Characteristics of life

● Movement
○ It is the change in direction/position
● Respiration
○ It is the chemical process by which glucose molecules breakdown to release energy
● Sensitivity
○ A living organisms respond to stimuli
● Growth
○ It is the ability of living organisms to irreversible increase in size and volume
● Reproduction
○ The ability to produce other living organisms of the same kind
● Excretion
○ The ability to remove metabolic waste products from the body
● Nutrition
○ It is the supply of food required by living organisms to stay alive

● Glucose + oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + energy

● Autotrophic
○ An organism which produces its own food for example green plants
● Heterotrophic
○ Cannot make their own food so get their nutrition by ready-made organic
compounds(animals/fruits)

Classification
● Plants
○ They are multicellular
○ Cells have a nucleus and contain chloroplasts
○ Carry out processes like photosynthesis and therefore make their own food(autotrophic)
○ Have cell walls made of cellulose
○ Store sugar as starch
○ They show movement but cannot locomote

● Animals
○ They are multicellular
○ Get their nutrition from feeding on other organisms(heterotrophic)
○ They are capable of movement and locomotion
○ Store sugar in the form of glycogen
○ Cells have nucleus
○ No cell wall or chloroplast
 ● Fungi
○ Can be multicellular or unicellular
○ Have many nucleus(nuclei) and do not have chloroplast
○ Have cell walls made of chitin
○ Made of a network of fibres called a mycelium of hyphae
○ Feed by saprophytic nutrition(absorbs the food) using extracellular enzymes

● Protoctists
○ Multicellular or unicellular but mostly unicellular
○ Cells have nucleus
○ May or may not have cell wall and chloroplast
○ They are either heterotrophic or autotrophic
○ E.g Protozoa like amoeba or algae
○ Knows as Dustbin kingdom

● Bacteria/Prokaryotes
○ Small single celled organisms
○ 3 basic shapes- spheres, rods and spirals
○ Cell wall made of polysaccharides and proteins(peptidoglycan)
○ Some have a capsule or slime layer
○ Has primitive nucleus(not a proper nucleus-no nuclear membrane- contents of nucleus flows
freely in cytoplasm)
○ Cell walls are made of cellulose and they don't have mitochondria
○ Some species have flagella(locomotory organ)
○ Some contain plasmids(loops of DNA) which we can use in genetic engineering

● Viruses
○ All are parasites
○ Much smaller than bacteria cells
○ Not made of cells and do not carry out the normal characteristics of living organisms
○ Made of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat
○ All natural viruses cause disease

Classifying animals
● Binomial naming system
○ International naming system where the name of the
organism consists of 2 parts
○ Binomial naming system is written in italics where the first
letter is the genus and is capital and the second word is
species where all letters are small.
 ○ Wolf is Canis lupus, Canis being the genus and lupus being a species

Kingdom Animal Animal

Phylum Arthropods Vertebrates

Class Insects Mammals

Order Lepidoptera(butterflies,moths) Pholidota

Family Danaidae Manidae

Genus Danus Manis

Species Danaus plexippus Manis gigantea

Phylum Vertebrates
Animals which have a backbone
● Fish
○ Vertebrates with scaly skin
○ Have gills
○ Have fins

● Class Amphibians
○ Vertebrates with moist scale-less skin
○ Eggs laid in water, larva(tadpole) lives in water
○ Adult often lives on land
○ Larva has gills, adult has lungs

● Class Reptiles
○ Vertebrates with scaly skin
○ Lay eggs with rubbery shells

● Class Birds
○ Vertebrates with feathers
○ Heart has 4 chambers
○ Endothermic
○ Lay eggs with hard shells

● Class Mammals
○ Vertebrates with hair
○ Have a placenta
○ Endothermic
○ Have diaphragm
 ○ 4 heart chambers
○ Have different type of teeth

● Bacterial cell
○ Often unicellular
○ Have no nucleus
○ Have cell walls, not made of cellulose
○ Have no mitochondria

Phylum Arthropods
Several pairs of jointed legs
Have exoskeleton
● Insects
○ Arthropods with 3 pairs of jointed legs
○ 2 pairs of wings
○ Breathe through trachea
○ Head, thorax and abdomen

● Crustaceans
○ Arthropods with more than 4 pair of jointed legs
○ Not millepied or centipedes
○ Breathe through gills

● Arachnids
○ Arthropods with 4 pairs of jointed legs
○ Breathe through gills called book lungs

● Myriapods
○ Body consists of many segments
○ Each segment has jointed legs

● Ferns
○ Plants with roots, stems and leaves
○ Have leaves called fronds
○ Do not produce flowers
○ Reproduce by spores

● Flowering plants
○ Plants with roots, stems and leaves
○ Reproduce sexually by means of flower and seeds
 ○ Seeds are produced inside the ovary, in the flower

Monocots Dicots

Monocots have 1 cotyledon Dicots have 2 cotyledons

Petals are arranged in multiples of 3 Petals are arranged in multiples of 4 or 5

Secondary growth is absent Secondary growth is present

Fibrous roots Tap roots

Veins parallel to the midrib Dicots not parallel

Leaves are slender Leaves are broad

Have scattered vascular bundle Dicots have ring shaped

Have 1 pore in the pollen grain Have 3 pores in the pollen grain

Stems in monocots are non-woody Dicots are woody and branched

Procaryotes Fungi

Single-celled Multi-celled

No nucleus Nucleus present

No organelles Have organelles

Need host to grow Grow on their own

Simple cell structure Complex cell structure

Plants Animals

Cannot locomote Can locomote

Contains cell wall Doesn’t have cell wall

Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Store sugar as starch Store sugar as glycogen

Insects Crustaceans

3 pair of jointed legs 4 pairs of jointed legs

Breathe through trachea Breathe through gills

2 pair of wings No wings

Amphibians Reptiles

Moist scale-less skin Scaly skin

Breathe through both gills and lungs Breathe only through lungs

Lay eggs in water, covered in gel Lay eggs on land where they have hard protective
shell
 Cells
● Cells are the building blocks of life
● Cellular theory
○ All living organisms are made and comprised of cells
○ The simplest organism→ single cell
○ More complex organisms like animals and plants are made of many cells, this is called
mutli-cellular
○ In multicellular organisms, they have specialised cells to carry out different types of
functions

● Nucleus
○ Largest organelle
○ Controls the activity of the cell
○ Contains chromosomes which carry your genes
○ The genes determine which proteins the cell can make
○ Components present inside the cell is called organelle
○ Nucleus → chromosomes → DNA

● Cell surface membrane/Plasma membrane

○ It is selectively permeable
○ Forms a boundary between the cytoplasm and thee outside of the cell
○ Some chemicals can pass through it, this barrier and the cell and control what comes in and
out of the cell

● Cytoplasm
○ Jelly like substance which contains all of the organelles
○ Many chemical reactions called metabolic reactions take place here

● Mitochondria
○ Process of respiration takes place here and it is the powerhouse of the cell
○ Cells like cells in heart or muscle cells that have more demand for energy usually have more
mitochondria
● Cell wall
○ Found only in plant cells
○ Plant cell swells up but cannot burst due to cell wall and that stage is called turgid
○ It is made of cellulose, which is a non-living material
○ It is freely permeable
○ It is rigid, so it helps the cell keep its shape

● Chloroplast
○ Not present in fungi or animal cell only present in plant cells
○ Contains chlorophyll
○ Chlorophyll is a green pigment, it absorbs light energy to make food in the process of
photosynthesis

● Vacuole
○ Found only in plant cells
○ Filled with cell sap
○ Cell sap is a store of dissolved sugars, minerals, ions and other solutes(sodium chlorine)
○ Helps keep the cells shape

● Ribosomes
○ Protein synthesis take place (produces proteins)
○ Found in all kind of cells
○ Extremely microscopic

● Endoplasmic reticulum
○ Rough(presence of ribosomes)
○ Smooth(absence of ribosomes)
Types of cells
● Ciliated cell
○ Found in the lining of the trachea and bronchi
○ Moves mucus upwards

● Root hair cell

○ Found near the ends of plant roots
○ Absorb water and mineral salts
○ Increase surface area so more water and mineral can be absorbed

● Xylem vessels
○ Found in roots, stems and leaves(vascular bundle)
○ Transport water and mineral salts(from root to other parts)
○ Helps with support

● Palisade mesophyll cells

○ Found beneath the epidermis of a leaf
○ Helps in photosynthesis

● Nerve cells
○ Found throughout bodies of animals
○ Transmit information in the form of electrical impulses

● Red blood cells

○ Found in the blood of mammals
○ Transports oxygen
○ To absorb oxygen, it needs more surface area therefore does not have a nucleus

● Sperm and egg cells

○ Found in testes and ovaries
○ Fuse together to produce a zygote

● Sperms are produced by process of spermatogenesis

● Ovary or egg cells are produced by the process of ovagenesis
Plant cells Animal cells

Have cellulose cell wall outside the cell membrane Have no cell wall

Have a cell membrane Have a cell membrane

Have cytoplasm Have cytoplasm

Have a nucleus Have a nucleus

Often have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll Have no chloroplasts

Often have large vacuoles containing cell sap Have only small vacuoles

Often have starch grains Don't have starch grain;sometimes have glycogen
granules

Often regular in shape Often irregular in shape

Type of cell Where is it found Function

Ciliated cell Lining in the trachea and bronchi Move mucus upward

Root hair cells Near the ends of plant roots Absorb water and mineral salts

Xylem vessels In stems, roots and leaves of Transport water and mineral
plants salts; help in support

