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Force and Motion 3
Work and Energy 7
Circular Motion 8
Waves 11
Thermodynamics 17
Electrostatics 20
Current Electricity 21
Electromagnetisim 23
Electromagnetic Induction 24
Electronics 25
Dawn of Mordern Physics 26
Atomic Spectra 27
Nuclear Physics 29
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Important terms :
Displacement: It is the shortest directed distance between two
points and is a vector quantity. Unit: meter (m)
Velocity: It is a measure of the displacement covered with the
passage of time and has a vector in the direction of
displacement. Unit: meter/second
Average velocity: It is the total (net) displacement divided by
total time. Unit: meter/second

Displacement-time graph:
Gradient:
denotes velocity
Displacement / m

C Positive gradient: increase in velocity

B
Zero gradient: body at rest
A D Negative gradient: decrease in velocity
Interpretation:
Time / s
A - constant increasing gradient = velocity increasing
E at a constant interval
F
B - varying and decreasing gradient = variable
decreasing velocity
C - zero gradient = object at rest (zero velocity)
D - constant decreasing slope = velocity decreasing
at constant intervals
E - zero gradient = object at rest (zero velocity)
F - displacement negative = object moving in
opposite direction

Acceleration: Velocity-time graph:

Time rate of change of velocity OR the Gradient = acceleration
change in velocity w.r.t time. Unit: m/s² Zero gradient = speed
Uniform: Velocity changes by equal constant, zero
amounts in equal intervals of time (average acceleration
acceleration = instantaneous acceleration) Area under graph =
Variable: Velocity changes by unequal distance covered by
amounts in equal intervals of time the object

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 Equations of linear, uniformly Newton's first law:
accelerated motion:
Law of inertia and balanced
vf= vᵢ+ at
objects
s = vᵢt + (at²/2)
"An object remains at rest, or in
2as = vf² - vi²
uniform motion in a straight line,
Also applied to objects in free fall unless it is compelled to change
under acceleration due to gravity (g = by an external net (resultant)
9.81 m/s²) force"
Rest -> rest , Moving ->
Newton's second law: continue moving at a
"A net force applied on the body produces constant velocity
acceleration directly proportional to the Inertia: natural tendency of
net force and inversely proportional to the an object to remain at rest,
mass of the body."a = F /m increases w.r.t mass of an
Also known as law of momentum object

Newton's third law:

Law of action and reaction
"When one object exerts a force on a
second object, the second object
exerts a force of the same magnitude and opposite direction on the first object"

Linear momentum: Impulse:

Linear momentum is a According to Newton's second law, the time rate of
vector quantity and is change of momentum is equal to the force acting.
the product of the F = Δp/Δt
object's mass and Impulse is a vector quantity and denotes the product
velocity. of force F and time interval (Δt).
p = m.v J = F x Δt

Conservation of momentum:
For an isolated system, in the absence of an external force, the final
momentum of the system is equal to the initial momentum of the system.

Collisions:
Elastic: Kinetic energy and linear momentum are conserved
Inelastic: Kinetic energy not conserved, linear momentum conserved
Calculations involving collisions:
Elastic collision in which two objects move along the same line before and after
the collision = Collision in one dimension
Perfectly elastic collision = speed of approach is equal to speed of separation
Use sign notation (+/-) with velocities to denote directions of vectors
(2)(10) + (-4)(10) = (v)(10) + (2)(10)
Before
2 m/s 4 m/s 20 - 40 = 10 v + 20
m = 10 kg m = 10 kg
-40 = 10 v
After 2 m/s v = -4 m/s (-ve)
m = 10 kg m = 10 kg Another approach:
Question: Elastic => speed of approach = speed
Find the final velocity of the larger ball of separation
if this is an elastic collision. U1 - U2 = V2 - V1
Working: 2 - (-4) = 2 - V1
Initial momentum = final momentum 6 - 2 = -V1
+ve velocity, - -ve velocity V1 = -4 m/s (-ve)

Momentum in explosions: Projectile motion:

Total momentum is conserved Two dimensional motion in a vertical plane
The sum of the momentum of the and path followed is trajectory.
counterparts of explosive material
is equal to the momentum of the
bomb before exploding.
Momentum of pistol recoil is
equal and opposite to that of bullet.

