CELL ITS STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

WHAT IS A CELL?

i. All living forms are composed of microscopic units called as “Cells”.

ii. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all life forms.
iii. Study of structure and composition of cell is called as “Cytology”.
iv. Cell was first observed by “Robert Hooke” in a dead cork slice in the year 1665. He
described about this in his book “Micrographic”
v. The term protoplasm was coined by Purkinje in 1839.
vi. Protoplasm was discovered by “Felix Dujardin” and named as sarcode.
vii. It’s consistency differs under different condition. It exists in sol-gel states.
viii. Protoplasm is an aggregate of various chemicals such as water, ions, salts and other
organic molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, vitamins etc.
ix. The word cell was derived from a Greek word “Cellulae” which means small room.
x. First living cell was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek.

CELL DISCOVERY:

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CELL:

 1665 – Robert Hooke discovered cell and coined the term cellula.
 1673-1674 – Antonny Von Leeuwenhoek observed bacteria, spermatozoa, RBCs etc.
 1682 – Malpighi and Grew laid the foundation of cell concept by writing anatomy of
plants wherein they described that tissues contain minute elementary structure (or cells).
 1772 – Alfonso Corti observed living matter in the cells.
 1781 – F. Fontana discovered nucleolus in skin cell of eel.
 1802 – C.F. Mirbel observed that plants are formed by membranous cellular tissue.
 1809 – J.B. Lamarck – No body can have life if its constituent parts are not formed of
cells.
 1824 – R.J.H. Dutrochet boiled Mimosa tissues in nitric acid and inferred that “tissues
are really globular cells of an extreme smallness which are united by cohesion”.
 1831 – Robert Brown discovered nucleus in cells of Orchid root.
 1835 – Dujardin discovered living semi fluid substance of cells and named it sarcode.
 1838-1839 – M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann propounded cell theory.
 1839 – J.E. Purkinje coin the term protoplasm (supported by Von Mohl)

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

CELL THEORY
i. Two biologists, “Schleiden and Schwann” gave the “Cell theory” which was later on
expanded by “Rudolf Virchow ”.
ii. Cell theory states that,

 All plants and animals are composed of cells.

 Cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 Viruses are the exceptions of cell theory.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CELLS

Cell shape
i. Shape of cells varies not only in different organisms but also in different parts of same
organism.
ii. Cells may be spherical, oval, elliptical, spindle shaped, cuboidal, polygonal, columnar
or flat plate like.
iii. Shape of the cell mainly depends upon the function it performs.
iv. Other factors which determine the cell shape are : surface tension, viscosity of the
protoplasm; rigidity of cell covering ; mechanical pressure of adjoining cells, etc.
v. The size of cells widely vary in different organisms.
vi. In prokaryotes, cell size range between 1 to 10 µm while in eukaryotes it range between
10 to 100 µm.
vii. Smallest cell (PPLO) – Pleuro pneumonia like organism, Mycoplasma gallisepticum
(0.1 µm to 0.3 µm), Largest animal cell – Ostrich egg (170 × 135 mm).
viii. Largest plant cell – Acetabularia (one celled organism - green alga) (6 – 10 cm).
ix. Longest cell in plant – fibre of ramie 55 cm to 100 cm long.
x. Longest cell in animal – Nerve cell (1 metre).

CELL NUMBER
i. Some organisms are one-celled called acellular e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium (earlier
were called unicellular) and are always microscopic, as can be seen only with the help
of microscope
ii. But most of the organisms are multicellular and have indefinite number of cells e.g. a
newly-born human infant has about 2 × 1012 cells, while at maturity the average adult
male has about 100 trillions (1014).
TYPES OF CELL & ORGANISM
Cell Volume
The volume of a cell :

 Is fairly constant for a particular cell type.

 Is independent of the size of an organism.