Palisade mesophyll cells Beneath the epidermis of a leaf Photosynthesis

Nerve cells Throughout bodies of animals Transmit info in the form of

electrical impulses

Red Blood Cells In the blood of mammals Transport oxygen

Sperm and egg cells In testes and ovaries Fuse together to produce zygote
 Chemicals of life
● All living organisms are made up of chemical substances
● Reactions between these substances keep the cytoplasm alive. They are living processes

● Carbohydrates
○ Contains elements → carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
○ Carbohydrates are made up of glucose units
○ Examples of carbohydrates are glucose, fructose, maltose and sucrose or in a simpler
term- sugars
○ Carbohydrates provide the main source of energy for respiration in living organisms
○ Glucose and fructose → C6 H12 O6
○ Sucrose and maltose→ C12 H22 O11

Classification of sugars
● Monosaccharides
○ With a single carbon ring
○ Glucose and fructose
● Disaccharides
○ With 2 carbon rings
○ Maltose and sucrose
● Polysaccharides
○ Multiple sugar molecules bonded together
○ Glycogen, Starch, Cellulose

● 2 molecules of glucose can join together to form molecule of maltose

● Sucrose is formed when a molecule of glucose and fructose are combined
● Starch and cellulose are formed from hundreds of glucose molecules joined to form a long chain

● Proteins
○ Contains elements → Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
○ Proteins are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen molecules
○ Proteins are made up of units called amino acids
○ Proteins make up the structure of cells: cytoplasm, nucleus, cell membrane, enzymes,
haemoglobin, antibodies, hormones and fibrin
○ High temperature or certain chemicals can cause the protein molecule to loose its shape
and its properties
 ● Fats/Lipids
○ Contains elements → carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
○ They are made up of glycerol and fatty acids
○ Fatty acids → Stearic acids, oleic acid etc.

Tests for food

● Tests for lipids(emulsion test)
○ Ethanol is added to the unknown solution and the mixture is gently shaken
○ The mixture is poured into a test tube containing an equal volume of water
○ IF a lipid is present, a milky-white emulsion is formed

● Test for protein

○ To test for protein, a few drops of Biuret reagent is added to the solution, the mixture is
gently shaken
○ A mauve/purple colour is a positive result(protein is present)

● Test for carbohydrate

○ Starch
■ A few drops of iodine is added to the solution and the mixture is gently shaken
■ A deep blue-black colour is a positive result
○ Glucose
■ A few drops of Benedict’s reagent is added to the solution and the mixture is
heated in a boiling water bath for 2-3 minutes
■ An orange/brick-red colour is a positive result

● Solubility in water
○ Carbs → soluble (polysaccharides are insoluble)
○ Fats → insoluble
○ Proteins → some soluble, some insoluble

● Uses
○ Carbs → Easily available energy (17 kJ/g)
○ Fats → Storage of energy (39 kJ/g)
Insulation; making cell membranes
○ Proteins → Making cells, antibodies, enzymes, haemoglobin, also used for energy

● DNA
○ Deoxyribonucleic acid
○ DNA is the chemical that makes up our genes and chromosomes
 Carbohydrates Fats Proteins

Elements they contain C, H, O C, H, O C, H, O, N

Smaller molecules of Simple sugars Fatty acids and glycerol Amino acids
which they are made (monosaccharides)

Solubility in water Sugars are soluble; Insoluble Some are soluble and
polysaccharides are some are insoluble
insoluble

Why organisms need Easily available energy Storage of Making cells, antibodies,
them (171 kJ/g) energy(39kJ/g); enzymes, haemoglobin,
insulation; making cell energy
membranes
 Movement in and out of cells
● Diffusion
○ The net movement of molecules and ions from a region of their higher concentration to a
region of their lower concentration down the concentration gradient, as a result of their
random movement
○ The difference in concentrations is known as the concentration gradient

● List 3 examples of diffusion in living organisms

○ Respiration
○ Photosynthesis
○ Products of digestion

● Respiration
○ Gas exchanges for respiration in animals and plants, cell membranes are freely permeable
to CO2 and so these diffuse easily in and out of cells.
● Photosynthesis
○ Plants need CO2 for photosynthesis which diffuses from the air into the leaves, through
the stomata. It does this because there is lower concentration outside the leaf. CO2
molecules therefore diffuse into the leaf, down this concentration gradient
● Products of digestion
○ Products of digestion are absorbed from ileum of mammals by diffusion and flowering
plants use diffusion to attract pollinators like bees and wasps

● Osmosis
○ A process by which water molecules pass through a semipermeable membrane from a
higher water potential to a lower water potential

● Osmosis in plants
○ H2O diffuses into the cytoplasm and vacuole through the partially permeable membrane.
The cell swells and becomes firm
○ Water diffuses out of the cytoplasm and vacuoles through the partially permeable cell
membrane. First, the cell shrinks slightly and becomes flaccid. THen the cell membrane
pulls away from the cell wall, and the cell in plasmolysed

● Active transport
○ The movement of molecules and ions in or out of a cell through the cell membrane against a
concentration gradient, using energy from respiration
 ● Human active transport
○ Small intestine → glucose can be actively transported from the lumen of the intestine into
the cells of the villi
○ In kidney tubules → glucose is actively transported out of the tribule and into the blood

● Plants active transport

○ Root hair cells → take in nitrate ions from the cells by active transport
○ In the cell membrane of root hair cells are special transport proteins. These proteins pick
up nitrate ions from outside the cell and then change shape which pushes the nitrate ions
through the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm of the cell

Factors affecting rate of diffusion

● Surface area to reduce volume ratio
○ The surface area of the second cell is much bigger than the first cell due to the folded
membrane. THe volume of the cells has a much larger surface area to volume ratio and it
increases the rate of diffusion
○ Therefore parts of organisms that rely on diffusion have a larger surface area
● Temperature
○ At higher temperature the particles have more kinetic energy and are moving around
faster. Therefore in a given time more diffusion will occur
● Concentration gradient
○ When there is a big difference between the number of particles in one place than another,
diffusion will happen much faster then if they are already quite spread out
 Enzymes
● A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction but is not involved/used up in
the reaction
● Enzymes are proteins that function as a biological catalysts
● The function of enzymes is to catalyse metabolic reactions

● Properties of enzymes
○ All enzymes are proteins
○ Enzymes are made inactive by high temperatures
○ Enzymes work best at a particular temperature
■ Enzymes found in human body work best at 37 - 40 degree celsius
○ Enzymes work best at a particular pH
■ Some work best in acidic conditions while others work best in neutral or alkaline
conditions
○ Enzymes are catalysts
○ Enzymes are specific
■ Each kind of enzymes will only catalyse one kind of chemical reaction

Enzyme Substrate Product

Carbohydrase Carbohydrate

Amylase Starch Maltose

Maltase Maltose Glucose

Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and fructose

Lipases Fats/ lipids Fatty acids/ glycerol

Protease Proteans Polyperate/ amino acids

● Lock and key mechanism

○ An enzyme works by allowing the molecule of the substance on which it is acting to fit into it.
The fit has to be perfect. The enzyme is like a lock and the molecule fits in like a key.

● The molecule that the enzyme wants to help change in called a substrate
● Every enzyme has an active site (amylase has a dent in it, it is its active site). The starch fits into the
active site of amylase, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
● Enzyme activity
○ Substrate enters active site
○ Enzyme-substrate complex forms
○ Reaction occurs
○ Products form and leave active site

● Optimum temperature
○ This is the temperature at which there is maximum ROR. This is best temperature for an
enzyme
● Effect of temperature on ROR of enzyme
○ At first increasing the temperature will increase the ROR because the molecules of the enzyme
and the substrate will have greater kinetic energy. They move around quickly and there are
more collisions. Therefore, more substrate molecules will fit into their respective active sites,
and the reaction will take place.
○ As temperature continues to increase, the bonds holding the enzyme molecule together start to
break down. This changes the shape of the active site, so the substrate can no longer fit. The
enzyme has been denatured and it can no longer catalyze the reaction.

● Effect of pH on ROR of enzyme

○ Many of the chemical bonds holding the structure of the enzyme are weak bonds. If these bonds
that hold the enzyme molecule in shape are broken by changes in ph, then the shape of the
active site can be altered. When the ROR is zero, the shape of the active site has changed so
much that the substrate molecules will no longer fit
○ At these values of pH enzymes are denatured. Small changes in pH can affect the ROR without
denaturing the enzyme, but at the extremes of its pH range an enzyme becomes unstable and
denatures.