Characteristics of projectile
motion:
Projectile launched at an angle θ
to the horizontal
Horizontal component of velocity is
constant while vertical component changes Half projectile motion
Horizontal acceleration is 0 m/s² and At peak / maximum height
vertical acceleration = -g Vertical component of
Air resistance is neglected velocity = 0
Horizontal component is
Maximum vertical height from ground is
present
taken
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Horizontal motion: Vertical motion:
Equation : s = ut Equation 1: a = -g
where, Equation 2: s = ut + 1/2 at²
s = horizontal distance of where,
trajectory u = vertical component
u = horizontal component of velocity (initial)
of velocity Equation 3: v² = u² + 2as
t = total time taken for the where,
trajectory v = vertical component of
velocity (final)

FORMULAE TO BE USED IF INITIAL VELOCITY IS GIVEN:

Height of a projectile: Range of a projectile:
Maximum vertical distance reached by The horizontal distance from
projectile from projection level is called point of projection to point of
maximum height of projectile. impact is called range.
Formula: Formula:

where, v₀ = initial velocity, θ = angle with where, v₀ = initial velocity, θ =

the horizontal angle with the horizontal
Maximum range = sin 2θ = 1
Time of flight: 2 θ = 90° , θ = 45°
Time taken by projectile to go from point
of projection to point of impact is called
time of flight.
Projectile with air
Formula: resistance:
Affects both the horizontal
where, v₀ = initial velocity, θ = angle with
and vertical component
the horizontal
Range and vertical height
reduced, time increased
Time to reach summit:
Time to reach the summit (peak) will be Ranges of projectiles
half of the total time of flight so it will be launched at complementary
T/2. angles are equal
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Work:
Work is a scalar quantity
If an object undergoes a displacement in the
direction of force applied, it is said to have
done work.
Formula: W = F . d

Work done for force at an angle: F-d graph:

F sin θ If a constant force F and the
F displacement d are in the same
direction, the area under F-d graph
θ with F on y-axis and d on x-axis
F cos θ
represents the work done.
Work done is 1 J when force of 1 N
Displacement (d) displaces an object by 1 m in the
The horizontal component of force (F direction of force.
cos θ) is considered because it displaces F/N
the box in the horizontal direction as
shown and work is done. Work done
Formula: W = F cos θ . d d/m

Variation of work with θ :

θ = 0° , F and d in same direction θ = 90° , F and d in same direction
W = F cos θ . d = F cos (0) .d = F (1) .d W = F cos θ . d = F cos (90) .d = F (0) .d
W = Fd W=0
Hence, work done is positive. Hence, work done is zero.
d
F
F
d F
Displacement is zero
θ = 180° , F and d in opposite direction W=F.d=F.0,W=0
W = F cos θ . d = F cos (180) .d Hence, work done is
= F (-1) .d zero.
W = - Fd
Hence, work done is negative.

₄
Energy: Kinetic energy:
The capacity of a body to do work or Energy in the body by virtue of
its motion.
the agent that causes some change
Formula: K.E. = mv² / 2
in the state of system.
where,
m = mass of an object
v = velocity of
an object
Potential energy:
Energy stored within an object by
virtue of its relative position,
Gravitational potential
energy:
elasticity, electric charge or any
Energy stored within an object
kind of stress.
by virtue of its relative position in
a gravitational field.
Formula: G.P.E. = mgh
Gravitational potential energy where,
(U) at a point: m = mass of an object
U increases Infinity g = gravitational field strength
U=0 h = height of an object

Zero point is a place at infinity where G.P.E. =

0, so from earth to infinity, U
Power:
The absolute potential energy is the work Scalar product of force and
done in moving a body rom a certain point in velocity (P = F . v )
gravitational field to infinity Rate of transfer of energy or
As the maximum value is zero and work is work done per unit time
done against gravitational force, the values of
Unit : Watts (J/s), kwh, hp
G.P.E are always negative
1 kwh = 3.6 x 10⁶ J
Gravitational potential = energy / mass at a
point 1 horsepower = 746 W

Energy loss in devices: Interconversion of

Work done against friction is lost as heat, energy:
so in practical usage, none of the devices
Velocity at max position is zero
have 100 % efficiency.
= Maximum G.P.E
Velocity at minimum position is
maximum = Maximum K.E.
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Angular Displacement Angular Velocity

