Proceedings of GT2007

ASME Turbo Expo 2007: Power for Land, Sea and Air
May 14-17, 2007, Montreal, Canada

GT2007-27620

ABOUT SIMPLIFICATIONS IN GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS

Joachim Kurzke
Gas Turbine Performance Simulation Software
85221 Dachau, Max Feldbauer Weg 5, Germany
[email protected]
www.gasturb.de

ABSTRACT within a narrow range of operating conditions; the accuracy of

Any gas turbine performance simulation tool employs the results is not sufficient for real world applications.
simplifications, some more, some less. It depends on the intent Of course also in programs for industrial use the reality is
of the simulation which simplifications are appropriate. For modeled with many compromises. Some simplifications which
beginners, many are necessary for teaching how the gas turbine have not so obvious consequences are discussed. For example,
works from principle. For practical applications - because of the there is an influence of the speed-flow characteristics in the
accuracy requirements - many simplifications introduced in booster map on its operating line if an often used type of fan
textbooks are not appropriate. performance representation is employed. Another example is
This paper comments on the simplifications that are that an oversimplified description of what happens in the
typically made. Simplified gas property models are quite compressor interduct can lead to wrong conclusions when the
acceptable for ideal cycle analysis. For the examination of real effects of inlet flow distortion on the stability of compressors in
cycles, however, especially the model of the burner should be series are sought.
better than those described in most textbooks. This is because
these models yield the best cycle efficiency at stoichiometric INTRODUCTION
fuel-air-ratio while a realistic burner model leads to the It is astonishing how accurate modern gas turbine
conclusion that the best thermal efficiency happens to be at performance codes as used in industry can describe the behavior
significantly lower fuel-air-ratios respectively temperatures. of gas turbine engines over their whole operating range. These
For off-design simulations many simplifications have the codes are quite complex and take into account numerous
aim to avoid iterative solutions or restricting the algorithms to details. For many applications not all of the sophisticated
one-dimensional iterations. If more than one iteration variable algorithms are applied, mostly because of lack of input data that
shows up – which is the case with multi-spool engine are required for using these correlations.
simulations - then the problem is solved with fitting several one- It is desirable to employ the simplest model which can
dimensional iterations into each other. This methodology is solve a given simulation task. Unnecessary complexity needs
described in most textbooks, but it is nearly never used in more effort for getting the required input data and introduces
industry because the logic is more complex than necessary and avoidable sources of error. The appropriate level of detail
difficult to adapt to special needs. The seeming simplification is depends besides on the accuracy requirements for the
actually a complication when applied to real world problems. simulation on the audience: if a model is created for teaching,
Universities should teach as a standard the multidimensional then the understandability of what happens is the first priority.
Newton Raphson iteration technique which allows writing gas A well simplified model has the minimum amount of detail
turbine cycle codes with nearly no restriction to the methods of but still produces the right trends. The magnitude of a trend is
formulating the laws of physics. sometimes not so important, but the sign of the trend should be
The consequence of simplified mathematics is often an off- correct in any case.
design simulation which does not employ compressor and In mathematical models for student’s exercises
turbine maps. Such a methodology yields accurate values for simplifications are sometimes required to make calculations
thermal efficiency respectively specific fuel consumption only without a dedicated computer program feasible. Iterative
solutions are usually limited to one variable in such a case.

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 For students it can be attractive to solve a gas turbine Gas Properties
simulation problem graphically. Pictures are always more easy The most simple cycle model employs one single value for
to remember than a sequence of mathematical equations or a the isentropic exponent of the working fluid. With this approach
table with numerical results. However, graphical methods have the thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle can be expressed as a
been replaced in real world applications by computer programs function of component efficiencies, pressure and temperature
a long time ago. ratios only. However, in reality the specific heat of the gases in
Sometimes simplifications introduced for teaching the turbine area is approximately 20% higher than in the
purposes create problems which do not exist in professional gas compressor area and this affects the cycle calculation
turbine performance simulation programs. This is the case with significantly.
unnecessary iterations while dealing with temperature The formulae are getting more complex if two different
dependent gas properties. Another example is the use of nested isentropic exponents for the cold (γ =1.4) and the hot section
loops for solving multi-dimensional iteration problems instead (γ=1.3) are used. Enhancing the accuracy further requires the
of employing the Newton-Raphson method. use of temperature dependent gas properties.
The discussion begins with some simplifications that are The well known formula for the end temperature of an
typically employed when teaching gas turbine fundamentals. It isentropic compression is
continues with various simplifications applied to off-design 1
simulation problems as encounterted by (post) graduate students P2 
and performance engineers in industry. Finally some comments T 2is T1 * 
P 

