the study completed a series of distance and accu-
racy throwing tests along with sprints in either a control garment or one of
three brands of full-body compression garments. However, there were no
significant differences between the control condition and the three brands
of compression garment. Hill, Howaston, van Someren, Walshe et al. (2014)
investigated the efficacy of a lower limb compression garment in accelerat-
ing recovery from a marathon run among 24 subjects who were assigned to
‘treatment’ or ‘sham’ groups. The researchers reported that lower limb com-
pression garments improved subjective perceptions of recovery. However,
there were neither improvement in muscular strength nor significant
changes in exercise-induced muscle damage and inflammation. There were
other studies that demonstrated small benefits to performance (Doan et al.,
2003). Sperlich et al. (2010) observed the differences to performance benefits
of compression socks, compression tights, whole-body compression gar-
ments and control running clothing. All 15 participants completed running
tests on a treadmill in each type of clothing. Performance was measured by
monitoring lactate concentration and oxygen uptake. There were no perfor-
mance benefits observed when wearing compression garments.
Twenty track athletes completed a series of tests to measure sprint times,
muscle oscillation and jump power in both loose gym shorts and compression
shorts. The jump heights recorded were increased by 2.4 cm when wearing the
compression garment. There were some noticeable benefits on performance
when compression stockings were worn (Doan et al., 2003). Ali, Creasy and
Edge (2011) investigated the effect of varying the level of compression stock-
ings (low, medium and high) during a series of countermovement jumps before
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Applications of Compression Sportswear 183

and after running trials. It was found that the changes in jump height from
before to after exercise were much bigger when wearing the low and medium
stockings compared to when wearing a control garment. Miyamoto et al. (2011)
focused on the effect of compression on torque of the triceps muscle. Triplet
torque was monitored both before and after calf raise exercises and there was
a smaller reduction of power after exercise when wearing the compression
stocking with 30 mmHg at the ankle. However, there was no evidence for the
18 mmHg ankle stockings having any effects.
Other studies also reported some benefits of wearing compression gar-
ments among athletes who participated in circuit training that included
sprint times, flight times and jump height (Higgins, Naughton and Burgess,
2009), reduced injury and recovery time (Rogers, 2012), and improved recov-
ery following exercise-induced muscle damage (Jakeman, Byrne and Eston,
2010). Compression garments were used as a recovery tool for a 3-day exer-
cise protocol. Cold water bathing and carbohydrate consumption along with
postexercise stretching were two other conditions for the investigation.
Under these circumstances, cold water bathing was deemed to be more ben-
eficial to recovery than the use of compression garments or carbohydrate
consumption and postexercise stretching (Montgomery et al., 2008). It can
be noticed from the preceding that the documented effects of compression
garments were not consistent across different sporting activities. It should
also be highlighted that the research studies were conducted using differ-
ent protocols and, in most cases, the changes in sports performance were
reported by elite athletes. However, it may be significant that most of the
studies reporting benefits relate to blood flow in lower limbs as opposed to
upper body movements. Thus, compression appears to be effective in reduc-
ing oedema, enhancing muscle recovery and reducing muscle soreness.

7.6 Applications of Compression Garments in Sportswear

In this chapter, specific attention is given to three sports: namely, cycling,
skiing and rugby. Compression garments have become a staple for athletes
in these sports, as support is required for muscles continuously, providing
aid in reducing muscle fatigue. Areas of importance to these sports are high-
lighted in the following sections and in Figure 7.8.

7.6.1 Cycling
A wide range of compression wear is available for professional cycling and
is elaborated in Venkatraman et al. (2013). Leg muscles are the main source
of power and endurance. During cycling, a cyclist uses the following sets of
muscles:
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184 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Gluteal muscles

Athlete wearing
compression tight
Hamstring and top
muscles

Calf muscles Quadriceps

FIGURE 7.8
A cyclist in action wearing a compression garment. (Courtesy of Istockphoto.)

• Gluteal muscles – bottom area pushing pedals at the top of a stroke.

• Quadriceps – large muscles at the front of the thigh that straighten
the leg when pushing the pedal down to the ground.
• Calf muscles – ankle movement and calf muscles facilitate return of
blood from lower limbs when the heel strikes the ground (Morrison
et al., 1998). Hence good ankle movement facilitated by calf muscles
only achieves a healthy venous return.
• Hamstrings – located at the back of the thigh, working with calf
muscles lifting the pedals up from the bottom of a stroke.

There are support muscles working together with leg muscles, such as
upper muscles engaging with the handlebar. Their use is terrain depen-
dent. For example, a hill climb will increase handlebar pressure, so the
biceps are used to enhance power. Back and abdominal muscles are also
important to stabilise cyclists whilst riding (Yake, 2011). A range of gar-
ments are available for professional cycling including sleeve jerseys,
sleeveless jerseys, long-sleeve jerseys, jackets, vests, long- and short-
sleeve skin suits, bib shorts, tights and knickers. Recently, Venkatraman
et al. (2013) critically appraised the specifics of cycling compression gar-
ments including requirements of garments/fabrics and fabric panels to
support muscle groups. In addition, consumer perspectives on using
compression tights for cycling were also described.

7.6.2 Skiing
Compression base layer tights for skiing help to regulate body temperature,
support muscles, aid in blood circulation and support in muscle recovery and
fatigue. By reducing the amount of lactic acid in the tissue during and after
a physical activity, the athlete’s recovery is greatly enhanced and prevents
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Applications of Compression Sportswear 185

soft-tissue injury. Typical base layer garments for skiing include full-sleeve
tops, tights and one-piece garments that cover torso, arms and legs (Figure
7.9). A ski base layer compression garment keeps the wearer warm in cold
conditions as well as supports muscle movements.
The garments are generally made of synthetic fibre blends or wool fibre
blends. The fabric is intended to be lightweight, soft next to the skin and abra-
sion resistant; some of the features of a typical compression base layer for
skiing are highlighted in Figure 7.9. Skiing base layer compression tights are
constructed from a lightweight knitted fabric that is brushed inside to provide
comfort to the wearer. In addition, the fabric is wind- and waterproof and able
to wick moisture away from the skin. The fabric has plenty of stretch as it
is composed of 10% to 40% elastomeric filaments and 60% to 90% synthetic
filaments (nylon or polyester). The garment is commonly sewn using flat lock
seams for additional comfort. To reduce chaffing, seamless garments are pre-
ferred. Typical requirements of ski wear are highlighted in Figure 7.10.

7.6.3 Rugby Sport
Rugby is a high-contact sport where one in four players will be injured dur-
ing a season. The number of injuries in rugby is three times higher than the
number of injuries in football. Most injuries are experienced by youth 10–18
and adults aged 25–34. Figure 7.11 shows a typical player wearing a compres-
sion garment. In rugby, 57% of most sports injuries occur during matches
rather than in training – particularly when a player tackles or is being tackled
(South Wales Osteopathic Society, 2009). Hence, most compression garments

FIGURE 7.9
Mathias Elmar Graf (Austria) places third in the men’s slalom, on January 21, 2012 in
Patscherkofel, Austria. (Courtesy of Shutterstock, Inc.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
186 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Wind proof

Brushed
Stretch fabric
thermal lining

Moisture Ski thermal Vent mesh

wicking tights panels

Ease of
movement
Odour
for arm and
control
legs
Flat locked
seams

FIGURE 7.10
Typical requirements of skiing compression base layer.

will have protective pads in tops (Figure 7.12) and shorts. The range of com-
pression garments for rugby includes sleeve tops, full-sleeve tops, shorts,
tights, calf sleeves and socks.
Reported benefits of compression wear in rugby include

• Reduced muscle soreness and swelling

• Reduced muscle oscillation during a vertical jump or fall

FIGURE 7.11
Rugby player wearing compression tops and tights. (Courtesy of Shutterstock, Inc.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Applications of Compression Sportswear 187

Shoulder pads

Biceps pads
Sternum protection pads

FIGURE 7.12
Typical tops for rugby with impact protection pads. (Source: Optimumsport.com)

• Increased VO2 max (a physiological index of sports performance)

• Reduced collection of blood lactate levels in the tissue
• Reduced muscle injury or cramps

The use of tapes and compression may assist in muscle recovery and
keep the body in a safe position during contact sports such as rugby. In
rugby, adults endure more injuries to head, shoulder and lower limb (thigh),
whereas children suffer from head/neck injuries followed by injuries to the
upper and lower limbs (http://www.injuryresearch.bc.ca).
Approximately half of all injuries occur while a player is tackling
(Figure 7.13) or being tackled. Hookers and flankers sustain the most injuries.
Forwards are more frequently injured than backs because of their greater

FIGURE 7.13
Rugby player tackling.
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188 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

involvement in physical collisions and tackles (British Columbia Injury

Research and Prevention Unit, 2012). Due to the nature of injuries sustained,
clubs may frequently lose players from sports participation; hence they are
under pressure to prevent or reduce injuries to players by requiring them
to wear protective gear. Table 7.1 highlights some of the popular brands of
protective apparel for cycling, rugby and skiing.
It can be observed that popular brands for compression wear make the
following specific claims for their products: support for muscles, reduced
muscle oscillation, improved recovery, the ability to target specific muscle
groups, involving grippers to prevent chaffing, lightweight fabric that is
breathable, moisture wicking and thermal insulation. In addition to the com-
pression, comfort and fit play a vital role in designing the garment. In the
case of cycling, prominent features include an integrated bib shorts seat pad
cushion and provision of mesh shoulder panels. In rugby, to protect from
soft injury, pads are integrated in the tops while the tights use quick-dry
technology. Finally, skiing garments focus on stability, targeting muscles in
the lower back, hamstring, and knee joint and providing ankle support. In
addition, most fabrics have antibacterial, antiodour and UV protection fin-
ishes applied.

7.7 Market Trends in Compression Sportswear

‘Trend Insight’ is a feature in Outdoor Insight that includes consumer research
and retail point-of-sale data from the Leisure Trends Group. Its recent
report stated that commonly purchased compression items were tights/capri
tights, sport tops/bra tops, shorts, socks and arm/leg sleeves (http://www​
.leisuretrends​.com).
According to a recent report by Leisure Trends Group’s Running Retail­
TRAK™, which traced sales in the compression apparel category, com-
pression apparel and apparel accessories grew 56% in 2009 and 170% in
2008. Tights were the largest compression category for runners during
2010, followed by arm/leg sleeves. Other compression categories included
capri tights, sport tops/bra tops, shorts and socks. Women’s apparel styles
outsell men’s in running speciality and this trend holds true with com-
pression. Woman-specific shorts and capris are larger in terms of over-
all volume (especially compression sports bras and sports tops in 2011),
with leading brands such as Zensah and Nike (http://www.leisuretrends​
.com).
It can be noted that tights for bottoms (lower limbs) were frequently pur-
chased (32%) followed by arm or leg sleeves (27%). In addition, compres-
sion socks were also widely preferred (15%) followed by base layer bottoms
(Figure 7.14).
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Applications of Compression Sportswear 189

TABLE 7.1
Market Brands: Compression Base Layer
Compression
Wear Popular Brands Major Claim Specific Feature
Cycling Adidas bib shorts British cycling brand for 82% polyester and 18%
added comfort and fit elastane; silicone elastic
gripper on hem for perfect
fit and mesh strap in
shoulder and synthetic
chamois padding
Dhb Vaeon Anatomical fit; Breathable; made of 85%
Roubaix padded lightweight; thermal nylon and 15% elastane;
bib tights insulation brushed inner side
Castelli Garmin Body paint speed suit; Integrated grippers; no
Sanremo seamless and seams to avoid chaffing;
Speedsuit integrated cushion flat lock seams; four-way
seat pad stretch fabric
Altura Cool mesh bibs and a Lightweight stretch fabric;
ProGel seat pad for breathable, antibacterial;
cushioning and silicone grippers
comfort
Assos tights F1 Uno_S5 seat pad; an 75% nylon and 25%
anatomic six-panel cut elastane; shock-absorbent
for added comfort and foam cushioning that is
performance bonded onto the elastic;
frictionless; skin contact
textile
Giordana Fusion bib shorts with Made of Moxie fabric,
great fit; supports a lightweight, breathable,
range of body motion with micro mesh for
ventilation and silicone
injected grippers
Gore bike wear Oxygen waist shorts; Offer high functionality and
high-end padded comfort; reinforced inner
cycling tights for the leg panels and an Ozon
medium- to long- seat pad for comfort,
distance road cyclist durability and longevity
Rugby Canterbury Mercury TCR Made of Coolmax polyester
compression legging 74.5% and 25.5% Lycra;
reduces muscle moisture management; flat
oscillation by seams and antibacterial;
compression at key reduced seams for added
zones in lower limb comfort
Nike Pro Prodirect compression Moisture management; flat
tops with ‘dri-fit’ fabric tape at shoulders to reduce
friction; mesh panels at
underarm and flat seams
to prevent chaffing
(Continued)
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190 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

TABLE 7.1 (CONTINUED)

Market Brands: Compression Base Layer
Compression
Wear Popular Brands Major Claim Specific Feature
Kooga Tops – EVX protection The pads consist of a Lycra
offers the optimum fit body, shoulder, sternum,
and freedom of bicep padding – all
movement. comprising high expanded
EVA
2XU 2XU Men’s Elite Garment helps to reduce
Compression Top for muscle fatigue and
athletes requiring more damage; the graduated fit
power and support supports in increasing
blood circulation
There are other popular brands for rugby such as Skins, BSc, Odlo, Under
Armour, Red Ram and Helly Hansen
Skiing Skins Skins S400 long-sleeved Warp knit fabric; brushed
top offers comfortable inner side; thermal
and precise fit coupled insulation; moisture
with engineered management; anti-
gradient compression bacterial; UV protection
to create the ideal
compression garment
for colder activities
such as skiing
CWX Stabilyx tights target Made of 80% polyester and
lower back/core and 20% elastane; designed to
knee joint and reduce the quick buildup
surrounding muscles of lactic acid in the
for stability during muscles, whilst keeping
skiing comfortable and dry
during exercise by wicking
moisture away; body-
moulded compression
garments improve
recovery after periods of
sustained exercise
Note: From various sources.

The chart in Figure 7.15 shows that compression garments are preferred
when compared to non-compression sportswear. This is true for short-/long-
sleeve shirts, sleeveless shirts, shorts, tights, socks and arm or leg sleeves.
The retail price for compression garments is 1.25 to 2.5 times higher than
that for non-compression wear, but in the case of socks the prices are four
time higher than those for normal socks, as highlighted in Figure 7.15. The
market trend for compression wear has been steadily increasing since 2008;
the apparel market has fared better compared to socks and sleeves for arms/
legs. The overall market size in 2010 for all compression wear was $8.4 mil-
lion as opposed to $3.1 million in 2008. Hence, it is predicted that the market
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Applications of Compression Sportswear 191

Compression wear – sales breakdown

Sportswear tops Base layer tops

6% 5%
Base layer bottoms Sportswear
15% bottoms
32%

Socks
15%

Arm/leg sleeves
27%

FIGURE 7.14
Compression wear: breakdown of sales (2010). (From Trend Insight, http://www.sportsinsightmag​
.com.)

will continue to increase with new developments in fabric and garment tech-
nologies for a number of sports.
It can be observed from Figure 7.16 that compression garments in the
form of apparel are frequently purchased compared to socks and arm or leg
sleeves. The market trend is predicted to grow rapidly due to a number of

Compression excluded
Compression only $81.36
$75.27

$64.88 $63.10
$57.38 $57.38
$51.05
$47.70
$45.81
$43.04

$34.61
$32.41
$25.67 $27.42

$19.51

$10.14

Short sleeve Sleeveless Capris Socks

shirts shirts
Long sleeve Shorts Tights Arm/leg
shirts sleeves

FIGURE 7.15
Average retail selling price – compression garments. (From Trend Insight, http://www​
.sportsinsightmag​.com.)
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192 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

$8.4 M
Total compression sales 2008–2010
$5.3 M
$4.8 M

$3.7 M
2008 2009 2010
$2.7 M $3.1 M

$2.3 M

$1.2 M $1.2 M
$508 K
$270 K
$170 K

Apparel Socks Arm/leg All

sleeves products

FIGURE 7.16
Compression wear sales. (From Trend Insight, http://www.sportsinsightmag.com.)

factors such as increase in sports participation and athletes being educating

about care products such as compression wear. It is also anticipated that, due
to rapid developments in the field of smart textiles, a number of new and
innovative materials will emerge in the future, creating a plethora of prod-
ucts to choose from for a sporting activity.

7.8 Contextual Factors Affecting Compression

Garment Performance
This following section highlights some of the factors that affect the applica-
tion of compression (Figure 7.17):

• Pressure applied by the garment (support for specific muscle groups)

• Graduated compression (maximum pressure at the extremities and
decline in pressure closer to the heart; see Figure 7.2)
• Fabric offering sufficient stretch and recovery at the key points –
knees, elbows, buttocks, shoulder and arms

For instance, in cycling the athlete requires endurance and prepara-

tion, and there are many factors affecting the overall performance of the
wearer. Three core factors have been highlighted: clothing/material worn,
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Applications of Compression Sportswear 193

Garment/material

Sports Athlete
performance

Intensity

FIGURE 7.17
Factors affecting sports performance.

athletes’ capabilities and the intensity of the sport. Compression garments

are designed to provide intimate contact with the human skin; hence there
is interaction of garment with athlete. This obviously depends on the mus-
culature, microclimate of the fabric and physiological response of the athlete
that depends on the intensity of the sport. In addition to these, the three
major contextual factors that affect compression garment development are
discussed next.

7.8.1 Garment Sizing
Designing compression garments for various body shapes and body types
is a complex procedure. It should be noted that most brands develop sizes
based on fit athletes or specific target populations. Grading of compression
garments for creating various sizes (small, medium, large and extra large)
has created a challenge in garment manufacturing by using size charts
derived from anthropometric studies (Allsop, 2012). Le Pechoux and Ghosh
(2002) reported that consumers were often unhappy because of the large
variations between sizes of different brands or in different retail outlets.
Loker (2007) reported that sizes are developed on the basis of large anthropo-
metric studies with samples representing the entire target population. Such
anthropometric studies have benefitted from 3D body scanners in recent
years to reduce the time taken to collate body measurements. However,
they are expensive and time consuming to conduct (Le Pechoux and Ghosh,
2002; Yu, 2004a; Loker, 2007; Otieno, 2008). Le Pechoux and Ghosh (2002)
stressed that variations between gender, race and generations are appar-
ent through studies on body shape. It could be noted that in the case of the
medical compression garments (Jobst stockings), specific measurements of
consumers are taken using a body measurement chart to produce a close
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194 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

fit to the body shape and size (Absolutemedical.com, 2014). Certain sports
companies such as Giordana (2013) also produce custom-made cyclist com-
pression garments such as bib tights, long- and short-sleeve jerseys, socks,
etc. that provide good fit. Some firms also offer custom-made socks and
pro-calf tube, hamstring tube and ankle socks (UKsportsproducts.com) and
compression leggings and tops that offer optimum pressure distribution
(Kurioperformance.com). It should be noted that in the case of stretch gar-
ments such as cyclist’s shorts that closely fit to body contours, the patterns
are shaped for the active position so that they fit well when the rider is on
the bike (Ashdown, 2011).
Ideally, a compression garment stays close to the skin with a tight fit and
has the ability to stretch and recover based on the activity of the wearer. If
the garment has a tight fit in resting position, the increase in blood flow dur-
ing intense activity is likely to increase the volume of limbs and change the
perception of overall garment fit. On the other hand, if the compression gar-
ment is baggy, it may not apply the desired compression at the region. Hence,
it becomes necessary to understand the pressure required at various zones
of the garment, garment sizing allowance during manufacturing and fabric
properties during grading of garment sizes.

7.8.2 Body Shapes
Male body shapes are implicitly labelled as endomorph, mesomorph and
ectomorph, as illustrated by Figure 7.18. Ectomorph shapes are charac-
terised by being tall, lean builds with little excess body fat. Mesomorphs

Ectomorph Mesomorph Endomorph

FIGURE 7.18
Body types. (Courtesy of Dreamstime.)
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Applications of Compression Sportswear 195

are a medium build and have a more athletic frame with broad shoulders
and a narrow waist. Endomorph shapes have a wider frame and generally
more fat. As previously noted, the most common body shapes in a popula-
tion are affected by many factors, including race, gender and lifestyle (Le
Pechoux and Ghosh, 2002). Furthermore, although these specific body types
are widely recognised, many people have variations from these body types.
These factors mean that sizing for ready-to-wear garments can be extremely
difficult, thus resulting in consumer dissatisfaction. Although custom-made
garments produced to specific measurements can ensure a perfect fit, the
time and cost to produce such garments is so much that this is not viable for
a mass market (Loker, 2007).

7.8.3 Sizing and Designing with Stretch Fabrics

A sizing system involves developing a pattern that relates to a fit model and
adding a set of graded patterns based on the assumption of proportional
measurement changes larger and smaller than the fit model (Branson and
Nam, 2007). Generally, a wear ease is allowed for body movement. However,
in the case of close-fitting garments such as compression garments, the
wearing ease is negligible as the fabrics stretch because they are made from
elastomeric filaments. The patterns developed for stretch fabrics are smaller
than patterns created for nonstretch woven fabrics; in other words, patterns
are smaller than the body measurements. Therefore, patterns developed for
stretch fabrics are often complex and it is necessary to know the fabric behav-
iour. Yu (2004b) stated that it is incorrect to assume that stretch fabric gar-
ment will automatically fit the body contour in all places and provide ease
of body movement. Hunter and Fan (2004) identified that fabric properties
(bending property, formability and fabric thickness) affect the fit, sizing and
seam quality. In addition, the usage of garments following washing also con-
tributes to shrinkage or growth, which can affect close-fitting compression
garments. Hardaker and Fozzard (1997) also highlighted the importance of
appropriate fabric selection, as an inappropriate fabric may send production
back to early stages of product development. The designer should have a
good understanding of the fabric behaviour and characteristics, because this
fabric knowledge will affect the garment grading, especially in determining
the increase or decrease of patterns derived from body measurements and
size charts.

7.8.4 Fabric Panels
Compression garments are usually made of fine knitted fabric that contains
75%–80% polyester or nylon and 20%–25% elastomeric filaments, which
stretch and recover back to their original shape during physical movements
of the body. In a typical flat knit, stretch fabrics can be produced using inlay
and body yarn (elastomeric yarn) that imparts stretchability to the fabric.
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196 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

A recent US patent (Young, 2009) on the manufacture of compression gar-

ments for sportswear highlighted the number of panels required to isolate
and support specific muscle groups and aid in blood circulation or assist in
reducing soft-tissue injury. It also added that panel shapes and seams cor-
respond to various muscle groups for a whole-body compression garment.
In order to support the human anatomy, various fabric panels of a full-
body compression wear are proposed that contain 19 different panels (front
and back). Recent research (Allsop, 2012), investigating the pressure profile
using Tekscan pressure sensors, identified that when a compression garment
is made of several panels sewn together, the pressure applied by the garment
on a specific muscle group is not uniform. Hence, the lesser the number of
sewn fabric panels is, the better the pressure applied will be. This is pre-
sented in Figure 7.19, where fabric panels are designed based on the spe-
cific muscle groups identified in Figure 7.20 and Table 7.2. It could be noted
that factors discussed before that affect compression garment development
should be taken into account whilst designing garments.

7.9 Summary and Conclusions

Compression for sportswear is a growing market and, in recent times,
greater awareness among athletes has led to increased usage in a wide range
of sports. Major international events such as the Olympics and athletic cham-
pionships also have triggered new technological developments in compres-
sion garments. New innovative compression garments for sportswear will
continue to be developed due to interest from athletes, enthusiasm from
amateurs and demand for casual leisure wear. Compression garments not
only appear to support performance but also, more importantly, to portray
a professional approach to sports. In addition, these garments also serve to
support body posture during training and preparation. Many studies have
reported on improved performance characteristics and recovery times of
athletes, but there is still yet to be a clear understanding of whether com-
pression garments are beneficial. It is difficult to apply some of the research
findings, as most studies have been conducted in a controlled environment,
used a small sample or used professional athletes. A series of claims made by
sportswear developers can bewilder consumers in their selection of specific
sportswear garments.
Furthermore, some studies have highlighted the importance of determin-
ing fabric characteristics that contribute to the pressure distributed on the
muscles. Good understanding of fabric characteristics is vital when design-
ing garments with stretch fabrics. Practically, evidence relating to the effec-
tiveness of compression sportswear needs to be collated and disseminated
to a wider community so that the users will have complete confidence in
 Fabric panels isolating muscle groups

Collar bone panel Chest panel Upper centre back

Back bicep
panel Upper back side
Biceps panel back panel

Side body Lower centre

Back elbow
Elbow panel panel back panel
panel
Lower side
Side body back panel
Back sleeve
Lower end panel panel II
lower panel
Centre front
panel
Applications of Compression Sportswear

Upper back limb

Upper limb panel
panel

Lower limb Lower back limb

panel panel

Front view Side view Back view

FIGURE 7.19
Various fabric panels to support human musculature.
197

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198 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 7.20
Human musculature. (Courtesy of istockphoto.)

TABLE 7.2
Fabric Panels for Specific Muscle Groups
Front View Back View
Collarbone panel Back bicep panel
Biceps panel Back elbow panel
Elbow panel Lower back end panel
Lower end panel (arm) Lower back limb panel
Centre front panel Upper back limb panel
Upper limb panel Lower side back panel
Lower limb panel Lower centre panel
Side body panel I and II Upper back side body panel
Chest panel Upper centre back panel
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Applications of Compression Sportswear 199

wearing the compression garments. In addition, there is a dearth of informa-

tion relating to various body shapes and sizing, as research was generally
related to fit athletes.
This chapter has highlighted three key sporting applications where com-
pression garments are widely used: cycling, skiing and rugby. In the case of
cycling, compression garments focus on the lower limbs, providing specific
support to calf muscles, gluteal muscles, hamstrings and quadriceps. As a
rule of thumb, the pressure is applied in a graded way so that the extremities
receive slightly more pressure than the regions close to the heart. In the case
of skiing, which is a high-intensity sport, the garment is required to pro-
vide stretch and recovery, particularly for knee, elbow, pelvic muscles, lower
limbs and arms. In addition, the garment should be regulating moisture and
keeping the wearer warm by resisting cold wind penetration. Rugby, unlike
cycling and skiing, is a high-contact sport, where shoulder/lower limb inju-
ries are often sustained during tackling; hence the key aspect in rugby com-
pression wear is to aid in muscle recovery, prevent soreness and fatigue,
reduce blood lactate levels and, more importantly, offer impact protection to
shoulder, arms and sternum (chest).
Various contextual factors that influence design and development of com-
pression garments were discussed, including number of fabric panels, body
shape and sizing, stretch and recovery and compression applied locally. It
should be noted that as the consumer market base is increasing, it is neces-
sary to consider various body shapes and to size the garments accordingly.
Stretch fabrics made of knitted construction require good knowledge of
fabric behaviour, particularly of stretch and recovery properties following
deformation. Market trends for compression garments are positive. There is
an increase in usage, particularly in tights that are often sought to facilitate
support for lower limbs during intense sport.
A systematic review of evidence relating to compression garments was col-
lated. Although some studies indicated convincing benefits, most research
suffered from small sample size and lack of practical significance. Although
studies relating to recovery and reduced injury gave positive results, subjects
could have been influenced to perform well when they were aware of trials.
It should be stated that further work is needed in this area, as evidence is elu-
sive. It can be concluded that users are concerned with garment sizing and
comfort; hence further work needs to be carried out in developing a precise
measurement system that will evaluate pressure and comfort and predict
using a simulation model by utilising fabric behaviour characteristics that
would eventually facilitate garment design and development.
The compression sportswear market is predicted to grow significantly in the
next decade or so. The aim of this chapter is to help readers understand the
reported benefits of compression and to interpret claims of manufacturers –
being aware of specific applications of compression wear in cycling, skiing
and rugby, factors that affect compression performance and development
and recent market trends in compression garments.
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200 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

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 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
8
Impact-Resistant Materials
and Their Potential

Praburaj Venkatraman and David Tyler

CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 205
8.2 Injuries Sustained during Sporting Activities........................................ 206
8.3 Commercially Available Impact-Resistant Materials............................ 213
8.4 Rationale for Using Impact-Resistant Materials..................................... 216
8.4.1 Methodology................................................................................... 216
8.5 Impact Attenuation Test............................................................................. 217
8.6 Regulations for Impact Protection........................................................... 221
8.7 Benchmarking of Impact-Resistant Materials........................................222
8.8 Garment Design and New Product Development.................................222
8.8.1 Design Issues...................................................................................223
8.9 Summary and Conclusions....................................................................... 226
Acknowledgement............................................................................................... 227
References.............................................................................................................. 227

8.1 Introduction
The incidence of sports injuries in high-contact sports such as rugby, football,
ice hockey and baseball is high. These sports have always been played with
intense competition such that injuries become inevitable. However, the sever-
ity of injuries can be reduced with appropriate training and when protective
clothing is worn, which has the ability to absorb the shocks or dissipate the
energy over a wider area such that it lessens the impact. The protection gear
in rugby includes headgear, shirt pads, shin guards and mouth guards. High-
performance impact protection materials are embedded in the garment, par-
ticularly in the shoulder, biceps and chest region. These materials need to be
soft, thin, flexible and durable. Commercial products are usually available in
various thicknesses and some can be moulded to fit various contours of the
body.
In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of such impact-
resistant materials in sportswear, but some users have expressed concerns

205
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206 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

about the way protection is incorporated in the products. Some garments

have pads inserted into fabric pouches which can move during an impact
and are unlikely to remain in position and protect the wearer during a slip
or fall or collision. A few garments possess bulky pads, which inhibit the
breathability and restrict the free movement of the athlete. However, most
garment manufacturers and sportswear brands claim that padding reduces
the risk of injuries sustained in sports. On the other hand, researchers sug-
gest that such padding gives limited protection against fracture and disloca-
tion of joints. In this chapter, a wide range of impact-resistant materials used
for sportswear are appraised. Injuries sustained in high-contact sports such
as rugby are identified. Regulations that affect the designing of garments
with impact-resistant materials are discussed along with illustrations of var-
ious commercially available garments with padding. An impact attenuation
test developed to ascertain the energy absorption characteristics of various
commercial materials is described. Various products are compared for their
performance and benchmarked against natural materials such as leather.
In addition, factors affecting garment manufacturing using these impact-
resistant materials are presented.