● Pepsin
○ Requires acidic environment (pH 2)
○ Found in stomach
● Amylase
○ Mouth/salivary gland, duodenum
○ Requires 7pH (neutral)
 Animal nutrition
● Nutrients
○ Carbohydrate, protein, fats, vitamins, minerals, water and fibres

● For the food to go down the alimentary canal, a process of peristalsis takes place to push the food
down the canal

● Coronary heart disease

○ When fat deposits build up inside the arteries, making them stiffer and narrower. If this happens
in the coronary arteries supplying the heart muscle with blood, then not enough blood can get
through. The heart muscles run short of oxygen and cannot work properly. This is known as
coronary heart disease
○ This can cause higher risk of heart attack

Vitamin Food that contain it Why it is needed Deficiency disease

C Citrus fruits, raw To make the stretchy Scurvy, which causes

vegetables protein collagen, found in pain in joints and
skin and other tissues; muscles and bleeding
keeps tissues in good from gums and other
repair places; this used to be a
common disease of
sailors, who had no fresh
vegetables during long
voyages

D Butter, egg yolk, sunlight Helps calcium to be Rickets, in which bones

absorbed for making become soft and
bones and teeth deformed; this disease
was common in young
children in industrial
areas who rarely got out
into the sunshine

Mineral Food that contain it Why it is needed Deficiency disease

Calcium Milk and other dairy For bones and teeth; for Brittle bones and teeth;
products, bread blood clotting poor blood clotting

Iron Liver, red meat, egg yolk, For making haemoglobin, Anaemia, in which there
dark green vegetables the red pigment in blood are not enough RBC so
which carries oxygen the tissues do not get
enough oxygen delivered
to them

● Kwashiorkor → not enough protein rich foods available. Protein deficit. People with kwashiorkor are
always underweight but seem fat because of swollen abdomen and the amount of carbs in their diet
 ● Digestion
○ Ingestion
■ Food is taken into the alimentary canal
○ Digestion
■ Large insoluble molecules of food are broken down to small molecules
○ Absorption
■ The small molecules are absorbed into the blood
○ Egestion
■ Food which could not be digested or absorbed is removed from the body

Nutrient Enzyme that breaks it down Small molecules produced

Starch Amylase Simple sugars

Protein Protease Amino acids

Fat Lipase Fatty acids and glycerol

● Mechanical digestion
○ The breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the food molecules
● Chemical digestion
○ The breakdown of large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules

● Teeth
○ Helps with ingestion
○ Enamel is the hardest substance made by
animals, it's very difficult to break or chip it
however it can be dissolved by acids.
○ Under enamel is deintine, which is like a
bone, it is quite hard and has channels of
living cytoplasm living in it.
○ In the middle of the tooth is the pulp cavity.
It contains all the nerves and blood vessels.
These supply the cytoplasms in the dentine
with food and oxygen.
○ The root of the tooth is covered with
cement, this has fibres growing out of it.
These attack the tooth to the jawbone but
allow it to move slightly when biting or
chewing.
● Types of teeth
○ Incisors → chisel shaped, used for biting food
○ Canines → similar to incisors, used for tearing food
○ Premolars → have wide surface area for grinding good
○ Molars → are like premolars and are used for grinding

● Tooth decay
○ Some of the bacteria together with saliva form a sticky film over the teeth, especially next to the
gums and in between the teeth, this is called plaque
○ Plaque is soft and easy to remove at first but if it's left to harden, it forms tartar which cannot be
removed by brushing

● Gum disease
○ If plaque is not removed, the bacteria in it may infect the gums. The gums swell and become
inflamed and may bleed when you brush your teeth.
○ This is usually painless, but if bacteria are allowed to spread they may work down the root of the
tooth. The tooth becomes loose and needs removing

● Preventing tooth decay

○ Don't eat too much sugar
○ Use fluoride toothpaste regularly. Removing plaque through brushing
○ Make regular visits to the dentist

● Alimentary canal
○ The wall of the alimentary canal
contains muscles which contract and
relax to make food move along. This
movement is called peristalsis.
○ Special muscles can close the tube
completely in certain places. They are
called sphincter muscles
○ To help the food slide easily through
the alimentary canal, it is lubricated
with mucus.
● The mouth
○ Food is ingested using the teeth, lips and tongue
○ The tongue mixes the food with saliva and forms it into a bolus.
○ Saliva is formed in the salivary glands. It is mainly a mixture of water, mucus and the enzyme
amylase.
○ Amylase begins to digest the starch in food to maltose.

● The stomach
○ It contains goblet cells which secrete mucus. It also contains cells which secrete an enzyme
called protease and other cells which make hydrochloric acid.
○ The main protease enzyme in the stomach is pepsin. It begins to digest proteins by breaking
them into polypeptides. Pepsin works best in acidic conditions.
○ The acid helps kill any bacteria in the food
○ Rennin is produced in the stomach of young mammals. It causes milk proteins from their mother
to clot. The milk proteins are then broken down by pepsin.

● The small intestine

○ Several enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
■ Pancreatic juice which is a fluid made by the pancreas, it contains enzymes like
amylase, protease and lipase.
■ Amylase breaks starch to maltose
■ Trypsin is a protease which breaks down proteins to polypeptides
■ Lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol
○ These enzymes do not work well in acidic conditions so the pancreatic juice contains sodium
hydrogen carbonate which partially neutralizes the acid

● Bile
○ As well as pancreatic juice, bile is flown into the duodenum.
○ Bile is yellowish-green, alkaline, watery liquid which helps to neutralize the acidic mixture from
the stomach
○ Bile does not have any enzymes but helps break up large drops of fat into very small ones, this
is known as emulsification and it is done by bile salts.

● Villi
○ Cells covering the villi make enzymes
○ The carbohydrase maltase breaks down maltose to glucose.
○ Protease finishes breaking down any polypeptides into amino acids.
○ Lipase completes the breakdown of fats to fatty acids and glycerol

● Large intestine
○ In the colon, more water and salt are absorbed, however it absorbs much less water than the
small intestine.
○ Egestion is the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as faces, through
the anus

● Absorption is the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into the
blood
● Absorption takes place in the small intestine. It is adapted to make absorption most efficient.
● Small intestine adaptations
○ It is very long about 5m in adult human, this gives plenty of time for digestion to be completed
and for digested food to be absorbed as it slowly passes through
○ It has villis, each villi is covered with cells which have even smaller projections on them, called
microvilli. This gives the inner surface of the small intestine a very large surface area. The larger
the surface area, the faster nutrients can be absorbed
○ Villi contains blood capillaries. Monosaccharides, amino acids, water, minerals and vitamins,
and some fats, pass into the blood to be taken to the liver then round the body
○ Villi contains lacteals which are part of the lymphatic system. Fats are absorbed into lacteals
○ Villi has walls only one cell thick. The digested nutrients can easily cross the wall to reach the
blood capillaries and lacteals.
 Transport in animals
● Circulatory system
○ The circulatory system is a system of blood vessels with a pump and valves to ensure one way
flow of blood

● Single circulation
○ Single circulation means blood passes through the heart only
once
○ E.g fish

● Double circulation
○ Double circulation means blood passes through the heart twice
e.g mammals
○ Double circulation is advantageous because it maintains a
higher blood pressure compared to a single circulation system.

● Blood flow around the body

○ Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium(RA)
○ Deoxygenated blood enters the right ventricle(RV)
○ Deoxygenated blood is pumped by the right ventricle to the
lungs to become oxygenated
○ Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium(LA)
○ Oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle(LV)
○ Oxygenated blood is pumped by the LV to the rest of the body
○ Body cells use the oxygen and cause the blood to become
deoxygenated
○ Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart and the cycle repeats

● Vena cava → right atrium → atrioventricular valve → right

ventricle → semilunar valve → pulmonary artery → lungs
→ pulmonary vein → left atrium → atrioventricular valve
→ left ventricle → semilunar valve → aorta → vena cava
Functions of different structures
● Atrium
○ The right and left atrium contracts to pump blood into the right and left ventricles respectively

● Ventricles
○ The right ventricle contracts to pump blood to the lungs (to become oxygenated)
○ The left ventricle contracts to pump blood to the rest of the body. It has a thicker wall than the
right ventricle because it needs to pump blood further and therefore needs more force

● Atrioventricular valves
○ The atrioventricular valves separate the atrium and ventricles on both sides of the heart
○ These valves present the backflow of blood, thus ensuring a one way flow of blood form the
atria to the ventricle

● Semilunar valves
○ Semilunar valves are found within the pulmonary arteries and the aorta. They prevent the
backflow of blood and ensure unidirectional blood flow in the arteries.

● Pulmonary artery
○ The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs

● Pulmonary vein
○ The pulmonary vein carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium

● Aorta
○ The aorta is a large artery which carries blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body

● Vena cava
○ The vena cava is a large vein which carries deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart
(right atrium)

● Septum
○ The septum is a thick muscular wall which separates the right and left side of the heart. This
separation is important to ensure that oxygenated and deoxygenated blood does not mix.