TYPES OF CELL & ORGANISM

On the Basis of Number of Cells Organisms can be categorized as:
(i) Unicellular organisms: These are organisms which made up of single cell only. This single
cell .Performs all the vital body functions of an organism. e.g. Amoeba

(ii) Multicellular organisms: These are the organisms which made up of numerous cells.
These cells then combine to form an organ and group of organs performing different functions
forms an organ system which further forms an organism. e.g. plants and animals

On the basis of type of organization, cells are two types :

(i) Prokaryotic cells: these are primitive and incomplete cells. They have less developed
nucleus without nuclear membrane & nucleolus. e.g. Bacteria.

(ii)Eukaryotic cells: these are well developed cells. They have advanced nucleus with unclear
membrane and nucleolus. e.g. Plants & animals.

Differences between Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells

S.No. Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1. Size 0.1-5 μm 5-100 μm

Intracellular
2. One envelope system Two envelope system
compartmentalization

If Present, containing
If present contains cellulose, no
3. Cell wall mucopeptide or
peptidoglycan
peptidoglycan.

Typical nucleus is absent, Typical nucleus made of nuclear

4. Nucleus instead nucleoid or genophore envelope, chromatin, nucleoplasm,
is present nuclear matrix and nucleoli.

Nucleoid is equal to a single

Occurrence of Nucleus contain chromatin material of
5. chromosome called pro-
chromosome two or more chromosomes
chromosome

In eukaryotic cell DNA lies inside

6. DNA 1. DNA lies freely in cytoplasm 1.
nucleus, mitochondria and plastids

DNA is commonly linear but circular in

2. DNA is generally circular 2.
mitochondria and plastids

DNA is naked (without

3. 3. DNA is associated with histones
histone proteins)

4. DNA content is low 4. DNA content is comparatively high

7. Plasmids Plasmids may occur Plasmids rare

It is folded to form
8. Cell membrane 1. 1. Mesosome is absent
mesosomes

Cell membrane is involved in

Such separating function of cell
2. separating replication 2.
membrane is absent.
products.

9. Flagella 1. Smaller, 4-5 μm × 12 nm 1. Longer, 150 μm × 200 nm

2. Single stranded 2. 11 stranded

No distinction of Axoneme
3. 3. Clear distinction of Axoneme.
and sheath

Cytoplasmic movement
10. Cyclosis Cytoplasmic movement present
absent

11. Sap vacuoles Absent Present

It may present to provide

12. Gas vacuoles buoyancy and protection No gas vacuole
against intense radiation.

Endocytosis and
13. Absent Present
exocytosis

14. Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present

15. Ribosomes 1. 70S type 1. 80S type

In cytoplasm these occur freely as well

Occur freely in cytoplasm as
attached to endoplasmic reticulum.
2. well as attach to plasma 2.
Also found in mitochondria and
lemma
plastids.

16. Mitochondria Absent Present

Respiratory enzymes are Respiratory enzymes are present in

attached to plasma membrane cytoplasm and mitochondria

17. Golgi apparatus Absent Present

If present, lie freely in

18. Thylakoids These occur inside chloroplast
cytoplasm

Lysosomes, phaerosomes,
19. Absent Present
glyoxysomes.