8.2 Injuries Sustained during Sporting Activities

From major competitive team sports like football, baseball, cricket and bas-
ketball, to individual sports like cycling, bowling, golf and swimming, the
body is at risk from the elements surrounding it when involved in a physi-
cal activity. Maron et al. (1995) examined 25 cardiac deaths in young adults
from sport injuries and found that the cause was impact from a projectile
(e.g. a baseball or hockey puck). They added that, among the sports players,
18 did not wear any protection on the chest zone and the remaining wore
some form of protection such as padding. Of the seven players who wore
protective gear, four were playing hockey, and the other three were playing
football. In 2010, the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS)
reported over half a million injuries relating to basketball. Another two mil-
lion injuries were associated with bicycling, football and other sports. The
highest numbers of sports-related injuries came from bicycling, basketball,
baseball and running. While each sport is played differently, they all take the
same toll on the body. Each part of the body is affected by physical contact,
collisions and excessive exertion. Some of the most common injuries to the
body from various sports are listed in Table 8.1, obtained from NEISS, which
collects injury data associated with consumer products from US hospital
emergency departments across the country.
Impact injuries sustained by sportsmen and -women are increasing due to
the competitive nature of sports such as rugby, football, baseball, etc. and
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Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 207

TABLE 8.1
Sport and Types of Injury
Estimated Number
Sport Type of Injury of Injuries
Basketball Cut hands, sprained ankles, broken legs, eye and 529,837
forehead injuries
Bicycling Feet caught in spokes, head injuries from falls, 490,434
slipping while carrying bicycles, collisions with cars
Football Fractured wrists, chipped teeth, neck strains, head 460,210
lacerations, dislocated hips and jammed fingers
ATVs, mopeds, Riders of ATVs were frequently injured when they 275,123
minibikes were thrown from vehicles; there were also
fractured wrists, dislocated hands, shoulder
sprains, head cuts and lumbar strains
Baseball, Head injuries from bats and balls; ankle injuries 274,867
softball from running bases or sliding into them
Exercise, Twisted ankles and cut chins from tripping on 269,249
exercise treadmills; head injuries from falling backward
equipment from exercise balls; ankle sprains from jumping
rope
Soccer Twisted ankles or knees after falls, fractured arms 186,544
during games
Swimming Head injuries from hitting the bottom of pools and 164,607
leg injuries from accidentally falling into pools
Skiing, Head injuries from falling, cut legs and faces, 96,119
snowboarding sprained knees or shoulders
Source: NEISS, 2010.

they adversely affect their careers. The National Sports Medicine Institute
(Nsmi.org.uk, 2009) stated that sports players experience injuries caused by
impact or contact with objects, surfaces or other people. Injuries caused by
impact and contact occur in common sports such as football and rugby and
in more dangerous sports such as motor racing, boxing and skiing. Often,
contact with other people can cause an athlete to become off balance, or
change direction quickly; this causes damage to the connective tissue, and
powerful direct contact may also cause a joint to become displaced. Impact
injuries often involve spinal injuries, ligament and tendon damage, fractures
and head injuries. Rugby, for instance, has the highest risk per player per
hour of all the major sports; 30% of injuries occur in the shoulder region,
closely followed by injuries in the knee area (Funk, 2012). Marshall et al.
(2002) reported that rugby is a high-contact sport and players are likely to
sustain a range of injuries. Table 8.2 illustrates various injuries that are found
to occur in rugby during tackling.
During training, players are known to sustain injuries. Researchers Gabbett
and Godbolt (2010) investigated the incidence of training injuries among pro-
fessional rugby players and found that injuries were particularly high in the
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208 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

TABLE 8.2
Description of Tackle Types in Rugby
Arm Tackler impedes/stops ball carrier using the
upper limbs

Collision Tackler deliberately impedes/stops the ball

carrier without using the arms

Shoulder Tackler impedes/stops the ball carrier with

his/her shoulder as the first point of
contact followed by use of the arm(s)

Source: Fuller, C. et al., 2010, BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.

Note: Other types of tackler injuries include the following: jersey – holds the ball carrier’s jersey;
lift – the tackler raises the ball carrier’s hips above the ball carrier’s head; smother – the
tackler uses the chest and wraps both arms around the ball carrier; and tap – the tackler
trips the ball carrier with his/her hand on the lower limb below the knee.

thigh region. Hematoma (a type of injury in legs where blood clots, blood
flow is restricted and blood vessels in the injured portion break) and mus-
cular strain were associated with rugby players. International Rugby Board
(IRB) regulations allow players to wear shoulder pads, provided the pads are
made of soft and thin material, which may be incorporated in an undergar-
ment or jersey provided the pads cover the collarbone and shoulder. The
padding material may not exceed 45 kg/m3, providing maximum coverage
to the shoulder region (IRB, 2012). In addition, players may wear shin guards,
ankle support and head gear that conform to IRB regulation 12.0 (IRB, 2012).
Shoulder injuries result in sprains, strains, fractures and dislocations (Brooks
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Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 209

et al., 2005). Funk (2012) stated that 35% of all injuries in the shoulder region
are recurrent ones and the player has a likelihood of sustaining an injury on
the other shoulder.
A recent report stated that one in four rugby players will be injured dur-
ing a season. Rugby injuries are three times higher than football injuries.
Most injuries are experienced by youths of 10–18 years and adults aged
25–34 years. In rugby, 57% of most sport injuries occur during matches
(rather than in training) and particularly when a player tackles or is tack-
led (South Wales Osteopathic Society, 2009). Concussion is an injury to the
brain or spinal cord due to jarring from a blow, fall or impact of a collision.
In the Australian Football League, concussion is estimated to occur at a rate
of approximately seven incidents per team per season (Khurana and Kaye,
2011). The Rugby Football Union (RFU, 2002) stated that despite the increased
use of shoulder pads from 20% to 36% between 1999 and 2002 there was
an increase in injuries from 12% to 13%. Gerrard (1998) noted that shoulder
pads do not protect against fracture, dislocation or rotator cuff tears. It has
been suggested that shoulder pads may protect from lacerations and reduce
bruising and haemotoma of the soft tissue surrounding the shoulder, but
do not prevent major injuries that result from direct blows to the top of the
shoulder or falling onto an outstretched hand. Recently, Harris and Spears
(2010) conducted an investigation on four commercially produced shoulder
pads – PVA foam (Kooga, Canterbury, Gilbert and Terminator). They exam-
ined material properties by dropping hard and soft objects onto materials
protecting a force plate, recording peak impact forces at predetermined
heights and measuring their force-deformation behaviour. Best performing
pads were thicker; all pads were able to attenuate force for lower loads, but
at higher impact loads, offered little protection. Pain, Tsui and Cove (2008)
reported in vivo effectiveness of Kooga shoulder pads using Tekscan sensors
that measured impact intensity on actual tackles on six male rugby players.
The researchers reported that pads enabled peak forces to be reduced by 35%
(impact with an object) and 40% (for all tackles).
Figure 8.1a illustrates that adults endure more injuries to head, shoulder
and lower limb (thigh), whereas children (Figure 8.1b) suffer from head/neck
injuries followed by the upper and lower limbs.
Approximately half of all injuries occur while a player is tackling (Figure 8.2)
or being tackled. Hookers and flankers sustain the most injuries. Forwards
are more frequently injured than backs because of their greater involvement
in physical collisions and tackles (British Columbia Injury Research and
Prevention Unit, 2012). A rugby league team consists of 13 players (six for-
wards and seven backs); each team has sets of six tackles to advance the ball
downfield. Due to the nature of injuries sustained, players have enforced
absences from sports participation. Hence, teams are under pressure to pre-
vent or reduce injuries by requiring players to wear protective gear. Figure 8.3
illustrates a shoulder tackle in rugby known to be associated with higher risks
of injury. Rugby is a highly intensive team sport and players move fast in
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210 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

24% head/face/neck

21% upper limb

5% trunk

48% lower limb

2% other

(a)
27% head/face/neck

31% upper limb

18% trunk
22% lower limb
2% other

(b)

FIGURE 8.1
(a) Proportion of injury sustained – adults. (b) Proportion of injury sustained – children. (From
Dreamstime.)

FIGURE 8.2
Rugby player tackling. (From Shutterstock.)
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Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 211

FIGURE 8.3
Shoulder impact – a close-up view of a rugby player being tackled. (From Dreamstime.)

the field. This sport is popular among men; however, women are getting
more involved at the college/school level. As discussed earlier, 40% of inju-
ries are muscular strains or contusions and 30% are sprains, followed by
dislocations, fractures, lacerations and overuse injuries. Players may also
choose to wear protective clothing (in the form of head gear, padded vests,
shorts, shin guards, mouth guards and support sleeves) to reduce the risk of
sprains and cramps. By 2012 the International Rugby Board had approved
59 brands that supply a wide range of shoulder padding vests to various
teams (IRB, 2012).
This chapter reflects on the recent exploration of impact-resistant materi-
als for sportswear using an experimental approach to gain understanding of
material properties using an impact attenuation test (which captures peak
forces over time). The chapter focuses on the principles of sportswear design
when using impact-resistant materials. Figure 8.4 illustrates a recent rugby
match between England and Italy, where the English player is being tackled
and is uprooted from the ground. The speed at which the collision occurs
results in the player falling on the pitch, injuring his head, chest, arms and
shoulders.
The force of impact during tackling by rugby players is considered to be 1
to 1.3 times of the body weight (Trewarth and Stokes, 2003) with most of the
force acting on the shoulder/collarbone zone. Figure 8.5 illustrates the typi-
cal rugby injuries where the direction of the force acts on the tackler (shoul-
der region) during tackling. A try score is when a player touches the ball in
the opposition goal area between the try line and dead ball line. It is worth
five points – the maximum points in the rugby union.
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212 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 8.4
A picture from Mogliano Veneto (Italy): Six Nations 2010, Italy A versus England Red Saxons.
Italy’s player is tackling hard. (From Dreamstime.)

Direction of force
acting from the
scorer

Shoulder injury to
the tackling player
Direction of force
acting from the
tackler Tackler injury is
characterised by a
player extending
their arms and using
their shoulder to
abduct the
opponent player

Injury due to try

scoring

Shoulder/rotator
cuff joint injury

FIGURE 8.5
Rugby player tackling injuries. (Image courtesy of Dahan, 2013.)
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Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 213

A range of protective materials have been evaluated Coir/EVA as non­woven

impact protectors (Maklewska, Krucińska and Mayers, 2005), polypropylene
and flax fibre laminate (Van de Velde and Kiekens, 2001); cellular textile materi-
als (Tao and Yu, 2002) as sports protectors for helmets and 3D spacer fabrics from
Dow Corning with various thicknesses and levels of protection (Dow Corning,
2011). Maklewska et al. (2004) compared the impact strength of nonwoven fab-
ric pads intended for protective clothing and sportswear; Roger Co. reported
two customisable products composed of Poron XRD material. The two products
were extreme impact pad and B-guard. The extreme pad was recommended
for knee and elbow pads for shin and thigh protection. It was also reported that
the product had a fabric backing that allowed moisture wicking air channels to
enhance comfort (WSA, 2011).
Durá, Garciá and Solaz (2002) investigated the behaviour of dynamic rigid-
ity on shock-absorbing materials (used for shoes) using a viscoelastic linear
model. Lam, Tao and Yu (2004) studied various thermoplastic cellular tex-
tile composites with knitted and nonwoven fabrics which were sandwiched
between layers of thermoplastic matrix. Researchers reported the effect of
impact energy of interlock knitted fabric in a matrix – ultrahigh molecular
weight polyethylene/low-density polyethylene on three levels of impact 24,
44 and 119 J. The fabrics were in the form of domed-grids (cellular compos-
ites) with domes rising up to 15 mm thickness. The fabrics did not collapse
with 24 J impacts, but at higher energies the fabric deformed and cells closed.
Also, these cellular composites had little recovery soon after impact.

8.3 Commercially Available Impact-Resistant Materials

In this section various materials used for impact protection are described.
Dilatants are polymer-based materials commonly used for energy absorp-
tion; these are shear thickening materials where viscosity is affected by shear
applied strain. At low rate of deformation the material remains soft and pli-
able, but at elevated rates of deformation it undergoes substantial increase in
its viscosity. Hence, at higher deformation the material becomes stiff or rigid
(Palmer and Green, 2010). Generally, the viscosity of material decreases as
the shear strain increases, but dilatant materials are shear thickening mate-
rials where viscosity increases as shear strain increases – hence the name,
non-Newtonian fluid.

Poron XRD is an open cell urethane foam. When at rest above the glass
transition temperature of the urethane molecules, it has softness and
flexibility. When impacted quickly, the glass transition temperature
of the material drops so that the urethane molecules stiffen to pro-
tect the wearer from damage.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
214 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

D3O comprises a polymer composite which contains a chemically engi-

neered dilatant, an energy absorber. This basic material has been
adapted and enhanced to meet specific performance standards and
applications. The material is soft and flexible in its normal state;
however, when impacted by force it locks itself and disperses energy
and returns to its normal state (D3O.com, 2013).
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) foams are described as a specific type of
cross-linked closed cell polyethylene foam. They are designed to be
soft, with a rubber-like texture and with good shape recovery after
deformation.
Deflexion was created by Dow Corning and is made of silicon that has
been polymerised into flexible silicone sheets. The company claimed
that during a hard impact it acts like a bullet, where all the mol-
ecules gather around that area and instantly turn into rock-solid
form. They would disperse and absorb the impact, like a bulletproof
vest. The idea is to create a kind of armour that can shift around like
clothing in a breathable fashion (Dow Corning, 2012).
Sorbothane – a synthetic viscoelastic polymer (thermoset polyurethane
material) – is used to absorb shock and is widely used in shoe insoles.
It possesses shock absorption, vibration insulation and damping char-
acteristics (http://www.sorbothane.com). Cinats, Reid and Haddow
(1987) studied therapeutic implications of sorbothane in orthotic
insoles which could absorb the energy from foot strike. The sorbo-
thane had some clinical significance; however, properties of materi-
als may change when bonded to other substances in production of
insoles for shoes.
GPhlex is a similar material but not yet in widespread commercial
use. The EVA foam was derived from a Canterbury rugby shirt, and
the leather was a sample of unfinished material obtained from cow
skin.
Spacer fabric is a three-dimensional knitted structure that allows cush-
ioning and shock absorbency with excellent recovery properties.
Spacer fabrics are complex 3D constructions made of two separate
fabric layers connected vertically with pile yarns or fabric layers. The
conventional spacer fabrics composed of two surface layers bound
with pile yarns are generally manufactured using weaving and knit-
ting technologies (Abounaim et al., 2010).

Figure 8.6 illustrates a typical rugby top with flexible pads inserted in
the shoulder, biceps and sternum region. The pads of varying thickness are
included to assist in unrestricted movement. Table 8.3 highlights various
rugby tops and impact-resistant materials used.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 215

Shoulder pads 10 mm
Biceps pads 5 mm
Sternum protection pads 5 mm

FIGURE 8.6
A typical rugby shirt (optimum) with impact-resistant material insertion.

TABLE 8.3
Leading Brands Providing Shoulder Pads for Rugby
Brand Product Impact-Resistant Materials
Canterbury IRB approved garment with
moulded EVA foam to shoulder,
biceps and chest to provide
enhanced protection against
collision.

Optimum 10 mm EVA foam shoulder pads,

5 mm pads for biceps and
sternum.

Kooga– EVX protection offers the

EVX V optimum in fit and freedom of
movement. The pads consist of a
Lycra body, shoulder, sternum,
and bicep padding, all
composed of high expanded
EVA. These pads have been IRB
approved.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
216 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

8.4 Rationale for Using Impact-Resistant Materials

International Rugby Board regulations (IRB, 2012) do not outline the level of
protection required of shoulder pads, but stipulate three conditions to be met
before the pads can be used in matches. The padding material cannot exceed
45 kg/m3 in density and must provide maximum coverage to the stenocla-
vicular, acromioclavicular (AC) and glenohumeral joints. Pads must also be
subjected to an IRB-prescribed hammer and anvil test, which involves drop-
ping a rigid, flat striking surface (5 ± 0.02 kg) onto a pad resting on a steel
anvil.

8.4.1 Methodology
In order to ascertain material properties of impact-resistant materials a range
of methods were consulted and, of the many, two methods were suitable.
Industrial bump caps (BS EN 812:1997/A1, 2001) and specification for head
protectors for cricketers (BS 7928, 1998) involved a striker falling on a surface,
with the protective product experiencing the impact. The current research
reported here focuses on material properties because measurements of decel-
eration are more appropriate to head protection. Consequently, our experi-
mental equipment detects the forces experienced by a transducer attached to
an anvil located under the protective material. This method is in line with
the IRB-prescribed hammer and anvil test, which involves a flat striking sur-
face (5 ± 0.02 kg) falling on to a ‘pad’ resting on a steel anvil (Pain et al., 2008).
In this study a range of impact-resistant materials were evaluated and this is
presented in Table 8.4.

TABLE 8.4
Commercial Impact-Resistant Materials with Potential for Use
in Rugby Tops
Commercial Material Notes
D3O Dilatant material
Poron XRD Open-cell urethane foam
EVA foam Ethyl vinyl acetate foam
Deflexion S-range Three-dimensional spacer fabric with silicone
Deflexion TP-range Dilatant material
Spacer fabrics Three-dimensional knitted structure
Sorbothane Synthetic viscoelastic polymer
Leather Natural benchmarking material
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 217

8.5 Impact Attenuation Test

The impact attenuation test has a striker, a steel ball, falling on to a flat anvil
on which the protective material is placed. The pressure sensors are located
below the sample material and the forces transmitted through the material
by the impactor are recorded in the form of a load-versus-time data set. By
varying the diameter of the ball, different impact profiles can be created. The
mass/height of fall parameters determines the impact energy. For research
purposes, impacts of 5, 10 and 15 J are used. An illustration of the test equip-
ment is shown in Figure 8.7.
Impact forces are experienced by the test material, and the forces reaching
the support plate are recorded using a load washer. The duration of impact
across varying thickness of materials can be measured.
The impact test made use of custom-built equipment from a testing com-
pany, INSPEC, UK. A typical set of results recorded for a thin (3 mm) mate-
rial is illustrated in Figure 8.8. There was insufficient energy taken out by
the material, so the ball made a few bounces before coming to rest, and these
movements are apparent in the test data.
A selection of materials was tested to compare their abilities to protect
against impact. As a control, unfinished leather was tested so that the com-
mercial products could be benchmarked. Leather is a natural material that

A 5 cm steel ball
dropped 1 m
from test sample
(5 J impact)
1 m tower guide

Test sample

Sacrificial plate Sensor captures

the impact force
Amplifier Signal transmitted
processor through the
sacrificial plate

Support structure

Floor level Base plate

Stand

FIGURE 8.7
Impact attenuation test rig.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
218 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

14
12.7 kN
12
10
8
Force (kN)

6
4
2
0
–2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (ms)

FIGURE 8.8
Impact forces experienced with a protection using 3 mm Poron XRD.

has been used to provide wearers with some protection. Figure 8.9 presents
peak force variations for a range of materials with different thicknesses.
The materials of 2 to 3 mm experienced high peak forces. As thicknesses
increase, the commercial products designed to absorb energy and protect
against impacts reduce peak forces more effectively than the leather sample.
The EVA foam samples were taken from commercial garments designed
for rugby players. Neither the 5 mm (used for arm protection) nor the 10 mm
(used for shoulder protection) sample compared favourably with leather. The
maximum thickness for shoulder protection permitted by the International
Rugby Board is 10 mm. In general, the branded commercial materials per-
formed better than leather, although less so below 5 mm.
The impact protective pads have been randomly selected from commer-
cial products: Gilbert, Canterbury and Kooga. The illustration (Figure 8.10a
to e) shows the tops with protective pads. The pads were also compared

18
16
14 D3O
Poron XRD
Peak force (kN)

12 EVA foam
10 Leather
Deflexion S-range
8
Deflexion TP-range
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
Thickness (mm)

FIGURE 8.9
Findings from impact attenuation tests.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 219

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

FIGURE 8.10
(a) Canterbury rugby tops. (b) Gilbert rugby tops. (c) Kooga rugby tops. (d) Poron XRD sample
pads. (e) GPhlex sample pads.

with leather, D3O and another proprietary material intended to be used in

impact protection. Figure 8.11 shows that EVA foam experienced highest
peak forces of 15 kN at 5 mm, whilst Poron XRD and leather performed simi-
larly at <5 mm; however, as the thickness increased, the Poron XRD sample
outperformed leather. As a general trend, most materials less than 5 mm
experienced high peak forces, but D3O was exceptional compared to most
materials that were benchmarked. The peak forces experienced by D3O at
less than 5 mm were low compared to other materials (GPhlex, Poron XRD,
EVA form). As the thickness increased, the peak forces experienced by D3O
were comparable to those experienced by GPhlex.
Figure 8.12 illustrates the broadening of the impact forces resulting from
the increasing thickness of a protective material. For clothing applications,
this factor is of major importance. It can be noticed from Figure 8.12 that
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
220 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

18
16
14
Peak force (kN)

12 GPhlex
10 G
D3O
K
8
C Poron XRD
K
6
C EVA foam
4 K
Leather
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
Thickness (mm)

G = Gilbert Kryten Xact 10

K = Kooga 20815
C = Canterbury Flexi Top Plus

FIGURE 8.11
Peak forces acting on commercially available rugby tops.

14
12
10
2 mm
8 3
6 6.5 mm
2.5
4
2 2
0 1.5
1
6
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96
101

1
12 0.5
3.3 mm
10 0
8
1
6
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96
101

6
4
2
0 2
10.4 mm
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103

1.5

1
10
4 mm 0.5
8
6 0
4
1
6
11
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56
61
66
71
76
81
86
91
96
101

2
0
1
7
13
19
25
31
37
43
49
55
61
67
73
79
85
91
97
103

FIGURE 8.12
Reduction and broadening of impact forces with increasing thickness.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 221

the peak forces transmitted through the material reduce as the thickness
increases from 2 to 10.4 mm. This can be attributed to the impact energy
being dissipated over a longer time interval within the material. The thicker
material provides a cushioning effect such that the impact energy is absorbed
and diminished by the material subsequently.
The duration of impact increased from 21 to 101 milliseconds; in other
words, the material extended the time of the impact with the consequence
of reductions in peak values of force. The thickness of material contributes
to the reduction of peak forces by extending the duration of impact. This is
beneficial in the sense that the material will extend the duration of impact
as well as reduce the impact force (absorbing energy) through the material.
Earlier research (Venkatraman and Tyler, 2011) revealed that the reduction
in peak force with thickness was entirely predictable, as samples of 10 mm
thickness or more were effective in protecting against 5 J impacts, and the
impacting sphere produced no surface damage. However, at 5 mm thickness,
the material experienced high impact forces.

8.6 Regulations for Impact Protection

The International Rugby Board, which was founded in 1886 and has its head-
quarters in Dublin, Ireland, is the official governing and law-making body
for rugby. In its regulation 12.0 it outlines the provisions of clothing in pro-
tecting the athletes and includes shin guards, fingerless mitts, shoulder pads,
head gear and chest pads as part of the clothing (IRB, 2012).
The impact-resistant materials used in clothing should not be affected
when exposed to water, dirt, perspiration or toiletries and during washing.
They should also not cause adverse reaction to skin and chafe or abrade the
player or any other player in contact. The impact-resistant pads should be
homogenous – of same texture, hardness and density. The sandwiching of
layers of pads is not permitted. The edges of the pads should be smooth and
with no rigid projections which may obstruct players and cause discomfort.
Figure 8.13 illustrates the potential padding zone in a typical top.
Shoulder padding should have a maximum zone of coverage includ-
ing sternoclavicular (SC), acromioclavicular (AC) and glenohumeral (GH)
joints. The impact-resistant materials will protect the shoulder and collar-
bone and extend from the neck to a maximum of 2 cm down the upper
arm. An allowance for padding to cover the SC joint is made to a maximum
depth of 60 mm and at the back of the neck to a maximum depth of 70 mm.
The impact-resistant materials will have a maximum thickness of 10 mm +
2 mm tolerance band plus an additional allowance of 1 mm on each side
for fabric.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
222 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Shoulder padding – zone of coverage

Garment Garment
front back

Permissible padded area

FIGURE 8.13
Shoulder protection in rugby tops recommended by IRB.

8.7 Benchmarking of Impact-Resistant Materials

The materials widely used in the garments have been evaluated with well-
known materials such as leather, foam (EVA and urethane), knitted spacer
fabric and dilatant materials. The impact forces experienced depend on the
thickness of materials. Except for D3O, most materials in the 5 mm range
were of limited help withstanding high-impact forces (Figure 8.9). It can be
inferred (Figure 8.12) that the thickness of material contributed to reduction
of peak forces as well as extending the duration of impact. This is beneficial
in the sense that the material will extend the duration of impact as well as
reduce the impact force (absorbing energy) through the material. It should
also be stated that higher thickness shoulder pads are limited to 10 and
5 mm in the arm and chest region. The impact attenuation test enabled an
assessment of the peak forces experienced from a standardised impact when
protected by various materials. This analysis also highlights that there is
scope for further development, particularly in absorbing shock or impact at
lower thicknesses (5 to 8 mm). As a rule of thumb, the bulky inserts restrict
athlete’s movement and are uncomfortable to wear.

8.8 Garment Design and New Product Development

Rugby tops (long and short sleeves) are made of warp-knitted fabric and are
designed for a close fit and impact. There are a number of garment design
issues, which are outlined in Figure 8.14. Sportswear products require various
performance characteristics such as durability, comfort, identity, recognition
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 223

1 Flexibility (soft and flexible to allow body movements)

2 Density (IRB < 45 kg/m3)

3 Thickness (varying thickness for different regions)

4 Breathable (perforations to allow moisture transport)

5 Seams (material insertion – flat lock seams or via pouches)

6 Injury mechanism (shoulder, collar bone, biceps and sternum)

FIGURE 8.14
Design issues for rugby tops.

and functionality. However, these are dependent on the type of sport, level
of physical activity, team or individual sport, intensity of sport, indoor or
outdoor sport, frequency, age and other special functions (El Moghazy, 2009).
In the context of rugby, with particular focus on protection from impact
using pads or materials, six factors were selected for discussion: mecha-
nism of injury, flexibility, bulkiness, breathability, thickness and ability to
sew these pads onto the clothing. As discussed earlier, bulky inserts are not
well received by players as they restrict free movements as well as offer poor
comfort. Designing functional protective gear for sports is challenging and
demanding since protection is sometimes achieved at the expense of comfort
(thick, stiff, heavy, multilayered and nonbreathable pads).

8.8.1 Design Issues

• Generally, most of the pads, or foams, are available in thicknesses

above 5 mm, so it becomes a challenge to incorporate these thick
pads in the garment.
• Some pads for shoulders and sleeves lack any moulding of the shape.
Pads used in some samples are large and garments do not fit well on
the body when pads tend to hold the fabric out.
• Pads used in some products were smaller (shoulder region), which
offered less protection to the wearer.
• Seams used in these garments were often overlocked. Some prod-
ucts had body panels sewn together with flat lock seams, which
enhanced wearer comfort. Other products had pads that were sand-
wiched between fabrics in the form of pouches.
• Thicker foams or pads have perforations to allow flexibility and
moisture transport. However, at other areas the pads block air/
moisture movement, allowing low breathability and hence poor
comfort.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
224 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

• Pads were stiffer and allowed very little flexibility to conform to

various contours of the shoulder region. Unlike heavy and bulky
shoulder pads used for American baseball, the pads used for rugby
vests required flexibility.

A recent epidemiological study by Crichton, Jones and Funk (2011) investi-

gated videos of 24 elite rugby players sustaining injury and reported that
there were three common injury mechanisms in rugby resulting in serious
shoulder injuries: ‘try scorer’, ‘direct impact’ and ‘tackler’. It is necessary to
understand the nature of the injury and design shoulder padding mecha-
nisms which provide maximum protection to these common injury patterns:

1. Try scorer – outstretched arm when scoring a try

2. Direct impact – direct blow to the arm or shoulder when held by the
side in neutral or slight adduction (moving of a body part toward the
central axis of the body)
3. Tackler – a levering force on the glenohumeral joint (GHJ) due to
movement of the outstretched arm (Figure 8.5)

Knowledge of the mechanisms involved in rugby shoulder injury is useful

in understanding the pathological injuries and aiding the development of
injury prevention methods such as padded vests.
It could be noticed that a typical shoulder padded vest (Figure 8.15) could
provide only a limited coverage to the shoulder region in the context of the

FIGURE 8.15
Typical rugby top with padding. (Courtesy of Kooga.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 225

findings from Crichton et al. (2011). These design issues should be considered
while producing garments for shoulder protection for rugby. The shoulder
pads should be flexible to cover the regions as shown in Figure 8.16: the
sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular and glenohumeral joints. The rugby
tops shown in Figure 8.15 may provide limited protection to those regions.
Pain et al. (2008) also reported that when tackled using a shoulder pad, the
reduction in force was noticed only in the acromioclavicular joint, whilst
forces in other areas of the shoulder region were not reduced. In other words,
the shoulder experienced considerable impact during tackling. The chap-
ter emphasised the importance of six areas that affect the garment design:
mechanism of injury, flexibility, bulkiness, breathability, thickness and abil-
ity to sew these pads onto the clothing. The industry intends to explore mate-
rial that is flexible, lightweight, breathable and thin and that allows easy
movement of the body. This is based on the principle that the material is able
to extend the duration of an impact and to broaden the area affected by an
impact such that the wearer does not experience peak forces during a fall or
tackling.