about preliminary engine design are addressed to those who 1 
work in advanced projects study groups. This equation is strictly valid for constant isentropic
exponent γonly. N evertheless the formula is often used with γ
as a function of the mean temperature (T2is +T1 )/2. The
NOMENCLATURE evaluation of the simple formula needs iteration with a result
Cp specific heat which is only an approximation.
E iteration error The rigorous expression for an isentropic process with
far fuel-air-ratio temperature dependent gas properties employs the entropy
FHV fuel heating value function Ф which is defined as
P total pressure T
c p dT
PW power (T ) 
R gas constant T ref
R T
SOT stator outlet temperature (T41 ) The change of the entropy function in an isentropic process
T total temperature is equal to the logarithm of the pressure ratio:
V iteration variable
2 1 ln(P2 / P1 )
VGV variable guide vane
W mass flow Ф(T) can be tabulated and reading this table yields the end
γ isentropic exponent temperature of the process without iteration. This is a case in
η efficiency which a seeming simplification – the use of the formula with
Ф entropy function γmean - requires more computational effort than the use of the

Indices proper correlation.

C compressor For teaching principles the equations with isentropic
T turbine exponent or specific heat are quite useful, for practical
f fuel applications they are not the standard. The entropy function
SD shaft delivered should be made more popular when teaching students gas
T turbine turbine theory.
2 engine inlet
3 compressor exit Ideal Cycle and Real Cycles
4 burner exit Ideal cycle analysis aims at the basic differences between
fundamentally different cycles as for example with and without
BASIC THERMODYNAMICS heat exchanger. Crude simplifications are appropriate for this
All gas turbine cycle calculations use a quite helpful sort of examinations, and consequently the numerical results of
such analyses have little to do with reality. Studies dealing with
simplification: instead of the static temperature and pressure of
the gas the total (stagnation) temperatures and pressures are real cycles must be much more accurate, otherwise they are of
considered only. For the validity of the thermodynamic results it little use.
is not necessary to know the flow areas and velocities up- and The thermal efficiency of the ideal Joule cycle depends
downstream of the components, except for the nozzle. primarily on the pressure ratio:

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 
1  The temperature increase in the combustion chamber
P3 
th 1 
P 
is proportional to the fuel-to-air ratio far=Wf/Wair.
2   Unlimited temperature increase is feasible
As soon as losses are introduced and temperature
Injected Fuel-Air-Ratio = 0 ... 0,08
dependent gas properties are considered, the equation for Inlet Temperature = 400 ... 800
thermal efficiency becomes much more complex: 2250
JP-4

V
FH
2000
 T 
1
  c 
1


to
T T 4  P2 T  C P3 c
 

al
* RT * * 1       1 C
1750
  * * R *  

n
T 1   T
C 1 C  

tio
T2 P3  P2 

or
   

Stoichiometric Fuel-Air-Ratio
    1500

op
Temp eratu re Rise
th 

Pr
T 4 T3   C T 

se
  *  * RC  * R 2 1250
T  T 1 T 

Ri
 2 T2  C 1 

e
ur
1000

t
ra
pe
m
750
Now the cycle efficiency is not only a function of the

Te
compressor pressure ratio P3/P 2, but depends also on the 500

temperature ratio T4/T 2. Evaluating this formula with ηC = 250

ηT=0.9 and temperature dependent gas properties yields the
0
maximum thermal efficiency at the stoichiometric temperature 0 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08
Injected Fuel-Air-Ratio
and at extremely high pressure ratios, see figure 1.
Fig. 2 : Temperature Rise due to Combustion of JP4
160