Activity of the heart

● Physical activity increases heart rate
○ Heart rate is the rate at which the heart burns. The most common way to measure heart rate is
by measuring the pulse rate
○ The pulse is exactly equal to the heart rate, as the contractions of the heart cause the increase
in blood pressure in the arteries that lead to a noticeable pulse
○ Physical activity increases the energy demand in muscles such as the arms and legs. With an
increased rate of respiration, blood must have to travel quicker to the muscles to supply them
with oxygen/nutrients whilst removing waste products like carbon dioxide

● Electrocardiogram(ECG)
○ An electrocardiogram is a device which can track heart activity. It can accurately measure pulse
rates via the opening and closing of heart valves
● Coronary heart disease
○ The heart muscles too need a blood supply because they too are respiring muscles
○ The coronary artery is the very important artery which provinces the heart muscles with blood
○ Coronary heart disease is when the coronary artery becomes blocked, leading to blood(and
oxygen) starvation in the heart muscles. This leads to an heart attack

● Causes of coronary heart disease

○ Blockage of the coronary artery begins by the narrowing of the artery due to cholesterol build up
on the inner walls
○ Total blockage can occur when a blood clot gets stuck in these narrow arteries

● Risk factors
○ There are certain factors that increase the risk of an individual developing coronary heart
disease
■ Poor diet
■ Stress
■ Smoking
■ Genetics
■ Age
■ Gender

● Treatment with medications

○ Blood thinning medications are used to reduce the
chances of a blood clot forming

● Treatment with surgery

○ Stent is a tube shaped device which is placed inside the
coronary arteries to physically hold it open
○ Angioplasty is a stent with a balloon which can be
inflated once the stent is inserted to even further
increase the diameter to the artery
○ Bypass is the process of making a separate or new
artery to allow for an alternate blood path that the heart
can use to receive blood while the stent is being
attached
● Blood vessels
○ Blood vessels are tubular structures carrying blood through the tissues and organs. Starting
from the heart, the pathway of blood is as follows
○ Heart → artery → arteriole → capillary → venule → vein → heart

● Arteries
○ Arteries take blood away from the heart. They have several important structural features
■ Thick muscular walls to withstand blood being carried at high pressures
■ Narrow lumen which expands as blood pulsates through to maintain blood pressure
■ Valves absent since high blood pressures prevent backflow

● Arterioles
○ Arterioles are smaller branches of an artery. They eventually branch further to form capillaries
■ Arterioles have muscular/elastic walls that can constrict and dilate in order to regulate
blood flow

● Capillaries
○ Capillaries are fine branching blood vessels that form a network between the arterioles and
venule
○ They allow for the nutrient and waste exchange between the blood and tissues of the body. The
features of capillaries are as follows
■ Walls are one cell thick to allow for quick diffusion of diffuse rates of nutrients/wastes
■ Lumen has a diameter of just 1 RBC, to allow blood cells to pass closely to walls for
faster diffusion rates
■ Valves are absent since the narrow capillary lumen ensures unidirectional blood flow.

● Venules
○ Venules are small vessels formed from the joining of the capillaries. Venules combine to
establish a vein.

● Veins
○ Veins take the blood towards the heart. Their structural features are as follows
■ Thin walls with little muscles and elastic fibres (thick muscles are not required as the
blood is carried at low pressure)
■ Large lumen to reduce blood flow resistance
■ Valves present to prevent blood backflow

● Shunt vessels
○ Shunt vessels are blood vessels that connect blood directly from the arterioles to the venules.
This allows for an alternative route for blood flow (blood bypass the capillaries)
○ Like arterioles, shunt vessels have walls that can constrict and dilate in order to regulate blood
flow.
● Tissue fluid
○ It is the fluid which bathes most body tissues
○ The fluid is the mode of nutrient and waste exchange between the blood and respiring tissues
○ For example
■ Waste products(such as CO2) from cells diffuse into the tissue fluid first before diffusing
in the blood
■ Nutrients(such as glucose) diffuse into the tissue fluid first before diffusing into the cells

○ Tissue fluid is produced by leakage of certain substances from blood capillaries, and drained out
by the lymphatic vessels of the lymphatic system
○ The lymphatic is composed of lymphatic vessels which carry ‘lymph” and lymph nodes which
produce lymphocytes for immunity

● Blood
○ Blood is a mixture of several components such as
■ Red blood cells
■ White blood cells
■ Platelets
■ Plasma

● Plasma
○ Blood plasma makes up about 50% of the blood. It is a yellowish liquid that carries the other
blood components such as RBC/WBC/platelets

● Red blood cells

○ Red blood cells contain haemoglobin which binds to oxygen for transportation around the body

● White blood cells

○ White blood cells are part of the immune system that helps to destroy foreign organisms such as
bacteria
○ There are 2 types of WBC cells
■ Phagocytes are types which engulf and digest pathogens via phagocytosis
■ Lymphocytes are WBc which produce antibodies
● Platelets
○ They are substances that form blood clots which is a protective mechanism to prevent blood
loss during an injury
○ At the site of damage, platelets immediately stick together and release chemical signals which
attract other nearby cells and clump them together
○ A series of chemical reactions take place. Fibrinogen is converted into fibrin and this forms a
thread which traps RBCs to establish a thick clot. The clot seals off the site of damage.
 Respiration and gas exchange
● Every living cell needs energy for
○ Contracting muscles
○ Making protein molecules by linking together amino acids into long chains
○ Cell division so that we can repair damaged tissues and can grow
○ Active transport, so that we can move substances across cell membranes up their concentration
gradients
○ Transmitting nerve impulses so that we can transfer information quickly from one part of the
body to another
○ Producing heat inside the body to keep the body temperature constant even if the environment
is cold. Homeostasis

● The food is digested and broken down into smaller molecules which are absorbed from the intestine
into the blood. The blood transports the nutrients to all the cells in the body. The cells take up the
nutrients that they need
● Breathing is the muscular movement which keep the respiratory surface supplied with oxygen
● Respiration is a series of chemical reaction which happen in all living cells, in which food is broken
down to release energy, usually by combining it with oxygen

● Aerobic respiration
○ The release of energy from glucose by combining with oxygen is called aerobic respiration,
takes place in the mitochondria
○ Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (word equation)
○ C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O (balanced equation)

● Anaerobic respiration
○ The chemical reaction in cells that break down nutrient molecules to release energy without
using oxygen
○ Single-celled fungus
■ Glucose → alcohol + carbon dioxide
○ Humans
■ Glucose → lactic acid

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Uses oxygen Does not use oxygen

No alcohol or lactic acid is made Alcohol or lactic acid is made

Large amount of energy released from each Much less energy released from each molecules of
molecule of glucose glucose

Carbon dioxide made Carbon dioxide is made by yeast and plants, but not
by animals

● When oxygen is inhaled, the waste product carbon dioxide has to be exhaled and for that to happen,
gas exchange takes place
● The surface have to be permeable for it to take place
● They have other characteristics which help the process to be quick and efficient
○ They are thin and allow gases to diffuse across them quickly
○ They are close to an efficient transport system to take gases to and from the exchange surface
○ They have a large surface area, so that a lot of gas can diffuse at the same time
○ They have a good supply of oxygen (often brought by breathing movements)

● The nose and mouth

○ The air enters through nose and gets moist, warm and
filtered before it enters lungs
○ Inside nose, turbinal bones are covered with thin layer of
cells
○ Some cells are called goblet cells that secrete mucus and
others have hair like projection called cilia
○ The moving cilia traps bacteria in the mucus
○ Cilia are found at the trachea and bronchi so that they waft
the mucus

● Trachea
○ From the nose the air passes into the trachea
○ At the top of the trachea is a piece of cartilage called
epiglottis, this stops food from entering the trachea. Just
below the epiglottis is the voice box or larynx. This contains
vocal chords. The trachea has a ring of cartilages around it
which keep it open
 ● The bronchi
○ In the thorax, the trachea divides into 2
○ The 2 branches are called right and left bronchi
○ One bronchus goes to each lung, and then branches into smaller tubes called bronchioles

● The alveoli
○ At the end of each bronchiole are many tiny air sacs called alveoli. This is where gas exchange
takes place

● Gas exchange in lungs

○ These features of alveoli make it efficient for gas exchange
○ They are only 1 cell thick so oxygen o=molecules can easily diffuse into the blood
○ Large surface area
○ Good supply of oxygen. Breathing movements keep lungs well supplied with oxygen
○ Blood is constantly pumped into lungs by pulmonary artery

● Breathing in (inspiration)
○ The diaphragm is lowered
○ Ribcage is raised
○ Volume of the thorax increases, so air is drawn into lungs

● Breathing out (respiration)

○ The diaphragm springs up
○ Rib cage is lowered
○ The volume of thorax decreases, so air is forced out of the lungs

● Gas exchange
○ The exchange of gases across a respiratory surface
○ For example oxygen is taken into the body and Carbon dioxide is removed from it; gas
exchange also takes place during photosynthesis and respiration of plants

Thorax volume intercostal muscles Diaphragm

Inhalation Increases Contraction of external Dome shape to flatten

intercostal muscles, up
and out

Exhalation Decreases Relaxation of intercostal Goes back to dome

muscles, down and in shaped appearance

● Oxygen uptake by respiring organisms

○ A simple respirometer is used. An organism is placed in the boiling tube on top of the wire
gauze. A capillary tube connected to the boiling tube is measured against a ruler and a colored
dye is introduced into it
○ With the starting point of the dye measured, the due will move towards the boiling tube as the
organism uses up oxygen in the air
○ The carbon dioxide produced by the organism is eliminated by soda lime
○ We can measure the rate of respiration by calculating distance traveled by the dye, dividing it by
time it took
 Plant nutrition
● Taking in useful substances is called feeding or nutrition
● Substances made by living things are said to be organic substances
● Substances provided by nature is inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water and minerals
form air and soil

● Photosynthesis
○ The process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials using energy
from sunlight

● Chlorophyll
○ Chlorophyll is the pigment which makes plants look green. It is kept inside the chloroplasts
of plant cells
○ The sunlight falls on a chlorophyll molecule, some of the energy in the light is absorbed.
The chlorophyll molecule then releases the energy. The released energy makes carbon
dioxide combine with water, with the help of enzymes inside the chloroplast. Glucose is
made, it contains energy that was originally in the sunlight

● Photosynthesis equation
○ Carbon dioxide + water → (sunlight/chlorophyll) → glucose + oxygen
○ 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

● Leaf structure
○ The leaf consists of a broad, flat part called the lamina which is joined to the rest of the
plant by a leaf stalk or petiole. Running through the petiole are vascular bundles, these
contain tubes which carry substances to and from the leaf.
○ The top and bottom of the leaf are covered with a layer of closely fitting cells called the
epidermis. These cells do not contain chloroplasts. Their function is to protect the inner
layers of cells in the leaf.
○ The cells of the upper epidermis often secrete a waxy substance, that lies on top of them,
it is known as the cuticle which helps stop water evaporating from the leaf
○ In lower epidermis, there are small openings called stomata. Each stoma is surrounded by a
pair of sausage-shaped guard cells which can open or close the hole. Guard cells unlike
other cells in the epidermis, do not contain chloroplasts
○ The middle layers of the leaf are called the mesophyll. These cells all contain chloroplasts.
The cells nearer to the top of the leaf are arranged like a fence or palisade and they form
the palisade layer.
○ The cells beneath them are rounded and arranged quite loosely, with large air spaces
between them. They form the spongy layer
 ○ Each vein contains large, thick walled xylem vessels for carrying water. There are also
smaller, thin-walled phloem tubes for carrying away sucrose and other substances that the
lead has made.