The angle swept out by the line The rate of change of angular
passing through any point on the displacement of a body is called the
body, and intersecting the axis of angular velocity.
rotation perpendicularly. It is It is represented by the symbol, ω and
measured in revolutions, degrees and is calculated using the formula:
radians (S.I. unit) and is represented
using θ.
1 rev = 360 degrees = 2π rad
1 rad = 57.3 degrees If a body moves with uniform angular
π radians =180 degrees motion, the instantaneous angular
velocity will be equal to its average
angular velocity.
Arc length (s)
Angular Acceleration
radius (r) The rate of change of angular velocity of
a body is called the angular acceleration.
It is represented by the symbol, α and is
θ in radians = Arc length / radius
calculated using the formula:
α= ω/t

Quantities Linear Motion Angular Motion

Displacement s = vt θ = ωt

Moment of inertia
Inertia mass (m)
I = mr²

Force F = ma Torque = 𝜏 = Iα

Linear momentum Angular momentum

Momentum
p = mv L = r x P or L = Iω

Kinetic Energy K.E. (lin) = 1/2 mv² K.E. (rot) = 1/2 Iω²
Centripetal Force
The force which compels the body to keep
moving in a circle is called the centripetal force.
It is measured using the formula:

For a body moving in a circle, the direction of velocity changes at each

instant, which produces and acceleration towards the center of the circle.
This acceleration is known as centripetal acceleration. It is measured
using the formula:

Centrifugal Force
The reaction force exerted by
the object on the hand or the
string, away from the centre
of the circle is called the
centrifugal force.
The centripetal force (force of
the string on the object) anf
the centrifugal force (force of
the object on the string) form
an action-reaction pair
according to the Newton's
Third Law of Motion.

Banking of Road
To avoid skidding off the frictionless road,
the car must be turned at a safety angle
when it is turning around a corner.
The angle can be calculated using the
formula:
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Types of Waves Wave Motion

The mechanism by which
1) Mechanical or Progressive Waves -
energy is transferred
Require medium for propagation, e.g, sound
from one point to
waves, waves in a Slinky or a spring.
another is called wave
Transverse progressive waves
motion.
Longitudinal progressive waves
All the particles of a
2) Electromagnetic Waves - Do not require
medium oscillate with
any medium for the propagation, e.g, light,
the same frequency
radio waves.
when a wave passes
3) Periodic Waves - Produced by a source
through them.
oscillating periodically in a medium.
No particle moves
Circular Periodic Waves - produced in a
from its initial
ripple tank by vibrator
Transverse periodic waves - produced in
position, the
a string when one end is fastened and the disturbance only
other end is made to vibrate. causes the vibration
of the particles.

Characteristics Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

Direction of Perpendicular to the

Parallel to the direction of
propagation of direction of vibration of
vibration of particles
wave particles

Consists of a series of
Wave diagram
compressions (high
Consists of crests and
pressure) and rarefactions
troughs
(low pressure)

Water waves, Sound waves, seismic

Examples
Electromagnetic waves waves (earthquakes)
Wave Speed Speed of Sound
The distance travelled by a wave per Newton's Formula of Speed: He
unit of time is the speed of wave. assumed that the sound travels through
To calculate the speed of wave in air and other gases under isothermal
transverse waves, the formula is: conditions.
P = pressure
T = tension
ρ = density
L = length
v = 281 m/s
M = mass
The speed of a longitudinal wave can Laplace's Correction of the formula: He
be calculated using the formula: determined that the propagation of
sound waves is an adiabatic process.
E = elastic
γ = constant
modulus
ρ = density
ρ = density
v = 333 m/s

Factors Affecting the Speed of Properties of Waves

Frequency (f): The number of
Sound
waves passing through a certain
Density --> speed of sound varies point in unit time.
inversely as the square root of the Time period (T): Time taken by a
density of the gas. wave to pass through a certain
Moisture --> increases the speed of point. It is calculated as: T = 1/f
sound Wavelength (λ): The distance
Pressure --> speed of sound is between two successive particles
independent of its pressure which are in the same state of
Temperature --> Increase in the vibration.
speed of sound for each degree rise Amplitude (Aₒ): The maximum
above 0°C is 0.61 m/s. displacement covered by a
Wind --> Relative to direction of vibrating particle from its
sound equilibrium position on either side.
Intensity (I): The amount of energy
transmitted per second per unit
area placed perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of waves.