140
0.6 9 In reality, the heat increase due to combustion of
0 .68 hydrocarbons in air is not proportional to the fuel-air-ratio as
0 .6
7
120 can be seen from fig. 2 which was calculated with the NASA
0 .66
Chemical Equilibrium Program CEP. T he slope δΔT/δ far
100 0 .65
0.6
4 decreases with increasing fuel-air-ratio and becomes 0 at
0.63
stoichiometric conditions.
Pressure Rati o

80
0.6 2
0.6 1
0.6
ic

60 0 .59
160
etr

0.5 8
io m

0.56 0 .57
0 .5
5
40 0. 54 140
ic h

0.5 2 0.5 3
0.4 0. 5 0 .51
s to

9
0.47 0 .48
20 0.4 3 0.4 4
0.4 6
0.45 120

0 100
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Burner Exit Temperature [K] 0.53
Pressure Ratio

80
0.5 2
Fig. 1: Efficiency of the Joule Cycle Calculated with 0. 51

ic
.3 21 0.3

the Equation
60
3

0.5

etr
40 .3
0.3 00 .3

0. 49
i om
0.4 8
40 0.4 7
0.4 6
A more rigouros formulation of the formula for the thermal 0 .45
ich

0 .44
0 .4 0.43
2
efficiency employs polytropic (instead of isentropic) efficiency.
sto

20 0.4 1 0.4
0 .39
0.38
0.3 7
0.36 0.35

This approach affects the result primarily in the region of low

0
pressure ratios; the location of the maximum efficiency remains 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Burner Exit Temperature [K]
in the top right corner of the figure.
Note that in the equation only temperatures and pressures Fig. 3: Thermal Efficiency calculated with a Cycle
are considered and the amount of fuel needed for the Code.
temperature increase does not show up.
The fuel flow per unit of air required for the temperature The first deficit of the above equation may be overcome by
increase can be calculated from using an adjusted number for combustion efficiency. However,
this would be in contradiction to the fact, that modern
Wf combustion chambers have extremely high efficiencies;
*C * FHV C p * (T4 T3 ) otherwise the emission targets would not be met. Using low
Wair efficiency numbers in calculations is misleading because this
indicates a big improvement potential which in reality does not
There are two simplifications in this equation: exist.