Leaf adaptations
● Carbon dioxide
○ There is not very much available, because only about .04% of the air is carbon dioxide. The
leaf is held out into the air by the stem and the leaf stalk, and its large surface area helps
to expose it to as much air as possible
○ The cells which need the carbon dioxide are the mesophyll cells inside the leaf. Behind
each stoma is an air space which connects up with other air spaces between the spongy
mesophyll cells. The carbon dioxide can therefore diffuse to all cell walls and cell
membranes of each cell and into the chloroplast.

● Sunlight
○ The position of a leaf and its broad, flat surface help it to obtain as much sunlight as
possible
○ The cells that need the sunlight are the mesophyll cells. The thinness of the leaf allows
the sunlight to penetrate right through it and reach all the cells. To help this, the
epidermal cells are transparent with no chloroplasts.

● Water
○ Water is obtained from the soil. It is absorbed by the root hairs, and carried up to the
leaf in the xylem vessels. It then travels from the xylem vessels to the mesophyll cells by
osmosis.
 Adaptation Function

Supported by stem and petiole To expose as much of the leaf as possible to the sunlight
and air

Large surface area To expose as large an area as possible to the sunlight and
air

Thin To allow sunlight to penetrate to all cells, to allow CO2 to

diffuse in and O2 to diffuse out

Stomata in lower epidermis To allow CO2 to diffuse in and O2 to diffuse out

Air spaces in spongy mesophyll To allow CO2 to diffuse in and diffuse to and from all cells

No chloroplasts in epidermal cells To allow sunlight to penetrate to the mesophyll layer

Chloroplasts containing chlorophyll present in the To absorb energy from sunlight so that CO2 will combine
mesophyll layer with H2O

Palisade cells arranged end on To keep as few cell walls as possible between sunlight and
the chloroplasts

Chloroplasts inside palisade cells often arranged To expose as much chlorophyll as possible to sunlight
broadside on

Chlorophyll arranged on flat membranes inside To expose as much chlorophyll as possible to sunlight
the chloroplasts

Xylem vessels within short distance of every To supply water to cells in the leaf, some of which will be
mesophyll cell used in photosynthesis

Phloem tubes within short distance of every To take away sucrose and other organic products of
mesophyll cell photosynthesis

● Sucrose
○ It is used for fruit growth or stored in fruits
○ It is used for shoot growth
○ It is used for root growth or stored in roots as starch
○ It is transported in phloem tubes

● Glucose
○ Glucose has the formula C6H12O6
○ It is a simple sugar, it is soluble in water and quite a reactive substance.
○ First, being reactive, it might get involved in chemical reactions where it is not wanted.
Secondly, it would dissolve in water and might be lost from the cell. Thirdly, when
 dissolved it would increase the concentration of the solution in the cell which could cause
damage.
○ Glucose is therefore converted to starch to be stored

● Starch
○ It is a polysaccharide, made of many glucose molecules.
○ Being a large molecule, it is not very reactive and not very soluble. It can be made into
granules which can be easily stored inside the chloroplasts

Uses of glucose
● Used for energy
○ Some of glucose which a leaf will be broken down by respiration to release energy
● Used to make proteins and other organic substances
○ Plants can also use the sugars they have made in photosynthesis to make amino acids, which
can be built up into proteins. To do this they need nitrogen.
○ Unfortunately, the nitrogen in the air is unreactive therefore the plants have to be
supplied with nitrogen in a more reactive form, usually as nitrate ions.
○ They absorb nitrate ions from the soil through root hairs by diffusion and active
transport. The nitrate ions combine with glucose to make amino acids. The amino acids are
then strung together to form protein molecules.
● Changed to sucrose for transport
○ A molecule has to be small and soluble to be transported, glucose has both these
properties, but it is also reactive therefore is converted to sucrose to be transported to
other parts of the plant.
○ Sucrose molecules are small and soluble but less reactive than glucose. They dissolve in sap
in the phloem vessels can are distributed to whichever parts of the plant need them
○ The sucrose later on can be turned back into glucose to be broken down to release energy
or turned into starch and stored.

Element Nitrogen Magnesium

Mineral salt Nitrates or ammonium ions Magnesium ions

Why needed To make proteins To make chlorophyll

Deficiency Weak growth, yellow leaves Yellowing between the veins of

leaves

● Testing leaves for starch

○ Iodine is used to test for starch. A blue-black color appears if starch is present.
○ Before testing, you have to boil the leaf in water and alcohol to remove cell membranes and
chlorophyll.
Limiting factors
● Something present in the environment in such short supply that it restricts life processes
● Sunlight
○ As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis will increase until the plant is
photosynthesising as fast as it can.
● Carbon dioxide
○ The more carbon dioxide present, the more it can photosynthesise.
● Temperature
○ Higher the temperature, the higher the rate of photosynthesis
● Stomata
○ If stomata is closed, it cannot photosynthesise but it can close on hot days to prevent
water class
 Transport in plants
● The transport system that carries water is made up of a tissue called xylem
● The transport system that carries water is made up of a tissue called phloem

● Xylem
○ It is made of many dead and hollow cells joined end to end. No end walls
○ It contains no cytoplasm or nuclei.
○ Its walls are made up of cellulose and lignin, it helps keep the xylem upright

● Phloem
○ Still have end walls, it has formed into sieve plates which have small holes in them.
○ Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids from the leaves to roots and flowers.
○ The cells are known as sieve tube elements, they contain cytoplasm but no nucleus and also
contain many other organelles
○ They don't have lignin in their cell walls
○ Sieve tube element’s companion cell has nucleus and many other organelles, it provides sieve
tube elements with some of their requirements

● Vascular bundles
○ A group of xylem vessels and phloem tubes is
called a vascular bundle
○ In the root, its found in the centre while in the
shoot, they are arranged in a ring near the outside
edge

● Water uptake
○ Root cap is a layer of cells that protects the roots as it grows through the soil. They are present
at the tip of the end of the root.
○ The rest of the root is covered by layer of cells called epidermis
○ Water moves into a root hair by osmosis
■ The water in the soil is normally a more dilute solution therefore water diffuses into the
root hair, down its concentration gradient through the partially permeable membrane.
○ The pressure at the top is lowered and the pressure at the bottom stays high therefore water
flows up , the pressure is lowered through transpiration
 ● Transpiration
○ It is the evaporation of water from a plant. It mostly takes place from the leaves.
○ The mesophyll cells inside the leaf are each covered with a thin layer of moisture, some of this
moisture evaporates from the cells, water vapour diffuses out of the leaf through the stomata.
Water from the xylem vessels in the leaf travel to replace it. This constant process reduces the
effective pressure at the top of the xylem vessels letting the water flow up.
○ This process is known as transpiration stream

● Cohesion
○ Water molecules have a strong tendency to stick together, this is called cohesion
○ When the water is pulled up the xylem vessels, the whole column of water stays together.
○ Without cohesion the water column would break apart and the whole system would not work.

● The structure of the plant is adapted to help it take up water and move it up throughout the plant
○ The root hair cells provide a huge surface area through which water can be absorbed. THis
increases the quantity of water that can move into the plant at any moment.
○ THe hollow, narrow xylem vessels provide an easy pathway for water to flow all the wat up from
the roots to the very top of the plant
○ The many air spaces inside the lead mean that there is a large surface area of wet cells from
which water can evaporate into the air. This increases the rate of evaporation, drawing more
water out of the xylem
○ The stomata, when open, allow water vapour to diffuse easily out of the lead. This reduces the
water potential inside the lead, which encourages more water to evaporate from the surfaces of
the mesophyll cells

● A potometer is used to measure the transpiration rate of plants

Conditions that affect transpiration rate

● Temperature
○ On hotter days, water will evaporate more quickly, they are directly proportional.
● Humidity
○ The higher humidity, the less water will evaporate from the leaves, because there is not much of
a diffusion gradient for the water between the air spaces inside and lead and the wet air around
it. They are inversely proportional
● Wind speed
○ Transpiration rate increases as wind speed increases. They are directly proportional
● Light intensity
○ Directly proportional
● Water supply
○ Directly proportional, less water supply, less water to transpire

● Translocation
○ The movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem, from regions of production to regions or
storage or regions or utilisation in respiration or growth.