FIGURE 8.16
General anatomy of the shoulder. (Courtesy of Sfischka|Dreamstime.com.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
226 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

8.9 Summary and Conclusions

Rugby is a fast-paced contact sport that requires precise protection to the
shoulder region, particularly when players fall with outstretched arms
(when scoring a try, tackling an opponent or experiencing a direct impact
onto the ground). Many studies have reported on the performance of protec-
tive materials which have been critically reviewed.
Impact-resistant materials for sportswear, particularly those that are used
for rugby, have been discussed in this chapter. Ideally, these materials absorb
the impact and provide resistance to shocks from a fall or collision. In recent
years the use of such protective pads has increased tremendously such that
it becomes difficult for the user to make choices. In addition, it has become a
challenge to garment manufacturers to incorporate the pads in the garment.
This chapter is concerned with material properties, and the experimental
work has focused on the forces experienced by a transducer attached to an
anvil under the protective material. A random selection of rugby vests was
studied and the results presented. The chapter also highlighted the potential
injuries frequently incurred by athletes during training and playing.
A selection of materials was tested to benchmark their capability to pro-
tect against impact. These were compared with unfinished leather: a mate-
rial offering wearers some protection and used here as a control. Figure 8.12
presents peak force variations with a range of materials with different thick-
nesses. The materials of 2–3 mm were associated with high peak forces. As
thicknesses increased, the commercial products designed to absorb energy
and protect against impacts reduced peak forces more effectively than the
leather samples. A close examination of the sensor signals revealed that the
duration of impact was extended and the forces experienced under the mate-
rial were correspondingly reduced. Figure 8.12 documents the change for
one particular sample from 21 ms to 101 ms as the thickness increased from
2.0 to 10.4 mm. The impact attenuation test records all the forces transmitted
through the material and does not illuminate how those forces are distrib-
uted at the zone of impact. The areal distribution of forces at the point of
impact can be potentially explored using pressure sensors.
Six factors affecting the design and development of performance sports-
wear are represented in Figure 8.14. The analysis of a selection of commer-
cially available and IRB-approved rugby shirts (with protective pads) using
the six factors approach has documented a number of issues for designers
and product developers to consider. This analysis provides a framework for
enhanced design and for the formulation of design principles for protective
sportswear. Mechanisms of injury are discussed to highlight the fact that
sportswear development is user centred and it becomes essential to under-
stand the frequency of injuries and various parts of the body being affected
during a sporting activity.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential 227

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Moran Filson-Dahan for kindly offering
CAD drawings for the chapter (Figure 8.5).

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9
Seamless Knitting and Its Application

Kathryn Brownbridge

CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 231
9.1.1 Circular Seamless Knitting........................................................... 232
9.1.2 Complete Garment Knitting......................................................... 233
9.2 Implications of Knitted Fabrics on Garment Fit; Knit Structures........ 233
9.2.1 Application of Body Measurement.............................................. 235
9.2.2 Creating Garment Shape through Stitch Manipulation............ 235
9.3 Seamless Garment Fit................................................................................. 236
9.4 Seamless Knits and Their Application within Sportswear.................. 238
9.4.1 Garment Comfort............................................................................ 238
9.4.2 Garment Aesthetics........................................................................ 240
9.5 Specific Fit-Related Opportunities........................................................... 241
9.6 Current Limitations within the Industry................................................ 242
9.7 Summary...................................................................................................... 243
References.............................................................................................................. 243

9.1 Introduction
This chapter will focus on two different types of weft knit technologies that
are associated with seamless garments: circular machinery and flat bed
machinery.
Circular knitting traditionally produces a tube of fabric and is commonly
used to produce hosiery. When used for garments, the tubular structure
is often cut down one side and opened out to create a flat length of fabric
(Brackenbury, 1992), which is cut into the component parts of a garment.
These are then sewn together. This technique is similar to the process used
for woven garments and clearly creates a garment with seams. However, a
more recent application is to utilise the tubular structure to create partially
formed garment parts; namely, the tubular structure becomes the body and
sleeves, creating a garment with fewer seams.
Flat bed knitting machinery was originally used only to produce lengths
of knitted fabrics. However, the need to decrease labour and costs and save
cutting waste has driven the development of many machine improvements

231
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232 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

that have increased capabilities including the ability to construct garment

panels. Perhaps the most innovative development has been the ability to
construct tubular garments that can be constructed and assembled in one
process, creating a garment that has a completely seamless structure.

9.1.1 Circular Seamless Knitting

Circular weft knitting machinery is traditionally used for hosiery.
Developments came from the Italian machine builder Lonati in 1988,
which were aiming to extend the capabilities of the machinery to knit
seamless underwear. This led to the creation of a new company, Santoni,
which was promoted as a specialist producer of machines with the capa-
bility to knit what was claimed to be seamless garments. It is, however,
important to stress that, although the body and sleeves can be knitted
without seams, these component parts must be constructed once they
have been knitted. Therefore, it is perhaps a misnomer to call garments
knitted on circular machinery ‘seamless’ (Semnani, 2011; Power, 2012).
Circular machinery is highly efficient and has a higher productivity rate
than flat bed machinery (Magnus et al., 2009). Santoni is still generally
acknowledged to be the leader in seamless knitting produced on circular
knitting machinery.
Circular machinery is capable of producing fine gauge knitwear but it
is difficult to create patterns and sophisticated garment shaping (Spencer,
2001; Power, 2008). It is also difficult to change the diameter of the seamless
knitted tube (Semnani, 2011), a considerable limitation in terms of garment
design and the ability to fit the complex shape of the body. Selective use of
the circular needle bed can, however, enable the designer to knit garment
shapes other than a basic tubular construction (Figure 9.1).

FIGURE 9.1
Circular knitted garment.
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Seamless Knitting and Its Application 233

9.1.2 Complete Garment Knitting

Previous to the development that enabled complete garment knitting, fully
fashioned garments were knitted on straight bar machines as shaped panel
pieces and then constructed using a separate postproduction process (Spencer,
2001). Since the 1940s it had been the aim of many knitters to develop meth-
ods that enable complete garments to be produced on flat bed machinery.
It is easy to understand why this capability would be beneficial, as it not
only eradicates the need for time-consuming postproduction processes but
it also minimises waste. A considerable number of different methods were
patented but none were commercially viable until 1995, when Shima Seiki
launched WholeGarment® technology at the International Textile Machinery
Association (ITMA) tradeshow (Gibbons, 1995). The German company Stoll
also made important developments that enhanced commercial viability
(Gibbons, 1996). Shima Seiki and Stoll are at the forefront of commercial appli-
cation. Although Shima Seiki has patented its machinery as WholeGarment
and Stoll has coined the term ‘Knit and Wear’, complete garment technology is
a term commonly used to describe flat bed machinery with this capability.

9.2 Implications of Knitted Fabrics

on Garment Fit; Knit Structures
The structure and properties of a knitted fabric influence the way a knitted
garment fits the body. Weft-knitted fabric is extensible across the width and
the length and diagonally. Its extensible structure enables it to mould itself
to a 3D shape through deformation (Power, 2004). These fabric properties
impact the way a knitted garment relates to the shape of the body, allowing
it to stretch and move on the body much more comfortably than a woven
fabric would. Because of this it is possible to wear tight, streamlined knitted
garments without restricting comfort even when the fibres are nonelastic.
Having an understanding of different knit structures and their properties
helps designers and product developers create garments that fit. It is possible
to categorise three basic groups of knitted structures:

• Plain structure consists of loops which are all identical and inter-
meshed in the same direction. These structures are all face loops on
one side and all reverse loops on the other.
• A rib structure is made of alternating face and reverse loops and the
number of needles used to create a rib can vary. A two by two rib, for
instance, is created by alternating two face and reverse loops at a time.
• A purl structure consists of alternate courses of back and face loops
(Figure 9.2).
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234 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 9.2
Face and back loops.

Each different knit structure has a range of differing properties which will
impact garment shape and, ultimately, the way the garment fits the body. A
knitted rib collapses across the width when relaxed, decreasing the dimen-
sions of the width and increasing the thickness of the fabric. When tension
is exerted across the rib courses, the fabric is reported to extend up to 120%
(Brackenbury, 1992). Knitted ribs will therefore reduce the width of the gar-
ment if it is integrally incorporated into a plain knitted garment without
compromising comfort. Ribs have traditionally been used to create shape
within a garment – often to provide a snug fit on the cuffs and welt (bottom
edge of the body panel). However, designers can also insert bands of rib in
other areas of the garment to create shape; this is particularly effective at
the waist where the body narrows. This practice exploits the rib structure’s
propensity to expand and contract.
A plain knitted fabric extends more across the courses than the wales. It is
therefore common practice for the courses to be positioned horizontally on
the garment to exploit this increased extensibility where it is needed most.
A purl knit, which is less commonly used within commercial garments, con-
tracts longitudinally. It therefore has more lengthwise elasticity than a rib
or plain knitted structure (Raz, 1993). Experienced knitwear designers will
have a good understanding of how to use knit structures. Evaluation of the
properties of knit structures, however, tends to be made by the technicians
using their experience and judgement (Brownbridge, 2010). Figure 9.3 shows
the three basic knit structures.

Plain knitted structure Rib knitted structure Purl knitted structure

FIGURE 9.3
Knit structures.
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Seamless Knitting and Its Application 235

9.2.1 Application of Body Measurement

To create knitted garments that fit the body, it is important to have a method
of applying body measurement within product development processes. For
woven garments it is the pattern-cutting process that translates body mea-
surement from size charts into flat patterns and then through to flat fabric
pieces. These are then constructed to make three-dimensional garments. For
knitted garments the pattern-making process uses a calculation to translate
key body dimensions such as chest, shoulder and waist into stitch numbers.
This calculation is based on the stitch density, which is the number of loops
in a given area of knitted cloth.
As knitted structures differ greatly from woven ones, the key body mea-
surements used to achieve fit are also different. As a consequence of their
extensible qualities, knitted garments tend to conform to simple flat shapes
without darts, seams or other methods used when developing 3D shapes
for more stable woven garments. In women’s knitwear, a bust girth mea-
surement is not commonly used and garments are unlikely to include bust
shaping. The fit of these simple garment shapes clearly relies on the knitted
fabric’s ability to stretch and mould to the body. To achieve woven garments
that allow for comfort and movement of the body, an extra allowance is
added to body measurement – namely, ease allowance (Gill, 2009). Extensible
knitted garments do not always include ease allowance, and garment dimen-
sion can conform to body measurement and still produce a comfortable fit.
The degree of ease needed to achieve fit on knitted garments can vary from
a negative amount to a positive amount at differing body regions and will
depend on the style and type of fit that the designer is aiming to achieve.
Historically, garment measurement rather than body measurement is used
to guide the process of defining garment dimension. Knitwear manufac-
turers therefore work from previously established garment measurements,
often generated through trial and error.

9.2.2 Creating Garment Shape through Stitch Manipulation

When knitting on flat bed machinery, shape can be created through adding
or reducing stitches, a technique known as fashioning. To increase the width,
the knitted loops are transferred onto a needle outside the selvedge edge;
narrowing is done by transferring a loop to a needle inside the one to which
the loop was previously attached. This needle will then cease knitting. It is
also possible to transfer a number of loops to create a loss or gain in fabric
dimension within the body of the fabric. The smallest dimension that can be
gained or reduced will only ever equal the stitch dimension. It is not possible
to create the required dimensions with the same precision as that when gar-
ments are cut to shape.
The angle created by the fashioning process can be controlled by the num-
ber of courses that are knitted between each fashioning course (fashioning
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236 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

frequency). It is also possible to transfer more than one loop at a time to cre-
ate a more acute angle. There are methods of integrally shaping in order to
create 3D contours within the garment which serve the same functions as
a dart, used in woven construction (Black, 2001). However, this method has
not been widely used in traditional industrial knitting. It has been argued
that in order to develop knitted garments that have a more sophisticated
approach to achieving fit, it is necessary to use shaping in order to achieve
3D shapes that relate to the shape of the body (Guy, 2001; Haffenden, 2009;
Brownbridge, 2012).

9.3 Seamless Garment Fit

Machinery that has the ability to construct garments three dimensionally,
such as complete garment technology, implies the possibility of creating a
product that can conform to the three-dimensional shape of the body. The
process of shaping complete garments, however, relies on the capabilities of
the machinery and its operator. There are difficulties associated with knit-
ting tubular garments on flat bed technology. Shaping the garment is lim-
ited by the number of needles available on which to knit and transfer. The
body and sleeve tubes must commence knitting on specific needles with
an exact number of available needles between each tube. These needles are
introduced to create underarm widening. The three tubes must meet at the
correct location to merge. The sleeve tubes can then be gradually moved
across and narrowed to eventually create the neck dimension. This is a
complex operation and is not easy for technicians to master (Brownbridge,
2012). There are, however knitwear teams who are successfully exploiting
the ability to knit three dimensionally and create garments that have 3D
shaping.
Figure 9.4 shows an example of a garment where an integral shaping line
has been incorporated on the back and the front of the garment, which cre-
ates a 3D draped shape. Further shaping is created on the lower half of the
body to enhance the 3D garment shape. Figure 9.5 shows a close-up of the
widening technique where every three courses become one. The image
reveals that it is only the courses on the left side of the shaping line that are
lost. The courses on the right-hand side remain constant. Figure 9.6 shows
that more narrowing occurs running into the pointelle pattern.
The process used to create circular knitted seamless garments is far more
limited in terms of stitch manipulation as a method of shaping. It is therefore
a more limited knitting technique and it is perhaps more difficult to create
shape innovation.
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Seamless Knitting and Its Application 237

FIGURE 9.4
Seamless draped top.

FIGURE 9.5
Detail showing integral shaping.

FIGURE 9.6
Integral shaping incorporated into pointelle detail.
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238 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

The garment pressing process which, in the fully fashioned industry gen-
erally uses a wooden frame custom made to specific dimensions in order to
maintain and set garment dimension (known as boarding), will also affect
the stitch density. Fully fashioned practices are still used for complete gar-
ment production and this has been found to cause problems as the structure
of the complete garments tends to be far less formulaic in shape than tradi-
tional fully fashioned styles. The seamless structure of complete garments
also means they are less stable and more difficult to press flat. These differ-
ences have been found to render the use of frames obsolete. This makes the
finishing of complete garments difficult.

9.4 Seamless Knits and Their Application within Sportswear

Seamless knitted garments have been available to the consumer for a num-
ber of years and some forward-thinking knitwear manufacturers have
embraced the opportunities this method of knitting offers in terms of tech-
nical sportswear development. The following sections outline how the use of
seamless technology can create functional features that meet specific needs
of the sportswear consumer in terms of comfort and sportswear aesthetics.

9.4.1 Garment Comfort
Comfort is a garment attribute that the consumer seeks and is particularly
important for sportswear as it can affect performance. The evaluation of
comfort from a consumer’s perspective is subjective and complex as it takes
into account a number of various factors. Studies relating to comfort tend to
list these factors separately as follows:

Sensorial comfort in relation to garments includes the subjective evalu-

ation that the wearer makes about how the garment feels against
the skin. It has considerable bearing on the comfort properties of
seamless garments because clearly the lack of seams eliminates any
potential for seam abrasion caused by rubbing against sensitive
areas of skin. This is clearly advantageous for sports garments, par-
ticularly those worn next to the skin, such as base layers and swim-
wear (Magnus et al., 2009).
Ergonomic comfort relates to the ability of the wearer to move easily
within a garment. In relation to seamless garments it has been noted
that the customer should experience heightened ergonomic comfort
as the seamless structure is claimed to be able to stretch and mould
to the body more effectively than a knitted garment with seams
(Brownbridge, 2012).
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Seamless Knitting and Its Application 239

Thermophysiological comfort is when a person is satisfied with the thermal

environment. To sustain thermal comfort the production and loss of
heat from the body must balance. In addition to clothing, a number
of factors can impact the thermal environment, including humidity,
air movement, air temperature and activity. Thermophysiological
encompasses heat and moisture transported through the body and
impacts a person’s ability to regulate body temperature. Wicking is
a process that transports moisture away from the body. Knitted fab-
rics have a capacity to absorb water. This will vary depending on
fibre content and knit structure. Knitted fabrics also have insulation
properties because the knitted structure traps air, which acts as an
insulating layer, and differing knit structures have different ther-
mal insulation properties. Fibres vary in their ability to insulate and
therefore can be used strategically within garments to target areas
of the body that need more insulation than others. This is where
the ability to use a variety of knit structures within one garment is
advantageous (Abreu et al., 2011). Figure 9.7 shows a garment that
incorporates a variety of knit structures mapping different areas of
the body, and Figure 9.8 shows a detail of the knit structures on the
sleeve of the garment.
Psychological comfort relates much more to how someone feels in a gar-
ment and will be more influenced by factors such as styling, colour,
fashion and aesthetics. When relating psychological comfort to
sportswear, garments that are perceived to look and feel as if they
will provide high performance may also provide the wearer with
higher levels of psychological comfort. Psychological factors may
also relate to how effectively the garment provides thermal, ergo-
nomic and sensorial comfort to the wearer in order to create a sense
of well-being and psychological comfort.

FIGURE 9.7
Circular knitted garment incorporating a variety of knit structures.
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240 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 9.8
Detail of differing knit structures on a sleeve.

9.4.2 Garment Aesthetics
Through the use of both circular and flat bed seamless machinery it is pos-
sible to use a number of different knit structures and patterning details
within one garment. In addition it is possible to vary the types of yarn on
specific areas of the garment. This enables designers to create patterns, tex-
tures, surface design and styling features. The use of elastomeric (stretch)
yarn can reduce the diameter of the tubular structure, without the loss of
comfort to the wearer. This can introduce body shaping, structure to the gar-
ment, which will have an impact on the aesthetic and could be used by an
informed designer to create aesthetically pleasing garment shaping (Magnus
et al., 2009).
The ability to map the body with the garment and create zoning areas
that function differently creates a sports aesthetic, which suggests innova-
tion and high performance. These garments draw attention to muscle groups
and use body contour panels, a technique that not only has functional value
but also is becoming accepted as signalling that this garment is designed
as a high-performance sports garment for a high-performing sports body.
The performance aspects of seamless garments have therefore also created
the aesthetic aspects. Not only does the garment aid performance but it also
looks like it aids performance and, arguably, this will increase psychological
comfort for the wearer.
Complete garment technology has the ability to shape the garment three
dimensionally and this can create an innovative aesthetic. Unbroken pat-
terns, striping and pointelle structures can be knitted around the whole
circumference of the garment, which is particularly effective when used
on a yoke. The stitch manipulation techniques (fashioning) used to shape
complete garments form a visible patterning within the knitted fabric. This
can be aesthetically pleasing and can draw attention to innovative shaping
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Seamless Knitting and Its Application 241

techniques and, consequently, in aesthetic terms, makes the garment look

like a product of sophisticated engineering.

9.5 Specific Fit-Related Opportunities

Body mapping can also be described as comfort mapping and is a technique
that is gaining popularity amongst sportswear developers. It is hoped that,
through in-depth analysis of functional requirements of differing parts of
the body in relation to temperature, moisture control and the consideration of
skin sensory needs, the need to wear multiple layers will no longer be neces-
sary. Different knit structures and a variety of fibres with a range of abilities
to insulate, ventilate and control moisture are placed where they are needed
on the body. The chest area, for instance, may be matched with a wind-chill
panel, whereas the underarm area will have wicking and breathable panels.
In terms of fit this type of development creates opportunities to link anthro-
pometric (the study of body measurement) research with technical garment
development. Santoni has developed two methods that are claimed to help
regulate temperature control by targeting specific areas of the body: (1) the
use of mesh-like knit structures to allow venting within regions of the gar-
ment, such as the underarm, to help the body lose unwanted heat and (2) the
ability to create thermal pockets which are effectively double layers of fabric
strategically placed to trap heat at areas of the body that are more vulnerable
to heat loss.
If the specific areas of the garment must map to specific areas of the body
in order to achieve this end, it must be presumed that development should
include a sophisticated understanding not just of the functions of the body
but also of body size, shape and proportion. In terms of the development
of sizing systems for such garments, it would seem logical that this type of
body mapping approach would demand a more sophisticated sizing system,
which would take into account the variety of heights, body shapes and sizes
within a population in order for the mapping to function correctly.
The use of panels to compress specific muscle groups is another area of
development which creates opportunities for further study in relation to
anthropometrics. These panels are knitted with extremely elastic yarns.
They are said to have a number of benefits to the sportsman, including reduc-
tion of muscle strain and the time it takes for muscles to repair themselves.
There are also claims that compression panels can increase performance by
improving oxygenation to working muscles. In terms of fit, any compression
panel incorporated within a sports garment must be located on the correct
muscle group when the garment is worn. Therefore, for garments that are
mass produced, the addition of compression panels that must conform to
very specific regions of the body introduces additional fit complexities when
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242 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

creating sizing systems. The knitwear industry have been found to lack the
skills and data needed to achieve this type of specific fit (Brownbridge, 2012).
It therefore may be difficult for some consumers to get the full benefit from
these highly technical garments because they are not made for their body
dimensions.

9.6 Current Limitations within the Industry

Currently the seamless technology (circular and flat bed) that is available
to knitwear producers is expensive and requires a high level of design and
technical skills in order to fully exploit its advantages. This is a relatively
new type of manufacturing process and requires a considerable amount of
research and development work. In the current economic climate, it is per-
haps a more logical choice for knitwear producers to reduce both costs and
risk-taking decisions rather than to invest in the development of new and
innovative products. Consequently, although a growing number of sports-
wear companies specialise in seamless knitted garments, it is perhaps a mar-
ket that is yet to be fully exploited.
In terms of fit, there is evidence to suggest that, although knitwear is
stretchy and therefore there is an assumption it will fit a wide variety of
body shapes and sizes, there is still a need for fit improvements.
Complete garment development forces practitioners to consider all the
component parts of a garment simultaneously, which challenges tradition-
ally trained personnel. Difficulties can occur when shaping the armhole for
a set-in sleeve and the desired effect is not always achieved. Various factors
have been blamed for this, including fashioning restrictions, a lack of previ-
ous knowledge to draw on and no available garment templates or patterns
on which to base methods (Troynikov, 2008). The lack of templates is related
to the fact that the technology is still relatively new. It is therefore likely that
some of these restrictions will be alleviated as those who are driving devel-
opment become more skilled and knowledgeable. The restrictions in shaping
may also have originated from the fully fashioned industry, where there have
always been inconsistencies and inaccuracies in the methods used (Eckert,
2001). There is also a lack of attention paid to the application of anthropomet-
ric data within the knitwear industry, which could well have a detrimental
effect on the development of new methods for seamless garments.
There is, however, a further restriction that relates to the acquisition of appro-
priate skills and knowledge and that is the propensity within the knitwear
industry to protect intellectual property with patents. The machine builders
themselves have actively been developing new methods of knitting garments.
In 2002 an interview with the president of Shima Seiki suggested that only
1% of machine capability was at the time being exploited (Mowbray, 2002).
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Seamless Knitting and Its Application 243

Whilst this statement is making claims for a vast, untapped potential, it

also acknowledges a skills and knowledge gap within the industry. Shima’s
response to this need for new knitting techniques was to produce 2500 new
sample garments a year. Through this approach, it is claimed that a whole
new range of knitting techniques have been created and, further, potential
for design innovation (Mowbray, 2002). However, information is slow to be
released and typically in formats that protect what is considered to be pro-
prietary information. This slows down creative innovation and contributes
to an aura of exclusivity around seamless garments.

9.7 Summary
Two different types of seamless garments have been identified: those knitted
on circular machinery and those knitted on flatbed machinery. Each of these
methods of knitting creates slightly different opportunities and limitations.
Currently there are a number of specialist sportswear producers who are
using both types of seamless circular garments to create highly technical
sports garments using specific knit structures to map the body for warmth,
comfort and performance. The ability to knit a number of different knit struc-
tures has been exploited by product developers to create highly specialised
performance garments. Two innovative techniques have been discussed: the
use of pressure panels and body mapping. Both of these techniques, how-
ever, demand a really sophisticated understanding of how to relate garment
dimensions to the human body. Currently there is little evidence to suggest
the industry is producing sizing systems that can cater to a variety of sizes
within a population. Therefore, although innovative practice is evident, there
is still a skills and knowledge issue which limits the potential to innovate
performance sportswear. In addition, skills issues have been found to limit the
ability of product development teams to achieve the fit results they desire in
terms of shaping the garment, and the protection of intellectual property limits
the spread of knowledge. There is therefore a need for companies to invest in
research and development in order to improve knowledge and understanding
and truly exploit the potential capabilities of seamless knitting technologies.

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Design, Engineering and Management for Innovation, IDEM109 Porto, Portugal,
14–15 September.
Mowbray, J. (2002). The quest for ultimate knitwear. Knitting International 109 (1289):
22–23.
Power, J. (2004). Knitting shells in the third dimension. Journal of Textile and Apparel
Technology and Management 3 (4): 1–13.
———. (2008). Developments in apparel knitting technology. In Advances in apparel
production, Fairhurst, C. (ed.). Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd.
———. (2012). Sustainable development in knitting. International Journal of Business
and Globalisation 9 (1): 1–11.
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Semnani, D. (2011). Advances in circular knitting. In Advances in knitting technology,
Au, K. F. (ed.). London: Woodhead Publishing.
Spencer, D. J. (2001). Knitting technology: A comprehensive handbook and practical guide,
3rd ed. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd.
Troynikov, O. (2008). Smart body – Ergonomic seamless sportswear design and devel-
opment. The Body – Connections with Fashion, Melbourne, IFFTI, pp. 1–20.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
10
Garment Fit and Consumer
Perception of Sportswear

Simeon Gill and Jennifer Prendergast

CONTENTS
10.1 Factors Affecting Fit................................................................................... 245
10.1.1 Garment Fit and the Pattern.......................................................... 246
10.1.2 Fabrics............................................................................................... 246
10.1.3 Function........................................................................................... 247
10.2 Sensorial Comfort....................................................................................... 249
10.2.1 Psychological Considerations of Wearer Perceptions................ 249
10.2.2 Pressure Comfort............................................................................ 250
10.2.3 Pressure Comfort and Gender...................................................... 251
10.3 Performance Expectations......................................................................... 252
10.4 Ease Levels within the Garment...............................................................254
10.5 Summary......................................................................................................254
10.6 Future Developments................................................................................. 257
References.............................................................................................................. 257

10.1 Factors Affecting Fit

Clothing fit is important to wearers on an everyday level and is frequently
covered in clothing texts (Brown and Rice, 2001; Le Pechoux and Ghosh,
2002; Fan, Yu and Hunter, 2004), often with reference to the variables identi-
fied by Erwin, Kinchen and Peters (1979). Whilst these highlight important
attributes of fit aesthetics, the fit of sportswear clothing can have a direct
bearing on performance and potentially the outcome of the sports event. Fit
can be considered in terms of function and comfort perception, but from
a product development perspective fit can and should be engineered with
consideration of how each variable interacts. Importantly, developments
of 3D product development reinforce the geometry and numeric nature
of product development and support the assertion for numerically under-
standing the garment and its fit (Gill, 2011). We would propose that wearer
perception plays only a small part in engineering fit and that the follow-
ing variables require careful and integrated consideration: fabric, function,

245
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246 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

sensorial comfort, performance expectations and ease determination, espe-

cially regarding their numeric application in terms of the pattern.

10.1.1 Garment Fit and the Pattern

Whilst garment fit assessment is often a reflective tool assessed after the
de­velopment of the product (Le Pechoux and Ghosh, 2002; Ashdown et al.,
2004; Bye and McKinney, 2010), we would argue that the tools exist for consid-
ering fit prior to the development of the product, though this requires enumer-
ation of key concepts of fit (Gill, 2011). Pattern development using many of the
available methods (Beazley and Bond, 2003; Aldrich, 2008; Armstrong, 2010)
requires the plotting of a geometric coordinate system using a combination of
human measurement and proportional rules, which describes the 3D garment
shape in two dimensions (Gill and Chadwick, 2009; Gill, 2011). The constraint
of the pattern as a geometric object requires that all changes be applied as
point repositioning described as X, Y movements from one location to another.
Whilst fit analysis does not always enumerate the analysis of the five key vari-
ables – grain, line, set, balance and ease (Erwin et al., 1979) – or comfort percep-
tions, it is through alterations to pattern geometry that these changes informed
through fit assessment will be applied. The numerical nature of fit is further
evidenced through the application of tension maps within virtual fit software
(Ashdown and Dunne, 2006), though these have little in historical fit practices
to contextualise what is observed through virtual fit interfaces.

10.1.2 Fabrics
Fabrics as the structure from which garments are made have a direct bear-
ing on how fit is perceived. Often research focuses mainly on the thermo-
physiological aspects of the fabric as it insulates and controls temperature;
this is clearly important in sportswear as exertion causes temperature
increases which, if not correctly controlled, will lead to overheating and
loss of performance (Fourt and Hollies, 1970; Gaul and Mekjavic, 1987).
Thermophysiological factors can also be measured related directly to temper-
ature on a scale which can be easily understood, unlike other factors related
to comfort, which are taken to be more subjective and have proven more dif-
ficult to quantify in any meaningful and applicable manner. The restrictions
to function in clothing related to fabric characteristics have been investigated
by Huck (1988) and requirements for elasticity in fabrics for function by Kirk
and Ibrahim (1966). However, both focus on specific garment types and nei-
ther looks specifically at sportswear. Kirk and Ibrahim (1966) and Watkins
(1995) suggest that fabric characteristics including stretch and slip are impor-
tant considerations in terms of retaining function when wearing garments,
though these are difficult to assess in existing practices. The predominant
use of knitted fabrics in sportswear, which, due to their structure, have high
extensibility (see Chapter 4) provides less restriction to function; similarly, the
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Garment Fit and Consumer Perception of Sportswear 247

inclusion of elastomeric yarns within knitted and woven structures enables

them to perform very much as a second skin enabling the body to move and
not inhibiting function/performance. However, it must be argued that there
is an optimum relationship in terms of body pattern relationship, considering
garment dimensions, function and fabrics, which should be fully understood.
The engineering of fabric to enhance performance and comfort can be seen
in the garments of X-BIONIC, a Swiss company specialising in engineered
sportswear (X-BIONIC.co.uk, 2014). Garments are made using different fab-
rics, and even fabric structures, for different parts of the body to try to maxi-
mise performance for the wearers and satisfy their comfort requirements.
This shows the importance of engineering approaches when creating perfor-
mance and sportswear garments.