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 For realistic calculations there is no other way than using component maps is missing. Remember that at high corrected
an adequate description of the combustion process. Thermal spool speeds compressor efficiency can drop up to 10% below
efficiency should be defined as its design value and consequently the simulation results do not
PWSD line up with reality in cases with low engine inlet temperature
th  and high spool speed.
W f * FHV The assumption of choked turbines and nozzles restricts the
The important difference between this definition and the validity of the simulation to the upper power range and to
one described above is in the denominator: instead of the burner engines with low to medium bypass ratio. Note that in modern
temperature difference T4-T3, multiplied by the mean specific very high bypass engines the bypass nozzle pressure ratio is
heat, here the product of fuel flow WF and fuel heating value under nearly all circumstances subcritical and thus the bypass
FHV is used. This is reasonable because in the real world one nozzle – which creates around 90% of the thrust - is nearly
has to pay for fuel, not for a temperature difference as implied never choked.
with the simple definition of thermal efficiency. Of course the simplified methods have their merits for
If the combustion process is described properly as shown in teaching the principles of the off-design behavior of gas
fig. 2, and the realistic definition of thermal efficiency is turbines. However, they are not applicable to real world
employed, then an optimum shows up at temperatures well problems because they are by far not accurate engough.
below the stoichiometric limit, see figure 3. Note that turbine Precise full-range off-design performance calculations are
cooling was not simulated in this calculation; otherwise the not feasible without component maps. That has the
comparison with fig. 1 would be incorrect. If cooling is consequence, that in typical real world off-design simulations
considered, then the optimum shifts to both lower pressure ratio between 3 and 15 iteration variables will show up. When doing
and lower temperature. model based test analysis and for special simulation tasks the
The first equation is an over-simplistic description of number of variables can be even higher. Mathematical
thermal efficiency and gives the wrong message that algorithms for solving problems with many variables are the key
stoichiometric burning is the ultimate goal for future gas to accurate off-design performance simulations.
turbines. In reality the best thermal efficiency is achieved at
temperatures well below the stoichiometric value. Therefore the Mathematics
certainly useful equation should always be commented with the Problems with more than one iteration variable can be
remark that the real heat addition process as shown in fig. 3 solved with nesting iteration loops in a clever way. Such a
affects the result. This is as important as considering methodology yields the result for one single off-design
compression and expansion efficiencies as the main sources of simulation problem only. As soon as the given quantity is
losses. replaced by another one, or if additional conditions must be
considered, the algorithm needs to be expanded or even be
SIMULATION OF THE OFF-DESIGN BEHAVIOR rewritten. Using the nested loop technique leads to complex
Most cycle design calculations are mathematically quite logical problems and has been abandoned in industry several
simple: the relevant equations can be evaluated without decades ago.
iteration. Cycles with heat exchangers and turbofans with mixer The method of choice for gas turbine performance
are an exception: they need the iteration of one variable. The simulations is the Newton Raphson algorithm which can be
result of a cycle design calculation is the geometry of the engine considered as a multi-dimensional Regula Falsi method. The
in terms of duct and nozzle areas as well as compressor and iteration commences with estimates for each of the iteration
turbine flow capacities. variables. Going through the mathematical model of the engine
In off-design simulations the geometry of the engine is yields a set of inconsistencies between the governing equations,
given, the operating conditions (ambient temperature and the iteration errors. The number of errors is equal to the
pressure, flight Mach number, power setting, bleed, power off- number of iteration variables.
take, nozzle area settings etc.) are changing. Mathematically With two variables and errors the algorithm works as
this yields a complex non-linear problem which can only be follows: First the variable V1 is changed by the small amount of
solved iteratively. The aim of various procedures and V1 . Both errors E1 and E 2 will change and thus the influence
algorithms for solving this problem, which are described in coefficients E1/V1 and E2 /V1 are found. Then V1 is reset to
re’nowned textbooks (for example references 1 to 4), is to its original value and the second variable V2 is changed by V2.
restrict the number of iteration variables to one or two or to Again both errors will change;  E1 /V2 and E2/V2 are
avoid iteration completely. This is achieved by assuming calculated.
constant component efficiencies as well as choked turbines and If the influence coefficients Ei/Vj are constant, then one
nozzles. can immediately calculate which ΔVi are required to make the
While these assumptions simplify the mathematical errors Ej equal to zero:
problem, they lead at the same time to a significant loss of
accuracy because the efficiency variation described with

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 E1 E students certainly get some insight into how the compressors
V1  1 V 2 E1 and turbines collaborate; however, the methodologies applied
V1 V2 are not relevant for real world applications.
E2 E
V1  2 V2 E2 Turbomachinery
V1 V2 True compressor and turbine maps – which are the key to
The matrix of the influence coefficients is called the Jacobi accurate off-design simulations - are difficult to get. If they are
matrix. The system of linear equations is solved by means of the not available, usually maps from similar machines are scaled in
Gauss algorithm. such a way that they fit to a cycle reference point. How maps
can be adapted to measured values from an engine test is
described in Ref. 7.
Estimate Ref. 3 employs for off-design simulations a system of
V1 V2 V3 Vi equations that does not need component maps. Compressor and
turbine efficiencies are assumed to be constant and equal to the
Vi,new =Vi,old+ΔVi design point value. The accuracy of such a simulation can be
Description of good only in the neighborhood of the design point because in
Evaluate
Physics
Jacobi
reality compressor and turbine efficiency vary along the
Matrix operating lines by several percent.