● Sources
○ The part of the plant from which sucrose and amino acids are being translocated is a source
● Sink
○ The part of the plant to which sucrose and amino acids are being translocated is a sink
○ Include the roots and flowers
 Reproduction in plants
● Reproduction is the process of making more of the same kind of organism
● There are 2 types of reproduction
○ Asexual reproduction
○ Sexual reproduction

● Asexual reproduction
○ Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring
from a single parent
● Advantages of asexual reproduction
○ Quick
○ Only single parent required
○ Good genetic characteristics always passed on
○ No dispersal so offspring will grow in the same favorable environment
● Disadvantages of asexual reproduction
○ Little variation, less adaptability to changing environment
○ Unlikely to withstand disease if parent not resistant
○ Lack of dispersal lead to increased competition for nutrients

● Sexual reproduction
○ Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of 2 gametes to form a zygote. This
results in the production of offspring that is genetically different from the parents
○ Gametes are sex cells that have half of the normal chromosome number (haploid)
○ Therefore when male and female gamete fuse together, they form a new cell with normal
chromosome number (diploid)
● Advantages of sexual reproduction
○ Variation among offspring and therefore more adaptability to a changing environment
○ More likely to withstand disease
○ In plants, seed dispersal reduces competition for nutrients as offspring will grow in a different
environment
● Disadvantages of sexual reproduction are
○ Requires the fusion of 2 gametes
○ Slower process

● Plant reproduction
○ The sexual reproduction in plants involves the fusion of the male gamete (pollen) and the
female gamete (ovule)
○ A plant has both a male part containing the pollen and the female part containing the ovule
○ Male part - stamen
○ Female part - pistil/carpel

● Sexual reproduction occurs when the pollen from

the stamen of one flower successfully reaches the
ovule of either the same flower or a different flower
● The transfer of pollen is called pollination
● The carpel is the female reproductive part of the plant. It is made of 3 important structures
○ Stigma - the sticky surface that catches pollen
○ Style - links stigma to ovary
○ Ovary - contains ovules which develop into seeds after fertilization

● The stamen is the male reproductive part of the plant. It is made of two important structures
○ Anther - contains pollen
○ Filament - supports the anther

● Pollination
○ Pollination is the transfer of the pollen (male sex cells) from the anther to the stigma
○ Once the pollen lands on the stigma, it is transferred to the ovule (female sex cell)
○ The fusion of the pollen and ovule leads to what we call fertilization

● There are 2 methods by which plants facilitate pollination

○ Insect pollination
○ Wind pollination

● Insect pollination
○ Insect pollination uses insects that land on the flower to carry pollen
○ As insects move around within the flower, some pollen gets caught onto the insect's body. The
insect therefore physically carries pollen and successful pollination occurs when it rubs its body
against a stigma of the same flower or a different flower

● Wind pollination
○ Wind pollination uses the wind to carry pollen
○ Pollen that gets carried by the wind may end up on the stigma of the same flower or a different
flower
 ● Self pollination
○ It is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of the same flower, or a
different flower of the same plant
● Advantages
○ Only one parent required so less reliance on pollinators
○ Less competition among offspring
● Disadvantages
○ Less variation (since genes are all from the same plant)
○ Less adaptable to changing environment and resistance to disease

● Cross pollination
○ It is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a
different plant of the same species
● Advantages
○ Increased variation
○ Greater adaptability to changing environment and more resistant to disease
● Disadvantages
○ More reliance on pollinators
________________________________________________________________________________________

● Fertilization
○ When a pollen grain lands on the stigma of the correct
species, a pollen tube will begin to grow
○ It grows through the style, enters through a small gap in
the ovary called the micropyle and eventually reaches the
ovule
○ The nucleus of the pollen then passes along the pollen
tube and fuses with the nucleus resulting in successful
fertilization
○ The zygote eventually develops into a seed. The seed
remains dormant until the conditions are right and
germination occurs

● Germination
○ Germination is the development of a plant from a seed or spore after a period of dormancy
○ The conditions that must be met for germination
■ Water - for activation of enzymes
■ Oxygen - for respiration for growth
■ Temperature - optimum temperature for enzymes
 Excretion
● Excretion is the removal of the waste substance of metabolic reactions (chemical reactions that take
place inside cells), toxic materials and substances in excess of requirement
● Egestion and excretion are different, egestion is the removal of undigested food in our body
● Carbon dioxide must be excreted as it dissolves in water easily to form an acidic solution which can
lower pH of cells
● This can reduce activity of enzymes in the body which are essential for controlling the rate of metabolic
reactions therefore too much carbon dioxide in the body is toxic
● Urea is also toxic to the body in higher concentrations and so must be excreted

● Liver
○ Many digested food molecules absorbed into the blood in the small intestine are carried to the
liver for assimilation
○ These include amino acids which are used to build proteins such as fibrinogen, a protein found
in blood plasma that is important in blood clotting
○ Excess amino acids absorbed in the blood that are not needed to make proteins cannot be
stored, so they are broken down in a process called deamination

● Functions of liver
○ Converts excess amino acids into urea
○ Synthesises plasma protein such as fibrinogen
○ Controls the amount of glucose in the blood with the help of insulin and glucagon
○ Makes bile
○ Breaks down old RBC’s
○ Stores vitamin A, B, D, E and K
○ Makes cholesterol which is needed for the repair cell membrane
● How urea is made
○ Protein in food is taken into the alimentary canal
○ The protein molecules are broken down to amino acids during digestion
○ The amino acids are absorbed into the blood and taken into the liver by hepatic portal vein
○ Amino acids that are not needed are deaminated into ammonia
○ The ammonia is converted into urea
○ The urea is excreted by the kidney

● Changes in urine
○ The colour and quantity of urine produced in the body can change quickly
○ Large quantities of urine are usually pale yellow in colour because it contains a lot of water and
so the urea is less concentrated
○ Small quantities of urine are usually darker yellow/orange in colour because it contains little
water and so the urea is more concentrated
○ There are various reasons why the concentration of urine will change
■ Water intake - the more fluids drunk, the more water will be removed from the body and
so a large quantity of pale yellow, dilute urine will be produced
■ Temperature - the higher the temperature the more water is lost in sweat and less will
appear in urine meaning a smaller quantity of dark yellow concentrated urine will be
produced
■ Exercise - the more exercise done, the more water is lost in sweat and so less appear in
urine meaning smaller quantity of dark yellow concentrated urine will be produced

● Kidney
○ The kidneys are located in the back of the abdomen and have 2 important function in the body
■ They regulate the water content of the blood
■ They excrete the toxic waste products of metabolism
○ Each kidney contains around a million tiny structures called
nephrons also known as kidney tubules or renal tubules
○ The nephrons start in the cortex of the kidney, loop down into
the medulla and back up to the cortex
○ The contents of the nephrons drain into the innermost part of
the kidney and the urine collects there before it flows into the
ureter to be carried to the bladder for storage

● Regions of the kidney

○ The kidney has 2 portions. The outer portion is known as the
cortex and the inner portion is called the medulla
○ On the inner curve of the kidney is a space called the renal
pelvis. Urine collects in the renal pelvis and exits the kidney
via the ureter. The ureter from each kidney drains into the
urinary bladder located in the pelvis. The bladder drains via
the urethra
● Nephrons
○ The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. There are about 1 million nephrons in each
kidney. The nephron has a long collecting tube that terminates in a hollow, cup-like structure
called a bowman's capsule. Inside the bowman’s capsule is a network is very fine arteries called
glomerulus
○ Each tubule of nephron begins in the cortex, loops down to medulla, back into the cortex and
○ then goes down to the pelvis. In the pelvis, the tubule.

● Ultrafiltration
○ Arterioles branch off the renal artery and lead to each nephron where they form a knot of
capillaries (the glomerulus) sitting inside the cup shaped Bowman’s capsule
○ The capillaries get narrower as they get further into the glomerulus which increases the
pressure on the blood moving through them
○ This eventually causes the smaller molecules being carried in the blood to be forced out of the
capillaries and into the Bowman’s capsule where they form what is known as filtrate
○ This process is known as ultrafiltration

● The substances forced out of the capillaries are glucose, water, urea and salts

● The glomerulus filters water, glucose, urea and salts from the blood

● Selective reabsorption
○ After the glomerular filtrate enters the Bowman’s capsule, glucose is the first substance to be
reabsorbed at the first convoluted tubule
○ This takes place by active transport
○ The nephron is adapted by this by having many mitochondria to provide energy for active
transport of glucose molecules
○ Reabsorption of glucose cannot take place anywhere else in the nephron as the gates that
facilitate the active transport of glucose are only found in the proximal convoluted tubule

● People with diabetes cannot control their blood glucose levels; they are often very high, meaning that
not all glucose filtered out can be reabsorbed into the blood. As there is nowhere for glucose to go it
ends up in the urine
● Reabsorption of water and salts
○ As the filtrate drips through the loop of Henle, necessary salts are reabsorbed back into the
blood by diffusion
○ As salts are reabsorbed back into the blood, water follows by osmosis
○ Water is also reabsorbed from the collecting duct in different amounts depending on how much
water the body needs at that time\

● Kidney failure
○ The kidneys might not work properly for several reasons including accidents or disease ]
○ Humans can survive with one functioning kidney but if both are damaged then there will quickly
be a build-up of toxic wastes in the body which will be fatal if not removed

● Both kidneys damaged

○ No treatment
■ Death as toxins such as urea build up and salt and water balance is upset
○ Kidney dialysis
■ Artificial kidney machines carry out function of kidney outside the body
○ Kidney transplant
■ One healthy kidney from a donor replaces both diseased kidneys