10.1.3 Function
The function of the wearer within the garment is important and any impinge-
ment on function will have a direct bearing on fit perception and, potentially,
performance. Movement requirements are often directly related to sport-
ing disciplines, though little reported work in clothing exists that looks at
key movements by discipline. Watkins (1977) conducted research looking
at movement during ice hockey to recognise how to create better protec-
tive equipment with clear considerations of the types of postures and the
movements made during play. Functional considerations have also been
outlined in research looking at considerations of anatomy in human func-
tion (Watkins, 1995; Ashdown, 2011) and directly related to functional con-
siderations of ease (Gill, 2009; Choi and Ashdown, 2011). It is evident that
discipline-specific considerations of clothing function are required to ensure
that design is engineered to allow for maximum performance.
The function of a person in clothing and, most especially a highly func-
tioning athlete, must take account of the structure of the body (Watkins,
1995; Gill, 2009; Ashdown, 2011). This will not only include skeletal struc-
ture, muscle and fat deposition, but also the movements specific to the sport
(Watkins, 1977) and the anatomy that underpins this. The anatomy consid-
erations include the skeletal joints, their degrees of freedom and permissible
movement, especially as athletes can be found to be more flexible than the
general population (Marrin and Bampouras, 2007). One possible focus of this
may be through functional change to the body surface directly related to the
anatomy and having an effect on the engineering of fit. More recently, a num-
ber of studies have looked at measurement of functional changes to the body
surface, comparing changes between a static control posture and a num-
ber of dynamic postures representing key movements (Gill, 2009; Choi and
Ashdown, 2011). There are clear opportunities to look at dynamic changes
using evolving technologies to capture real movement and how this affects
the body surface lengths and the ease or stretch requirements of a garment
and fabric. However, little exists which looks fundamentally at clothing
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248 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

performance in a dynamic environment, though some considerations of how

this may be done are shown by Watkins (2011), who observed movement of
a participant wearing a skinsuit with grid patterns marked on it. There is
also discussion of analysis of the active body in clothing by Ashdown (2011),
who provides a number of case studies of existing research and raises the
important consideration of how the garment may restrict function through
tethering at key body locations.
The body is recognised to be composed of different anatomical structures
and joints (Watkins, 1995; Gill, 2009; Ashdown, 2011) with certain areas of the
body having higher movement potential or degrees of freedom due to the
type of joint and the musculature controlling movement. The hip and shoul-
der areas permit a large range of movement (Kapandji, 2003, 2007) and this
requires careful consideration in the selection of the fabric and its structure
when this area will be covered. Looking specifically at the upper body, levels
of change through representative movements can cause quite large changes
to the body surface (Gill, 2009). Whilst considerable change may be found
within certain locations on the body, the anatomy will be a controlling factor
over whether high positive or negative changes will occur. In the research by
Gill (2009), 24 males were measured in a static control posture and five rep-
resentative movement postures (Figure 10.1) to determine the levels of body
surface change in measurements which had a clear context in the garment,
as a means to inform functional ease requirements in the garment pattern. In
some cases large changes were observed as either negative amounts like the
across front with a decrease of 22% or positive amounts of up to 27% in the
across back (Figure 10.2). Whilst movements used do not represent the abso-
lute limits of function, these can be related to movements undertaken within
sports. A key consideration raised by this work is how to establish and apply
the results of cumulative change where, throughout a measurement’s length,
it both decreases and increases in different sections. These changes will be
influenced by the sport, flexibility and build of the athlete and the types

A1: control
A2 A3 A5 B0 B1
posture

FIGURE 10.1
Control and movement postures in assessment of upper body surface change.
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Garment Fit and Consumer Perception of Sportswear 249

Code Posture description Code Posture description

A1 Standard measurement position A6 Hip ~90º Flx; knee ~90º Flx
A2 Shoulder ~90º Abd ~45º Flx; elbow ~115º Flx A7 R hip ~15º Ext; L hip ~15º Flx
A3 Shl Ext, Add B0 ~Full back Flx; ~Full neck Flx
A4 Elbow ~90º Flx B1 ~Full back Ext; ~Full neck Ext
A5 Shoulder ~90º Flx; elbow ~90º Flx

1 Across front 2 Across back

mm –71.0 to 20.2 mm 97.5
% –22.33 to 6.36 % 27.03
Posture A5 A3 Posture A5
3

1 2 8

7
3 Shoulder length 7 Nape to back waist
9 5
mm –25.4 mm –18.6 to 61.4 4
% –11.27 % –4.31 to 14.26
Posture A2 Posture B1 B0
4 Shoulder to wrist 8 Nape to scye level
mm 45.4 mm –10.4 to 20.5
% 7.36 % –5.05 to 9.93
Posture A4 Posture B1 B0
5 Shoulder to elbow Scye level to back
mm 22.9 9 waist
% 6.54 mm –8.1 to 40.3
Posture A4 % –3.62 to 18.01
Posture B1 B0
6
6 Elbow to wrist
mm 22.5
% 8.45
Posture A4

FIGURE 10.2
Functional surface changes by measurement and posture.

of garments worn. Therefore, it is imperative that movements are related to

disciplines as with the work of Watkins (1977), but also have a clear context
in the pattern as with the study by Gill (2009).
The types of studies discussed focused on the undressed body and further
study is required to consider how the sporting body interacts with clothing.
Image capture techniques like body scanning and motion capture provide
opportunities to analyse garments in sporting environments and can be
used with suitable software and researcher skills to analyse performance of
clothing through surface appearance examples, and considerations for this
area are discussed in Chapter 13.

10.2 Sensorial Comfort
10.2.1 Psychological Considerations of Wearer Perceptions
Sportswear in terms of ‘activewear’ is becoming increasingly popular in
mainstream fashion. No longer is it committed to the professional athlete
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250 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

within the sporting area; consumers are now purchasing sportswear items
for everyday wear. Therefore, comfort is paramount, suggesting that the com-
plexities associated with the wearers’ perceptions during an activity must
be addressed. Many of our comfort perceptions are based on experiences
from childhood and can be heavily influenced by our peers (Daters, 1990).
Sportswear that does not fit correctly has the potential for the wearer to under-
perform during an activity, which can result in injury (particularly an activ-
ity that requires simultaneous movements, such as running or swimming).
However, physical exertion will vary between people depending on fitness
levels and their unique physiology; therefore, the levels of sensorial comfort
will depend widely upon these factors (Bartels, 2011). Kilinic-Balci (2009) pre-
sented a comprehensive overview of the factors that affect a person’s abil-
ity to judge comfort, in that they differ significantly because of the person’s
complex genetic disposition combined with physiological and psychological
experiences, including learned fit experience. This is known as ‘subjective
perception’ (Kilinic-Balci, 2009; Troynikov, Ashayeri and Fuss, 2011) whereby
the verbal interpretation of a tactile sensation from one person to another will
vary. This is significant, particularly where key demographic characteristics
such as age, race and gender relate directly to comfort. In the research under-
taken by Sontag (1985) in temperature-controlled conditions, mature female
participants were asked to wear trial garments on different parts of the body
to ascertain comfort levels; the garment that was worn closest to the body
was deemed as having a high emotional comfort value due to the fact that
this was concealed and not visible to others. This suggests that comfort may
have a dual purpose in consumer perceptions: in relation to where the gar-
ment is positioned on the body and the environment in which the garment is
worn (Woodward, 2007). Comfort in clothing is not only an issue for mature
consumers; in a larger study of consumers from a wide ranging demographic
undertaken by Kaplan and Okur (2008) based on clothing comfort, there were
similar findings to Sontag’s research. The participants also concluded that
the personal concealment of garments and outward appearance were impor-
tant and highly regarded factors in clothing comfort. These factors are highly
important to sportswear comfort, particularly in activities that require gar-
ments to be layered, such as skiing, climbing and other outdoor pursuits – in
particular, lower body movements that require varied ease levels to obtain
maximum comfort levels (Ashdown and DeLong, 1995).

10.2.2 Pressure Comfort
Pressure comfort plays an important role in sensorial comfort, particu-
larly in relation to physiology. The body itself controls heat management in
respect of a cooling system through perspiring; however, extreme tempera-
tures and each consumer’s unique physiological DNA should be considered
(Choudhury, Majumdar and Datt, 2011). A study undertaken by Sweeney
and Branson (1990), whereby a numerical ranking system was assigned to
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Garment Fit and Consumer Perception of Sportswear 251

specific comfort level descriptors, was used to test mental reactions to water
pressure on an isolated area of the body. In the study, participants wore a
base layer that was subjected to different intensities of water pressure under
controlled conditions. This resulted in the participants having similar, more
closely related reactions based on the ranking system. However, pressure
from both physiological and external forces such as sweat, rain and wind
varies during activity, suggesting that a garment needs to be multipurpose
and respond to sudden and frequent changes that occur during active exer-
cise. Pressure comfort is affected by external factors, such as extreme cli-
mates, ultimately affecting the air quality, which can have a dramatic effect
on performance during sporting activities (Yan et al., 2012). The body’s inter-
nal organs are therefore also under pressure as they try to cope with the
external factors, and whilst perspiring will help to cool a person down, mus-
cle fatigue may also be prevalent, which can lead to injury (Jarvinen et al.,
2007). Pressure comfort studies (Kamalha et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2013) indicate
that weight, height and individual physiology do not have a significant effect
on the casual sportsperson who participates in a noncompetitive environ-
ment. However, many professional sportspeople compete with similar phys-
iologies, particularly weight. This is evidenced in the case of professional
gymnasts, whereby they train under very similar conditions, which are often
strict both physically and mentally; therefore, controlled pressure comfort
during activity is paramount for sporting achievement (Yan et al., 2012).
It can be concluded from the research that pressure comfort for sports-
wear and casual wear differs significantly. The professional athlete requires
garments that aid both muscle function and physical performance in order
to focus directly on the activity; the casual sportswear consumer may not.
However, in both cases pressure comfort in relation to garment body contact
is important (Senthilkumar, Kumar and Anbumani, 2012).

10.2.3 Pressure Comfort and Gender

Pressure comfort in relation to gender also differs significantly whether the
consumer is a professional sportsperson or not. Ashdown and DeLong (1995)
clearly identified that small incremental differences in garment ease within
women’s clothing designed for the lower body can be detected by the wearer,
demonstrating the body’s sensitivity to discomfort. Therefore, the need for
gender-specific, activity-orientated sportswear with performance qualities is
important as it allows the wearer to concentrate on performance rather than
clothing discomfort.
Ho (2010) addressed the shape and fit of indoor cycling wear, whereby male
and female participants were required to discuss the fit and finish garments.
The male participants required a ‘relaxed’ fit and the female participants
required a ‘baggy’ fit on the upper garment. These requirements suggest that
pressure comfort and physiology play important roles in the comfort factors
during exercise. The function of comfort in this example is that the garment
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252 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

has to accommodate the differences between chest (men’s), bust (women’s) and
waist (both genders); in essence, both descriptions of the garments indicate
that they are similar in shape but perform different functions in relation to
pressure comfort, which is the same function. However, as the study focuses
on indoor cycling, which is performed in climate-controlled conditions, there
are significant differences in outdoor cycling, where the climate can be unpre-
dictable. A study performed in similar environmental conditions by Liu et al.
(2013) focused on male subjects and ‘upper body pressure’, in which the partic-
ipants were required to wear a dry, seamless T-shirt during intermittent active
and inactive periods. The authors stated that the areas least affected by pres-
sure comfort were the torso, arms and back. In contrast, gymnasts wearing a
leotard of a similar construction experienced body pressure within those areas
(Yan et al., 2012). The study implies that total body measurements between the
nape of the neck and the front and back rises should be considered in order to
support the functions of the activity (Yan et al., 2012).

10.3 Performance Expectations
Clothing comfort is also derived from our homogenous cultural, historical
and physiological makeup. However, the interpretation of clothing comfort
will vary because of the dual-purpose elements of sports clothing (i.e. the
casual wearer and the professional athlete will have different performance
needs, as will the requirements of the male and female consumers) (Fan, 2004).
Garment silhouettes have significantly affected the fit and performance of
sportswear for both men and women. Historically, men’s garments influenced
women’s sportswear clothing; moreover, women had to wear men’s clothing
because that was the only sportswear available. The adoption of looser fitting
men’s clothing was found to be the case when Ledbury (2009) investigated
women’s clothing worn during outdoor pursuits. However, women wanted
a clear distinction from the masculine silhouette and the comfort issues that
were associated with poorly fitted garments cut to a male body shape. Women
required the same performance qualities, particularly in the case of contact
sports such as basketball, which allow them to focus on the activity rather than
be distracted by the clothing misfit (Klomsten, Skaalvik and Espnes, 2004).
Clothing comfort, specifically for women during exercise, is influenced by
their physical shape, as well as weight, body measurements and BMI (body
mass index); overall, the body experiences the same amount of pressure
during activity. However, many women do not have equally proportioned
upper and lower body measurements, which indicates that comfort for the
whole body may not be achievable during exercise without consideration
of proportional differences within athletic and individual bodies (Liu et al.,
2013). Table 10.1 highlights the four areas in relation to clothing type, comfort
TABLE 10.1
Performance Expectations in Sports Clothing
Gender
Sports Discipline Clothing Type Comfort Impact Performance Expectations Considerations
Cycling (road) Tight fit; double layer; bib shorts Seat/groin/shoulders, Breathable; sweat wicking;
and jersey (long/short sleeves); arms flexibility
socks; boots
Football/soccer Loose or tight fit; shirt (long/short Breathable; sweat wicking
sleeves); shorts; socks; boots
Gymnastics Tight fit, one layer; leotard, All areas Flexibility; dynamics; breathable; Male and female
sleeveless/long sleeved stable outfits differ
Track running Tight fit, all-in one; vest, cropped Legs, arms, hips, knees, Aerodynamic; breathable; sweat Male and female
top; pants or leggings or shorts; feet wicking outfits may differ
training shoes
Skiing (alpine) Tight fit, all-in one; boots; goggles; Upper body, back, arms, Air-permeable sweat wicking;
Garment Fit and Consumer Perception of Sportswear

gloves; helmet hips, thigh, knees, shins, muscle warmth; breathability;

feet flexible; reduced muscle fatigue
Snowboarding Semifitted; several layers; jackets; Upper body, hips, knees, Aerodynamic; maximum
pants; thermal boots; goggles; arms, legs, core, back flexibility
gloves; board; helmet
Swimming Single layer; all-in one costume; Arms, shoulders, legs, core Buoyancy; speed; endurance; Male and female
trunks; sleeveless; cap; goggles reduction of drag outfits differ
253

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254 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

impact, performance expectations and gender considerations. Each area has

an important bearing in relation to fit and the consumer.

10.4 Ease Levels within the Garment

Ease in garment development relates to the specific amount added or sub-
tracted from the dimensions of the pattern in addition to the dimensions of
the wearer (Beazley, 1997; Gill, 2011). Whilst ease in the context of the pattern
may be applied as a singular figure, its determination is impacted by a number
of factors, including garment styling and the interrelated variables of func-
tion, comfort, fabric characteristics and oversize (Gill, 2011). Whilst styling
may be dependent on the designer, the other variables could be determined
quantitatively through different methodological techniques. Functional ease
considerations have been investigated and numerical levels suggested (Kirk
and Ibrahim, 1966; Gill, 2009; Choi and Ashdown, 2011). Whilst the other
suggested variables (comfort, oversize and fabric characteristics) have been
considered, the findings from existing studies have not been enumerated in
a manner applicable directly to pattern development. Without determining
an ease value as a positive or negative amount in addition to the body, it
will often be subjectively determined by the product developer in reference
to his or her experiences and then adjusted subjectively during the prod-
uct development process. Generally, the application of ease differs between
pattern construction methods (Gill, 2010) and is not always explicitly stated
during the pattern construction process (Gill and Chadwick, 2009). However,
whilst methods to determine numeration of the interrelated variables of ease
may be difficult, some successful investigations of ease in wear have been
undertaken (Ashdown and DeLong, 1995). These have been able to suggest
sensitivity to ease levels, though this avenue of research has had little explo-
ration, possibly due to its complexities. With regard to stretch fabrics, ease
can also be considered regarding proximity of the garment to the wearer’s
body (Watkins, 2006, 2011). Though proximity ratings have been suggested,
these have no attributed numeric values which could be adopted by the pat-
tern technician and incorporated into ease considerations.

10.5 Summary
Whilst research continues to develop the means to construct garments
with engineered fit, there still remain some key areas of focus to connect
the analysis of fit with the attainment of fit during the product development
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Garment Fit and Consumer Perception of Sportswear 255

CASE STUDY: PUMA UK – PROTECTIVE

LAYERS THAT PROVIDE COMFORT
Designers at Puma, a leading sportswear brand, developed a prototype
football kit for the UEFA Euro 2008 football tournament without full
consideration of comfort and performance for the football players. In
collaboration with Manchester Metropolitan University, research was
undertaken to improve the wearer comfort experience of the football
kit.
The prototype sport shirt was designed with two mesh layers in order
to make the product aesthetically pleasing as well as providing ventila-
tion during performance. However, the designers were concerned that
during physical activity the layers, when in contact with perspiration,
would result in the garment clinging to the body and ultimately affect-
ing the players’ performance as well as reducing the product’s aesthetic
appeal. Therefore, as part of the product development process, it was
essential to test the product in order to make improvements prior to the
tournament.
The study undertaken between Puma and the academics at
Manchester Metropolitan University was to determine how well the
football shirt would perform at three stages – prematch, during play
and postmatch – in relation to the following factors:

• Analysis of injuries during performance

• Warming up and cooling down exercises
• Base layer protectors
• Hydration levels
• Interaction between body and layer during contact

The researchers were then able to categorise the factors into two
main areas: comfort and comfort control. The approach involved both
a qualitative and quantitative approach in the form of a focus group
and laboratory tests.
During the focus group, the researchers were able to collect exten-
sive data in relation to the interaction between the wearer and product
performance, particularly during the ‘warming up’ and ‘cooling down’
phases. From these findings, they were able to recommend the use of
thermochromatic dyes that changed colour when they interacted with
the changes in body temperature, suggesting that this would counter-
act some of the negative psychological impact the players may experi-
ence from the physiological changes encountered during both phases.
However, Puma wanted to maintain the aesthetic qualities of the
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256 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

garment throughout performance and it was felt that this would add
further discomfort to the players in relation to team identity.
During phase two of the study, the academics undertook quantita-
tive research to test football shirts within a controlled laboratory set-
ting. The laboratory was prepared to simulate environments similar
to the locations where the Euro 2008 tournaments were to be played
in Austria and Switzerland. Both of these countries encountered simi-
lar weather patterns and, during the tournament from 7 to 29 June,
the average temperate ranged between 13°C and 24°C, with an average
wind speed of between 6 and 9 km/h and an average wind gust speed
of between 43 and 48 km/h.
The Puma shirt was tested against two other shirts of their main
sportswear competitors. It was then proposed that there would be
four main areas associated with the predicted weather conditions in
order to provide comfort factors prematch and postmatch and during
performance:

• Ventilation with dry fabrics

• Ventilation with sweaty fabrics
• Insulation with dry fabrics
• Insulation with sweaty fabrics

Within the controlled laboratory environment, an industrial fan was

used to simulate wind and a treadmill used to simulate running on
the pitch as well as a thermistor to measure skin temperature. Each
shirt was tested four times (twice with wind, twice without) and skin
temperature was measured on the upper arm, upper back, chest and
abdomen. The garments were weighed before and after exercise.
Through the interviews and laboratory tests, the data collected
allowed the researchers to conclude that the area which required the
most ventilation was the upper back, which is consistent with several
studies (Sweeney and Branson, 1990; Okubo, Saeki and Yamamoto,
2008; Hassan et al., 2012) in relation to sweat production during exer-
cise. The Puma shirt and one other were similar in ventilation and
insulation as both were made of similar mesh fabrics. However, the
Puma shirt was superior in relation to reducing sweat mark visibility
during the study. In addition to this, there was a limited negative effect
on the aesthetic qualities.
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Garment Fit and Consumer Perception of Sportswear 257

process. As consumers develop more sophisticated requirements for sports-

wear clothing in relation to function and fit, the gap between the functional
requirements of the professional sportsperson and the consumer is clos-
ing rapidly as demonstrated through technological advancements in prod-
uct development. Three-dimensional technology provides the platform
for garment simulation essential to custom fit sportswear, which has been
used extensively in the development of professional sportswear apparel.
Consumers now expect sportswear garments to fit exactly to the shapes of
their bodies without restricting movements and with a great deal of comfort.
In addition to this, their unique physiology needs to be addressed during
the pattern development process, allowing the wearer to perform complex
movements such as running, walking and jumping. Within this, fabric plays
an important role to enhance the performance of the wearer as well as to
offer some protection.
In addressing the psychology of fit, sports apparel in many cases has a per-
sonal association to the professional sportsperson and the consumer. This is
increasingly important in team cohesion, which can improve performance.
However, as fashion often dictates fit, therein lie many problems in how to
ensure that fit, function and consumer needs are met.

10.6 Future Developments
Considering fit in sportswear, future developments in terms of greater theo-
retical underpinnings are necessary. These require a detailed understand-
ing of the body, its anatomy and how it functions in a discipline specific
environment. These considerations will likely be influenced by gender and
should be sensitive to the culture of both the country and the sport as an
influence over subjective perceptions. Technology like body scanning can
help provide the detailed measurement and visual analysis which can better
inform clothing engineering, though full benefits will not be realised until
these data can be suitably linked to more subjective evaluations related to fit
perceptions of individual wearers.

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 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
11
Evaluating the Performance
of Fabrics for Sportswear

Praburaj Venkatraman

CONTENTS
11.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 262
11.2 Physical Measurements for Woven and Knitted Fabrics...................... 263
11.2.1 Fabric Area Density........................................................................ 264
11.2.2 Fabric Thickness.............................................................................. 265
11.2.3 Fabric Bulk Density........................................................................ 266
11.2.4 Fabric Construction........................................................................ 267
11.2.5 Fabric Cover Factor......................................................................... 267
11.2.6 Fabric Count.................................................................................... 268
11.3 Evaluating Durability................................................................................. 269
11.3.1 Abrasion Resistance........................................................................ 269
11.3.2 Fabric Pilling.................................................................................... 271
11.4 Fabric Handle in Sportswear..................................................................... 274
11.4.1 Fabric Stiffness................................................................................ 274
11.4.2 Fabric Drape..................................................................................... 275
11.4.3 Fabric Stretch and Recovery.......................................................... 276
11.5 Measurement of Fabric Comfort............................................................... 277
11.5.1 Wicking and Its Effect on Fabric Comfort................................... 278
11.5.2 Moisture Management Tester....................................................... 278
11.5.3 Influence of Moisture Transfer in Functional Clothing
(Permetest)....................................................................................... 280
11.6 Fabric Specifications and Interpreting Results....................................... 282
11.7 Summary...................................................................................................... 285
References.............................................................................................................. 286

261
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
262 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

11.1 Introduction
Evaluation of fabrics for their performance is mandatory, particularly dur-
ing design and development of sportswear and performance apparel. By
investigating the properties of fabrics through textile testing it is possible to
determine their suitability for their intended application. Specific fibre types
can be blended to meet consumer requirements; for instance, in sportswear
stretch plays an important role in adapting to various body movements (Roy,
2014). Stretch can also be controlled in specific directions, which allows sup-
port to specific muscles. The X-BIONIC® bib tight (X-BIONIC, 2014) has the
ability to apply pressure to specific muscles as well as to transport mois-
ture during intensive sessions of the sport. Such a product design would not
exist if properties of materials were not explored in the first instance. ISPO

TABLE 11.1
Various Sports and Their Requirements
Popular Frequently Used
Sport Fabrics Used Product Name Specific Properties
Cycling Brushed knitted fabrics Cycling tights Three-way stretch
with stretch Insulation during
winter
Soft next to the skin
Skiing Warp knitted fabric Base layer thermal Thermal resistance
Stretch and recovery
Moisture permeable
Single weft knit, Midlayer fleece Thermal insulation
napped technical back
Breathable coated Outer shell jackets Waterproof
woven fabrics (high Breathable
density) Durable
Running Warp/weft knitted Compression tights Stretch and recovery
fabric with Comfort
bidirectional stretch
Knitted fabric Tops and leggings
Woven fabric Jogging shorts Lightweight
Quick drying
Football Warp and weft knit Tights Stretch and recovery
Moisture permeable
Knitted fabric Tops Comfortable/moisture
management
Woven fabric Trousers Durable
Swimming Woven and knit fabrics Female/male Stretch and recovery
with elastomeric swimsuits
filaments
Training jackets and Quick drying
trousers
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 263

Snow boarding Climbing Running Ski jumping

Golf Trekking Football Ice skating

Bicycling Rock climbing Swimming Wind surfing

Exercise Horse riding Tennis Kayaking

FIGURE 11.1
Different types of individual sports.

TEXTRENDS 2015/2016 categorises fabrics used in sports apparel into eight

applications: base layer, second layer, outer layer, membrane and coatings,
fibres for insulation, trims, accessories and soft equipment used in sports.
Evaluation of sportswear involves a series of tests to ascertain the perfor-
mance of the garment and accessories and it varies based on the application
and requirements (Table 11.1). The most important aspect in sportswear is
moisture management and thermal balance.
In this chapter, specific test methods relating to fabric durability, fabric
handle, stretch and recovery, moisture transport, water vapour permeability
and thermal resistance are discussed. The test methods are referred to in
British standards, which provide definition of various parameters. Examples
are included to enable the reader to interpret the test results and explana-
tion is provided on how these parameters affect garment performance and
research relating to these parameters (Figure 11.1).

11.2 Physical Measurements for Woven and Knitted Fabrics

Fabrics’ physical parameters play an important role in determining their charac-
teristics and are widely used by professionals as ‘specifications’ whilst making
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
264 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

decisions such as suitability for a particular end use or to communicate across

the fashion supply chain. In this section, the following parameters will be
discussed:

• Fabric area density or fabric weight

• Fabric thickness
• Fabric bulk density
• Fabric construction
• Fabric count
• Fabric cover factor

11.2.1 Fabric Area Density

Fabric weight is mass per unit area, denoted in grams per square metre
(g/m2). It is an important fabric property that is often used in determining
the fabric cost and quality. For woven fabrics it is calculated by preparing a
fabric specimen to a dimension of 100 × 100 mm and weighing it on a scale.
The resultant value is multiplied by 100 to calculate it for a metre. In indus-
try, the fabric area density is also calculated using a gsm (grams per square
metre) cutter (Figure 11.2), which is circular in shape.
For knitted fabrics,

area density = (s × l × T) ÷ 100

where
s = stitch density per square centimetre
l = stitch length – length of yarn in a knitted loop
T = yarn count in tex units (Anand, 2000)

FIGURE 11.2
Fabric gsm cutter. (Image courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 265

TABLE 11.2
Fabric Weight for Fabrics Used in Sportswear
Grams/Square
Fabric Type Metre (g/m 2) Function/End Uses
Very lightweight fabric 18 Base layer, lightweight, moisture
management, smooth fabric worn next
to skin
Lightweight fabric <100 Midlayer fabric used for tops, trousers,
trainers, etc.
Medium weight fabric 130–180 Soft shell fabrics used in outer layer jackets;
these are either laminated or coated with
finishes
Heavyweight fabrics 250+ Hard shell heavyweight fabrics used for
jackets, trousers and high-performance
technical materials used for outdoor
applications

Stitch density refers to the total number of loops and is obtained by determin-
ing the wales per centimetre (wpc) and courses per centimetre (cpc) in a mea-
sured area and multiplying both the values, which is 315 cm2. For example, wpc =
15 and cpc = 21 for single jersey fabric, and the stitch density is obtained mul-
tiplying these values. A typical stitch length is 2.55 and yarn count 16 tex. The
area density for a knitted fabric is obtained using the formula on the previous
page, which is 128.5 g/m2. Fabric weight affects the fabric stiffness, especially
the bending rigidity, particularly in the warp direction (Mandal and Abraham,
2009). Table 11.2 classifies area density of fabrics based on the application.

11.2.2 Fabric Thickness
Fabric thickness is the distance between the upper and lower surface
of the fabric and is measured using a thickness gauge or tester (Figure
11.3). The test sample is placed between two reference plates which exert
a known pressure on the sample. The distance between plates is recorded
in millimetres (BS EN ISO 5084:1997). The fabric thickness affects garment
production, especially in adjusting the sewing machine settings. This
could be selection of a needle or fabric feed system. Selection of needle
depends on the stitch density (seams per inch) required. In sportswear,
stitch density of base layer apparel is finer than for a jacket. For knitwear,
a ball-pointed tip is preferred because it prevents fabric damage (ladder-
ing effect). For instance, consider the case of knitted stretch fabrics with
fine thickness that slip during sewing, resulting in fabric being gathered
or staggered; in this case, a differential feed system at the top and bottom
will be used in the sewing machine. One end will feed the fabric quickly
and the other feeds slowly, resulting in a good-quality seam. Fabric thick-
ness also affects the overall performance of a garment, especially the
abrasion resistance of fabrics; the higher the fabric thickness, the higher
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
266 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 11.3
Fabric thickness tester. (Image courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)

TABLE 11.3
Fabric Thickness
Type Thickness (mm)
Thin <0.20
Medium 0.23–0.46
Thick >0.47
Source: Collier, B. J. and Epps, H. H. (1999).
Textile testing and analysis. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson, Prentice-Hall Inc.

the resistance to abrasive action (Özdil, Kayseri and Mengüç, 2012). Table 11.3
generally classifies the thickness of fabrics.

11.2.3 Fabric Bulk Density

Fabric bulk density takes into account the fabric weight and thickness. It rep-
resents the bulkiness of the fabric relative to its thickness. It is an important
factor in determining the garment comfort. A thick fabric with an average
weight is more comfortable in cold conditions or outdoor sports; on the other
hand, a thin fabric of the same weight will be ideal in warm conditions. It is
generally expressed in grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3). Bulk density is
calculated using the following equation:

fabric thickness in cm × fabric weight in g/cm2

Bulk density =
10,000
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 267

11.2.4 Fabric Construction
The repeat of the design is presented by shading the box that represents the
warp interlacing over the weft yarn. This is called ‘fabric design’ construc-
tion (Figures 11.4 and 11.5).