E1 E2 E3 Ei
Effect of humidity
Check Most often N/T and W*T/P are selected as compressor
map parameters. These parameters are simplified expressions of
all no the circumferential and the axial flow Mach numbers. The full
Ei =0? expressions contain additional terms with isentropic exponent,
gas constant and flow area. This should be remembered when
yes the effect of gaseous humidity, inlet fogging, water and steam
injection on the behavior of a gas turbine is to be simulated
Fig. 4: Newton-Raphson Algorithm because the water-air-ratio affects significantly the gas constant
R and - to a minor extent the isentropic exponent γ .
In reality, the influence coefficients are not constant and From principle it is not possible to take into account the
applying the calculated changes ΔV 1 and ΔV2 will not effect of γon the compressor performance map exactly because
immediately lead to E1=0 and E2=0. However, repeated the isentropic exponent is a similarity parameter. Since gaseous
application of the algorithm yields quickly the final solution. humidity affects the isentropic exponent not very much its effect
If the Newton Raphson iteration algorithm is employed on turbomachinery performance can be neglected without much
then physics and mathematics can be separated. The description consequences.
of physics can be formulated without complex long formulae In contrary to the isentropic exponent, the gas constant is
that are the result of theories with simplifications (see Ref. 1 not a similarity parameter.Their effect can be taken into account
and Ref. 3, for example). Reading tables with empirical data exactly by replacing the map parameters N/T and W*T/P by
can be combined with the mass flow continuity conditions, N/(R*T) and W*(R*T)/P. This simple modification yields a
power and spool speed balances, mixing of cooling air streams good approximation of what happens with gas turbine
with the main gas stream and with any empirical formula performance if gaseous water is contained in the working fluid.
describing a special phenomenon. Each time the value for a
variable is missing, it is declared as an iteration variable. Fan map representation
Analogously, each time a contradiction between the results from In low bypass turbofan engines both the fan efficiency and
any two correlations is found, an iteration error is declared. the fan pressure ratio can be quite different for the core and the
Modifying the physical description of the gas turbine to be bypass stream due to the different flow Mach number levels.
simulated does not affect the logic of the calculation sequence. High bypass engines have often several booster stages
This is an advantage of the Newton-Raphson algorithm over the following a single stage fan; in this case the pressure ratio of the
technique of nesting loops which can not be underestimated. core stream will be significantly higher than in the bypass
Unfortunately the Newton-Raphson algorithm is rarely stream.
mentioned in textbooks, except in Ref. 5 and Ref. 6, for For modeling the fan and booster performance there are
example. Young engineers are often taught methodologies that several alternatives. The most rigorous methodology requires a
are more complex than necessary because of the attempt to set of maps for both the core and the bypass stream with bypass
simplify the mathematics needed for solving the equations. The ratio as parameter. Since so many maps are generally not

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 available, the influence of the bypass ratio on the core and For simulating intended or unintended off-schedule
bypass maps is ignored. Two simplified versions of the fan operation (failure cases) one needs the full set of maps.
performance description are in use: However, these maps are often not available. A simplified
1. With low bypass ratio fans a so-called split map is methodology is required which catches approximately the
appropriate. It consists of two maps which employ effects of repositioning VGVs.
both the total corrected flow as mass flow parameter,
but different pressure ratios and efficiencies.
2. With high bypass ratios, using two independent maps
is popular; one map is for the booster and one for the
outer part of the fan.
Of course further simplifications with corresponding loss of
system simulation accuracy are feasible. For example, only one
map may be used which is scaled with different constant factors
for the core and the bypass stream. An even simpler
methodology makes no difference in pressure ratio and
efficiency between both streams.
Some simplifications have side effects that are not seen at a
first glance. The fan performance model with two seemingly
independent maps is such a case. Usually, replacing a map by an
alternative map with a different speed – flow correlation has
nearly no effect on the operating line and the surge margin. Fig. 6: Effect of VGV Position on Flow (Ref. 9)
Here however, replacing the booster map with a map that has a
different speed-flow correlation can yield a significant shift of
the booster operating line and affect the booster surge margin
see fig. 5. This happens in high bypass engines in which the fan
speed is controlled by the mass flow in the bypass stream.
6

5
B ooster Pr ess ur e Ratio

4 92
Operating Line
90

with Original Map 0.

0.