v = velocity, f = frequency
l =wavelength
Phenomenon of Superposition of Waves and Interference
Superposition of Waves: When two or more waves are passing through the
same region at the same time, the total displacement at the point where they
interact is equal to the vector sum of the individual displacement due to each
pulse at that point.
Interference: The effect produced by the superposition of waves from two
coherent sources, passing through the same region at the same time in the
same direction is known as interference.

Constructive
Characteristics Destructive Interference
Interference

Types of Waves In-phase waves Out-of-phase waves

Resultant Sum of the individual

Your paragraph text

Difference of the individual

Displacement displacements displacements

zero or integral multiples fractional multiples of

Path difference
of wavelength wavelength

Phase difference 0°, 360°,.. 180°, 540°,..

Diagram

Beats and Pitch

The periodic vibration in the loudness of sound heard when two notes of
nearly the same frequency are played simultaneously, is called beats.
Number of beats per second or beat frequency, N = f₁ - f₂ (difference in the
frequencies of tuning forks)
Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound.
Stationary Waves
When two plane waves having the same amplitude and frequency,
travelling with the same speed in an opposite direction along a line, are
superposed, a wave obtained is called a stationary or standing wave.

Stationary Waves in a String

The distance between two adjacent nodes or two adjacent antinodes is λ/2.
The distance between a node and an adjacent antinode is λ/4.
General formula to calculate the wavelength in a string vibrating with 'n'
number of loops:
N A N
L = length of
the string The number
A A
To calculate the frequency of the N N N of nodes is
vibration, f = nf₁ , the formula will n+1, and
A A A
be: N N N N number of
T = tension in the
string
antinodes is
m = mass per n.
unit length = M/L

Closed Organ Pipe (closed

Open organ pipe (open
Characteristics at one end, open at the
at both ends)
blowing end)

Wavelength λ₁ = 4L λ₁ = 2L

Fundamental
(first harmonic) (first harmonic)
Frequency

Odd integral multiples of Integral multiples of the

Harmonics the fundamental frequency. fundamental frequency.
(n = 1, 3, 5, ...) (n =1 , 2, 3, ...)

Diagram
Doppler Effect
The apparent change in the frequency of sound, caused by the relative motion
of either the source of sound or listener or both, is called the Doppler Effect.

Moving Source, Listener at Listener Moving, Source at

Rest Rest
Source moves towards a stationary Listener moves towards a
listener: f' > f stationary source: f' > f
f' = observed frequency
v = velocity of sound b = speed of listener
a = speed of source
Source moves away from a Listener moves away from a
stationary listener: f' < f stationary source: f' < f

Your paragraph text

Moving Source, Moving listener

Combining both the cases given above, you can find the observed frequency in
this case.
Source and listener moving towards Source and listener moving away
each other: from each other:

TRICK TO SOLVE THESE QUESTIONS:

The trick is to change the sign,
b m/s
whenever the direction of any of the
a m/s
three things change from the default
position. For example, if both the listener
and source are moving towards each
other, then the sign before 'b' changes to
'+' in the default equation (listener moving
Source Listener
away from the moving source).
Speed of Sound in
Air = 340 m/s
Simple Harmonic Motion Properties of S.H.M.
The type of motion in which the Displacement (x): The distance of
acceleration of a body is always directly the oscillating body from the mean
proportional to the displacement of the position.
body from mean position and is always Frequency (f): The number of
directed towards towards the mean vibrations completed by a
position is called simple harmonic oscillating body in one second.
motion. It is represented by the Time period (T): Time required by
equation: a body to complete one vibration.
Amplitude (xₒ): The maximum
displacement of a vibrating body
from its mean position.
Angular Frequency (ω): The
a = acceleration number of revolutions per second.
x = displacement It is calculated as ω = 2πf.