11.2.5 Fabric Cover Factor

Cover factor for woven fabrics indicates the extent to which a fabric area is
covered by one set of yarns. In woven fabrics, cover factor is determined in
warp and weft directions. In knitted fabrics, cover factor is also termed as
tightness factor. It is generally denoted by K. It is calculated using the for-
mula for woven fabrics

threads per cm tex

K=
10

Warp yarn
direction
Warp Warp Warp Warp
1 2 3 4
Weft
4

Weft
Weft yarn 3
Three
direction warp
Weft
2 yarn
interlaces
over weft
Weft
1 yarns

Plain weave representation (1/1) Twill weave representation (3/2)

Step 2 Step 1 Indicates warp floats

Step 1 Step 2

Step 1 Step 2
Indicates weft interlacing

Dark shaded boxes indicate the

Step 1 Step 2

Step 1 Step 2
warp yarns float over weft yarns

Satin weave representation

with 2-step

FIGURE 11.4
Plain weave, twill and satin weave.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
268 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Point paper for rib galting Point paper for interlock galting
Needles are staggered Needles are opposite to each other
Reverse loop
D Closed loop D

C Open loop C
Face loop

D Tuck loop D

C Float C

D represents dial needles; C represents cylinder needles

Point paper and symbols for weft knit structure

FIGURE 11.5
Point paper for weft knitted fabric representation. (From Taylor, 1999.)

Tightness factor for knitted fabrics is

tex
K=
stitch length in mm

11.2.6 Fabric Count
A fabric counter or magnifying glass is used to determine fabric count.
Fabric count is assessed by counting the number of courses and wales in
knitted fabrics (Figure 11.6a) and counting the number of warp or weft yarns
in woven fabric (Figure 11.6b). The fabric count plays an important role in
determining the closeness of the weave or knit that affects various proper-
ties such as porosity, permeability and durability of the fabric.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 11.6
(a) Knitted fabric structure. (b) Woven fabric structure. (From Dreamstime.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 269

11.3 Evaluating Durability
Durability is one of the important parameters when selecting a fabric for a
particular end use. Sports activity involves repeated body movements and
sportswear can abrade in several ways – for instance, fabric rubbing with
another layer of fabric; fabric abrading in particular areas including crotch,
knee and underarms; fabric rubbing against another object due to tripping
or falling or garment abrasion while laundering. Abrasion can also occur
between yarns and fibres when fabric is stretched repeatedly. The effect of
fabric abrasion depends on various elements: fibre type and its properties,
yarn quality and its structure and fabric construction.
Factors that affect abrasion resistance of fabrics include:

• Presence of longer fibres in the yarn offer better resistance to abra-

sion than short fibres.
• Increased fibre diameter enhances resistance to a certain extent.
• Optimum yarn twist offers good resistance to abrasion.
• Increasing yarn linear density increases resistance with a constant
fabric density.
• Uniform yarn crimp in the fabric (warp and weft) enables even wear
across the fabric.
• Warp or weft floats are highly susceptible to abrasion.
• Fabric weight and its relative thickness affect the abrasion resistance.
• Abrasion also depends on fabric count (ends and picks per inch): the
more threads per inch, the lesser the wear.
• Type of yarns also affects abrasion resistance, for instance, air jet
spun yarn has high resistance to abrasion, ring spun yarn possesses
moderate resistance and open-end spun yarn possesses low resis-
tance to abrasion.

11.3.1 Abrasion Resistance
The usual method to evaluate fabric abrasion is a Martindale abrasion tes-
ter, where the instrument (BS EN ISO 12947-1:1998) subjects a specimen to
a uniform rubbing motion (Lissajou’s figure), which is repeated until two
threads are broken (woven fabric). Various methods used to determine the
end of the test are the evaluation of change in before- and after-sample
weight, change in colour using a colour change chart (ISO 105 A02) or
examining whether the sample distortion is being rubbed away and com-
pletion of a specified number of cycles (Cohen et al., 2010). However, this
section discusses the Taber abrasion tester (BS EN ISO 5470-1:1999) that
works on the principle of a rotary platform, which tests flat abrasion and
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
270 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

is intended for heavier woven and knitted fabrics as the abrading action
is severe (Figure 11.7). In this method, the instrument uses a flat abrasive
action in which the fabric is placed on a rotary platform and is abraded by
two abrasive wheels. Six samples of dimension 114 ± 1 mm diameter with
a central hole of diameter 6.35 mm are chosen and conditioned. The load
applied can be varied depending upon the type of abrasion required – for
instance, from very gentle (2.5 N) to harsh action (9.8 N). Similarly, the
rotary wheels can be either rubber and abrasive grain or a vitrified version
depending on the required abrasive action. The sample weight is measured
prior to test in milligrams. To determine the average rate of loss in mass,
the loss in mass for every 100 cycles should be recorded. The end of the test
is determined by change in colour of the abraded portion, change in mass
or change in surface distortion.
Laminated or coated or heavy multilayered fabrics that are intended for
jackets, trousers, backpacks and footwear (e.g. Cordura® Naturalle) are often
subjected to this test to evaluate their resistance to abrasion. Three heavy-
weight woven fabrics that are intended for outer wear for jackets were ran-
domly selected: fabric 1 (282 g/m2), fabric 2 (375 g/m2) and fabric 3 (245 g/­m2).
Fabric 1 is laminated at its back side; fabrics 2 and 3 are coated fabrics. The
standard load of 7.35 N was applied and an abradant H18 (nonresilient) vitri-
fied surface that applied medium abrasive action.
It could be observed from Table 11.4 that in the case of fabric 1, the speci-
men endured surface distortion between 300 and 500 cycles, and rate of
loss of mass is higher especially at 500 cycles. At 500 cycles, the top surface
of the fabric was lost, leaving the coating exposed. In the case of fabric 2,
the rate of loss of mass varied, the fabric surface was distorted and loss of

FIGURE 11.7
Taber abrasion tester. (Image courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 271

TABLE 11.4
Percentage Change in Mass
Abrasion Resistance Fabric 1 (Yellow) Fabric 2 (Green) Fabric 3 (Camo)
Initial weight (mg) 2530 3260 2080
Average 100 cycles 4.74% (2410 mg) 1.84% (3200 mg) 2.40% (2030 mg)
rate of loss 200 cycles 5.13% (2400 mg) 3.37% (3150 mg) 2.88% (2020 mg)
in mass 300 cycles 6.32% (2370 mg) 5.52% (3080 mg) 5.05% (1980 mg)
400 cycles 7.50% (2340 mg) 6.44% (3050 mg) 5.76% (1960 mg)
500 cycles 7.90% (2330 mg) 8.58% (2980 mg) 6.25% (1950 mg)
Average 6.32% 5.15% 4.46%

Before After 500 cycles Before After 500 cycles

Before After 500 cycles

FIGURE 11.8
Taber abrasion test results.

colour was also noted. However, the fabric structure remained unaltered.
The thickness of fabric 3 was less compared to remaining samples, and
fabric surface was distorted with change in colour and threadbare was also
noted at 500 cycles. The samples are illustrated in Figure 11.8, which shows
the material at the start and at the end of 500 cycles.

11.3.2 Fabric Pilling
Pilling is a fault commonly observed in knitted woollen goods or fabrics
made from soft twist yarns. Pilling occurs when rubbing action in wear
causes loose fibres from the surface of yarn coils/loops to form pills on the
fabric surface due to brushing up with a surface (washing or daily wear).
Formation of fuzz on the fabric surface can be due to

• Brushing of free fibre ends from yarn structure

• Formation of fibre loops into fibre fuzz (Figure 11.9)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
272 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 11.9
Typical knit fabric with surface fuzz.

In fabrics with synthetic fibre content the pills are stronger and remain on
the fabric surface, causing unsightly appearance to the product.
In this method (BS EN ISO 12945-1:2001), fabrics are subjected to constant
rotation in a pill box (Figure 11.10) to tease the fibres to form pill and grad-
ing it against the original specimen. The method is suitable to a wide range
of fabrics. The test specimen is conditioned to a temperature of 20°C ± 5°C

FIGURE 11.10
Pilling box used to measure pilling resistance of fabrics. (Image courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 273

and a relative humidity of 65% ± 2% for at least 6 hours. There are five
specimens, each 125 × 125 mm: two for machine direction and two for cross
direction of the fabric; an additional specimen is required for assessment.
A sample specimen is sewn to form a tube and is mounted on a polyure-
thane tube as shown in Figure 11.11. At the end of the set number of revolu-
tions (18,000) the test specimen is assessed visually using the pictures as
shown in Figure 11.12. Pilling is graded visually using a rating scale where
5 indicates no change and 1 indicates dense fuzz (Table 11.5).

PVC tape
6 mm

Test specimen

Polyurethane tube

FIGURE 11.11
Preparation of sample for pilling test.

FIGURE 11.12
Pilling assessment photographs. (Image courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)

TABLE 11.5
Visual Assessment: Fabric Pilling
Rating Description Notes
5 No change No visible change
4 Slight change Slight surface fuzzing
3 Moderate change Exhibits fuzzing and/or pills
2 Significant change Distinct fuzzing and/or pilling
1 Severe change Dense fuzzing and/or pilling covering specimen
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
274 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

11.4 Fabric Handle in Sportswear

In the fashion industry, a number of personnel handle fabrics to test their suit-
ability to an end use, especially during manufacturing. Fabric handle is an indi-
vidual’s response to touch when a fabric is handled. This could also refer to how
a fabric drapes. A number of subjective attributes have been used to refer to
fabric handle – for instance, smooth, rough, stiff, soft, crisp, silky, etc. Subjective
grading is often not consistent, as what a person perceives as appealing may not
be appealing for another person. In this section, various methods to determine
the fabric handle are discussed which can be utilised to characterise the fabrics
for performance and determine relevance to a particular end use. These are fab-
ric stiffness, fabric drape and crease recovery. Fabric stiffness refers to the ability
of the fabric to bend on its own weight. Stiffness refers to resistance to bending.
In casual sports tops, the most widely preferred fabric is a single jersey, which is
not stiff compared to a tightly woven twill fabric.

11.4.1 Fabric Stiffness
In this method (BS 3356:1990), bending length is measured, in which a rect-
angular strip of material (200 × 25 mm) is slowly slid on a horizontal grip

(a)

Scale Mirror
Fabric

Mark

(b)

FIGURE 11.13
(a) Shirley stiffness tester. (b) Close-up view. (Images courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 275

as shown in the diagram (Figure 11.13a and b) until the edge of the fabric
touches the marked line. The length of material protruding beyond the edge
is recorded. The test is repeated separately in warp and weft directions
over a number of times (n = 5) and the average bending length is reported.
Generally, a stiffer fabric possesses a greater length compared to a limp fab-
ric. Care should be taken to ensure the test sample is conditioned and the
experiment conducted in a standard atmosphere.
Flexural rigidity (G) is calculated using the equation G = 0.1 MC 3,
which determines the resistance of fabrics to bending by external forces.
M is mass per unit area in grams per square centimetre and C is bend-
ing length in centimetres. Flexural rigidity is reported in milligrams per
centimetre.

11.4.2 Fabric Drape
Drape is a characteristic of a material to freely fall or hang over a three-
dimensional form. This parameter is important to determine fabric han-
dle. In this method (BS 5058:1973), a fabric specimen of 30 cm diameter for
medium fabrics (24 cm diameter for limp fabrics; 36 cm diameter for stiff fab-
rics) is placed on a circular disc (Figure 11.14) and the specimen is allowed to
drape on its own weight. Using a light source placed beneath the specimen,
a shadow of the draped specimen is cast on a paper ring (Figure 11.14a). The
outline of the fabric shadow is traced on the paper (of known mass, W0) and
the traced paper ring is weighed (W1). Drape coefficient is calculated as the
percentage of the total area of the paper ring obtained by vertically project-
ing the shadow of the draped specimen.
A fabric with a drape coefficient closer to 100% is stiffer, whilst a fab-
ric with drape coefficient closer to zero is pliable and more drapable. In
woven fabric, grain affects drape in garments. Figure 11.14b illustrates a

(a) (b)

FIGURE 11.14
(a) Drape meter. (b) Shadow of the draped specimen. (Images courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
276 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

plain single jersey fabric whose drape coefficient was 20%, indicating a
limp fabric:

W1
Drape coefficient (%) = × 100
W0

where W1 is weight of paper in the shadow region (g) and W0 is weight of

paper ring (g).
The experiment is repeated for six specimens and the average is reported
and is carried out in standard atmospheric conditions (BS 1051) (i.e. a relative
humidity of 65% ± 2% and a temperature of 20°C ± 2°C). Limp fabrics are
difficult to handle during the garment manufacture, mainly during fabric
laying-up, spreading and stitching. Stiff fabrics are difficult to form body
form shapes, particularly shoulder, armhole, etc.

11.4.3 Fabric Stretch and Recovery

The importance of stretch and recovery was highlighted in Chapter 7.
During wearing and removal of knitwear or certain sportswear, stretch is
an important parameter. BS 4294:1968 is commonly used to determine the
stretch and recovery of woven and knit fabrics using the apparatus Fryma
fabric extensiometer. It consists of two jaws (75 mm wide) – a fixed and a
movable jaw capable of holding the specimen without slippage (see Figure
11.15). The apparatus is capable of applying a load of 6 kg. The conditioned
test specimen is prepared to 200 × 75 ± 1 mm in both warp and weft direc-
tions for woven fabrics and course and weft directions for knit fabrics. The
number of test specimens is usually five in both directions.
For most knitted fabrics, the distance between the inner edges of two clamps
is set at 75 mm (L1) and 200 mm for woven fabrics. A reference ‘mark’ is made
on the fabric at the inner edges of the clamp using a marker. The load (e.g. 6 kg
for knits) is applied slowly for 10 seconds and immediately reduced within
7.5 seconds; the test specimen returns to the original position. Immediately,
the load is reapplied for 1 minute and the stretch of the fabrics is recorded (L2).
Now the load is reduced and clamps are brought to the original position. The
test specimen is removed from the apparatus and allowed to remain flat for
1 minute and the distance between the two reference marks is now recorded (L3).
Using the preceding values, the stretch properties of the fabric are calculated:

L2 − L1
Mean extension (%) = 100× ;
L1
L3 − L1
Mean residual extension (%) = 100×
L1
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Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 277

FIGURE 11.15
Fryma extensiometer. (Image courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)

On a general note, fabrics that offer stretch are expected to recover within
3% of the original extension (Saville, 1999). The stretch and recovery properties
of fabrics are essential whilst designing garments for sportswear, particularly
those that can stretch either in one direction (warp or weft) or in both the direc-
tions. In addition, it is very important to comprehend the amount of stretch
required for different body movements. Voyce, Dafniotis and Towlson (2005)
explained how a person’s skin stretches considerably with some key areas of
stretch including 35% to 45% at knees and elbows and 13% to 16% at the shoul-
der back; with sporting activities increasing such numbers, stretch of sports-
wear apparel is a key element for comfort. Normal body movement expands
the skin by 10% to 50% and strenuous movements in sports will require least
resistance from garment and instant recovery. Hence, it is vital that stretch and
recovery values are taken into account while creating fabric panels for gar-
ment manufacture, particularly those that are intended for form-fitting gear
for swimming, cycling, etc. For a compression top made of warp knit struc-
ture with fibre composition of 63% nylon, 23% polyester and 14% elastane, the
typical stretch and recovery values are stretch in course direction – 95%; wale
direction – 94%; recovery – 96% in course direction and 95% in wale direction
(Allsop, 2012). This indicates that the fabric can provide uniform stretch in
both directions, which is ideal for compression sportswear.

11.5 Measurement of Fabric Comfort

Athletes perceive comfort as an important factor while making a purchase
or selecting a garment for training or an event. During intensive sport, the
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278 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

core temperature of the human body changes and perspires to balance the
excessive heat (Pocock and Richards, 2009). The most important factor while
designing sportswear is moisture management and wicking. Performance of
fabrics is affected by a combination of fibre properties and composition, yarn
formation and fabric structure (see Chapter 3).
In sportswear, particularly athletic apparel, fabrics chosen should have
quick-drying and good wicking properties to handle excess sweat produced
by the body. Zhou, Yu and Qin (2014) highlighted that fibres with greater
surface area had better wicking. They reported the comfort properties of six
interlock knitted fabrics made from various blends of chemically and physi-
cally modified polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibre with trefoil cross sec-
tion and cotton fibres with trefoil cross section and cotton fibres. Modified
polyester fibre had enhanced moisture management, particularly 35% PET
and 65% cotton blend knitted fabric.

11.5.1 Wicking and Its Effect on Fabric Comfort

Wicking is the movement of liquid by capillary action, provided that the
liquid wets the assembly of fibres so that it can move from its source to some
distance against the gravitational forces by occupying the available capillary
spaces. The smallest capillary possesses greater capillary forces, hence the
wickability. Wicking depends upon the surface properties of fibres, surface
area, density, thickness and the capillary path through the fabric. Moreover,
the rate of wicking is different along warp (wale) than weft (course) direction.

11.5.2 Moisture Management Tester

The moisture management tester (MMT) was developed by Hong Kong
Polytechnic University and SDL Atlas Textile Testing Solutions to deter-
mine the dynamic liquid transport properties of knitted and woven
fabrics. The test method depends on the change in the contact electrical
resistance of fabric during moisture transport (Yao et al., 2008). The appa-
ratus is used to measure the liquid transport in multiple directions. MMT
consists of upper and lower concentric moisture sensors (Figure 11.16).
The predefined amount of saline solution (simulated sweat) is introduced
onto the upper side of the fabric, which allows the saline to spread onto
the fabric outer surface, through the fabric and lower surface of the fabric.
The following six moisture management properties are measured:

1. Wetting time for top (WTt) and bottom (WT b) surfaces in seconds
2. Absorption rate for top (ARt) and bottom (ARb) surfaces of the fabric
in percentage per second
3. Maximum wetted radius (mm) for top (MWRt) and bottom (MWRb)
surfaces of the fabric in millimetres
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Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 279

FIGURE 11.16
Moisture management tester (MMT). (Image courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)

4. Spreading speed for top surface (SSt) and bottom surface (SSb) in mil-
limetres per second
5. Accumulated one-way transport capacity in percentage
6. Overall moisture management capacity (OMMC)

MMT is connected to a personal computer and software records the mois-

ture transport through the fabric and produces various illustration including
water content versus time, water location versus time (Figure 11.17) and fin-
gerprint of moisture management properties (Figure 11.18). McQueen et al.
(2013) reported a development of a protocol to assess the fabric suitability for
testing moisture management properties using MMT.
MMT grades fabric for six indices and classifies fabrics as waterproof fabric,
water-repellent fabric, slow-absorbing and slow-drying fabric, fast-absorbing and
slow-drying fabric, fast absorbing and quick-drying fabric, water-­penetration
fabric and moisture-management fabric (See fingerprint.). The moisture man-
agement equipment has been recognised by the American Association for
Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) in its test method AATCC 195:2009.
MMT is suitable to determine the liquid transport in multiple directions,
and fingerprint (see Figure 11.18) is a useful and instant method to identify
the moisture management of fabrics. For instance, in the sample as shown
in Figure 11.18, the top wetting time is very good (grade 4), absorption rate is
good (grade 3), top surface wetting radius is very good and spreading speed
was between grades 3 and 4, indicating good wicking capacity. It could be
noted that the top surface wicks and transports moisture better than the bot-
tom surface. The one-way transport of liquid was also excellent. The finger-
print also provides the overall moisture management as very good (grade 4). It
could be observed that the fabric is suitable for moisture management, where
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280 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 11.17
MMT output – water location versus time. (Image courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)

FIGURE 11.18
Fingerprint for moisture management properties. (Image courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)

the top surface of the fabric wicks moisture slightly more than the bottom
surface of the fabric. The surface of the fabric that wicks away the moisture
quickly would be in contact with the skin and helps to prevent stickiness due
to excess perspiration during intense activity.

11.5.3 Influence of Moisture Transfer in Functional Clothing (Permetest)

Permetest was developed by Sensora Instrument, Czech Republic, which
measures water vapour resistance, relative water vapour permeability and
thermal resistance of woven, knitted and nonwoven fabrics (Hes, 2014). The
equipment works on ISO 11092 standard that measures the thermal and
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 281

water vapour resistance under steady-state conditions (sweating guarded

hot plate test). Bogusławska-Bączek and Hes (2013) recently presented the
working principle of Permetest as a skin model that provides a reliable mea-
surement of the water vapour permeability of fabrics in dry and wet states.
Permetest is often called a ‘skin model’, where the instrument measures the
water vapour permeability of fabrics. This instrument simulates the wet and
dry human skin conditions in terms of thermal feeling and serves for the
determination of water vapour permeability of fabrics (Figure 11.19). The
instrument works on the principle of heat flux sensing. When water flows
into the measuring head, some amount of heat is lost. This instrument mea-
sures the heat loss from the measuring head due to the evaporation of water
in bare conditions and while being covered by the fabric. The relative water
vapour permeability of the fabric sample is calculated by the ratio of heat loss
from the measuring head with and without fabric. Das et al. (2009) reported
the water vapour permeability of blended fabrics using Permetest.
The results are presented in the equipment as well as via software con-
nected to a PC. The image in Figure 11.20 illustrates a typical output from the
Permetest. The instrument also allows recording the test and calculating sim-
ple statistical test, mean, median and standard deviation. The relative water
vapour permeability (RWVP) is determined using the following formula:

Heat lost with the fabric placed on measuring head (u1 )

RWVP = × 100
Heat lost with bare measuring head (uo )

Table 11.6 highlights the results of widely used sports fabrics (base layer,
fleece, coated fabric and outer layer) including dry thermal resistance, rela-
tive water vapour permeability and water vapour resistance.

FIGURE 11.19
Permetest. (Image courtesy of MMU Textile Lab.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
282 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 11.20
Typical output from Permetest.

TABLE 11.6
Outcomes from Permetest
Water Vapour Relative Water Dry Thermal
Resistance Vapour Resistance
Type of Material (m 2 Pa W–1) Permeability (%) (km 2W–1)
Base layer knit 1 3.7 72.8 2.8
(skins)
Base layer knit 1 4.0 75.3 2.8
(SUD)
Fleece 7.3 57.1 7.9
Coated fabric (grey 8.5 54.0 Not applicable as the
woven fabric) fabric is very thin
Outer layer 4.2 67.1 Not applicable as the
fabric is very thin

11.6 Fabric Specifications and Interpreting Results

Table 11.7 presents the experimental values relating to fabric’s physical char-
acteristics, durability, aesthetics and fabric comfort, which are some of the
vital prerequisites for a fabric to find its usage in sportswear and perfor-
mance clothing. The woven material made of 100% polyester is a lightweight
fabric intended for midlayer soft shell jackets that is water repellent, whilst
the knitted fabric is medium weight fabric with a water-repellent finish
intended to be used as tops for men and women. The woven fabric has a
1/1 plain weave structure in which both sides of the fabric appear similar,
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Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 283

TABLE 11.7
Example Fabric Specification
Properties 01 Woven Fabric 02 Knitted Fabric
Fabric physical Area density (g/m2) 115 255
characteristics Bulk density (g/cm3) 0.64 0.39
Thickness (mm) 0.18 0.66
Fabric cover (K) factor/ 13.5 + 6.3 11.0
stitch density
Fabric structure 1/1 plain weave Single jersey
Fibre composition (%) 100% polyester Polyester/Lycra
Yarn count (tex) Warp 5.0 20.0
Weft 12.0
Fabric density Woven fabric (ends per 100 × 72 NA
inch × picks per inch)
Knitted fabric (courses per NA 22 × 15
cm and wales per cm)
Durability Fabric pilling (grade) 5 4
Abrasion Change in Very minor change Slight increase
resistance colour in shade
@ 10,000 Rate of loss Nil 0.01
of mass
Threadbare No No
Aesthetics Fabric handle stiffness Warp Weft Wales Courses
Flexural rigidity (μNm) 12.0 4.3 2.8 0.5
Bending modulus (N/m2) 0.4 0.1 0.1 0
Fabric drape coefficient (%) 55.3 17.41
Comfort Moisture transport Waterproof Water-repellent
(wicking) fabric (see fabric
fingerprint)
Stretch and recovery Not applicable Wale Courses
Mean extension 79% 146%
Mean residual extension 2.66% 6.75%
Water vapour resistance 11.7 4.3
(Pa m2/W)
Absolute water vapour 45.5 65.3
permeability (%)
Thermal resistance Not applicable due 53.0
(m2 K/W) to fabric thickness
<0.2 mm

and the knitted fabric is a single jersey, which possesses a distinct technical
face and back. It is made of polyester and Lycra. Fabric thickness of woven
fabric is less than 0.20 mm whilst the knitted fabric is 0.66 mm. Fabric thick-
ness plays an important role during joining of fabrics, especially in main-
taining the pressure at the presser foot of a sewing machine. Fabric cover
factor determines the extent to which a set of yarn covers the area of a fabric.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
284 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

The warp cover factor 13.5 and weft cover factor 6.3 indicate that the area
covered by warp yarns exceeds weft yarns. In the case of the knitted fabric,
the tightness factor indicates the extent to which the area of the knitted fab-
ric is covered by the yarn. Generally, yarn count affects the tightness factor
of a knitted fabric. The tightness factor of 11.0 indicates the fabric has an
optimal level of closeness. In the case of woven fabric, warp yarns are finer
(5 tex) than the weft yarn (12 tex). In the case of knitted fabric, yarn count
is of medium quality (20 tex). The fabric count for woven fabric of 100 × 72
indicates the fabric is an unbalanced weave, where warp yarns (100) exceed
the weft yarns (72). In the case of knitted fabric, 24 courses per centimetre ×
15 wales per centimetre indicates that the fabric has moderate closeness or
compactness. This factor affects the ability of the fabric to transmit moisture
between the skin and the environment.
Fabric pilling grade 5 reveals that the fabric performed well, with little or
no surface fuzz; in the case of knitted, there was minor surface fuzz (pill-
ing grade 4). Fabric abrasion resistance reveals that at 10,000 rubs there were
minor colour changes with no change in the mass and threadbare. The abra-
sion resistance for knitted fabrics was good, with little change in mass and
no threadbare and slight increase in shade. Fabric durability depends on
fibre type as well as on fabric structure and yarn fineness. The drape coef-
ficient of 55% indicates that the woven fabric possesses medium drape, such
that it is neither a stiff nor a flexible fabric. However, in the case of knitted
fabric, the drape coefficient of 17.4% indicates that the fabric is pliable. In the
case of fabric stiffness, bending length is observed from which flexural rigid-
ity is calculated. The flexural rigidity is a measure of stiffness that depends
on fabric thickness, yarn count, fabric structure and finishes applied to the
fabric which make the fabric compact. Flexural rigidity of 12.0 μNm in warp
direction and 4.3 μNm in weft direction indicates that the fabric possesses
stiffness in the lengthwise direction compared to the width-wise direction.
In the case of knitted fabric, the flexural rigidity of 2.8 μNm indicates that
the fabric possesses little stiffness; in other words, the fabric is pliable. The
moisture assessment using MMT fabric print indicated that woven fabric is
a waterproof fabric (as there was no wicking) and knitted fabric was water
repellent due to its specific finish. Knitted fabric possessed good stretch in
the width-wise direction (146%) compared to the lengthwise direction (7%),
which is an important parameter, especially in designing base layer garments
worn next to the skin that require stretch and recovery – for instance, in the
seat area, knee flex and back arm flex. It is also important to note that fabric
growth after extension is 2.6% in the wale direction and 7% in the course
direction. This should be considered in designing products as close-fit gar-
ments such as tops for women that may become baggy after repeated usage
that involves intense body stretch (yoga practice or aerobics). In the case of
comfort assessment – water vapour permeability – the compact nature of the
woven fabric resulted in average permeability (45%) compared to knitted fab-
ric, which had a better permeability (65%). The water vapour resistance for
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Evaluating the Performance of Fabrics for Sportswear 285

woven fabric was 11.7 (Pa m2/W) and 4.3 (Pa m2/W) for knitted fabric. This
meant that knitted fabric is comfortable to wear as the moisture permeability
is marginally better than for the woven fabric. Thermal resistance of woven
fabric could not be assessed as the fabric thickness was less than 0.20 mm.
Based on these findings, it could be inferred that the knitted fabric is dura-
ble and it is suitable for active wear applications as it offers good resistance
to pilling and abrasion. In addition, the fabric is flexible, offers stretch in a
width-wise direction and is water repellent, which can be used for outdoor
wear. Fabric possesses good moisture permeability characteristics which
enable the wearer to remain comfortable during an activity. In the case of
the woven fabric, the fabric is suitable for soft shell jackets which offer resis-
tance to wear and tear and have average moisture permeability. Both the
fabrics can be recommended for performance applications targeted to a low
to medium market where the garment usage is less frequent.