91
0.
with Re-Labeled Speed Lines
1.1 44
1.1 12

3
1 .02 8
1 .02 2
1.0 00
1.0 00

5
0 .8
0
0 .8
0.9 52
0.9 63

0
2 0 .7
0.8 80
0.9 06
0 .79 1
0 .83 7

0
0 .6

Fig. 7: Effect of VGV Position on Efficiency (Ref. 9)

0.7 3 1

0.40
0 .66

1
0.6 528

0.5
0.

0.3 00
32

59
One quite useful option is to employ three map scaling
0 factors which are a function of ΔVGV relative to the scheduled
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Corrected Flow W21RStd [kg/s] VGV position of the map:
14.11.2004 GasTurb 11

Fig. 5: Operating Line Shift Due to Re-Labeling the

W [%]
Booster Map Speed (ref.7) aVGV 
VGV [ ]
(1)[%]
Variable Compressor Guide Vanes bVGV 
As soon as the position of variable guide vanes is changed, VGV []
also the map of the compressor changes its shape. For a full [%]
description of the compressor performance a set of maps, each cVGV 
for a given VGV position, is required. Fortunately in most cases VGV []
the VGV position is scheduled with corrected speed and the set
of maps can be combined into a single map in which each speed Fig. 6 shows that the mass flow influence factor aVGV is
line is valid for its scheduled VGV position. essentially constant because a straight line could represent all
the measured points very well. Besides mass flow also the

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 pressure ratio changes when the VGV’s are re-positioned. In effect of a simplified secondary air system model on the
terms of numbers, setting aVGV =bVGV=1 is a reasonable first simulation quality.
guess if not more is known about the compressor to be For examining this question two performance models of a
simulated. high bypass turbofan have been created. The first model
Any deviation from the nominal VGV position of 0° will employs a medium complex description of the secondary air
cause an efficiency loss which can be described quite well by a system while in the second model all secondary air flows are set
quadratic equation, see fig. 7: to zero. At the cycle design point all compressor pressure ratios
and efficiencies are identical for the two models. Turbine
map * 
1 VGV * cVGV
2
 temperatures and efficiencies of the cycle without secondary air
system have been adjusted in such a way that the high pressure
turbine pressure ratio, thrust and specific fuel consumption are
This simplified model has again a side effect: together with the same for both models.
the map the surge line is shifted. It is questionable whether the
direction and the magnitude of the surge line shift are correct.
Therefore calculated surge margin improvements due to
repositioning of the variable guide vanes are suspicious when
this simplified model for VGV effects is employed.

Turbines
The simplifying assumption of constant corrected flow for
high pressure turbines leads to quite useful insights into the
behavior of gas generators and turbojets. On condition that the
turbine is followed by a nozzle with sonic flow or by another
turbine with constant corrected flow even the numerical results
are quite close to reality, especially in the upper power range.
Operating with constant corrected flow both upstream and
downstream causes the turbine pressure ratio being essentially
constant. However, that does not mean that the turbine operates
at a single point in its map: Corrected spool speed changes if
the variable guide vanes of the compressor move or if the power Fig. 8: Secondary Air System of Mean Complexity
off-take from the gas generator spool changes, for example. Due The differences between the two models are primarily in
to moving the operating point in the map turbine efficiency will the turbine area: The simplified model shows significantly
change. lower turbine inlet temperatures and employs lower turbine
efficiency numbers. Otherwise there are only very small
Other Components differences between the two cycle design points.
Of course also for the off-design simulation of other
1800
1600

1800

10
10

components there are models of different degree of

simplification. For example, in mixers the condition of equal
1500

1700
1500

9.75

static pressures in both streams, which requires an iterative

1600
1400

1600

solution of energy, momentum and mass flow balances, may be

9.5
9. 5

replaced by the condition of equal total pressures. Nozzles are

1300

1500

9. 25
9.25

assumed to be choked which is not at all the case for the fans of
g/ (k N*s)]
nlet Temperat ure T45 [K]

*s)]
T41 [[K]
K]

very high bypass turbofans.