20. Centrosome Absent Present except in plants.

Microtubules and
21. Rarely present Usually present
microfilaments

22. Sexual reproduction Usually absent Commonly present

a) Plant and b) Animal Cells
Differences between Animal and Plant Cell

S.No. Animal cells Plant cells

1. Presence of cell wall Absent, thus cell shape is not firmed. Present that’s why shape is firmed
Presence of tissue
2. Tissue fluid generally bathes the cells. Absent
fluid
Occurrence of
3. Protoplasm fills the whole cell Protoplasm is peripheral.
protoplasm
4. Vacuoles Contains many small vacuoles Contains a large central vacuole
Usually oval, lies in peripheral
5. Nucleus Usually rounded, lies in centre
cytoplasm.
Cells are held together by various types of In plants, cells held together by
6. Cell anchorage
junctions. middle lamella.
7. Plastids Absent Present
8. Reserve food Glycogen Starch
Comparatively more in number, its cristae Comparatively fewer, cristae are
9. Mitochondria
are plate like. tubular.
It is made of a number of distinct
10. Golgi apparatus It is commonly a single complex.
units called Dictyosomes.
11. Centrosome Present Absent except in some lower forms
12. Lysosomes Present Absent
13. Cell division method Cleavage furrow method Cell plate method
Animal cells are unable to synthesized
Bio synthesis of Plant cells can synthesize all
14. amino acids, vitamins and coenzymes
materials material required by them.
required by it.
When placed in hypotonic solution
If kept in kept in Animal cells burst when kept in water or
15. or water these swell up (but do not
hypotonic solution hypotonic solution.
burst)

DETAILED STRUCTURE OF CELL

The detailed structure of the cell was studied under electron microscope which was invented by
Knoll and Ruska. The flow chart of a cell showing its constituents is as follows:

All cells have three major functional regions :

 Plasma membrane (cell membrane) and cell wall

 The Nucleus
 The Cytoplasm
CELL MEMBRANE

i. It is a thin, transparent, elastic, regenerative and semipermeable membrane present in

both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells outside the protoplasm.
ii. It is also called cell membrane or plasma lemma.
iii. It lies inner to cell wall, actually representing the outermost layer of the protoplast.
iv. Plasma membrane is living, dynamic and semipermeable.
v. It is selectively permeable, controlling the movements of various dissolved substances
in and out of cell.

STRUCTURE
i. Plasma membrane is made up of Phospholipids, Proteins and carbohydrates.
ii. Thickness of plasma membrane is - 75 Å.
 FUNCTION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE:

i. Plasma membrane is a semipermeable or selectively permeable membrane which

regulates the exchange of materials between the cytoplasm and extracellular fluid
(ECF).
ii. It is a dynamic membrane whose permeability varies.
iii. Its permeability involves a number of processes like passive transport (of minerals and
micro-biomolecules) and endocytosis (intake of macro-biomolecules).
iv. Transportation of molecules across the plasma membrane can be done by
following ways:

 Diffusion: Movement of solutes or ions from higher concentration to

lower concentration is called as diffusion. It does not require energy therefore it is
called as passive transport.
 Osmosis: The movement of solvent or water from higher concentration (solvent) to
lower concentration (solvent) through a semipermeable membrane is called as osmosis.
Or The movement of solvent or water from lower concentration to higher concentration
of solution through a semipermeable membrane is called as osmosis. Osmosis can also
be called as diffusion of solvents”.

CELL WALL
i. It is outermost rigid, freely permeable layer found outside the plasma membrane in all the
plant cells, bacteria, blue-green algae, some protists and all fungi.
ii. Cell wall is a rigid semi-elastic, semi-transparent, supportive and protective covering of
cell in plants, fungi, prokaryotes and some protists
iii. Amongst prokaryotes a cell wall is absent in mycoplasma.
iv. It is also absent in most reproductive structures of plants like gametes and zoospores.
v. Cell wall is not completely dead or non-living structure. It is metabolically active.

Functions of cell wall

 i. It gives structure to the cell.
ii. This resists the protoplasm to go out.
iii. It protects the outside jerks and also have the ability of regeneration.
iv. Due to the semi-permeability nature, it is useful in osmosis, diffusion, transport,
pinocytosis and permeability

Differences between cell wall and plasma membrane

S.No. Cell wall Plasma membrane

1. It is present in plant cells only. It is present in both animal and plant cells.
2. It is the outermost covering of plant cells. It is the outermost covering of the animal cells.
3. It is present outside the plasma membrane. It is present outside the cytoplasm.
4. Cell wall is rigid and comparatively thick. It is comparatively flexible and thin.
5. It is made up of cellulose. It is made up of lipids and proteins.
6. It is non-living and fully permeable. It is living and selectively permeable.