● Kidney dialysis
○ The usual treatment for someone with kidney failure is dialysis
○ This is an artificial method of filtering the blood to remove toxins and excess substances
○ Patients are connected to a dialysis machine which acts as an artificial kidney to remove most
of the urea and restore/maintain the water and salt balance of blood
○ Unfiltered blood is taken from an artery in the arm, pumped into the dialysis machine and then
returned to a vein in the arm
○ Inside the machine the blood and dialysis fluid are separated by a partially permeable
membrane, the blood flows in the opposite direction to dialysis fluid, allowing exchange to occur
between the 2 where a concentration gradient exists
○ Dialysis fluid contains
■ A glucose concentration similar to a normal level in blood
■ A concentration of salts similar to a normal level in blood
■ No urea

● Dialysis fluid
○ As the dialysis fluid has no urea in it, there is a large concentration gradient meaning that urea
diffuses across the partially permeable membrane form the blood to the dialysis fluid
○ As the dialysis fluid contains a glucose concentration equal to normal blood sugar level, this
prevents the net movement of glucose across the membrane as no concentration gradient
exists
○ As the dialysis fluid contains a salt concentration similar to the ideal blood concentration,
movement of salts across the membrane only occurs where there is an imbalance
○ The fluid in the machine is continually refreshed so that concentration gradients are maintained
between the dialysis fluids and the blood
○ Dialysis may take 3-4 hours to complete and needs to be done several times a week to prevent
damage to the body from the buildup of toxic substances
● Kidney transplants are a better long term solution to kidney failure than dialysis; however, there are
several disadvantages to kidney transplants, including:
○ Donors won’t have the same antigens on cell surfaces so there will be some immune response
to the new kidney
○ This has to be suppressed by taking immunosuppressant drugs for the rest of their lives –
these can have long term side effects and leave the patient vulnerable to infections
○ There are not enough donors to cope with demand

● However, if a healthy, close matched kidney is available, then the benefits of a transplant over dialysis
include:
○ the patient has much more freedom as they are not tied to having dialysis several times a
week in one place
○ their diets can be much less restrictive than they are when on dialysis
○ use of dialysis machines is very expensive and so this cost is removed
○ a kidney transplant is a long-term solution whereas dialysis will only work for a limited time
 Humans and Environment
Improvements in farming
● Use of technology
○ Agricultural machinery has replaced humans and improved efficiency due to the ability to
farm much larger areas of land
● Chemical fertilizers
○ Improve yields
○ Fertilisers increase the amount of nutrients in the soil for plants, meaning that they grow
larger and produce more fruit
● Insecticides and herbicides
○ These chemicals kill off unwanted insects and weed species, meaning that there is less
damage done to plants and fruit lost to insects (insecticides), as well as reducing
competition from other plant species (herbicides)
● Selective breeding
○ Animals and crop plants which produce a large yield are selectively bred to produce breeds
that reliably produce high yields

● Monoculture
○ When only one species of crop is grown at once. This is done to maximise efficiency and
simplicity
○ However, doing this has a negative impact on the environment. There is a loss of
biodiversity, this can harm food chains and reduce population of some species

● Intensive farming
○ More livestock in a smaller area
○ The temperatures are controlled
○ Fed with high energy foods and antibodies to prevent diseases
○ Increases yield of crops as well as animals
○ Therefore, production of milk, eggs and meat increases but it is unsustainable

● Food shortage
○ Caused by natural disasters, increasing population, poverty and unequal food distribution
○ Causes deforestation, more greenhouse gases, global warming, natural disasters and rising
sea levels

● Habitat destruction
○ Habitats are destroyed by humans to make space for other economic activities
Causes of destruction
● Clearing land for farming and housing
○ With an increasing population, there is a higher demand for food, this can only be done by
increasing land
● Natural resource extraction
○ Some resource extraction takes a lot of space for e.g mining
● Marine pollution
○ Oil spills and other waste pollutes oceans and kills sea life. Eutrophication can occur if
fertilizers enter waterways, this causes huge decrease in biodiversity

Effects of deforestation
● Extinction
○ Habitat destruction can lead to extinction of spaces that live there
● Soil erosion
○ Without roots to anchor the soil, it is carried away by wind and heavy rains. This
decreases fertility of these areas
● Flooding
○ Forests prevent flooding by slowing time that water takes to reach the ground they also
allow water to be absorbed into the soil.
● Increased CO2 in atmosphere
○ Trees absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. If there are fewer trees, less CO2 is absorbed
thus there is more in the atmosphere, increasing global warming.

● Plastics have a large negative impact on both land and water habitats due to their
non-biodegradability

● Eutrophication
○ Fertilisers are washed from fields into the waterways by rain. This brings an access of
nutrients in to the habitat
○ The nutrients cause plants to grow rapidly, and there is an algae bloom across the surface
○ Algae covers the surface of the water, preventing sunlight from passing through. This
means that plants cannot photosynthesise, less oxygen is released into the water. The
dead plants are broken down by decomposers, which use up the remaining oxygen from the
water

● Female contraceptive hormones

○ These hormones are excreted by body in urine, then make their way into water supply, as
they are not filtered out of sewage treatments. When they reach male aquatic organisms
such as fish and frogs, it causes feminisation, male organisms begin to produce eggs and
lose the ability to reproduce
 ● Acid rain
○ Sulfur dioxide is formed when fossil fuels are burnt
○ Burning of fossil fuels releases nitrogen oxides
○ SO2 and NO2 dissolve to form acid rain
○ Acid water in river adds toxic chemicals and causes food shortages, both of which reduce
fish life
○ Acid soils are more acidic by acid rain
○ It causes corrosion of infrastructure and damages tree bark and leaves

● To prevent acid rain, sulphur dioxide is removed from gases before they are released into the
atmosphere. Sulphur can also be removed from fossil fuels before burning
● Soil and water can be made less acidic by adding powdered limestone or slaked lime(alkali)

Sewage treatment
● Sewage is waste liquid coming from houses, industries etc.
● Sewage is harmful therefore it is treated to make it safe
● First, raw sewage is passed through screens. These trap large objects such as grit which may
have been washed off roads. The screened liquid is then left for a while in settlement tanks,
where any insoluble particles drift to the bottom and form a sediment. After these 2 steps,
there are 2 ways to treat the sewage
● Trickling filter
○ The liquid from the settlement tank is sprinkled over a trickling filter bed. It is made of
small stones and clinkers. Aerobic bacteria live on these stones which contain many aerobic
organisms, and these bacteria feed on various nutrients in the sewage. Protoctists then
feed on these bacteria, fungi feed on soluble nutrients. These microorganisms make up a
complex ecosystem in the trickling filter bed
○ This liquid is then trickled onto the surface of the stones through holes in a rotating pipe.
This makes sure that air gets mixed with the liquid. The liquid filters slowly, giving the
organisms enough time to feed.
○ By the time the water is in the bottom of the bed, it looks clear and smells clean and
contains no pathogenic organisms and can be safely allowed to run into a river or sea
● Activated sludge
○ The liquid from the settlement tank goes into an aeration tank, it also contains aerobic
microorganisms. Oxygen is provided by bubbling air through the tank. The microorganisms
make the sewage harmless.

● Sustainable development is defined as development which meets the needs of people today as well
as increasing population without damaging the environment
● Endangerment is harmful to a species as it greatly reduces the gene pool by decreasing number of
alleles available
● Prevention of extinction
○ Monitoring → species need to be monitored
○ Education → allows people to understand why a species is becoming extinct
○ Captive breeding → bred in captivity where their chance of survival is greater
○ Seed banks → seed from endangered plant species can be preserved so that plants may be
grown in the future

● Conservation is important to prevent the extinction of species and to protect the extinction of
species and to protect the environment
● Improve sustainability to make sure there are resourced still available in the future
 Drugs
● Any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body is known as a
drug

● Medicinal drugs
○ It's a type of drug which prevents or treats the symptoms of various diseases etc.

● Antibiotics
○ Antibiotics are substances which kill bacteria, but do not harm other living cells.
○ The first antibiotic to be discovered was penicillin. It killed bacteria by stopping them making
their cell walls
○ Many antibiotics kill bacteria by damaging their cell walls, viruses don't have cell walls so they
are unharmed by antibiotics

Misuse of drugs
● Heroin
○ Opium which contains a number of different chemicals such as morphine and codeine(used for
pain relief). Opium is also a raw material used to make heroin
○ Heroin is a powerful depressant, it means that it slows down the functions of the brain. It
reduces pain and slows down breathing. It also slows down the functions of the hypothalamus.
○ When a person takes heroin it produces an intense feeling of happiness, this causes people to
become rapidly addicted
○ Some people take heroin by injecting it into their veins. THis can be dangerous as the needles
used for injection are often not sterile and pathogens such as hepatitis virus can be introduced
to the body. Sharing of needles by heroin addicted have been a major cause for HIV
○ Endorphins help to reduce the sensations of pain, affect mood and reduce sensations of hunger
and thirst. When it enters the brain, heroin is metabolised to morphine. Morphine molecules fit
into endorphin receptors, that's why heroin can make people feel so good.’