1200

1400
1200

ion [ g/(kN
TempT41

In any case simplifications cause either a loss in accuracy

let Temp

C ons umption[
1300
1100

1300

8.75
75
Fuel Consumpt

or – in case of purely empirical descriptions - a loss of insight

ator Outlet

8.
StatorOut

into the physical phenomenon.

1000
1000

1200
1200
LPT IInlet

8.5
8.5
Sp. Fuel
St
LPT

Secondary Air System

1100
900

8.25

Due to the high gas temperatures in modern gas turbines

800

1000
800

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

significant amounts of air are needed to cool the turbine blades Net Thrust [kN]
and disks, for sealing bearing chambers and for controlling the
bearing load. In performance programs used within industry the Fig. 9: Model with Air System (Symbols Only) and Model
secondary air system is modeled often with much detail. The Without Air System (Lines). Symbols are Shown on Axes.
question arises, whether that is really necessary and what is the

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 Fig. 9 shows a comparison between the two models for off- not yet to be answered. Thus using SOT schedules is regarded a
design: the turbine temperature levels are different, but the simplification of the preliminary design task.
tendency towards part load is identical. It is noteworthy that However, it is absolutely sure that SOT will never be an
there is no difference in the specific fuel consumption between input to the control system because there is no sensor
the two simulations. technology in sight which could reliably measure a
The conclusion from this exercise is that using a simplified representative value of this quantity. Assuming that there will be
secondary air system model does not negatively influence the a SOT sensor is wrong in any case.
quality of the overall performance simulation. The same is true It is better to make a realistic guess about the temperature
for the compression system simulation; only turbine sensor position; there is at least a 50% chance that the guess is
temperatures and efficiency numbers are affected. This deficit correct.
of the simplified model can be easily corrected by applying Why does it matter to choose the correct temperature
constant factors to the calculated temperatures and efficiency sensor position early in the engine design phase? The reaction
numbers from the simplified model. of the engine to power and bleed air off-take depends on which
When modeling an engine for which no or only a limited value is held constant: SOT (T41 ), low pressure turbine inlet
amount of information about the secondary air system is temperature T45 or turbine exit temperature T5 . For example,
available then the use of a simplified secondary air system power off-take from the gas generator spool will have no effect
model is adequate and has no important side effect. on the high pressure turbine inlet temperature when SOT is held
constant; otherwise SOT will increase with power off-take.
Inlet flow distortion Since turbine life is very sensitive to turbine temperature the
In Ref.10 the author has presented a simple method for sensor choice can make a remarkable difference in the predicted
taking into account the interaction of two compressors in series turbine life consumption during a mission.
when considering the overall compression system stability. This Working with a SOT schedule does not simplify the
method uses a simple two sector parallel compressor model preliminary design task, it can, however, have a negative effect
implemented into the performance program. In the compressor on the quality of the results.
interduct the relation between two sectors can be the condition
of equal static pressures in both sectors or the condition no Estimating engine dimensions
mass flow between sectors. A coupling factor is defined in such Gas turbine performance simulations require only a few
a way that a smooth transition between these two extremes can static pressures; most of the equations employ only total
be easily modeled. It depends on the magnitude of this coupling temperature and total pressure. As soon as the calculation of
factor which of the compressors is found to be surge critical. velocities at all the thermodynamic stations is added to the
This very simple methodology can replace quite complex simulation, one gets the flow areas that are the basis for drawing
algorithms like those mentioned in ref. 11, provided the an engine cross-section.
magnitude of the coupling factor can be predicted from the For sketching the flow annulus of the compressors and
geometry of the compressor interduct. Some research work is turbines one needs additionally to know the number of stages:
recommended in which simple correlations for the coupling The stage numbers can be derived from prescribed stage
factor are created that take into account the shape and the pressure ratios or from more sophisticated correlations. If
number of struts in the interduct. additionally the axial blade aspect ratio, the distance between
the blade and vanes and the radius ratio are fixed then the
Preliminary Design annulus can be drawn. Inlet, combustion chamber, bypass and
During the preliminary design phase of an engine many interducts connect the compressor and turbine flow paths with
simplifications must be made because lack of more detailed the exhaust system.
information. Absolute numbers are difficult to get at that time,
but the tendencies must be right.

