CONCRETE

2.1 Introduction
Concrete is the oldest and common construction materials because its low cost,
availability, long durability, and ability to sustain extreme weather environments. It is a
composite material from several readily available constituents like aggregates, sand, cement,
water. That can easily be mixed to meet a variety of special needs. In the other hand, concrete is
a brittle material that has a high compressive strength with low tensile strength. Reinforcement
of concrete is required to allow it to handle tensile stresses. Meanwhile, reinforcement is usually
done by using steel. (Hall, W. and Koren, L. 2017)
In addition to its strength, concrete must also have the properties of workability and
durability. Workability can be defined as the ease with which a given set of materials can be
mixed into concrete and subsequently handled, transported, and placed with a minimal loss of
homogeneity. The degree of workability required for proper placement and consolidation of
concrete. Separation of coarse aggregate from the mortar should be minimized by controlling the
lateral movement of concrete during operations. The concrete should be placed in horizontal
layers, and each layer should be thoroughly vibrated. All concrete repairs must be adequately
moist-cured to by effective. The bond strength of new concrete develops much more slowly, and
the tendency to shrink and loosen is reduced by a long moist-curing period. (Chana, P. 1989)

Figure 2.1 – Failure in substrate (Brochure of German Instruments Co.)

2.2 Determination of bond strength of concrete

2.2.1 Concrete properties

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength but significantly lower tensile
strength . The compressive strength is typically controlled with the ratio of water to cement when
forming the concrete, and tensile. Strength is increased by additives, typically steel, to create
reinforced concrete. (Neville, A. M., 2011)
2.2.1.1 Hardened concrete

One of the main fields of research in civil engineering is to improve durability of

concrete structures. With an average grade of D+, the study highlights the importance of
improving durability of concrete in infrastructure. The infrastructure conditions in some
categories are displayed in the table below:

Figure 2.2.1.1 – Hardened concrete.

Infrastructure category Letter grade

Aviation D
Bridges C+
Dams D+
Energy D+
Schools D
Roads D

2.2.1.2 Compressive strength of concrete

One of the most common methods to evaluate concrete performance is by measuring the
compressive strength of hardened concrete (𝑓𝑐′) at an age of 28 days. This test can be done by
breaking a concrete specimen in a compression-testing machine. The specimens can be a
standard cube specimen of 150 ×150 × 150 mm3 or a standard cylindrical concrete specimen of
150 mm × 300 mm. (Neville, A. M., 2011)

Figure 2.2.1.2 – Compressive strength of concrete.

2.2.1.3 Reinforcement

Reinforced concrete is the most common form of concrete. Concrete can withstand high
compressive stresses, and its ability to withstand tensile stresses may small. Therefore, tensile
reinforcement is required. Reinforcement may often steel, rebar, mesh, spiral, bars and other
forms. Steel bars or steel wires are used to reinforce concrete to increase its ability to handle
tensile stresses. Generally, concrete carries the compressive and shear loads, and the reinforcing
steel carries the tensile load. Inspection of existing concrete structures can be non-destructive if it
carried out with equipment such as a Schmidt hammer, which is sometimes used to estimate
relative concrete strengths in the field. (Neville, A. M., 2011)

Figure 2.2.1.3 – Reinforcement

2.2.1.4 Durability of concrete

Durability of concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack,
abrasion or any other process of deterioration. Durable concrete will retain its original form,
quality and serviceability when exposed to environment. Repair and rehabilitation of deteriorated
concrete is an art as well as a science.
Developing a proper repair strategy to address concrete problem requires an
understanding of the cause of the problem. Understanding the cause allows for a repair that
addresses both cause and effect. In fact, the quality of a structure in the sense of integrity and
potential durability is almost totally dependent on the quality of the construction. (Neville, A.
M., 2011)

2.2.2 Amount of confinement around the steel bar and concrete

The main influence of bond strength between steel reinforcing bars and concrete includes
concrete cover, development, diameter of reinforcing bar, concrete compressive strength and
amount of ordinary reinforcements that confined the concrete (Darwin 2000). Concrete
confinement became important by depending frequency of high-strength concrete. Durability of
bond strength directly related to increase in bond strength. In this situation, concrete
reinforcement in area of seismic risk reduces bond deterioration under loading that enhance
energy absorption, dissipation capabilities. Meanwhile, the situation tends to improve the chance
of structural components to survive natural disasters like flood, earthquake and etc. In another
way, reinforcing bars based on local bond strength and slip behavior (Karam 2002). The impact
of ordinary reinforcement on the steel bar and that provides a comparative evaluation. This
project represents the results of determination on bond strength concrete substrate and repair
materials.

2.2.3 Concrete components

Concrete is a heterogeneous mixture that consists of aggregate, cement, water and

additives. Aggregates can be sand or crushed rock or recycled concrete rubbles, or other
materials. The purpose of cement is to bind the concrete. Water makes the higher the concrete
workability, as similar as the concrete thinner. When water is added to concrete, its results
hydration reaction, and hardening subsequently. Many additives are used to increase concrete
workability. They are added in ratios that do not exceed 2% of cement content. (Muhammad, S.
A.2012)

2.2.4 Concrete problems

Figure 2.2.3 – Concrete components

Causes of concrete problems can be classified as;

i. Defects: design, materials, construction
ii. Damage: overload, fire, impact, chemical spill
iii. Deterioration: metal corrosion, erosion, thaw, sulfate attacks

The damage may have an immediate effect on the structural integrity, such as in the case of
voids in walls of which there may be no visible evidence concealed defects. Poor construction
usually leads to reduce durability which will manifests itself. The working life of the structure
may be required as a result of deterioration of materials, usually steel subject to corrosion attack
or concrete subject to aggressive chemicals.

2.2.5 Concrete repair process

The concrete repair process involves cause relationship, concrete evaluation and repair
strategy. The steps as illustrated seeing an effect, determining the cause, deciding whether the
problem needs to be repaired, conducting some form of condition survey to quantify problems,
dealing with repair analysis and engineering issues in the repair, determine repair strategies that
includes methods, techniques and repair materials, and accomplishing the repair. (Laskar, S. M
2018)

In the repair strategy, methods and material can be classified into;

i. Surface repair – removal and replacement of deteriorated concrete
ii. Strengthening – strengthen or enhance capacity of a structural member
iii. Stabilization – halting unwanted condition like cracking or settlement
iv. Water-proofing – stops fluid from entering or exiting concrete structure
v. Protection – protect concrete from aggressive environment

2.2.6 Repair

Concrete repair refers to bring the structure of its original capacity. It can be classified as
cosmetic-repairs or rehabilitation type repairs. The following are commonly used methods for
repairs. (Laskar, S. M 2018)

i. Dry – Pack Method

ii. Preplaced Aggregate Method
iii. Shot Crete
iv. Epoxy Mortar Injection
v. Cement Mortar Injection
vi. Crack Sealing and Filling
vii. Surface Protection by Overlays
viii. Prestressing