PROTOPLASM
i. It is a colourless, transparent, thick, viscous, liquid. Every animal cell is made up of
protoplasm.
ii. The chemical structure of protoplasm was discovered in 1880 by Rodwald and Huxley
in 1898, invented that it is primary base of life.

Protoplasm is of two types :

 Cytoplasm
 Nucleus

Cytoplasm :

i. This is a colourless, transparent and homogenous mass which is seen between the cell
wall and nucleus.
ii. It consists of a complex structure and is divided into two.

 Cytoplasmic organelles
 Non-cytoplasmic inclusions

Physical Properties of Protoplasm:

 Growth and division – Protoplasm is capable of growth and division.

 Irritability – Protoplasm is sensitive to different stimuli
 Viscosity – Protoplasm is 2-10 times more viscous than water.
 PH – between 6.5-7.0.
 Elasticity – Protoplasm can be stretched as well as compressed.
  Electricity property – Protoplasm has non-polar, positively charged, negatively
charged particles but its electrical conductivity is low.
 Consistency – Protoplasm is slimy semi-fluid with differentiated regions like
membranes, organelles etc.
 Transparency – Protoplasm is colourless and transparent but may contain pigmented
structures.
 immiscibility with water – Protoplasm does not dissolve in water due to presence of
internal and external membranes.
 Density – Protoplasm is heavier than water.
 Selective permeability – Protoplasm maintains its own chemical pool different from
that of external environment due to its selective permeability.
 Coagulability – Protoplasm can coagulate and even die if the temperature is high or in
presence of radiations, electric currents and electrolytes.

Chemical Composition of Protoplasm

Water – 84%, Proteins – 9%,

Lipids – 2%, Carbohydrates – 2%

DNA – 0.4% RNA – 0.7%

Organic Compounds – 0.4% Inorganic substances 1.4%.

NUCLEUS

i. The nucleus is a small, round and membrane-bound structure found in cells.

ii. And the fluid inside the nucleus surrounded by the nuclear membrane is called
nucleoplasm.
iii. It controls cell's growth and reproduction as it contains cell's hereditary information.
iv. It's covered by dual layer called a nuclear membrane.
v. It's the most important part of the cell which controls and regulate all the vital activities
of the cell.
vi. Robert Brown (1881) discovered the nucleus.
vii. Distribution : Present in all eukaryotic cells. In certain cells, they get disintegrated
when cells attain maturity e.g., RBC in mammals, no true nucleus is present in
prokaryotes.
viii. Number : Generally a cell contains a single nucleus i.e., mononucleated condition,
sometimes certain cells show binucleated or multinucleated conditions
ix. Shape : The shape of the nucleus is variable and the shape depends on the functional
state of cell. The shape may be discoid in case of flattened squamous epithelium cells,
spherical, cuboidal or polyhedral cells, ovoid in columnar cells, bilobed or multilobed
in leucocytes.
Structure of a nucleus

Nucleus has the following important parts:

 Nuclear membrane
 Nucleoplasm
 Nucleolus

Nuclear Membrane

i. The nucleus is bounded by a double membrane structure called nuclear envelope or

karyotheca.
ii. Nuclear membrane is semi-permeable and helps in the exchange of dissolved matter
between protoplasm and nucleus while nuclear pores are the pathway for the exchange
of micro-molecules.
iii. Inside the nucleus, a clear or slightly acidophilic mass is present, which is called
karyoplasm or nuclear sap.

Nucleoplasm

i. It is transparent, homogeneous and granular dense fluid. It possesses high quantities of

phosphorous and proteins.
ii. Many thread like structures are irregularly present in nucleoplasm. Their shape changes
during cell division.

Nucleolus

i. The nucleus contains a large, spherical, dense, granular, and stable structure known as
nucleolus.
ii. These are one or more round structures that are not bound by a membrane.
iii. They are rich in RNA and proteins.
iv. It is known as factory of ribosomes.