S.H.M. in a S.H.M. in a
S.H.M. in a pendulum The longer
Spring circular motion
the
g= acceleration
pendulum,
due to gravity the greater is
l = length of
pendulum
the time
k = spring constant
period.
The time
period is
independent
of the mass
of the bob.

Formulas for SHM:

Instantaneous Displacement

Instantaneous Velocity

Maximum Velocity
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Heat transfer:
When two objects at different temperatures are brought into contact with each
other, energy is transferred from the hotter to the colder object until they reach
thermal equilibrium (both objects are at the same temperature)

Thermodynamic system:
Is enclosed in its surroundings
Can exchange heat with, and do work on, its
environment through a boundary - that separates the
system from the surroundings

Types of system: State of a system:

Particular condition when a
system has specified values of
pressure P, volume V, and
temperature T
Variables involved are known
as state variables
Examples of state variables
include volume, pressure,
temperature, entropy, internal
energy

Open Closed Isolated

Exchange No exchange No exchange
of matter of matter of matter
Exchange Exchange of No exchange
of heat heat of heat

₄
First Law of thermodynamics:
Based on the idea that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed
States that "Every thermodynamic system possesses a
state variable called internal energy (U)"
Heat energy added to a system -> increase in stored
internal energy of a system + work done by the system on
its surroundings
Formula: ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
Q = +ve (heat in) and -ve (heat out)
U = +ve (temp inc) and -ve (temp dec)

Work done: Internal energy:

Work done by the system -> positive -> The sum of all the kinetic
system expands by exerting a force on (translational, rotational,
the surroundings vibrational) energies and potential
Work done on the system -> negative -> energies associated with the
system is compressed as force is random motion of the atoms of a
exerted on it by the surroundings substance.
Formula: ΔW = P ΔV

Cyclic process:
Change in internal energy depends upon initial and
final states and not the path taken
From 1 -> 4 : ΔU = U(at 4) - U(at 1)
As the system attains its initial state again,
U(at 4) = U(at 1), so ΔU = 0
Δ Q = 0 + ΔW (acc to first law of thermodynamics)
Δ Q = Δ W (all heat absorbed produces useful
work in a cyclic system)

Applications of the first law of thermodynamics:

The three forms of energy that are internal energy, heat and work can be
interconverted
Processes in which one of the state variables is constant or any one of the
terms in the equation is zero
Specific heat (c): Specific molar heat (Cₘ):
Quantity of heat required to raise the Quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of the substance temperature of one mole of a gas by 1 K
by 1 K
Formula: c = ΔQ / m ΔT, Unit: J/kg.K Formula: Cₘ = ΔQ / n ΔT, Unit: J/mol.K
(m = mass, ΔT = change in temp, ΔQ (n = moles, ΔT = change in temp, ΔQ =
= heat transferred) heat transferred)

Constant volume molar Constant pressure molar

specific heat of a gas (Cᵥ): specific heat of a gas (Cₚ):
Amount of heat required to raise the Amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one mole of a gas by temperature of one mole of a gas by 1 K
1 K while keeping its volume constant while keeping its pressure constant
Formula: Cᵥ = ΔQᵥ / n ΔT Formula: Cₚ= ΔQₚ / n ΔT

Relation between Cₚ and Cᵥ :

Gas heated at constant volume: Internal energy is same in both cases
No work done, so ΔWᵥ = 0 so ΔU can be equated:
As ΔQᵥ = ΔU + ΔWᵥ (acc to first law) ΔU = ΔQᵥ ----> ΔU = nCᵥΔT
ΔQᵥ = ΔU + 0 => ΔQᵥ = ΔU ΔU = ΔQₚ - nRΔT ---> ΔU = nCₚΔT -
nRΔT
Gas heated at constant pressure:
nCᵥΔT = nCₚΔT - nRΔT
Work done by the gas, so ΔWₚ = +ve
n ΔT (Cᵥ) = n ΔT (Cₚ - R)
As ΔQₚ = ΔU + ΔWₚ (acc to first law)
Cᵥ = Cₚ - R
ΔQᵥ = ΔU + PΔV
Cₚ - Cᵥ = R (Cₚ > Cᵥ)
(PΔV = nRΔT --- for ideal gas)
R = 8.314 J/mol.K
ΔQₚ = ΔU + nRΔT

₄
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Coulomb's Law
According to Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction or repulsion (F)
between two charged bodies is directly proportional to the product of their
charges (q) and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r)
between them.
It acts along the line joining the two charges considered to be point charges.

k is the coulomb's constant = 9 x 10⁹ Nm²/C².