11.7 Summary
The sportswear and functional clothing sector drives innovation, particu-
larly in the area of fabric and accessories. Textile testing has been instrumen-
tal in determining the performance of these innovative high-performance
materials. In addition, different types of sporting activities require differ-
ent performance and the choice of fabrics varies. For example, an outdoor
cycling kit requires a fabric that is lightweight, possesses stretch and offers
thermal balance next to the skin. However, ski wear requires good thermal
insulation to protect the wearer from severe cold conditions. The chapter
highlighted the importance of fabric evaluation in determining the fit for
purpose using various textile parameters including physical characteristics,
durability, aesthetics and comfort. Each test parameter was referred to in
British standards and a brief description of the test method was presented
along with the visual illustration of the test equipment. In addition, example
results were also presented to enable the reader to understand the outcomes
and their relevance in fabric assessment (grade). The chapter also empha-
sised the importance of physical characteristics of fabric on its performance.
In the case of performance assessment, various test equipment, including
a Taber abrasion tester, pilling box, stiffness tester, drape meter, moisture
management tester, Fryma extensiometer and Permetest, was discussed. The
final section, which outlined the fabric specification with example results
between woven and knitted fabrics, will enable the reader to interpret test
results and comprehend how performance is assessed using the outcomes.
The test methods discussed in the chapter were presented in the context of
evaluating fabrics used in performance clothing and will serve as an invalu-
able resource to professionals and novices alike.
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286 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

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USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
12
Application of Pressure Sensors
in Monitoring Pressure

David Tyler

CONTENTS
12.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 289
12.1.1 The Challenge of Measuring Pressure........................................ 289
12.1.2 Units of Pressure............................................................................. 291
12.2 Pressure Sensors for Medical Applications............................................ 292
12.2.1 Compression Hosiery: The Hatra Hose Pressure Tester........... 292
12.2.2 Compression Hosiery: The Medical Stocking Tester................. 292
12.2.3 The Kikuhime Tester...................................................................... 293
12.2.4 Overview of Other Test Instruments........................................... 293
12.2.4.1 The Oxford Pressure Monitor MkII.............................. 294
12.2.4.2 The Talley Skin Pressure Evaluator............................... 294
12.2.5 Evaluation of Pressure Sensing Instruments.............................. 296
12.2.6 The PicoPress Instrument.............................................................. 297
12.3 Pressure Sensors for Clothing Applications........................................... 298
12.3.1 Use of Medical Instruments.......................................................... 298
12.3.2 Tekscan Technologies (I-Scan® System)....................................... 299
12.3.3 Tekscan Technologies (FlexiForce)............................................... 302
12.4 Discussion of Laplace’s Law...................................................................... 303
12.5 Summary and Conclusions....................................................................... 306
Acknowledgements............................................................................................. 307
References.............................................................................................................. 307
Further Information............................................................................................. 309

12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 The Challenge of Measuring Pressure
Monitoring pressure distribution using probes and sensors to ascertain the
performance of a wide range of products in medical and clothing compres-
sion wear is important for understanding the efficacy of products.
The technology challenge is substantial, because surfaces are 3D con-
toured and deformable. Textiles can stretch and recover according to their

289
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290 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

construction and fibre type, and human bodies are covered in skin, below
which are various permutations of fat and bone.
Pressure is a term that describes the force applied per unit area. The equa-
tion that allows quantitative measurement of pressure is as follows:

P = F/A (12.1)

where P = pressure, F = applied force and A = area affected by the applied

force.
When an object (like a part of the human body) is in contact with a stretch
fabric (a bandage or a compression garment), it experiences a compressive
force. According to Equation 12.1, the average interface pressure is the total
force divided by the interface area. However, the average pressure is only part
of the story. The human body is not a smooth cylinder, but a complex surface
of extensible skin under which are soft tissues and rigid bones. Furthermore,
stretch fabrics are not simple materials to understand, as they have differ-
ent stretch properties in different directions and exhibit the phenomenon of
relaxation after extension. Consequently, localised interface pressure mea-
surement is necessary to assess the distribution of pressure and to find con-
centrations of peak pressure.
Pressure measurement technologies are designed to map the location and
magnitude of peak pressures and to gain information about pressure gradi-
ents across interfaces. To handle exponential increases in information gath-
ered, computerised systems have been developed to analyse the data and
provide visual representations of the interface being studied.
For medical products, there are numerous tools used for the measure-
ment of compression. For compression hosiery, the Hatra Mk2A+ Hose
Pressure Tester and the Salzmann MST Professional have been developed.
For other applications, the Kikuhime® tester and the PicoPress® instruments
are widely used. These are described in Section 12.2 (with brief mentions of
other technologies).
At a research level, numerous additional sensors have been used for medi-
cal products as well as for clothing. The instruments are constantly chang-
ing, but emphasis is given in Section 12.3 to the use of Tekscan pressure
sensors, including the FlexiForce® interface pressure sensors.
In medical contexts, where compression is applied frequently to limbs
(which have cylindrical body forms), reference is often made to a variant of
Equation 12.1, known as Laplace’s law:

P ∝ T/R (12.2)

where P (pressure) is directly proportional to T (tension) divided by R

(radius).
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Application of Pressure Sensors in Monitoring Pressure 291

This equation is the basis for data processing in the British Standard for
compression hosiery (BS 6612, 1985). The medical background for compres-
sion bandages and stockings is summarised in Rotsch et al. (2011).
Laplace’s law means that the smaller the radius (with constant tension), the
higher is the compression pressure. Since the human leg is smaller in diam-
eter nearer the ankle and larger nearer the knee, if bandages are wrapped at
a constant tension, there will be a pressure gradient (known as graduated
compression) with maximum pressure at the ankle and reduced pressure
toward the knee. This graduated compression is considered to accelerate the
venous flow rate, with medical benefits to the patient.
Equation 12.2 also suggests a potential problem when the radius is small.
A pressure measuring device that has a thickness of a few millimetres has
the potential of distorting the radius locally, thereby distorting the compres-
sion pressure locally. Questions have been raised about the accuracy of some
instruments because of this effect.

12.1.2 Units of Pressure
Pressure is defined as force divided by area (with the Laplace law being a
special case of this). The international system (SI units) recognised the pascal
as the unit of pressure. Physicists have defined one pascal (Pa) as the pres-
sure exerted by a force of one newton applied over an area of one square
metre. The SI unit of pressure honours Blaise Pascal as a pioneering seven-
teenth century French scientist who made significant contributions relating
to understanding pressure.
One pascal represents a low pressure, and there are many applications
where other units are deemed more appropriate, sometimes for historical
reasons. There are numerous metric and imperial units that were in com-
mon use before SI units were defined, and they continue to be employed.
Examples of metric units are kilograms force per square metre (kgf/m2) or
grams force per square cm (gf/cm2). An imperial unit of pressure is pounds
per square inch (psi). Some important additional units of pressure in com-
mon use are the torr, millimetres of mercury (mmHg) and bar.
The torr is a unit honouring the seventeenth century Italian physicist
Evangelista Torricelli, who invented the mercury barometer and was the first
to explain the concept of atmospheric pressure. He found that the column of
mercury in a barometer positioned at sea level measured 760 mm. One torr
is the pressure needed to sustain 1 mm of mercury (Hg) in a barometer, so
1 torr is 1 mmHg. Most pressure-measuring medical instruments are cali-
brated in mmHg units. One torr is approximately 33 Pa.
One bar represents the mean atmospheric pressure at sea level. It is com-
mon to use this unit when referring to the pressure of water at depth (with
reference to diving, for example). It is now defined as 100 kPa. Meteorological
charts normally use hectopascals (hPa), where 1 hPa = 100 Pa and 1 bar =
1000 hPa.
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292 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

12.2 Pressure Sensors for Medical Applications

12.2.1 Compression Hosiery: The Hatra Hose Pressure Tester
During the 1970s, a tool for measuring the properties of compression hosiery
was developed by Derek Peat at the Hosiery & Allied Trades Research
Association (Hatra, Nottingham, UK). The garment is stretched lengthways
and widthways in a defined manner in a range of sizes. A measuring head
utilises a strain gauge to record the compression provided at any position
from the ankle upward. The head has a rectangular plate (25 mm wide)
that is pushed onto the stretched hose and the resistive forces are recorded.
The equipment provides reproducible test data and was incorporated into
British Standard 6612 in 1985. The Hatra tester was also adopted by two other
British Standards: BS 7672:1993 and BS 7563:1999. The MK2 Hatra was avail-
able before 1990, after which the Mk2A was released, allowing tailored leg
profiles to be easily added. The current model is the Mk2A+, illustrated in
Figure 12.1.

12.2.2 Compression Hosiery: The Medical Stocking Tester

In 1977, the first medical stocking tester (MST) was launched by Dr A. A.
Bolliger in Switzerland. The concept is similar to the Hatra tester. The main
difference is that the compression stocking is placed on a leg-shaped former
and a flat measuring device (40 mm wide, 0.5 mm thick, linked to an air
pump and a pressure transducer) is used to quantify the compression forces.
A separate former is needed for each size to be tested. This tool has also been
developed over time, and the current model is Mk V. Alongside this, the MST

FIGURE 12.1
The Hatra Mk2A+ hose pressure tester. (Courtesy Segar Technology.)
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Application of Pressure Sensors in Monitoring Pressure 293

FIGURE 12.2
Salzmann MST Professional. (Courtesy Swisslastic AG.)

Professional has a variable leg form that is claimed to cover 95% of known
leg sizes. The measuring probe has the capability of measuring the compres-
sion exerted by stockings worn by live subjects, which means it can be used
additionally as a research tool. The instrument is illustrated in Figure 12.2
and an example of its use in research for both in vivo and in vitro measure-
ments is provided by Liu, Lao and Wang (2013).

12.2.3 The Kikuhime Tester

The sensor used in the Kikuhime instrument is an oval polyurethane bal-
loon containing a 3 mm thick foam sheet. This is connected to a syringe (for
changing the air pressure within the balloon) and a measuring unit (with the
pressure transducer). Testing starts by adjusting the syringe so that the bal-
loon is at atmospheric pressure, and then it is placed in position (for exam-
ple, between the leg and the compression garment). The transducer monitors
the pressure experienced by the balloon and the output is a digital display
(Figure 12.3). An assessment of the reproducibility and reliability of mea-
surement was undertaken by Brophy-Williams et al. (2014), who concluded
that the tester was suitable for use with sports compression garments.

12.2.4 Overview of Other Test Instruments

Numerous other instruments can be found in the literature and there are
many new ideas coming to the fore each year. A survey of the field was
undertaken at an international consensus meeting of medical experts and
representatives from industry held in January 2005 in Vienna, Austria. In
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294 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 12.3
The Kikuhime tester. (Courtesy TT Meditrade and mediGroup Australia Pty Ltd.)

vivo measurement of interface pressure was considered highly desirable,

and methods for measuring the interface pressure were considered with that
in mind. Table 12.1 presents the different technologies considered.
It is necessary to point out that many of these instruments are no longer
available. There are many design concepts that have been explored, but find-
ing commercial viability has not been easy. The first two entries listed in
Table 12.1 are described in the following two sections, as these have had a
more significant impact in the literature. The Talley Group designed pres-
sure sensors in the 1980s but production ceased around the year 2000. The
company no longer offers instruments to measure pressure, but has con-
centrated on producing mattresses, cushions and other products providing
pressure relief and compression therapy.

12.2.4.1 The Oxford Pressure Monitor MkII

This instrument was designed to monitor pressures between skin tissue
and support media for chair- or bedbound individuals. The name originates
because of collaboration with the Oxford Orthopaedic Centre. Multiple sensors
were used to enable the simultaneous monitoring of pressures below a reclin-
ing patient. Each sensor was constructed from two thin plastic sheets that could
be inflated by a pulse of air, allowing a measure of the compression forces. The
MkII had 12 sensors, and a later device, the MkIII, was equipped with 96 sen-
sors and also marketed as the Talley IPM (Interface Pressure Monitor).

12.2.4.2 The Talley Skin Pressure Evaluator

The Talley SD.500 Skin Pressure Evaluator was designed as a portable device
for checking tissue pressures in medical wards, wheelchair pressures and
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Application of Pressure Sensors in Monitoring Pressure 295

TABLE 12.1
Types of Interface Pressure Sensors
Pneumatic, Pneumatic-Electric or Pneumatic-Piezoelectric
Oxford pressure monitor (Talley Ltd, Ramsey, Hampshire, UK)
Talley pressure evaluator (Talley Ltd)
MST MKIII Salzmann (Salzmann Medico, St Gallen, Switzerland)
Digital interface pressure evaluator (Next Generation Co., Temecula, CA)
Scimedics pressure evaluator pad (Vista Medical, Winnipeg, MB, Canada)
Kikuhime (Meditrade, Soro, Denmark)
Juzo tester (Elcat, Wolfratshausen, Germany)
Sigat tester (Ganzoni-Sigvaris, St. Gallen, Switzerland)

Piezoelectric
MCDM-I (Mammendorfer Inst. Physik, Munich, Germany)

Fluid Filled, Fluid Filled Resistive

Strathclyde pressure monitor (University of Strathclyde, Scotland)
FlexiForce (Tekscan, South Boston, MA)
Skip air pack analyzer (AMI Co., Japan)

Resistive and Strain Gauge

FSR, FSA (Vista Medical, Winnipeg, MB, Canada)
Fscan, lscan (Tekscan, South Boston, MA)
Rincoe SFS (Rincoe and Associates, Golden, CO)
MCDM (Mammendorfer Inst. Physik, Munich, Germany)
Fontanometer (Gaeltec Ltd, Dunvegan, Isle of Skye, Scotland)
Diastron (Diastron Ltd, Andover, Hampshire, UK)

Capacitive
Kulite XTM190 (Kulite Semiconductor Products, Leonia, NJ)
Precision (Precision Measurement Co., Ann Arbor, MI)
Xsensor (Crown Therapeutics, Belleville, IL)
Pliance (Novel, Munich, Germany)
Source: Partsch, H. et al. 2006. Dermatologic Surgery 32 (2): 227.

any scenario where tissue trauma is an issue. There were two main parts: a
handheld control unit with a digital display of pressure and a balloon type
sensor that could be inflated manually. The sensor contained platinum wires
on both sides of its inner surface. To obtain a measurement, the sensor was
placed between the skin and clothing before inflating using the pump bulb.
As the sensor inflated, the electrical contact between the two sets of platinum
wire was broken. As air was allowed to flow out of the sensor, the platinum
wires touched and the circuit was reconnected. At this point, the pressure
was recorded and displayed on the control unit.
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296 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

12.2.5 Evaluation of Pressure Sensing Instruments

A detailed comparison of three instruments was undertaken by Flaud,
Bassez and Counord (2010). They selected the Salzmann, Talley SD.500
and Kikuhime testers and compared their performance in terms of accu-
racy, repeatability and sensitivity to flexion on a curved surface. The first
set of tests utilised a chamber that could be preset to defined pressures. The
second set used a wooden leg model and inserted the sensors between the
leg and compression stockings of known pressure. The results for the pres-
surised chamber tests are reproduced in Figure 12.4.
The equations of lines fitted to the data points are as follows:

Salzmann: y = 0.99x + 3.32 (R2 = 0.99)

Talley: y = 0.97x + 0.47 (R2 = 0.99)

Kikuhime: y = 0.93x + 0.57 (R2 = 0.99)

The researchers summarised their results in this way:

In a pressurised chamber, the three systems gave linear responses and an

overall error of 15.4%, 3.1%, and 4.3% for Salzmann, Talley, and Kikuhime,
respectively. The repeatability error was less than 0.6 mmHg. On the leg
model, the overall errors differ between the systems. Repeatability was
comparable between the sensors. (Flaud et al., 2010, p. 1930)

50

40
Measured pressure (mmHg)

30
Salzmann
20 Talley
Kikuhime

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Reference pressure (mmHg)

FIGURE 12.4
Measured pressures versus reference pressures for the three sensors in the pressurised cham-
ber. (From Flaud, P. et al. 2010. Dermatologic Surgery 36 (12): 1930–1940.)
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Application of Pressure Sensors in Monitoring Pressure 297

TABLE 12.2
Some Advantages and Disadvantages of Sensors
Advantages Limitations
Pneumatic Thin and flexible probes; Dynamic measurement is only
transducers cheap, easy, and handy possible with additional special
equipment; sensitive for temperature
and hysteresis
Fluid filled Flexible; dynamic Thick when filled; problems during
measurements motion
Resistance Thin sensors; dynamic Sensitive to curvature; stiff and thick;
measurement not useful for long-term
measurements
Source: Partsch, H. et al. 2006. Dermatologic Surgery 32 (2): 227.

This shows the sensors were capable of providing useful tools for medi-
cal practitioners. However, care must always be taken with stockings and
bandages around legs and arms because material variability and user factors
may introduce variability that is difficult to control.
Table 12.2 has some generalised comments on the advantages and limita-
tions of different types of sensors.

12.2.6 The PicoPress Instrument

With the passing of time, the instruments listed in Table 12.1 require exten-
sive editing. There are both additions and deletions. In particular, a new
product designed for medical applications is worthy of note: the PicoPress
produced by Microlab (Padua, Italy). The instrument has a manometer
connected to a probe: a flexible circular plastic bladder (5 cm diameter).
The bladder is placed in position in the deflated state and the bandage/
compression garment is applied. To take measurements, the operator pushes
on an embedded syringe to introduce 2 cm3 of air to the bladder. The resul-
tant expansion in thickness is constrained by the compression exerted by
the bandage/garment and the manometer is used to record the pressure.
Both static and dynamic measurements are possible, so the compression
can be determined when resting, when walking and when standing. After
collecting data, the probe is deflated and left in position until further read-
ings are required. The PicoPress is shown in Figure 12.5. Partsch and Mosti
(2010) evaluated this instrument by comparing its performance with two
other commercial systems. They concluded: ‘The results suggest that the
PicoPress transducer, which also allows dynamic pressure tracing in con-
nection with a software program and which may be left under a bandage
for several days, is a reliable instrument for measuring the pressure under
a compression device’.
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298 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

FIGURE 12.5
The PicoPress instrument. (Courtesy Microlab Elettronica.)

12.3 Pressure Sensors for Clothing Applications

12.3.1 Use of Medical Instruments
Several of the medical instruments discussed earlier have been used for
measuring compression provided by clothing.
Chan and Fan (2002) used the Tally SD.500 skin pressure evaluator to clar-
ify the relationship between subjective tightness sensation and the cloth-
ing pressure of girdles. This was followed by modelling work to predict the
pressure of girdles on the human body (Fan and Chan, 2005).
Pressure garments are widely used in the treatment of skin damage caused
by burns. Giele et al. (1997) expressed concern that devices like the Talley
and Kikuhime testers were inadequate for three reasons:

1. Distortion of the garment, hence raising garment tension and

increasing the pressure generated
2. Poor conformity of the device to the skin
3. Being unaware to what degree external pressure is transmitted to
and through the skin

Consequently, they adapted a method of probing the subdermal cutane-

ous pressure using hypodermic needles connected to a continuous low-flow
pressure transducer. They found that pressure garments have the effect of
increasing pressure subdermally. They confirmed that the garment was
responsible for controlling compression through and within the skin and
were able to quantify the effects.
Another custom-built instrument to assess pressures obtained from gar-
ments worn for scar treatment was constructed by Teng and Chou (2006).
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Application of Pressure Sensors in Monitoring Pressure 299

This was based on an ‘air pack’ sensor similar to those used in the Talley and
Kikuhime testers.
However, despite this interest in customised instruments, research by Van
den Kerckhove et al. (2007) into burned skin treatment went back to using
the Kikuhime tester. They tracked reductions in pressure with time associ-
ated with different fabric constructions and concluded that ‘the Kikuhime
pressure sensor provides valid and reliable information and can be used in
comparative clinical trials to evaluate pressure garments used in burn scar
treatment’.
Another custom-made instrument has been called the ‘Textilpress’
(Maklewska et al., 2007). This has been designed to measure pressures
exerted by compression bands, manufactured from knitted fabrics, on a cyl-
inder surface of defined diameter. Its role is to test compression away from a
human wearer, and it is not suitable for in vivo measurement. The device is
based on tensometric sensors, to measure both the compression exerted by
the fabric and the diameter of the cylinder.

12.3.2 Tekscan Technologies (I-Scan ® System)

The I-Scan system provides ultrathin (0.15 mm) sensors of varying sizes for
measuring compression forces. These sensors are formed from two sheets of
thin polyester, each coated with linear electrical conductors and enclosing a
pressure-sensitive material. The electrical conductivity of the sandwiched
interlayer material changes linearly in response to applied pressures. The
array of linear conductors on the upper sheet are at 90° to the array on the
lower sheet. This creates a matrix of sensing locations (sensels) that is deter-
mined by the geometry of the sensor. Two examples of the many sensors
available are shown in Figure 12.6.

FIGURE 12.6
Two sensors supplied by Tekscan (model 5250 and model 4201). (Source: David Tyler.)
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300 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

The smaller of these two sensors is model 4201, with a matrix width of
45.7 mm and a matrix height of 21.0 mm. The matrix itself is made up of
24 columns and 11 rows, making 264 sensels (see Figure 12.7). This gives a
sensel density of 27.6 sensels/cm2. The larger sensor is connected to a sensor
handle (which carries the signals to a computer) and is model 5250. This is
a square sensor with both matrix width and matrix height being 245.9 mm.
The matrix itself is made up of 44 columns and 44 rows, making 1936 sensels.
An example of a screen plot of compression data using model 5250 is in
Figure 12.8.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324

FIGURE 12.7
The matrix of model 4201. (Courtesy Sheena Tyler.)

FIGURE 12.8
Screen display showing sensels recording different pressures of a human hand against a flat
surface. The sensels are colour coded, with black/deep blue representing the lowest pressures
and, as higher pressures are recorded, the colours move through the spectrum to red (maxi-
mum pressure). In this black-and-white illustration, sensels with lighter shades of grey are
recording higher pressures.
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Application of Pressure Sensors in Monitoring Pressure 301

A review of technologies available in 2005 and suitable for measuring

interface pressures relevant to the formation of pressure sores in patients
was produced by Swain (2005). Six commercial systems were considered,
including Tekscan and Tally. Tests with Tekscan found evidence for sig-
nificant hysteresis and creep in the data output, but the author noted that
clinicians preferred this system because of its real-time display capabilities,
resolution and display options.
A detailed investigation of the calibration issues affecting one particular
I-Scan sensor was undertaken by Macintyre (2011). The paper contains an
overview of the measurement inaccuracies affecting many instruments,
but there is a recognition that Tekscan sensors and the supporting software
have become ‘widely used in recent years’. The range of interface pressure of
interest is between 6 and 50 mmHg, which is ‘often at the lower end of the
measurement range of commercial pressure sensors’. Using the Tekscan 9801
sensor, a very detailed evaluation was undertaken of standard calibration
procedures to quantify the accuracy of test results. These are referred to as
the ‘2-point power law calibration’ and the ‘Linear calibration’ procedures.
A difference of 3% between measured and applied loads was considered
unsatisfactory:

Despite considerable effort and many attempts to calibrate these sensors

the results were disappointing and unsatisfactory. The 2-point power
law calibration was most accurate in the middle of the calibrated range,
while the linear calibration was most accurate towards the top of the cal-
ibrated range (and was completely inaccurate at low applied loads). […]
This level of variability was unacceptably high for precise product devel-
opment work so another method of calibration was sought. (Macintyre,
2011, pp. 1176–1177)

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a revised calibration procedure

and additional probing of sources of error. The findings are presented in
a table of the mean differences between measured and applied pressures,
where the largest difference is 2.1 mmHg. The results were shown not to be
time or use dependent and the new method was adopted for ‘the accurate
measurement of pressures delivered by pressure garments (and compres-
sion bandages)’. This calibration method was used to evaluate design solu-
tions for pressure garments used in the treatment of hypertrophic burn scars
(Macintyre, 2007).
Brorson et al. (2012) used Tekscan technology (the I-Scan system) for in
vitro measurements on compression garments for treating lymphedema.
Their aim was to define a protocol for gaining quantified data relating to
compression hosiery. Garments from three manufacturers were selected;
wear and tear was simulated by washing the garments before putting them
on plastic legs every day for 4 weeks. Whilst there were differences between
garments from different manufacturers, no difference was found between
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302 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

garments from the same manufacturer. During the trial period, decreases of
subgarment pressure were not observed. They concluded that ‘Tekscan pres-
sure measuring equipment could measure subgarment pressure in vitro’.
An example of Tekscan sensors being used in sports science is provided
by Pain, Tsui and Cove (2008). The authors set out to measure in vivo impact
intensities during enacted front-on tackling in order to assess the effective-
ness of rugby shoulder padding for reducing peak forces experienced by
players. The work reported limited benefits from using shoulder pads, but
raised a number of issues about the selection and use of sensors:

These potentially inaccurate force measurements exposed three issues

with the Tekscan sensor. Firstly, the sensor area was too small as large
forces were generated up to and beyond the sensor boundary. Secondly,
despite performing a dynamic calibration, the sensor’s method of multi­
plexing data within a long sampling window (4 ms) may have caused
the total impact peak force to be missed. Thirdly, the sensor has a low
dynamic response time. […] These issues can be alleviated with the use
of a larger sensor that employs a higher sampling frequency. A further
limitation is the inability to measure shear force and the fact that the
sensors will produce a response if creased or curved too acutely. (Pain
et al., 2008, p. 862)

These reflective comments are noted here as they show that experiment
design considerations have to be addressed carefully, so that the instruments
used are capable of delivering useful results. Sometimes it is necessary to
analyse activities in terms of several elements and then focus attention on
those elements separately. This has been a way forward for the analysis of
forces on rugby players. Usman, McIntosh and Fréchède (2011) looked specif-
ically at the forces in tackling, using a tackle bag equipped with four Tekscan
sensors. Participants were asked to tackle the bag in four different ways:
(1) dominant side, (2) nondominant side, (3) dominant side with shoulder
pads and (4) nondominant side with shoulder pads. With repeated tackling,
an assessment of the variability of the forces experienced by participants was
gained.

12.3.3 Tekscan Technologies (FlexiForce)

Another type of Tekscan sensor is a single element force sensor with the
brand name FlexiForce. There are similarities between the construction of
force sensors and pressure sensors but, instead of a matrix of sensels, the
resistive layer uniformly covers the whole area of the sensor. Force sensors
do not map pressure distributions but provide feedback about the aggre-
gated force experienced. Inevitably, data acquisition and analysis are simpli-
fied. Applications for these sensors have been found in sportswear research
(Lin et al., 2011, 2012), modelling the compression effects of high-performance
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Application of Pressure Sensors in Monitoring Pressure 303

sportswear. The FlexiForce sensors provided empirical data to compare with

the simulation:

Seven FlexiForce A201 force sensors (Tekscan, Inc., USA) were placed
at seven important muscles that flex or extend when running, namely:
(i) vastus lateralis (VL); (ii) vastus medialis (VM); (iii) rectus femoris (RF);
(iv) tibialis anterior (TA); (v) semimembranosus (SE); (vi) gastrocnemius
lateralis (GL); (vii) gastrocnemius medialis (GM). (Lin et al., 2011, p. 1472)

Undoubtedly, new interface pressure measurement systems will emerge,

and there are numerous others that have been reported in the literature
that do not appear in this review. There is a problem with custom-made
instruments and with commercial products that have a short market life:
There is simply not the time to assess the reliability and reproducibility of
these instruments and to build a knowledge base to achieve ‘best practice’.
Consequently, the literature considered in this chapter has been selected to
stimulate thoughts on experimental design and helping research aims to be
achieved by an appropriate choice of sensors.

12.4 Discussion of Laplace’s Law

Rotsch et al. (2011) point out that the compression pressure exerted by a ban-
dage is dependent on four factors:

• The type of bandage, particularly its elasticity

• The prestretching applied during application
• The number of layers of bandage
• The state of the bandage as it is in use

Laplace’s law means that the applied pressure is directly proportional to

the tension in a bandage but inversely proportional to the radius of curva-
ture of the limb to which it is applied. This has immediate relevance to the
selection of the material to bandage the limb. When an inelastic bandage is
applied, the tension in the material tends to be low and the contact pressure
when resting tends to be relatively low. However, when moving about, the
limb expands as muscles contract, and the tension in the bandage tends to
increase rapidly so that the resultant applied pressure is high. By contrast,
the use of elastic bandages will result in more even compression whether
resting or exercising. This leads Rotsch et al. (2011) to refine the conceptual
model by distinguishing between static pressure and operating pressure.
The static pressure is effectively the pressure when the bandage is applied to
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304 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

relaxed tissue. The operating pressure results from changes in the volume of
muscles during movement. Clearly, Laplace’s law does not provide a compre-
hensive mathematical model of compression pressure.
It is also necessary to point out that the human leg has a complex shape
and is not well represented either as a cylinder or a cone. There are solid
bones covered by various types of soft tissue, and there are many permu-
tations depending on the individuals being bandaged. Deformation of the
skin may vary significantly when considering different parts of the leg. This
raises further questions about the application of Laplace’s law and its rel-
evance to compression garments, whether for medical purposes or for sport.
Thomas (2003) referred to the widespread recognition of the Laplace equa-
tion, but pointed out that it has not been well understood. He made reference
to a book he published in 1990 that set out a version of the equation that
would be more useful to practitioners. He wrote: ‘It is also necessary to con-
sider two further factors: the width of the bandage and the number of layers
applied. Although these variables may not appear initially to form part of
the original Laplace formula, they are essential to obtain an accurate value of
tension’ (p. 22). The modified equation used units selected because they are
familiar to practitioners and incorporated bandage parameters.

Pressure(mmHg) = tension(kgf) × n × 4260

Circumference(cm) × bandage width(cm) (12.3)

where n = the number of layers applied.

The goal of bandaging is to achieve graduated compression, with the high-
est pressures close to the ankle and the lowest pressures closest to the knee.
However, despite great care being taken to apply bandages correctly, there
has been an ongoing problem of demonstrating graduated compression.
Schuren and Mohr (2008) drew attention to the various explanations that
have been proposed to explain the problem: poor operator technique, poor
measurement technique and the difficulty of maintaining constant tension
during application.
With growing scepticism, Schuren and Mohr (2008) reviewed three detailed
studies of graduated compression by standardising on the leg shape. Study 1
involved 32 experts, four commercial compression bandage systems and an
artificial leg fitted with three Kikuhime pressure sensors. The participants
were asked to repeat the bandaging exercise three times for each commercial
system. Study 2 was an evaluation of a commercial prototype compression
bandage, using three experienced orthopaedic technicians, and an artificial
leg with six strain-gauge force transducers. Each participant applied 40 ban-
dages to the artificial leg. Study 3 used the same leg but selected a different
compression bandage, and eight nurses comprised the expert practitioners.
Altogether, these studies yielded a database of 744 sets of data relating to
graduated compression.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Application of Pressure Sensors in Monitoring Pressure 305

Using the Laplace formula, theoretical compression pressures were calcu-

lated. These all showed the desired graduated compression, mostly in the
range of 30–60 mmHg (Figure 12.9).
When comparing theoretical with measured values, there was a marked
disparity. First, the experimental results typically showed that less than 10%
of the bandages applied achieved graduated compression. Furthermore, the
measured values were consistently lower than theoretical values. The aggre-
gated test results are plotted in Figure 12.10.
Schuren and Mohr (2008) discuss their findings critically, acknowledging
the problems of working with artificial legs and in a laboratory (rather than
in a clinical) environment. However, they question the widespread belief in

80
Compression pressure (mmHg)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Product 1 Product 2 Product 3 Product 4 Product 5

FIGURE 12.9
Theoretical compression according to Laplace’s law. (Based on Schuren, J. and Mohr, K. 2008.
Wounds UK 4 (2): 38–47.)