Functions of Nucleus

i. Control centre : It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell. If it is removed
the protoplasm dries up and dies.
ii. Genetic information : It is responsible for the transmission of hereditary traits.
iii. It regulates cell cycle.
iv. Ribosomes are formed by nucleolar part of nucleus.
v. Nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction (process by which single cell
divides to form two new cells).
CYTOPLASM

i. A cell typically consists of membrane bound cell organelles and nucleus in it. These cell
organelles float in a jelly like substance called as cytoplasm.
ii. When we remove the outer membrane and the nucleus from a cell, we are left with
cytoplasm.
iii. Cytoplasm was discovered by Kolliker in 1862.
iv. It is the site of both biosynthetic and catabolic pathways.
v. Further if we remove all the organelles from a cytoplasm, we get cytosol.
vi. So, cytoplasm can be divided into two parts: cytosol and cell organelle.

(i) Cytosol: Aqueous soluble part contains various fibrous proteins forming cytoskeleton.

(ii) Cell organelles: Living part of the cells having definite shape, structure and function
bounded By Plasma membrane. It is also known as Trophoplasm. It is a micromolecular
substance and it consists of the following types :

1. Endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi complex
3. Lysosome
4. Mitochondria
5. Ribosome
6. Plastids
7. Vacuoles

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

i. It is the network of membranes present in the cytoplasm.

ii. It was discovered by Porter, Claude and Fullam.
iii. These are present in all cells except prokaryotes and mammalian erythrocytes.
iv. Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types , Smooth ER and Rough ER
Function of ER:

i. It is the only organelle which can move within a cell so it serves as a channel for the
transport of materials between various regions of cytoplasm and between cytoplasm and
nucleus.
ii. It also function as a cytoplasmic framework to provide space for some of the
biochemical activities. It forms endoskeleton of cell.
iii. It helps in synthesis of fats, steroids, cholesterol etc.
iv. It contains secretory proteins.
v. SER plays a crucial role in detoxification of drugs and poisonous by-products

2) GOLGI APPARATUS

i. Golgi complex was discovered and first described by Camello Golgi.

FUNCTIONS
ii. The main function of Golgi complex - Secretion (enzymes).
iii. Golgi complex is abundant in glandular cells.
iv. It is mainly concerned with the formation and packing of material for export from the
cell across the plasma membrane.
v. They form the plasma membrane of the cell.
vi. Anterior part of sperms i.e., Acrosome is formed by them.
vii. They are responsible for the development and growth of the reproductive cells in
mammals.
viii. They help in the formation of cell wall.
3) LYSOSOMES (ENZYMES PACKETS)

(a) Nature and occurrence

i. Discovered by Christian de Duve (1955) in rat liver cells.

ii. Are tiny spherical sac-like structures surrounded by a single, thin bio-membrane
which contain digestive enzymes (like hydrolases) for intracellular digestion and
waste disposal.
iii. Lysosomal enzymes are made by RER.
iv. it is abundant in digestive glands.

Functions

i. They serve as intracellular digestive system, hence, called digestive bags.

ii. They destroy and digest any foreign material like bacteria, food as well as old
organelles in the cell. This is called heterophagy.
iii. Remove the worn out and poorly working cell organelles by digesting them, removing
cell debris and are hence known as demolition squad, scavengers, cellular
housekeepers. Thus, lysosomes form a garbage disposal system of the cell.
iv. During breakdown of cell structure, when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst
and eat up their own cells. Therefore, they are also called suicidal bags of cell.