ε₀ is the permittivity of free space. ε is the constant of proportionality for a
medium other than free space. ε = ε₀εr. εr is the relative permitivity.

Electric Field Electric Field Intensity

Space around a The electric field intensity at a point is
charged body the force experienced by a unit of
in which positive charge placed at that point. It
another charge is a vector quantity denoted by 'E'.
experiences a Electric field = F/q.
force. Unit of E is NC⁻¹ or Vm⁻¹.

Electric Field
Intensity due to
Electric Potential
The amount of work needed to
infinite sheet of
move a unit charge from infinity to a
charge:
specific point. Measured in volts (V)

Capacitors
Electric Field A two-terminal electrical device that
Intensity between can store energy (U) in the form of
two oppositely an electric charge.
charged parallel
U = CV²/2 or QV/2
plates:
Capacitor Charging and Discharging Capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor
The charges on each plate
are uniformly distributed
on the inner sides due to
attraction between opposite charges
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Important terms :
Electric Current: Rate of motion of charges in a conductor
In metals, electric charges can flow very easily since there are free electrons
that are absent in insulators. On establishing an electric field, the free
electrons having a negative charge on them experience a force in the opposite
direction to the field.
Strength of a current: It is the number of coulombs of
charge which pass any section of the conductor in one
second. I = Q/T
Direction of current: We use the direction of conventional current where
positive charges move from a point of higher potential to a point of lower
potential

Ohm's law Resistance

The current through a During their flow, electrons come
conductor is directly
i across resistance
v
proportional to the In R=V/I, R is the resistance.
i
potential difference Measured in Ohms
between the ends of v Conductance K is the reciprocal
the conductor. of resistance. R = 1/K
I = V/R For a conductor, resistance depends
R = V/I on:
This law is only valid for metallic 1. Length of the conductor
resistors at a given temperature 2. Cross-sectional area
for steady currents 3. Material

Resistivity or Specific Effect of Temperature

Resistance Resistance increases with
Resistance is directly proportional to temperature
the length and inversely proportional
to the cross-sectional area.
R = ρ L/A α is the temperature coefficient of
ρ = RA/L resistance
The constant ρ is the resistivity and Since resistivity is directly
it is a property of the material proportional to the resistance:
It is measured in ohm metre t
△
p = po (1 + α t)
₄
 Combinations of Resistors Internal Resistance
Series: The opposition to the flow of
current offered by the cells and
In a series arrangement, the total batteries themselves resulting in
resistance is the sum of individual the generation of heat.
resistances. e = I (r + R)
R = R₁ + R₂ Where e is the emf, I is the current,
R2 R1 R is the load resistance, and r is
Parallel:
the internal resistance.
In a parallel arrangement, the
sum of the reciprocals of individual Power
resistance in parallel is equal to the Power is the work done per unit
reciprocal of the total resistance time
P = QV/t
P = VI
P = I²R
P = V²R
Unit is joule/second i.e. watt
Kilo-Watt Hour
Measure of energy
Maximum Power Transfer
Equal to the amount of energy you
Maximum power is developed in
would use if you kept a single
a load when the load resistance
1,000-watt appliance running for
equals the source resistance
one hour.
i.e. Thevenin resistance of the
Equal to 3.6 megajoules
source to which it is connected.

Thevenin's theorem states that

an equivalent circuit can replace
any linear circuit consisting of
various resistances and
voltages with a single source
voltage and a series resistance
connected across the load
terminal.
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Magnetic Field Magnetic Flux

A region around a magnetic Magnetic flux is a
material or a moving electric measurement of the total
charge within which the force magnetic field which
of magnetism acts passes through a given
area.

Magnetic Flux Density

The force acting per unit current per unit
length on a wire placed at right angles to the
magnetic field.
Units are Tesla or kgs⁻²A⁻¹
It is a vector quantity
Magnetic flux density is equal to the magnetic
field strength times the absolute permeability of
the region where the field exists.