80

70
Compression pressure (mmHg)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Product 1 Product 2 Product 3 Product 4 Product 5a Product 5b Product 5c

FIGURE 12.10
Measured mean pressure values from all studies. (Based on Schuren, J. and Mohr, K. 2008.
Wounds UK 4 (2): 38–47.)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
306 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

the usefulness of the Laplace equation and also the assumption that gradu-
ated compression is the norm:

It is true to say that these studies should have produced data that pre-
sented Laplace’s law in its best light as the environment, subject, and
bandagers were well controlled. However, the pressure calculations
made using the modified Laplace’s law equation did not accurately pre-
dict the pressure values found in these three studies. In fact, true gradu-
ated compression was observed in only 53 of the 744 (7.1%) applications.
(Schuren and Mohr, 2008, p. 46)

Of course, these findings do not mean that the Laplace equation should be
abandoned, but merely that its limitations should be recognised along with
the complexities of human anthropometrics. No one should assume gradu-
ated compression, but procedures are needed to check this experimentally.
Even the goal of graduated compression should be questioned, as do Schuren
and Mohr (2010). With sportswear, merely wearing a compression garment is
no guide as to what effect it is having on the wearer. The very varied reports
of no benefit/some benefit/measurable benefit coming from the sportswear
research literature may be simply a pointer to the uncontrolled (and unmea-
sured) compression that these garments exert. For an example of research
that has sought to model and measure compression forces in a more rigorous
way, see Dias et al. (2003).

12.5 Summary and Conclusions

1. There are many different measurement systems for monitoring the
compression pressures of garments. These use sensors based on a
variety of technologies (see Table 12.1). Many of these have had a
short lifetime and are of historic interest only.
2. To develop a standard test, many variables have to be excluded. This
has been achieved with compression hosiery by eliminating the
variability of the human leg and by establishing protocols for load-
ing the garment to the instrument. The Hatra hose pressure tester
is the test instrument for British Standards 6612:1985, 7672:1993 and
7563:1999.
3. Medical applications need simple test instruments that can be trans-
ported easily and where setting up and measurement times are
short. Instruments need to be capable of making in vivo measure-
ments. The most widely used test systems are the MST Professional
(for compression hosiery), the Kikuhime tester and the PicoPress.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Application of Pressure Sensors in Monitoring Pressure 307

These have all withstood the test of time and have been developed
over the years to incorporate enhancements.
4. Measurement of sportswear compression has made use of medi-
cal equipment, but there has been much interest in custom-made
systems. There is a recent tendency to use Tekscan technologies.
Researchers appreciate the paper-thin sensors, the variety of off-the-
shelf sensors available, the sophisticated data-processing software
and the visualisation tools. The main problem reported has been
drift, and various approaches have been used to obtain reproducible
outputs. With a combination of calibration and standardised mea-
surement protocols, acceptable accuracies have been reported.
5. Medical practitioners and researchers appear to have underestimated
the problems of getting a controlled and predictable compression.
This is particularly apparent in the difficulties in producing graduated
compression with leg bandages, but it is symptomatic of the variabil-
ity associated with compression garments. There is an urgent need for
sportswear compression research to be accompanied by detailed mea-
surements of compression pressures. Without this, informed assess-
ments of the value of compression garments cannot be made.

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the following for supplying images, provid-
ing feedback on developments and granting permission to publish: Segar
Technology (Hatra Mk2A+ hose pressure tester), TT Meditrade and medi-
Group Australia Pty Ltd. (Kikuhime), Swisslastic Ag St. Gallen. (MST
Professional), Microlab Elettronica (PicoPress), Adrian Smith of the Talley
Group, and Sheena Tyler for the image used in Figure 12.7.

References
British Standards Institution (BS 6612). 1985. Graduated compression hosiery.
British Standards Institution (BS 7672). 1993. Specification for compression, stiffness
and labelling of anti-embolism hosiery.
British Standards Institution (BS 7563). 1999. Specification for non-prescriptive grad-
uated support hosiery.
Brophy-Williams, N., Driller, M. W., Halson, S. L., Fell, J. W. and Shing, C. M. 2014.
Evaluating the Kikuhime pressure monitor for use with sports compression
clothing. Sports Engineering 17: 55–60.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
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Brorson, H., Hansson, E., Jense, E. and Freccero, C. 2012. Development of a pressure-
measuring device to optimize compression treatment of lymphedema and eval-
uation of change in garment pressure with simulated wear and tear. Lymphatic
Research and Biology 10 (2): 74–80.
Chan, A. P. and Fan, J. 2002. Effect of clothing pressure on the tightness sensation of
girdles. International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology 14 (2): 100–110.
Dias, T., Yahathugoda, D., Fernando, A. and Mukhopadhyay, S. K. 2003. Modelling
the interface pressure applied by knitted structures designed for medical-textile
applications. Journal of The Textile Institute 94 (3–4): 77–86.
Fan, J. and Chan, A. P. 2005. Prediction of girdle’s pressure on human body from the
pressure measurement on a dummy. International Journal of Clothing Science and
Technology 17 (1): 6–12.
Flaud, P., Bassez, S. and Counord, J.-L. 2010. Comparative in vitro study of three
interface pressure sensors used to evaluate medical compression hosiery.
Dermatologic Surgery 36 (12): 1930–1940.
Giele, H. P., Liddiard, K., Currie, K. and Wood, F. M. 1997. Direct measurement of
cutaneous pressures generated by pressure garments. Burns 23 (2): 137–141.
Lin, Y., Choi, K.-F., Luximon, A., Yao, L., Hu, J. and Li, Y. 2011. Finite element modeling
of male leg and sportswear: Contact pressure and clothing deformation. Textile
Research Journal 81 (14): 1470–1476.
Lin, Y., Choi, K.-F., Zhang, M., Li, Y., Luximon, A., Yao, L. and Hu, J. 2012. An opti-
mized design of compression sportswear fabric using numerical simulation and
the response surface method. Textile Research Journal 82 (2): 108–116.
Liu, R., Lao, T. T. and Wang, S.-X. 2013. Technical knitting and ergonomical design
of 3D seamless compression hosiery and pressure performances in vivo and in
vitro. Fibers and Polymers 14 (8): 1391–1399.
Macintyre, L. 2007. Designing pressure garments capable of exerting specific pres-
sures on limbs. Burns 33 (5): 579–586.
Macintyre, L. 2011. New calibration method for I-Scan sensors to enable the precise mea-
surement of pressures delivered by ‘pressure garments’. Burns 37 (7): 1174–1181.
Maklewska, E., Nawrocki, A. and Kowalski, K. 2007. New measuring device for
estimating the pressure under compression garments. International Journal of
Clothing Science and Technology 19 (3/4): 215–221.
Pain, M. T. G., Tsui, F. and Cove, S. 2008. In vivo determination of the effect of shoul-
der pads on tackling forces in rugby. Journal of Sports Sciences 26 (8): 855–862.
Partsch, H. and Mosti, G. 2010. Comparison of three portable instruments to measure
compression pressure. International Angiology 29 (5): 426–430.
Partsch, H., Clark, M., Bassez, S., Benigni, J.-P., Becker, F., Blazek, V., Caprini, J.,
Cornu-Thénard, A., Hafner, J., Flour, M., Jünger, M., Moffatt, C. and Neumann,
M. 2006. Measurement of lower leg compression in vivo: Recommendations for
the performance of measurements of interface pressure and stiffness: Consensus
statement. Dermatologic Surgery 32 (2): 224–232.
Rotsch, C., Oschatz, H., Schwabe, D., Weiser, M. and Mohring, U. 2011. Medical ban-
dages and stockings with enhanced patient acceptance, In Handbook of medical
textiles, Bartels, V. (ed.). Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd., 481–504.
Schuren, J. and Mohr, K. 2008. The efficacy of Laplace’s equation in calculating ban-
dage pressure in venous leg ulcers. Wounds UK 4 (2): 38–47.
Schuren, J. and Mohr, K. 2010. Pascal’s law and the dynamics of compression
­therapy—A study of healthy volunteers. International Angiology 29 (5): 431–435.
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Swain, I. 2005. The measurement of interface pressure. In Pressure ulcer research, cur-
rent and future perspectives, Bader, D., Bouten, C., Colin, D. and Oomens, C.
(eds.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 51–71.
Teng, T. and Chou, K. 2006. The measurement and analysis of the pressure generated
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Thomas, S. 2003. The use of the Laplace equation in the calculation of sub-bandage
pressure. EWMA Journal 3 (1): 21–23.
Usman, J., McIntosh, A. S. and Fréchède, B. 2011. An investigation of shoulder forces
in active shoulder tackles in rugby union football. Journal of Science and Medicine
in Sport 14 (6): 547–552.
Van den Kerckhove, E., Fieuws, S., Massagé, P., Hierner, R., Boeckx, W., Deleuze, J.,
Laperre, J. and Anthonissen, M. 2007. Reproducibility of repeated measure-
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Further Information
Hatra Mk2A+ hose pressure tester
Segar Technology
e-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.segartechnology.com
I-Scan and FlexiForce
Tekscan, Inc.
e-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.tekscan.com/
Kikuhime
mediGroup Australia Pty Ltd.
e-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.medigroup.com.au
Manufacturer: TT Meditrade, Soledet 15, DK 4180 Soro, Denmark
MST Professional
Swisslastic Ag St. Gallen (formerly Salzmann AG)
e-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.swisslastic.ch/en/
PicoPress
Microlab Elettronica
e-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.microlabitalia.it
USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
13
Body Scanning and Its Influence
on Garment Development

Simeon Gill

CONTENTS
13.1 Body Scanning: The Technology.............................................................. 311
13.2 Body Scanning and Its Benefits................................................................ 312
13.3 Body Scanning and Classification of the Body...................................... 313
13.3.1 Defining the Sporting Body.......................................................... 313
13.3.2 Measurements Extracted from Body Scanning.......................... 315
13.3.3 Creation of Avatars......................................................................... 316
13.3.4 Measurements and Advances in Measurement......................... 317
13.3.4.1 Slices and Volumes.......................................................... 317
13.3.5 Clothing Experiences of the Sporting Body............................... 318
13.4 Preassessment of Garments in 3D Virtual Environments.................... 319
13.5 Assessment of Functional Requirements and the Changing Body..... 319
13.5.1 Postural Change and Sports.......................................................... 319
13.6 Custom Garment Provision....................................................................... 321
13.7 Future Developments and Requirements Using Body Scanning........ 322
References.............................................................................................................. 323

13.1 Body Scanning: The Technology

Body scanning as a tool has been a commercially viable product with impli-
cations on clothing design and development since the start of the twenty-first
century. Body scanning technology has been used extensively in national
sizing surveys (SizeUK, Size USA, Size Mexico, Size Thailand, etc.) and has
contributed to a number of developments in measurement, product develop-
ment and assessment for fashion. Alongside the development of 3D body
scanning technology there have been a number of developments in 3D soft-
ware from companies like Gerber, Lectra, Optitex and V-Stitcher allowing
for virtual modelling and enhancing the possibilities of body scanning in
product development.
Body scanners work by projecting structured light onto the body surface
and then recording this through image capture technology. These data are

311
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312 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

then used to create a point cloud or between 300,000 and 1 million X, Y and
Z coordinates which describe the body as a 3D object. The data can then be
processed to create an avatar from which measurements can be extracted.
The avatar enables the custom analysis of an individual in a fixed posture
and the extraction of custom measurements, which can be used to classify
the size and shape or to support product development.

13.2 Body Scanning and Its Benefits

Body scanning is recognised as a measurement tool that enables greater
depth of analysis regarding the body and clothing than traditional methods
(Simmons and Istook, 2003; Bye, LaBat and Delong, 2006). Body scanning
can also be used to drive automation of product development (Voellinger
Griffey and Ashdown, 2006; Yunchu and Weiyuan, 2007), though this is
primarily for form-fitted garments. Whilst body scanning as a tool enables
the collection of data, current interfaces for analysis require development
to be more accessible to the clothing practitioners’ skill sets (Brownbridge,
Gill and Ashdown, 2013). Comparison has been made between body scan
and manual measurements and the data have been found to be compara-
ble (Bougourd et al., 2000). Variability in measurement definition is seen to
exist between methods and often the reliance on manual measurement is
not a suitable benchmark to support the benefits of body scanning (Tyler,
Mitchell and Gill, 2012). These benefits can be seen in the speed of capture,
limited requirement for contact with the subject, accessibility of the data
and the ability to repeatedly analyse scans as techniques and understand-
ing develop.
Scan data are generally limited to one fixed posture, often closely aligned
to the postural definitions in the body scanner standards (BSI, 2010). Whilst
the posture is generally fixed, having a copy of the body in a virtual envi-
ronment greatly enhances the depth of analysis that is possible. As well
as traditional 1D measurements, scans can be sliced, volumes determined,
posture analysed and proportional relationships determined. This can be
done often within the software (Sizestream.com; Tc2.com) or using other
software tools. More recent developments with the technology and sensors
allow for time-sequenced capture to provide the possibilities of analysing
a moving scanned image (Sizestream.com); this provides the possibility of
its integration with other systems such as motion capture. This ability to
combine systems has been explored by Zong and Lee (2011), though further
developments are required to fully realise the benefits. These developments
further highlight the requirements for interdisciplinary skill sets to enable
suitable analysis of scan data; this is also the case when employing third-
party software.
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Body Scanning and Its Influence on Garment Development 313

13.3 Body Scanning and Classification of the Body

Body scanning provides a means to understand and classify the body in
a manner that can inform population groupings (size charts, shape clas-
sifications) or more directly support innovations in product development
(Istook, 2006; Brownbridge et al., 2013). Currently, the most accessible sys-
tem for classification of shape is the female figure identification technique
(FFIT) system (Devarajan and Istook, 2004; Simmons, Istook and Devarajan,
2004). This classifies the shape of the scanned body according to propor-
tional relationships of key dimensions used in garment sizing and product
development. Lee et al. (2007) used this system in their comparison of US
and Taiwanese female body shapes and showed how body scanning can be
used to understand proportional relationships and enable shape classifica-
tion in a manner more suitable to product development. Having large vol-
umes of data through scanning has also enabled a greater understanding of
their classification for clothing product development (Hlaing, Krzywinski
and Roedel, 2013). The use of proportional relationships derived from body
scan data allows categorisation of the body by shape and 1D measurements
that provide more objectively repeatable methods of classification than pre-
vious systems. However, current systems do not make distinctions between
the morphology of sporting and nonsporting bodies.

13.3.1 Defining the Sporting Body

There have been a number of studies defining or comparing sporting bodies
and their characteristics according to different sporting disciplines (Watts
et al., 2003; Peeters et al., 2011; Aerenhouts et al., 2012; Zaccagni, 2012). These
studies focus predominantly on collecting data like those documented by
the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK)
(Stewart et al., 2011), which support the comparison of different sporting
groups, but provide little data that can be used directly in product devel-
opment. The body scanner cannot easily directly replicate the comparative
data advised by ISAK, but it can provide suitable data in terms of measure-
ments, shape and proportion that can be used to drive product develop-
ment. However, without a clear understanding of how dimensions used
in product development differ between athletes and a general population,
it will always require iterative prototyping to create suitable garments.
Having an understanding of the impact of sport on the body’s morphology
is important, as many pattern construction methods employ proportional
rules based on the general population to generate block patterns (Gill and
Chadwick, 2009). Body scanning allows the extraction of dimensional data
individually, but only through accessible and suitably classified data sets
can proportions of a sporting body be defined where they may differ from
a general population.
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314 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

Currently, the most accessible indication of variation within sporting

populations is in the images of Howard Schatz (Schatz and Ornstein, 2002).
However, these are limited to visual comparisons and whilst displaying spe-
cific sporting body morphologies, they do not provide the quantitative mea-
surement data a body scanner can provide. Whilst body scanning offers the
opportunity to collect sizing data of different populations quickly, there are
limited accessible populations from which to make comparisons, in terms of
both general population and specific sporting groups. There is also the dif-
ficulty of determining which measurements should be compared for cloth-
ing; key sizing dimensions or those used in product development (pattern
construction) would be ideal as these would impact on clothing sizing and
methods of product development.
A study conducted by Simeon Gill and Jane Ledbury at Manchester
Metropolitan University during 2012 enabled body scans of 19 elite water
polo players to be captured using a Tc2 NX16 body scanner. Existing sports-
related studies suggest elite female water polo players have high muscularity
due to the requirements of the sport (Marrin and Bampouras, 2007), though
no indication is given as to how this may manifest itself in body morphology.
Initial comparison between average measurements of the 19 water polo play-
ers and a comparable sample of 337 scans sharing some of the same markers
(age, body shape) (see Figure 13.1) shows what may be considered key differ-
ences that need to be considered within product development.

200
180 Water polo
160 Population

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
[114b]-BkHipA-Arc
Age

BMI
[102]-BustGirth
[102a]-FrBustArc
[102b]-BkBustArc
[106]-UnderBustGirth
[106a]-FrUnderbustArc
[106b]-BkUnderbustArc
[108]-WaistGirth-[4 cm]
[108a]-FrWaistArc-[4 cm]
[108b]-BkWaistArc-[4 cm]
[110]-UpperHipGirth
[110a]-FrUpperHipArc
[110b]-BkUpperHipArc
[112]-MidHipGirth
[112a]-FrMidHipArc
[112b]-BkMidHipArc
[114]-HipA-Girth
[114a]-FrHipA-Arc

[143]-HipB-Girth
[143a]-FrHipB-Arc
[143b]-BkHipB-Arc
Height cm
Weight kg

FIGURE 13.1
Comparison of elite water polo players to general population.
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Body Scanning and Its Influence on Garment Development 315

FIGURE 13.2
Examples of the female sporting body.

The water polo players appear to be taller and heavier, though with a
slightly lower BMI. When looking at dimensions which would impact prod-
uct development, their average bust and underbust girths are larger, though
for the bust this is manifest in a larger back bust arc, suggesting increased
muscularity on the back. Waist girths and hips are comparable, whilst the
upper hip is smaller, suggesting differences in fat deposition around this
area. These initial data show the potential of body scanning technology to
provide data that can inform product development, especially regarding
dimensional changes impacted by sports participation. Visual analysis is
also possible using body scanning, with scans of the athletic figure show-
ing a silhouette with good muscle tone and smooth curves and well defined
muscles (Figure 13.2).
Visual assessment of the scanned water polo players indicates body
morphology with good muscle tone and an upright posture. However, it
is not until suitable comparative analysis is undertaken between measure-
ments that the data can be used more objectively in product development.
Developments in practice and methods of coding are required to ensure that
captured data sets can be compared and suitable criteria identified which
classify them into different groupings.

13.3.2 Measurements Extracted from Body Scanning

Capturing data using body scanners enables the opportunity to analyse the
data; however, there is limited understanding as to existing definitions used by
body scanners when defining measurements (Tyler et al., 2012). Variation will
exist in measurement definitions; however, the current standards (ISO, 2010)
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
316 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

are grounded in ergonomic rather than clothing anthropometric practices.

Without a clear understanding of how measurements are defined using this
technology, it is difficult to understand how these data may be comparable
to previous manual data and applicable in existing product development
practice.

13.3.3 Creation of Avatars
The body scanner as a tool offers the opportunity to capture a snapshot of
an individual in time, in a fixed pose, and to then create a 3D computer rep-
resentation or avatar. As current scan avatars have fixed postures, unlike the
parametric avatars in CAD programs, it is not possible to transfer a scan of an
individual into a virtual environment, which supports accurate assessment
of movement and function. Recent developments with scanning technology
support dynamic assessment, though currently only visually (Sizestream.com);
whilst this is not applied in current research, it provides promise for future
applications.
Scanning technology enables the integration of individual sporting bod-
ies into the virtual environment, where software like Meshlab, Geomagic,
Polyworks and others, often developed for engineering, can be used in anal-
ysis and classification to drive more informed product development (Figure
13.3). This third-party software requires development of operator skills out-
side those of the traditional product developer, though there must always be
a clear appreciation of clothing measurement and its application in product
development. The creation of a closed surface model is possible using the
morphing features within Tc2. However; other scanners and the initial.obj

FIGURE 13.3
Basic scan to avatar in Tc2, created as .obj and opened in Meshlab.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
Body Scanning and Its Influence on Garment Development 317

files from Tc2 may require some manipulation before they can be employed
in different software platforms.

13.3.4 Measurements and Advances in Measurement

Body scanning is recognised for providing greater depth of data than exist-
ing manual methods (Bye et al., 2006) and the following section provides
examples of this.

13.3.4.1 Slices and Volumes

With the ability to collect data of participants’ dimensions with a body scan-
ner it is now possible to conduct detailed and specific analysis relative to par-
ticular sporting disciplines. The ability to take slices and volumes provides
an opportunity to compare the unique morphologies of a sporting body with
that of data taken from a general population.
Scan slices enable the visualisation of the body in a much more informa-
tive manner than surface analysis and can indicate how the body is bal-
anced in certain circumferences. Whilst a sportsperson may have a large
bust circumference, the scan slice can enable recognition of how much of
this is influenced by musculature of the back, rather than increases in actual
breast size (Figure 13.4). Scan slices are often used to visually represent
changing size and circumferences (Hlaing et al., 2013) as well as a means to
show distribution of dimensions around the body. Slice data can generally
be transferred into other software platforms from Tc2; this is done using the
.dxf format.
Having the closed avatar it is possible to determine volume data using
body scanning or other software. For the Tc2 scanner this provides details
of volumes for specific areas, whole body, torso, and the individual limbs,
excepting extremities. This again allows for comparison of sporting and
nonsporting populations as can be seen in Figure 13.5. Access to suitably
classified scan data would enable determination of volumetric differences
by key region, such as increased and focused muscularity of the legs or fat

Bust
Waist
Hip

FIGURE 13.4
Scan slices of a sporting and a nonsporting body.
 USO ACADÉMICO EXCLUSIVO, NO COMERCIAL
318 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

70.00
Water polo
60.00 Population

50.00

40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
[999]-BulkVolume

[9a]-TorsoVolume

[9b]-R-ArmVolume

[9b]-L-ArmVolume

[9c]-R-LegVolume

[9c]-L-LegVolume
FIGURE 13.5
Examples of average volumes.

deposition in different regions as can clearly be observed between athletes

in the images of Schatz and Ornstein (2002).

13.3.5 Clothing Experiences of the Sporting Body

Classification of the sporting body is undertaken currently using predomi-
nantly manual tools to determine the muscle, fat and fitness of an athlete
(Stewart et al., 2011). Scanning offers a quick noninvasive method to capture
the dimensions of the athlete (Stewart, 2012) and to monitor change in these
dimensions over time. Whilst there is research into morphologies of athletes
and existing research which sometimes contextualises them dimensionally,
this is not suitable to drive product development. Furthermore, there is lit-
tle understanding of how athletes’ experiences of clothing may affect their
body image. Clothing and body images have been found to be linked in gen-
eral populations (LaBat and DeLong, 1990; Grogan et al., 2013) and it is not
unusual for clothing to be used as a means to gauge satisfaction with body
image (Grogan, 2008). These considerations are important regarding perfor-
mance and ensuring that sporting participants have well fitting, aesthetic
and functioning garments. Experiences of their body in relation to clothing
can be negative and are rationalised by recognised changes to their morphol-
ogy brought about by their participating in sports (Ledbury, 2009). Informal
discussion with athletes often indicates they recognise the impact of sports
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Body Scanning and Its Influence on Garment Development 319

participation on their bodies and this does not always lead to greater body
image satisfaction. It is important that means are sought to recognise dimen-
sional differences due to sport, which is clearly possible through body scan-
ning. These data can be used both to develop products which satisfy the
performance requirements of the athlete and to enable them to participate
fully in the consumption of ready-to-wear clothing.

13.4 Preassessment of Garments in 3D Virtual Environments

Using 3D avatars in software like Optitex or Browzewear can allow for the
virtual fitting of garments and evaluation of fit using tension maps. These
tension maps, which relate to a dimensional difference between the body
and garment, with consideration of body angles, allow some predictive capa-
bilities regarding compression and for the virtual testing of garment fit on a
larger population and in more depth than would be enabled manually. A lim-
itation of this is the ability to relate this assessment of fit to methods of actual
fit and wearer experiences and feedback to provide a more informed process.
Body scanning has been used as a tool to capture clothed participants and
undertake fit assessment (Bye and McKinney, 2010; Song and Ashdown, 2010).
Both studies compared 3D clothed scans with the same garments in a live-fit
assessment. Whilst differences were determined between the results of live and
3D scan fit analysis, this research shows the opportunities for applying scanning
technology as a tool in fit assessment. As the scan image can be rendered in a
single tone, the ability to see stress folds and buckling is greater than during live
fit; also, garment balance can be seen, though as has been indicated, seams can
be difficult to locate on the scans’ images (Song and Ashdown, 2010).

13.5 Assessment of Functional Requirements

and the Changing Body
13.5.1 Postural Change and Sports
Assessment of functional change using scanning technology has been carried
out by Choi and Ashdown (2011), who used a Vitus laser scanner and Polyworks
software to determine changes to the lower body. A similar approach had been
undertaken by Chi and Kennon (2006) with earlier scanning tools but with
less success because the requirement to stabilise posture and resolution of the
data was problematic. However, changes to surface dimensions can clearly be
established and when correctly sited in relation to the pattern, can inform with
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320 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

ease requirements at key locations (Gill, 2009). Body scanning offers the most
suitable tool for flexible analysis of postural change and the ability to define
and refine measurement context within the software environment.
The ability to use scanning technology in combination with motion cap-
ture systems was explored by Zong and Lee (2011). Through largely explor-
atory work they show how the capabilities of body scanning and motion
capture systems can be used to drive developments in the understanding of
functional requirements in apparel. They also highlight the limitation of cap-
turing and rendering reliable data in postures other than the standard scan
posture (Zong and Lee, 2011). Further developments in scanning technology
and the adoption of new IR depth-sensing technology promise opportuni-
ties for dynamic 4D capture with the scanner (SizeStream.com); however, the
possibility to then extract usable measurement data is as yet unproven.
Using existing scanning technology it is possible to capture scans of par-
ticipants in different sporting postures. These can range from what can be
considered control (or pivot) postures (Figure 13.6) to dominant postures
related to specific sports (Figure 13.7). However, current limitations of scan-
ning technology with the necessity to define certain markers (crotch and
armpits) before the point cloud can be rendered into a state where automated
analysis can commence mean that postures which deviate too much from
the standard scan posture cannot easily have measurements derived.
Manual manipulation of the automated landmarks on the scan shown
in Figure 13.6 enabled the alignment of the waist to the angle of the torso;
however, this was not possible with other measurements, which are fixed
to a horizontal plane. As many automated measurements are aligned with
the floor, the current ability within software to make comparisons between

FIGURE 13.6
Control posture.
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Body Scanning and Its Influence on Garment Development 321

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 13.7
Examples of dynamic scan images: (a) fencing, (b) golf, (c) speed skating and (d) tennis.

a standard and a changed posture is limited. There is a clear need for the
development of automated measurements tied to features and planes of
the body, rather than those of the scanning environment, that will allow the
benefits of automated scanning to be fully utilised for sporting body analy-
sis. As with the work of Choi and Ashdown (2011), it is often necessary to
employ other 3D software and landmarking methods in the analysis of body
scans to determine dimensions in postures other than the standard posture.
Utilisation of specialist software also requires different skill sets from those
that are often accessible to clothing practitioners.
Using third-party software like Geomagic or Polyworks requires a clear
understanding of measurement positioning for clothing. Though these pack-
ages can be used to extract dimensions from nonstandard scan postures, a
limitation of current scan software (Zong and Lee, 2011), they do not offer the
automated processing capacity for large volumes of scan data. Using a Tc2
KX16 body scanner it was possible to capture body scans in different sport-
ing positions (Figure 13.7) and whilst the software is better at dealing with
nonstandard scans than earlier versions, the scans could not be rendered
or automated measurements extracted. However, these files could be out-
put for processing in other third-party software, though there are still issues
with scan volumes capturing all of the participants and in the removal of
unwanted data, like the floor or side curtain.

13.6 Custom Garment Provision

The body scan or avatars provide the perfect opportunity to model garments
directly onto the body and flatten these 3D surfaces to 2D patterns. Whilst
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322 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

a number of publications exist outlining the principles of such an approach

(Kang and Kim, 2000; Istook, 2006; Yunchu and Weiyuan, 2007) there is still a
requirement for careful consideration of production and pattern practices, and
these only really suit form-fitted garments with either knitted structures or
using high levels of elastic fibres. However, for elite athletes who may exhibit
large variations in body morphology dependent on discipline and may fall
outside the norms imposed by current sizing and product development prac-
tices, the opportunity for bespoke clothing may help maintain performance
by removing dissatisfaction with garments during sports participation. The
need for greater consideration of fit is highlighted by Ledbury (2009) in her
analysis of clothing for women participating in elite sports related activities.
This is further supported through feedback from elite Olympic athletes who
participated in a body scanning exercise during 2012. The development of
automated garment provision from scalable models developed using scan
data is a recent area of research development (Sayem, Kennon and Clarke,
2012; Hlaing et al., 2013; Tao and Bruniaux, 2013). Body scanning is key to
enabling these developments, both in terms of understanding the body and
in the translations of practice into an electronic environment.