4) MITOCHONDRIA

i. Mitochondria is a double walled structure. Each membrane is 60 Å thick and both

membranes are separated by a 60–80Å inter membrane space.
ii. Size of the mitochondrion - 0.5 to 1 µ diameter, 5-7 µ in length.
iii. Shapes of mitochondria - Thread, rod, spherical, oval, branched thread like.
iv. Mitochondrion is surrounded by double membraned envelope.
v. Mitochondrial membranes are lipo-proteinaceous (lipids 25-35%, proteins 60-70%).
vi. Finger like or plate like infoldings of inner membrane into the matrix are called
Cristae, or mitochondrial crests.
vii. Tennis racket shaped stalked particles which are attached over cristae and called -
Oxysomes or F1 particles, or Elementary particles, or Fernandez-Moran particles.
viii. Function of Oxysomes - generation of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation.
ix. Molecules that come out frequently from mitochondrion - ATP.
x. Mitochondria are considered as - bioplasts, cellular furnaces, power houses of the cell.
xi. ”A complex liquid fills the space between the two membranes.
5) RIBOSOMES
i. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
ii. Ribosomes are responsible for assembling the proteins of the cell depending on the
protein production level of a particular cell, ribosomes may number in the millions.
iii. Ribosomes are typically composed of two subunits, a large subunit and small subunit.
iv. These subunits are synthesized by the nucleolus.
v. Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S & 70S ribosomes.
vi. Universal cell organelles - Ribosomes.
vii. Ribosomes are the smallest cell organelles.
viii. Ribosomes were discovered and named by Palade (Hence called Palade granules).
ix. Membrane less cell organelles – Ribosomes.

6) PLASTID
Nature and Occurrence

i. Occur in most plant cells and are absent in animal cells.

ii. They have their own genome (DNA) and ribosomes.
iii. They are self-replicating organelles i.e. they have power to divide.
iv. Fungi (plants) lack plastids.

Types of Plastids

Plastids are of three types :

 Chromoplasts : Coloured plastids (i.e. orange, yellow, green etc.) present in leaves,
flowers and fruits.
 Chloroplasts : Plastids having green pigment chlorophyll, are called chloroplasts.
Hence, they take part in photosynthesis. Therefore, it is called ‘kitchen of the cells'
 Leucoplast: They are colourless plastids and are mostly found in storage organs e.g.
potato and nuts.

Plastid is bound by two unit membranes. It shows two distinct regions.

 Grana : They are the main functional units of chloroplast and are the site of light
reaction during photosynthesis
 Stroma : It is a homogeneous matrix in which grana are embedded. Stroma contains
variety of photosynthetic enzymes, starch grains, DNA and ribosomes and are the site
of dark reaction during photosynthesis.
The types of plastids are summarized below:-

The plastids can be changed from one type to other if the need arise

Functions
Plastids perform following functions :

i. Chloroplasts trap solar energy and utilize it to manufacture food for the plant.
ii. Chromoplasts impart various colours to flower to attract insects for pollination.
iii. Leucoplasts store starch, fats and protein granules in storage organs.
7) VACUOLES (NON-CYTOPLASMIC INCLUSIONS)
Nature and Occurrence

i. Vacuoles are fluid filled or solid filled single membrane bound spaces. They are
storage sacs.
ii. In plant cells, a single prominent very large vacuole is present which occupies 50-90%
of cell volume.
iii. In plant cell, vacuole is bound by a membrane called tonoplast, filled with cell sap (a
watery solution rich in sugars, amino-acids, proteins, minerals, metabolic wastes etc.

Types of Vacuoles

 Food vacuoles : In Amoeba and amoeboid cells of higher animals the sacs containing
ingested food particles fuse with lysosomes to form food vacuoles.
 Contractile vacuole : Occur in some unicellular fresh water organisms e.g. Amoeba,
Paramoecuim. They perform the function of osmoregulation.

Functions

i. Vacuoles play important role in expelling excess water and waste from the cell in
unicellular organisms. This is called osmoregulation and excretion.
ii. They store and help in digestion of food in unicellular organisms (food vacuole).
iii. They store toxic metabolic by-products or end products of plant cells.
iv. They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cells.
v. They are store houses of the cell. The storage products include amino acids, sugars
various organic acids and some proteins.

DEAR STUDENTS AFTER COMPLETING NOTES WRITE LAB ACTIVITY

FROM TEXTBOOK(Pg No. 3) IN STEP-WISE ORDER.