Force on a charged particle in a

magnetic field
It is given as:

Where:
Φ = magnetic flux
B = magnetic field
A = area
θ = angle between a
perpendicular vector to the
area and the magnetic field

The force exerted on a charged particle q moving with velocity v through an

electric field E and magnetic field B is called the Lorentz force which is given
as F = qE + qvB
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Electromagnetic Induction Faraday's Law

It is the creation of an electro-motive The emf induced in a conductor is
force (EMF) by way of a moving proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic field around an electric flux.
conductor and, conversely, the E = (dΦ/dt)
creation of
current by moving
an electric Lenz's Law
Induced current always
conductor through a
flows in such a direction
static magnetic field
as to oppose the change
The magnitude of emf depends on
which gave rise to it
the rate of change of flux
This law is a consequence of the
The flux through a circuit can be
law of conservation of energy.
changed by
1. Changing the position of the coil
A.C Generator (Dynamo)
2. Changing the current in the coil
Emf is induced in the coil due to
changing magnetic flux linkage when
Transformers it is rotated between the poles of a
A device that makes use of mutual magnet
induction for stepping up or down an Parts: field magnet, armature, slip
alternating emf rings, and collecting brushes.
Two coils of insulated copper wire
are wound on top of each other on a
laminated soft iron core.

To find the emf in the secondary, use

Power companies use step-up
this:
transformers to increase the voltage.
Step-down reduce the voltage to safer
levels for household appliances.
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Rectification:
Conversion of alternating current(AC) to direct current(DC)

Half wave Full wave

rectification rectification

conversion of one half of conversion of complete

Definition
AC waveform into DC cycle of AC into DC

Circuit

Waveform

Frequency fout = fin fout = 2fin

No. of diodes single diode two or four diodes

Ripple factor 𝛾 = 1.21 𝛾 = 0.482

Efficiency η = 40.6% η = 81.2%

RMS value
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Planck's Quantum Theory Compton's Effect

Discrete packets of energy are
Compton's Shift :
emitted or absorbed by matter.
Quantum is the name given to the
smallest packet of energy. A
photon is a quantum of light.
Compton's
The absorb quantum energy is
Wavelength :
proportional to the radiation
frequency.
2
E = hf = hc/λ = mc = Pc
-34
h = 6.626 × 10 Js

Photoelectric Effect
phenomenon in which electrically charged particles are released from a
material when it absorbs electromagnetic radiation.
hf = ϕ + K .E(max)
hf = ϕ + eVo
h(f - fo) = K .E max = eVo
hc( 1/λ - 1/λo) = K .E max = eVo
Stopping Potential Vo
Work function ϕ
ϕ = hfo = hc / λo

De Broglie Wavelength Uncertainty Principle:

Position-
Energy-Time
Momentum
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Max Planck---> explained light as packets of BOHR'S POSTULATES:-(Neil

energy(photon). Bohr-1913)-classical theory+
LINE/ ATOMIC SPECTRUM:-Line spectra is a planck's quantum theory
phenomenon which occurs when excited atoms As long as an electron remains in its
emit light of certain wavelengths which correspond
to different colours
orbit it neither absorbs nor radiates
The emitted light can be observed as a series of energy.Total energy remains
coloured lines with dark spaces in between constant.
These series of coloured lines are called line or
E= hν
atomic spectra -34
(h=plank's constant=6.6260715×10
J.s and ν= frequency)
An electron can jump only in that
orbit having an angular momentum of
nh/2π
L= nh/2π OR mvr= nh/2π
When electron absorbs energy it
jumps to higher energy orbit Ei and
when it radiates energy as it jumps
back to lower energy orbits E2.
ΔE=hf= E1- E 2
RADIUS OF HYDROGEN ATOM:-