● Alcohol
○ Alcohol is a depressant, that means even a small amount of alcohol can slow down the actions
of the brain and it slows down reaction time.
○ Alcohol can increase aggression in some people.
○ Large alcohol intakes can cause death. It’s a poison

● Alcoholism
○ Excessive alcohol drinking damages the brain, it can cause memory loss and confusion
○ One form of liver disease resulting from alcohol damage is cirrhosis where fibres grow in the
liver. It can be very fatal
○ Alcohol in the body fluids draws water out of cells by osmosis. When this happens to brain cells,
they shrink and may be irreversibly damaged.
○ Drinking alcohol causes a lot of dilute urine to be produced resulting in low levels of water in the
blood
● Anabolic steroids
○ Many steroid hormones stimulate metabolic reactions in body cells that build up large molecules
from small ones. These reactions are called anabolic reactions
○ Steroid hormones that stimulate these reactions are known as anabolic steroids
○ One type of reaction that is stimulated by anabolic reactions is the synthesis of proteins to be
made in muscles, this increases muscle mass by a lot which potentially helps in sports.

● Tobacco smoking
○ Nicotine affects the brain, it is a stimulant which means it makes a person feel more alert. It is
an addictive drug which smokers find hard to give up.
○ Nicotine damages the circulatory system making blood vessels narrower, this can increase
blood pressure leading to hypertension.
○ Tar contains many different chemicals, some of which are carcinogens, this can cause cancer.
○ The chemicals can affect behaviour of some cells in the respiratory passages and lungs causing
them to divide uncontrollably, the cells divide over and over again, forming a lump or tumor. If
the tumor is malignant, it is cancer. Cells will break and spread to the body causing more
tumors.
○ Carbon monoxide is poisonous gas which affects the blood, and combines with haemoglobin
inside the red blood cells. This means that less oxygen can be carried. The body cells are
therefore deprived of oxygen.
○ The delicate walls of the alveoli tend to break down, therefore there is less surface area across
which gas exchange can take place, the person is said to have emphysema. They find it difficult
to get enough oxygen into their blood.
 Pathogens and immunity
● A microorganisms is a tiny organism that can only be seen with a microscope
● A pathogen is a microorganism that causes disease.

Group to which pathogen belongs Examples of diseases which they cause

Viruses Influenza. Common cold, poliomyelitis, AIDS

Bacteria Cholera, syphilis, whooping cough, tuberculosis

tetanus

Protoctists Malaria, amoebic dysentery

Fungi Athlete’s foot, ringworm

● Diseases that are caused by pathogens can usually be passed from one person to another. They are
called transmissible diseases

How pathogens enter the body

● Direct contact
○ The passing of a pathogen to an uninfected person is called transmission
○ The entry of the pathogen into the body is known as infection. The person which pathogen lives
and breeds is said to be a host
○ Viruses can be transmitted when an infected persons blood comes into contact with another
person's blood
○ The fungus that causes skin infection can be shared by sharing the came towel with an infected
person.

● Indirect transmission
○ Through the respiratory passage
■ Cold and influenza viruses are carried in the air in tiny droplets of moisture. Every time
someone with these illnesses speaks or coughs, millions of viruses are propelled into the
air.
■ If you breathe these droplets you may be infected as well. You can also pick up viruses if
you touch a surface on which they are present and put your hands on your face.
○ In food or water
■ Bacteria such as Salmonella can enter your alimentary canal with the food that you eat.
If you eat a large number of these bacteria, you may get food poisoning
■ Fresh foods such as fruit and vegetables should be washed in clean water before you
eat them. Cooking usually destroys bacteria so eating recently cooked food is generally
safe.
■ Many pathogens including viruses that cause poliomyelitis and the bacterium that
causes cholera are transmitted in water. If you swim i n water that contains these
pathogens or drink water containing them you run the risk of catching these diseases.
○ By vectors
■ A vector is an organism that carries a pathogen from one host to another. Sogs, skunks,
raccoons and bats are vectors for rabies protoctista pathogen Plasmodium in their saliva
Body defences
● Mechanical barriers
○ Mechanical barriers act as a physical obstruction in order to prevent pathogens from entering
our body. For example
■ Skin
■ Nose hairs

● Chemical barriers
○ Chemical barriers are chemical substances in the body which help to trap or destroy pathogens.
For example
■ Mucus
● Traps bacteria that enters the respiratory system via air. The mucus is then beat
upwards by the cilia and pushed up to the mouth
■ Stomach acid
● The acidity kills pathogens that enter our digestive system via the food we eat.

● Food hygiene
○ Keep your own bacteria and viruses away from food. Always wash your hands before touching
or eating food.
○ Keep animals away from food. Animals are more likely to have harmful bacteria on them. Some
particularly dangerous things such as house flies have harmful bacteria on their feet. Rats or
mice often carry pathogens. Covering food to keep flies and other animals is always a good idea
○ Do not keep foods at room temperature for long periods of time. Bacteria reproduction and
temperature are directly proportional therefore higher the temperature, higher reproduction of
the bacteria therefore it should be kept in the fridge after a short period of time
○ Keep raw meat away from other foods. Raw meat often contains bacteria. If the bacteria get into
other foods that might be eaten raw, then they might breed there. Therefore foods such as
salads and vegetables that are to be eaten raw should be washed in clear water before eating.

● Waste disposal
○ All rubbish from countries is usually dumped into a landsite, all kinds of rubbish are just piled up.
Animals such as houseflies, rats and stray dogs forage for food in the rubbish
○ Bacteria breed in the waste food. Dangerous chemicals seep out of the rubbish polluting the
ground and waterways.
○ Some of the rubbish in the landfill site is rotted by decomposers, especially bacteria. This
produces a gas called methane which can cause explosions if it's allowed to build up.
○ Placing pipes in the rubbish can allow the methane to escape harmlessly into the air or it can be
collected as fuel

● Sewage treatment
○ Sewage is waste liquid that has come from houses , industry and other parts of villages.
Sewage is mostly water, but also contains many other substances, these include urine and
faeces, toilet paper, detergents, oil and many other chemicals.
○ Raw sewage contains many bacteria and other microorganisms, some of which are likely to be
pathogens especially if it gets into their mouths.
○ Poliomyelitis and cholera are just 2 of the serious diseases that can be transmitted through
water polluted with raw sewage.
The immune system
● There is one type of white blood cell called lymphocytes which produce chemicals called antibodies.
These chemicals help to destroy pathogens
● Antibodies
○ There are thousands of different kinds of
lymphocytes. Each kind is able to produce a
different sort of antibody
○ An antibody is a protein molecule with a
particular shape. Like an enzyme molecule, its
shape is just right to fit into another molecule.
○ To destroy a particular pathogen, antibody
molecules must be made which are just the right
shape to fit into molecules on the outside of the
pathogen. These pathogen molecules are called
antigens.
○ When antibody molecules lock onto the
pathogen, they kill the pathogen. One way is
simple to alert phagocytes to the presence of
pathogens, so that they come and destroy them.
Another way is that the antibodies may start off a
series of reactions in the blood which produce
enzymes to digest the pathogens.
○ Most of the time, most of the lymphocytes do not
produce antibodies. It would be a waste of
energy and materials if they did. Instead, each lymphocyte waits for a signal that is a pathogen
which can be destroyed by its particular antibody.
○ If the pathogen enters the body, it's likely to meet a large number of lymphocytes. The
lymphocyte will start to divide rapidly by mitosis, making a clone of lymphocytes just like itself.
These lymphocytes that secrete their antibody, destroying the pathogen

● Memory cells
○ When a lymphocyte clones itself, not all of the cells
make antibodies. Some of them simply remain in the
blood and other parts of the body, these are call
○ If the same kind of pathogen gets into the body again,
these memory cells will be ready and waiting for
them. They will kill the pathogens before they have
time to produce a larger population and do any harm.
The person has become immune to that type of
pathogen.

● Vaccination
○ A vaccine contains weakened or dead viruses or
bacteria that normally cause diseases. These
pathogens have the same antigens as the normal
ones but they are not able to cause fatal diseases
 ○ When the pathogens are introduced into the body, they are recognised by the lymphocytes that
can make memory cells, which give long term immunity.

● Active immunity
○ Defence against a pathogen by antibody production in the body. A person has active immunity
to a disease if they have made their own antibodies and memory cells that protect against it
○ You can develop active immunity by
■ Having the disease and getting over it
■ Being vaccinated with weakened pathogens
○ Active immunity can be very long-lasting.

● Passive immunity
○ Short-term defence against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another individual such as
from mother to infant.
○ Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding. Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother
which are passed on to her baby. This is useful as a young baby’s immune system is not well
developed, and so the mother’s antibodies protect it against any diseases to which she is
immune.
○ Another way is to be injected with antibodies that have been made by another organism
○ Passive immunity only lasts for a short time as the antibodies eventually break down. No
lymphocytes have been stimulated to make clones of themselves so no production of memory
cells.

● Auto-immune diseases
○ Lymphocytes behave as though some of our own cells are foreign and react to them as they
would to an invasion of pathogens
○ Diseases that result from this kind of malfunction of the immune system are called auto-imune
diseases. For example Type 1 diabetes

● Type 1 diabetes
○ One of the hormones produced by pancreas with insulin, this hormone is made when blood
glucose concentration rises above normal, it causes the concentration to fall
○ Insulin is made by a particular type of cell in the pancreas called beta cells
○ In some people, the cells of the immune system attack the beta cells and destroy them. The
loss of beta cells means that insulin is no longer produced so blood glucose concentration is not
controlled.
○ This results in diabetes in which blood glucose levels fluctuate widely.
○ Most people with type 1 diabetes take insulin at regular intervals as well as taking great care
over what they eat.