13.7 Future Developments and Requirements

Using Body Scanning
Body scanning capabilities continue to expand and data accuracy improves; the
ability to capture time sequenced scans in real time (SizeStream.com) enables
the possibilities of assessing function and fit using these tools. However, pro-
ducing data that can inform the product developer not only on functional
requirements but also on changes to the body by sports is required to fully
realise the potential of body scanning in product development. In part this
requires greater access to these facilities, but also to the scan data captured.
Having suitably coded data sets of athletes from different sports will enable
identification of differences unique to sporting disciplines and promote the
development of methods to enable their morphologies to be considered within
garment creation and product development practices. Existing methods of
product development (pattern construction) are heavily influenced by the gen-
eral population, and corrections currently applied are specific to practitioners.
The ability to utilise body scan data of individual sporting participants in
creating form-fitted custom garments provides a clear area of development.
Tailoring performance garments to the specific morphology of the athlete
has the potential to improve performance, though this requires many devel-
opments in the practices of product development and careful considerations
of how data are extracted from body scanners.
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Body Scanning and Its Influence on Garment Development 323

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14
Eco-Considerations for Sportswear Design

Jennifer Prendergast and Lisa Trencher

CONTENTS
14.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 327
14.2 Ethical Practices within Sportswear........................................................ 328
14.3 Consumers and Sustainability.................................................................. 330
14.3.1 Consumer Knowledge of Ethical/Sustainable Practices........... 330
14.4 The Sustainable Supply Chain.................................................................. 332
14.4.1 Corporate Social Responsibility................................................... 332
14.5 Ethical Sportswear Design........................................................................334
14.6 New Fabric Developments......................................................................... 335
14.7 Technology in Sportswear Design........................................................... 336
14.8 Conclusion................................................................................................... 338
References.............................................................................................................. 339

14.1 Introduction
The sportswear industry alone is worth approximately $145 billion (PWC,
2014) and is set to increase. It is an industry that caters to all sexes, ages and
cultures, hence its popularity. The attraction is that it crosses casual wear,
active sportswear and fashion. However, these consumer-driven factors have
not always considered ethical and sustainable supply chain processes.
There have over the years been increases in sustainable practices, which
have grown in popularity within many sportswear companies. However,
the need to implement sustainable design practices can often be time con-
suming and costly – particularly as ethical supply chain processes can be
more complex due to the nature of the product development such as fibre
production, labour costs and sourcing (Stuart, 2011). This would suggest
that there are many challenges for sportswear companies, which in the
past have relied heavily on the fast-paced environment of the traditional
supply chain to fulfil consumer demand (Kunz and Garner, 2007). Many
of these challenges can be overcome by utilising sustainable and ethical
programmes throughout the world, many supported by governments. For
example, the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) regularly undertakes
joint ventures with non-­governmental agencies and academia to research

327
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328 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

the impact of sustainable initiatives on the consumer and environment, etc.

Redress, founded in Hong Kong, promotes specific issues directly associated
with the apparel industry with a collective of members worldwide (Redress​
.com.hk, 2014). In Australia, the Council of Textile and Fashion Industries
of Australia Ltd (TFIA) focuses on the clothing and apparel industry and
the impact on all resources from natural resources to the workforce (Tfia​
.com.au, 2014). Waste management is one of the major concerns for retailers
and consumers alike and is undertaken by many agencies worldwide; one
such non-­governmental organisation, which is based in the UK, is WRAP
(Waste and Resources Action Programme) (WRAP.org.uk, 2014). These agen-
cies and many others, including those that consult with manufacturers in
Bangladesh, India and Cambodia, deal with issues from human rights to
health and safety. All of them have a wealth of information, with sustain-
ability and ethics at the core of every initiative.
The benefits for sportswear companies are that they are in a fortunate
position whereby the popularity in worldwide sporting events such as the
International Cricket Councils (ICC) Twenty20 World Cup Cricket, the 2012
London Olympics and the 2014 World Cup in Brazil all provided a platform
on which ethical sportswear design could have had a global impact. There
have been some developments relating to ethical and sustainable design
through the Nike ‘Making’ app (Nikemakers.com, 2014), which is a sustain-
ability tool designed to assist in the design and development of the company’s
sporting goods. Nike’s statement – ‘Designers need to think “ethical” from
the outset of their design, not just about fabric but 100% recyclable garments,
e.g. polyester fabric, polyester buttons, fabric waste’ – suggests that the ethi-
cal considerations are not only vast but also complex (Nikemaker.com, 2014).
The ethical clothing market value in 2011 was £50.76 billion in the UK,
marking a notable growth since 2007. The market is predicted to reach
almost £76.7 billion in 2016 (Clothing Retailing, 2012). Therefore, in relation
to sportswear, many brands have the potential to establish a large market
share within the sector, particularly with the shift in global economic wealth
and the advent of new technological advances within the apparel industry.
There are, however, obstacles to overcome prior to design conception which
raise many ethical issues, particularly as the customer is at the core of any
initiative. The issues range from CSR (corporate social responsibility) and
consumer perception of ethical goods to quality, price and brand loyalty
(Ellis, McCracken and Skuza, 2012).

14.2 Ethical Practices within Sportswear

Corporate social responsibility is underpinned by ethical and sustainable
practices that provide long-term plans to minimise environmental impact
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Eco-Considerations for Sportswear Design 329

through a transparent supply chain. This platform then provides consumers

with products that have a unique point of difference from non-ethical goods
(Carrigan and De Pelsmacker, 2009). However, the hierarchical nature of the
supply chain and communication channels can often prove problematic,
due to the complex nature of internal and external involvement; therefore,
companies must invest in planning and implementing policies strategically
(Stuart, 2011). It is therefore essential that those involved in the global supply
chain are clear in their understanding of the product and consumer require-
ments, in order to influence consumer purchasing decisions that rely heavily
on personal beliefs and values (Mirvis, 1994; Doran, 2009; Goworek, 2011).
Investment in ethical and sustainable products is high, and in many cases the
costs are passed on to the consumer through product purchase – particularly
where the retailers have refined programmes of production to focus on envi-
ronmental initiatives (Mirvis, Googins and Kinnicutt, 2010).
In order to demonstrate the impact of CSR on sportswear companies,
Puma developed its PUMA environmental profit & loss (‘E P&L’) account (About​
.puma.com, 2014). This document details the measures Puma has undertaken
to assess the product journey within the supply chain, ‘from design concep-
tion to consumer interaction; in order to make the processes a transparent
ethical, environmental audit programme’ (Puma.com, 2014). This statement
by Puma clearly defines how the company will implement its CSR policy
through its environmental responsibilities within the supply chain.
As the population continues to grow and resources become ever more pre-
cious, international governmental strategies that support shared international
wealth through ethical practices are key incentives to all parties involved
(Gaskill-Fox, Hyllegard and Ogle, 2014). In terms of strategies, this has resulted
in many ethical forums, each with its own unique initiatives. For example, the
ETI (Ethical Trading Initiative) of which there are many prominent and popu-
lar retailers, is concerned with workers’ rights: from education to fair working
practices and fair wages. The membership does include several sportswear
companies. Additionally, there is the Fairtrade Foundation, which develops
sustainable trading practices with Third World workers in ensuring that
everyone benefits throughout the supply chain. WRAP develops initiatives in
waste reduction, including reuse, recycling and longevity practices. In relation
to livestock, DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs)
is a UK-focused governmental department involved in animal welfare and
environmental issues that impact the UK. Finally, the OECD (Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development) is an international organisa-
tion whereby governments can discuss and implement ways to develop and
improve sustainable and ethical practices throughout the world, together.
These organisations represent some of the initiatives available that promote
and encourage retailers to act responsibly. However, as stated previously, there
are many initiatives; therefore, it could be argued that many retailers will find
the implementation of their own CSR policies difficult if trying to cover all of
the different areas of ethical practice. This has led many sportswear companies
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330 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

to undertake their own ethical/sustainable initiatives to raise consumer

awareness whilst implementing their own CSR policies. Nike has undertaken
initiatives on the production of organic cotton in conjunction with the London
Fashion Week’s Sustainable Fashion Show (Nike.com, 2009). Through the
‘Common Threads Initiative’ Patagonia has undertaken work to promote fair
trade practices, sustainable production and longevity of its products through
reuse, recycling and repairing (Patagonia.com, 2014).
CSR for many sportswear companies is a complex practice. The need to
be socially and environmentally aware and place the issues at the forefront
of traditional business poses many challenges to retailers. It is difficult to
control all aspects of the implementation as there is an understanding that
everyone involved shares the same beliefs. However, as seen with the devel-
opment of new products within sportswear, such as the Nike running ‘sin-
glet’ made of recycled plastic bottles (Nike, Inc., 2014) and Puma’s ‘Incycle’
products that adhere to the ‘cradle to cradle’ recycling theory (Leader,
2013; Environmentalleader.com, 2014), these sustainable and ethical prod-
ucts have been developed to enhance the lifestyle of the producers as well as
those of the consumer. We have yet to see these penetrate the mass market.
The implementation of CSR policies will take some time, but with the assis-
tance of government and NGOs (nongovernmental organisations), consum-
ers can be educated in how sportswear production affects them as well as the
wider international community.

14.3 Consumers and Sustainability

The issues associated with consumer understanding and participation in
sustainable initiatives have yet to be explored in great depth. However, fur-
ther investigation and insight into consumer requirements will provide an
overview of the consumers knowledge, ethical practices, ethical consump-
tion, sustainable literature and marketing evidenced by academic litera-
ture and press reports. It is important to add that the eco-considerations for
sportswear design are often complex processes, which the consumer may
not understand or simply choose to ignore, in return for a product that is
aesthetically pleasing and/or performs well. However, many academics have
argued that the consumer is the key to the success of any sports products;
sportswear brands and press journalists who regularly review sustainable
and ethical innovations implemented by sportswear companies support this.

14.3.1 Consumer Knowledge of Ethical/Sustainable Practices

Ethically, reuse practices are widely acknowledged and accepted in con-
temporary society (Doran, 2009). Particularly in the disposal of clothing,
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Eco-Considerations for Sportswear Design 331

a garment’s identity (i.e. garment construction, country of origin, fabric

composition) is clearly presented to the consumer and the important fac-
tors and considerations are the reuse purpose (e.g. disassembly, remake,
etc.) (Dickson, 2000). Doran (2009) suggested that the ethical global supply
chain is often too complex for consumers to understand and those who
do understand the processes involved are often most likely to purchase
ethical clothing. Ethical consumers often assess such practices according to
their personal values and align them according to their understanding of
sustainability. The consumer who does not purchase sustainable clothing
may do this because of the cost, a misunderstanding of ethical issues or
simply because the alternative options are cheaper (Doran, 2009). Despite
this, purchasing behaviours are clearly embedded in consumers’ psyches;
the decision to purchase must fulfil their individual requirements but the
need to satisfy the physical and psychological demands is high, whether
they are ethical consumers or not. Cross-generational studies suggested
that consumers are united in supporting fair and ethical trade but their
individual needs and societal beliefs are determinants against the value
and cost of the goods. However, consumers who purchase ethical goods on
a regular basis have an understanding of how this benefits them as well as
global supply chain (Cheah and Phau, 2011). Hustvedt and Dickson (2009)
highlighted a significant link between product understanding and pur-
chase intentions, suggesting that consumers who purchase non-apparel
organic products are likely to be aware of popular types of organic fibres
in clothing and are able to purchase such clothing with a high level of
confidence in the product. Understanding the consumers’ requirements
is essential when using organic fabrics in clothing; of equal importance
are the aesthetic qualities and product serviceability such as function and
durability. Most retailers offering this type of product are either niche or
specialist clothing companies, providing garments for loyal customers who
are willing to invest not only in the quality of the garment but also in the
companies’ brand values (Delong, 2009; George, 2009). With regard to prod-
uct serviceability, consumers often link the perceived value of ethical gar-
ments to the price and expect them to perform to standards the same as/
or higher than their man-made counterparts (Hustvedt and Dickson, 2009).
Function, aesthetics, performance and the aftercare of ethical garments are
important to consumers, as they pay more for such garments. In addition
to these qualities, they also want exclusive aesthetic qualities and expect
the cost of the garment to represent the ease of aftercare (Ha-Brookshire
and Norum, 2011).
According to the Ethical and Green Retailing Report compiled by Mintel
(2009), in the UK consumer awareness of issues such as sustainability and
ethical production is higher than ever. In the United States, aspects such
as environmental issues and a lack of sustainable literature have forced
many consumers to question political and business motives in sustainable
practices. However, other barriers to the purchase of ethical clothing are
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332 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

that prices are high and there is a lack of availability in terms of product
ranges. In addition, consumers are not clear about various complex terms
used, such as ‘ethical clothing’, ‘fair trade’, ‘organic fabric’, ‘sustainable gar-
ment’, etc. There is also lack of trust in labelling. In addition, consumers
choose quality and longevity economy against quantity when making a
sustainable choice.

14.4 The Sustainable Supply Chain

Kunz and Garner define the supply chain as ‘a total sequence of business
processes involving single or multiple businesses and countries that enables
demand for products or services to be satisfied’ (2011:436). Within the sports-
wear market, there are some examples of ‘business processes’ in a traditional
supply chain model.
In order to operate sustainably within the supply chain there are many
key issues to understand; some include the use of materials. This encom-
passes everything from fabric waste to packaging waste. There are also the
recycling elements, which can involve fabric, including biodegradable fab-
rics and, of course, packaging. However, one of the major issues that affects
all our daily lives is pollution. Minimising pollution is an essential element
within the sustainable supply chain process. There is potential from the pol-
lution of dyestuff, transportation and pesticide use – all of which, along with
many others, contribute to water pollution.

14.4.1 Corporate Social Responsibility

Some of these factors highlight that there are many important factors to con-
sider regarding the production of basic sportswear garments. Therein, this
highlights the complexities of implementing a sustainable supply chain. In
addition, the sustainable supply chain, as with the traditional supply chain,
will also encounter communication issues associated with sustainable mean-
ings and practices as the supply chain links are worldwide.
Published within the Keynote Report (2012) are some of the key barriers
to implementing a sustainable supply chain such as cost, consumer aware-
ness, cultural barriers and health and safety. According to the report, the
costs are in relation to ‘the ongoing uncertain economy [which] remains
the largest threat to the market as consumers often reduce spending in
the industry if faced with an economic downfall’ (Keynote Report, 2013).
Therefore, brands may carefully consider their sustainability strategies
given the costs, some of which will inevitably be passed on to the consumer.
In relation to the consumer, there is a lack of knowledge or understanding
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Eco-Considerations for Sportswear Design 333

of the wider effects of sustainable and ethical practices in relation to the

environment, the producer and the economies of less developed countries
(Koszewska, 2011). In addition to this, as brands source in existing and new
regions, there is a need for collaboration to share best practice and educate
new stakeholders in the sustainable supply chain mechanisms (De Brito,
Carbone and Blanquart, 2008). For example, in April 2013 the Rana Plaza
Garment Factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh, collapsed, killing over 1,000 peo-
ple (BBC News, 2012; Taplin, 2014). Whilst not directly linked to traditional
sustainability issues, questions were asked in relation to whether stake-
holders, local governments, factory owners and large retailers can allow
these practices to continue.
Directly in relation to sportswear and the support of workers’ rights
worldwide, governmental and non-governmental agencies collaborated on
a project to influence major sports companies prior to the 2012 Olympics,
in considering the direct personal impact of the increase in the produc-
tion of sports products prior to the event (Safety and Health Practitioner,
2010). However, these issues had been raised prior to both the 2004 and
2008 Olympic Games (Casabona, 2008). This resulted in the major sports-
wear companies addressing some aspects of the transparent supply chain;
however, workers’ rights were not addressed, suggesting that their position
within the supply chain was only as the receiver of goods not the producer.
However, public exposure and reports of alleged malpractice within the
workplace forced many to reconsider their responsibilities within the pro-
cess (Doorey, 2011). Since this and other unfortunate incidents, the Alliance
for Bangladesh Worker Safety was established by a group of retailers in an
attempt to provide a transparent platform on which to present their sup-
ply chain safety processes and procedures in an accessible online report
(Radhadkrishnan, 2014).
There are, however, positive examples of good practice within the sports-
wear brands. The outdoor wear company Patagonia is dedicated to minimis-
ing environmental impact through the initiative ‘1% for the Planet’, which is
an alliance of businesses that actively implement programmes that necessi-
tate protecting the natural environment. Sportswear retailers are under pres-
sure to deliver and produce at greater speed than ever due to the fast-paced
nature of the industry, putting the supply chain under greater pressure. New
Balance is also a company that has for some time developed environmental
initiatives relating to production costs, many of which have been developed
in conjunction with its suppliers, suggesting that the responsibility for ethi-
cal and sustainable practices is shared (Newbalance.com.au, 2014). Therefore,
in relation to the sportswear market and the level of competition within this
area to produce low-cost products for a high consumer demand, sportswear
retailers are under pressure to deliver at a greater speed than ever due to the
fast-paced nature of the industry that puts the supply chain under greater
pressure.
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334 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

14.5 Ethical Sportswear Design

Ethical or sustainable design is often more complex than the traditional
forms of fashion design, which in many cases rely heavily on fashion trend
analysis and catwalk collections. Most ethical design principles focus on
developing products that reduce the impact on the environment and improve
quality of life (Orzada and Cobb, 2011). The considerations for ethical design
range from consumer requirements to fibre choice, product disposability
and product development processes. With these and many other ethical
considerations that have practical, environmental and social implications,
sportswear designers could consider a more lateral thinking approach to
creativity and product development as discussed by Taura and Nagai (2013),
De Bono (1992) and De Brito et al. (2008). These authors highlight the many
benefits to designing within the ethical supply chain with the advent of new
technological advancements, which can lead to cleaner and leaner processes
throughout the chain. The authors proceed to explain that many of the new
fabric developments using recycled materials, which are often discarded in
bulk, are now used within products sold by some of Europe’s largest retail-
ers. However, the sustainable supply chain needs clear channels of commu-
nication due to its multifaceted business relationships (De Brito et al., 2008;
Caniato et al., 2012).
Berchicci and Bodewes (2005) investigated several different theories regard-
ing new product development in sustainable design. Their investigations
highlighted that product placement and marketing and strategic positioning
of the product were at the forefront of product design well before design
conception. However, the marketing of green products needs careful con-
sideration in order to ensure that these products can be sold universally to a
wide range of consumers (Beard, 2008).
In the marketing of green products, sportswear companies often present
promotional literature regarding their sustainable practices via different
new media platforms, and it is questionable as to whether many consum-
ers are aware of them. These platforms are used to promote and encourage
sustainable practice within sportswear, such as the app, ‘Making of Making
Powered by Nike MSI’ (Nike.com, 2014). There are also social networking
sites and dedicated web pages that specifically focus on companies’ sustain-
ability reports, corporate social responsibilities and associated initiatives,
such as those produced by Puma, Patagonia and the Adidas Group, who
all have an abundance of information. However, the question remains as
to whether these enhance the consumer’s desire to buy the goods or not
(Joergens, 2006). It is also questionable as to whether the ethical products
meet the performance requirements of the companies’ standard products.
In order to develop products that meet the sustainable and ethical require-
ments, the team, consisting of all of the individuals involved in the process
from design to production, need to expand upon their current knowledge
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Eco-Considerations for Sportswear Design 335

and access information which will allow for innovation to be implemented

into consumer-driven products (Esslinger, 2011). There are, however, many
complexities relating to the consumer that often include the emotional
attachment to the garment as identified by Niinimaki and Koskinen (2011),
whereby consumers often use different aspects of the garments’ construction
and general make up to satisfy their ethical practices; this can lead to longev-
ity of the garment through multi-use and function. In fact, the argument
for consumer input into garment design is supported by the work of Gam
and Banning (2011), whose hypothesis is based on the sustainable design
process. This involved trends being established from the consumers, their
requirements of garments and emotional needs. Emotional needs which lead
to emotional attachment to a garment are complex and multi-faceted (Lee
and Soo, 2012; Muehling, Sprott and Sultan, 2014). In fact, many aspects (such
as the neural system, which controls our sensory perceptions such as smells,
sound and feelings) play a role in our product preferences (Muehling et al.,
2014). In addition to this, there are personality traits that we project onto
products in order to align ourselves within certain categories, such as social
groups or how we wish others to perceive us (Malar et al., 2011; Patwardhan
and Balasubramanian, 2011).
These factors form the foundations for a more conceptual design develop-
ment process and highlight elements for the garment requirements, such as
longevity, function and individuality. Important findings from the research
of Patwardhan and Balasubramanian (2011) and Malar et al. (2011) were that
natural resources are still limited, leading to less creativity. It can therefore
be argued that in order to develop a high level of creativity, sustainable
design should be innovative, similar to new products designed to reduce
environmental impact, which many consumers use on a daily basis, such
as low-energy appliances that benefit both themselves and the environment
(Nidumolu, Prahalad and Rangaswami, 2009). However, using the most suit-
able resources from a diverse range of stakeholders – from the farmer to the
product developer, who have the expertise with and understanding of the
product requirements – is essential (Margolin, 2007).

14.6 New Fabric Developments

Fabrics are the bulk of any apparel product, with cotton as one of the most
popular, due to its qualities associated with comfort, ease of dyeing and
availability (Cotton.org, 2014). However, the resources used to propagate and
grow this fibre are damaging not only to the environment but also to society.
The fibre is grown over several hundreds of acres of land and, along with the
use of pesticides, causes harm not only to the environment but also to the
health of the workers (Ellis et al., 2012). As with all crops, organic cotton also
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336 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

needs water; however, the impact of pollution is significantly lower than for
conventional cotton fibre growth. However, the costs of organic cotton are
higher, as there is a time in which it takes to propagate and grow due to the
limited use of pesticides and other harmful pollutants. There are, however,
other options to replace cotton, such as cellulose blends, which are plant-
based fibres that can then be woven. These blends have similar qualities to
cotton, such as drape and strength, but the process of producing them is
more complex. Silk is another fibre that is grown organically and is slowly
being introduced into mainstream fashion. It has an abundance of qualities
such as insulative and breathable, comfortable, and lightweight and takes
dyes well; in addition, it is also a very strong fibre (Post and Orth, 1997).
However, non-organic silk, which is mainly produced by a silkworm, can be
extracted in an inhumane fashion. In recent years there has been the advent
of organic silk; this process allows the moth to emerge from the cocoon
before the fibre is extracted, making this a more humane process. In order to
mimic some of the qualities found in natural fibres there are silk alternatives
such as Lyocell, which is a sustainable fabric regenerated from wood pulp
cellulose; it has good draping qualities, is crease resistant and can be blended
with other natural fibres, which is why it is used frequently in yoga wear
(Copeland, 2014). Developments that are more recent include fabrics that
combine man-made and plant fibres such as ‘plant-based spandex’, which is
more environmentally friendly due to the content and production process.
As with all fabric developments they are experimental; however, many of
them are viable alternatives that are available for use in mainstream sports-
wear product development (Ecouterre.com, 2014).

14.7 Technology in Sportswear Design

Technology to many designers is at the forefront of sustainable and ethical
design. Some are very innovative and others are based on traditional skills,
but at the heart of the process is the ability to produce products that consum-
ers require.
Technology facilitates the design process (Park et al., 2014). For example,
replacing the traditional manual skills, such as component cutting, sample
development and hand embroidery, with 3D CAD visualisation, laser cut-
ting and computerised embroidery machines makes the eco-design process
more efficient.
Three-dimensional printing, once used only by architects to visualise
their projects, is being utilised by sportswear companies to develop more
innovative sportswear products. This has been visible in athletic footwear
whereby many of the major sportswear retailers have started to produce
customised footwear for professional athletes (Nike.com, 2000). The 3D
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Eco-Considerations for Sportswear Design 337

process involves using different flexible materials, inks or even fibres and
then printing the product using a specially designed printer; this process
has many features that ethical consumers would relish. These include the
bespoke element: The consumer is able to input his or her own measure-
ments in the system. This enables the garment to be printed without fab-
ric wastage; it also means that customers can customise the garments to
their individual tastes and requirements. Some 3D printers also produce
interconnecting pieces, which enable the wearer to adjust or change the
garment function for their particular needs, such as a bespoke fit and com-
fort factors. This in turn extends the product’s life cycle, whereby the con-
sumer will see the ethical values relating to, for example, waste disposal,
multi‑use benefits and product versatility (Continuumfashion.com, 2012).
These and other benefits significantly put the retailer in a favourable posi-
tion as this will attract more consciously ecologically minded consumers
and untapped markets and, amongst other things, positively contribute to
the development of its CSR policies.
With the advancement of technology, the laser cutting once used for deco-
rative purposes, which is prevalent in many fashion design collections in the
form of engraving a fabric and the cutting out of elaborate, decorative designs,
has more recently been used within technical product design. Having simi-
lar benefits to 3D printing, it offers the opportunity to be used directly in
conjunction with organic fabrics. The benefits, for example, include the seal-
ing of raw edges, eliminating the need for the neatening process; the cut
pieces are very accurate and precise, which is not always possible when the
garment is cut by hand. In addition, the computer can be set to ensure that
the patterns are positioned in such a way that fabric wastage is kept to a
minimum. In relation to the consumer, garments can be cut based upon the
specific requirements (Ondogan et al., 2005; Qiu and Hu, 2014). Within these
processes, innovation is addressed through the sustainable product devel-
opment process. For example, the design innovation can be derived from
utilising the whole fabric yardage and using moulding techniques, such as
draping, where the fabric is manipulated to define a shape such as a sleeve or
armhole rather than separate pieces being constructed to form these shapes.
This suggests that the designer may have more creative freedom within the
design process by starting at the point of the fabric rather than the sketch,
which is how it is traditionally done. This will then lead to more individual
and innovative designs rather than those that follow trends. Additionally,
fabric wastage may be eliminated because the retailer is using all of it. Again,
this will appeal to the consumer on the same level as 3D printing, through
efficiency practices.
Body scanners are used in sportswear to develop custom-made garments
for professional athletes. They are more commonly known as 3D body scan-
ners. The technology takes several measurements of the body, which are then
used to produce garments for the specific wearer. There are several examples
of use within the professional sports arena. The benefits of this software are
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338 Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel

that individual measurements are recorded, making the product unique to the
wearer (Hollings.mmu.ac.uk, 2013). This also means that performance enhance-
ments were developed, such as those by Speedo for the 2008 Beijing Olympics
for the Australian swimming team – the Fastskin suits that allowed the water
to travel over the wearer with more efficiency, effectively allowing the wearer
to navigate through the water at a faster speed (Speedo, 2008). More recently,
the Brazilian football team for the World Cup 2014 had its kit designed by Nike;
this enabled the company to scan each individual team member and design
garments that were unique to his physiology. These football kits allowed the
wearer to play football in clothing that was specifically designed to cater to
each of his movements and his physiology (Nike.com, 2012).
Technology within the apparel industry is developing at a fast rate: For
example, circular knitting allows a garment to be constructed using fewer
seams, which provides comfort and reduced friction to the wearer, partic-
ularly if the garment is worn for long periods, such as in mountaineering
and trekking (Rodie, 2009). There are spray-on fabrics, which can be used
to provide layers in specific areas, such as those that require regular move-
ment or need more thermal protection. Many of these spray-on fabrics can
also be easily applied and removed, eliminating the need of assistance
(Fabricanltd.com, 2010). There are also technologies for garment decorations
that can include the addition of thermally regulated technologies, which can
change colour according to the wearers’ temperature to monitor their health
during an activity (Dunn, 2003). Therefore, the design and technology pro-
cess will forever be evolving and, with the application of sustainable materi-
als, has the ability to provide consumers with clothing that will be of use to
them over a longer period.

14.8 Conclusion
To summarise, eco-considerations for sportswear design fall into four main
areas:

• CSR regulations
• The consumer
• The design process
• Technology

Each of these areas encompasses sustainable and ethical processes that

influence the design and production of sportswear. There are many interna-
tional governing bodies and non-governmental organisations, such as WRAP,
The Fairtrade Foundation, TFIA, etc. that encourage and support policies that
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Eco-Considerations for Sportswear Design 339

focus on the environment, workers’ welfare, animal welfare and many others
that sportswear retail companies have access to. Positively, many sportswear
companies also actively promote their own CSR programmes and policies,
but there is still a long way to go. The consumer plays the most important role
within the entire design and development process. Many ethical consumers
want to understand what their product is made of. How was it made? Who
produced it? Where was it produced? How was it shipped? However, supply
chain issues are just the beginning; there are also questions relating to the
longevity of the product and its uniqueness to the consumer. Therefore, it
is a very complex and lengthy process, which for a sportswear company to
undertake could be quite daunting. But as evidenced, many sportswear com-
panies are doing this through large sporting events such as football, skiing,
cycling, etc. If they can achieve a balance, there is an opportunity to reach
untapped markets, such as those consumers who would not normally pur-
chase ethical goods and are fast fashion purchasers. In order to create interest
from these consumers, the designers must create garments that not only are
appealing but also have a point of difference from mainstream goods. This
will demand a more lateral approach to design, one where the traditional
design process of trend first is replaced with consumers’ requirements, such
as uniqueness relating to aesthetics, performance, function and the psycho-
logical needs informed by emotional attachment to the product. Again, this
will mean that designers are able to experiment with more criteria in order to
produce ethical sportswear. There are, however, benefits to this. If technology
is introduced and combined within the design process, there is the ability to
attract consumers that would not normally be involved in ethical and sustain-
able causes. The ability to produce more individual and aesthetically pleasing
sports garments for the consumer is key to heightening ethical practices.

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Engineering - Industrial & Manufacturing

Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance

Apparel takes a close look at the design and development of functional apparel
designed for high-performance sportswear. Implementing materials, performance,
technology, and design and marketing, the book examines this rapidly emerging
textile market and outlines future directions and growing trends. The book begins
by explaining how a comfort-driven focus has led the industry to embrace
knitted fabric as a popular choice of constructional material. Using examples of
leading brands, it outlines the basic terminology, structural details, and essential
properties appropriate for performance apparel, especially for sportswear. This
book describes the differences between woven and knitted structures, provides an
understanding of fabric behaviour and the characteristics of a functional garment,
and outlines the importance of garment fit and consumer perception of garment
comfort in its design and development.

The authors present key research outcomes on the design and development
of functional apparel designed for high-performance sportswear that explore
smart materials, impact-resistant fabrics and pressure sensing. They consider the
use of 3-D body scanning and its influence on pattern engineering for apparel
product development; highlight the widely used fibre types for sportswear and the
importance of fibre blends and their performance, and discuss the relevance of
fabric structure and its interaction with the human body. The book also presents
research on moisture management and temperature regulation and analyzes the
performance and development of smart sportswear intended for monitoring health
and performance for a range of end uses.

A definitive guide detailing the future of functional clothing and sportswear,

this book

• Describes how to design and develop functional clothing for sportswear

• Reflects current research outcomes and industry requirements
• Clarifies with visual illustration, practical examples, and case studies an
understanding of techniques and concepts
• Explores specifics of garment design such as fit, shape, function, fashion
and design
• Focuses on a commitment to designing ethical and sustainable products

K22205
ISBN: 978-1-4822-2050-6
90000

9 781482 220506
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