2
r=n (0.53) --->n=principal quantum no
ENERGY OF HYDROGEN ATOM:-
LYMANN SERIES:-
E= -2π 2 K 2 Z 2 e 4 m / n 2 h 2 UV REGION
ΔE = 0 E1= -13.6 eV
2
E= -13.6 / n
FREQUENCY OF HYDROGEN ATOM:- BALMER SERIES:-
Number of waves per unit time.
2 2 2 4 2 2 2
ν=2 π K Z e m / h ( 1 / nf - 1 / ni ) VISIBLE REGION
WAVE NUMBER:- ΔE= 10.2 eV E2= -3.4 eV
Number of waves per unit distance PASCHEN SERIES:-
2 2
˜ν=RH ( 1/ nf - 1/ n )
RH = 1.097 x 10 m
7 -1 INFRARED REGION
NUMBER OF SPECTRAL LINES:- ΔE= 12.1 eV E3= -1.51 eV
ni = nf + 1 ( first spectral line) BRACKETT SERIES:-
ni = nf + ∞ (last spectral line)
FAR INFRARED REGION
WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT:-
ΔE= 12.7 eV E4= -0.85 eV
PFUND SERIES:-
VELOCITY OF ELECTRON IN nth ORBIT:
BEYOND INFRARED REGION
ΔE=13.6 eV E5= -0.54 eV
 X-Ray and it's Production LASER - Light
X-Ray has a wavelength of 0.1 - 1 nm and Amplification of
quantum energies of 1- 100 KeV. Stimulated Emission of
Wilhelm K. Roentgen in 1895 first Radiation
observed it.
Highly intense, directional,
X-Ray diffraction by crystals was first
coherent and.
discoverd by W.H Braggs in 1913.
Thermionic emission release electrons
monochromatic
from cathode accelerated towards anode Stimulated absorption and
at large potential difference. exciting to higher energy
Anode release a highly penetrating state
radiation X-rays detected by Staying there for a life time
photographic fims.or semi-conductor of 10-8 sec and
detectors. spontaneous emission by
X-RAY CONTINUOUS SPECTRA /X-RAY
jumping back to ground
BREMSTRALUNG:-
It is produced when electron passes close
state.
to the nucleus , it is deflected and slowed Stimulated emission occurs
down. RUBY LASER is a typical
type oflaser

Your paragraph text

Characterstic X-ray Spectrum

It is produced as a result of inner shell
transitions. Uses of lasers
When a highly energetic electron is Used in holography to
knocked off from a particular shell then generate three dimensional
an electron from the next shell jumps in images.
to occupy the vacant space and gives nuclear fusion reactions,
up energy as x-rays. welding detached retina and
precision measurements.
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PROTON 1.672 × 10-27 kg If A is mass number , Z is atomic

1.0072 amu number and N is neutron number.
ELECTRON 9.1 × 10-31 kg
0.00054 amu
N=A-Z
NEUTRON 1.6741 × 10-27 kg ISOBARS------> A same
1.0086 amu ISOTONES-----> N same
ISOTOPES-----> Z same
Law of radioactive decay:
MASS DEFECT:-
The probability per unit time that a
missing mass of nucleus when
nucleus will decay is a constant,
independent of time. daughter cell forms from parent
ΔN = -λ N Δt cell.
N(t) = N0e– λt Δm= [Zmp + Zmn]-
λ (lambda) is called decay m(nucleus)
constant independent of
temperature, pressure etc. BINDING ENERGY:-
Activity is no of disintegrations Energy required to break the
per second.
particles of as system.
A=λN
BE=( Δm c^2 ) × 931 MeV
RELATIVE ACTIVITY=N/No
Your paragraph text

where No is initial number of atoms in maximum for iron

a sample.
Time required by by radioactive PACKING FRACTION:-
substance to reduce to one halfis It is the binding energy per
called half life. nucleon
T1/2 = 0.693/ λ. PF= BE / A
1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
(decays per second)
1 becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 decay per
second
Radioactivity
The spontaneous disintegration of nucleolus of atoms, self
disrupting activity exhibited by certain naturally occurring elements.
Uranium, first radioactive element was discovered by Henry
Becquerel in 1896.
Three types of radiations are emitted

Your paragraph text

Biological and medical uses of radiation:

Co-60-----> used to treat localized cancerous tumour

I-131----> used to treat cancer of thyroid gland.
Na-23----->used to trace the rate of flow of blood
Absorbed dose------>amount of radiation absorbed per unit mass.
D= E/m. (1 Gy= 1 J/kg --> 1 rad=0.001 Gy)
Equivalent dose--->D×RBE (1 Sv= 1Gy--> 1rem=0.01 Gy)
Radiation burns ----> exposure to 3 mSv per year