Control schedules
SOT is a term used mainly by European aircraft gas turbine
manufacturers and stands for the Stator Outlet Temperature of
the high pressure turbine. It equals the Rotor Inlet Temperature
RIT to the first turbine rotor which is a driving factor for
turbine life.
Traditionally during the preliminary design phase SOT-
schedules are used for defining the rated performance of the
new engine. This is justified by saying that the selection of the
sensors for the control system is an open question which needs Fig. 10: Example of a Calculated Turbofan Cross Section

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 Blade and vane numbers can be easily derived from pre- [4] H Cohen, GFC Ro gers, HIH Saravanamuttoo
scribed pitch-chord ratios. Some further simple assumptions Gas Turbine Theory, Fourth Edition
about the blade geometry and material density yield the rim Longman Group Limited, 1996
load for the disks. Then applying a disk stress calculation [5] P.P. Walsh, P. Fletcher
algorithm like the one described in ref. 12 yields the disk Gas Turbine Performance, Second Edition
geometry. With this information a first engine cross section can Blackwell Publishing, 2004
be drawn, for an example see fig. 10 which was created with the [6] Applied Vehicle Technology Working Group 036
most recent version of the program described in ref. 8. Performance Prediction and Simulation of Gas Turbine Engine
One of the simplifications employed for this drawing is in Operation for Aircraft, Marine, Vehicular, and Power
the disk rim load calculation. There are no velocity triangles Generation
calculated, instead flat plates of adequate thickness are assumed NATO Research and Technology Organization
that are positioned at an average stagger angle with the given RTO-TR-AVT-036, 2006
pitch-chord ratio. [7] Joachim Kurzke
Of course this methodology can be regarded as an over How to Create a Performance Model of a Gas Turbine from a
simplistic model for the blade and vane geometry. However, for Limited Amount of Information
getting better numbers for the blade weight a much bigger effort ASME GT 2005-68537
would be required. The approach chosen for drawing the [8] Joachim Kurzke
engines to dimensions is helpful for getting a first insight into GasTurb – The Gas Turbine Performance Simulation Program
the interaction between performance, aerodynamics and disk www.gasturb.de
stress. [9] Sasha M. Savic, Marco A. Micheli, Andreas C. Bauer
Redesign of a Multistage Axial Compressor for a Heavy Duty
SUMMARY Industrial Gas Turbine (GT11NMC)
Many simplifications have been discussed, beginning with ASME GT2005-68315
general thermodynamics as tought at universities and ending [10] Joachim Kurzke
with special simulation problems encountered in industry. Some Effects of Inlet flow Distortion on the Performance of Aircraft
of the simplifications have been invented for reducing the Gas Turbines
complexity of the mathematics, some introduce as a side effect ASME GT2006-90419
mathematical problems, and a few give a wrong message. [11] J.P. Longley, E.M. Greitzer
In any case, simplifications lead to loss of accuracy or Inlet Distortion Effects in Aircraft Propulsion System
detail. Everybody using them should be aware of the unintended Integration
side effects which simplified methods can have. in: Steady and Transient Performance Prediction of Gas
Nevertheless, simplifications are useful for many reasons Turbine Engines
and therefore new ideas are welcome. Their merits and AGARD Lecture Series 183, May 1992
problems must be studied thoroughly and recommendations for [12] Michael T. Tong, Ian Halliwell, Louis J. Ghosn
their application should accompany any new method. For A Computer Code for Gas Turbine Engine Weight and Disk
example, to broaden the basis for the coupling factor which is Life Estimation
needed for compression system stability assessment further Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 126,
research work is recommended. This could create empirical April 2004
estimates for the coupling factor as a function of the compressor
interduct geometry.

REFERENCES
[1] Ronald D. Flack
Fundamentals of Jet Propulsion with Applications
Cambridge University Press 2005
[2] Nicholas Cumpsty
Jet Propulsion, Second Edition
Cambridge University Press 2003
[3] Jack D. Mattingly, William H. Heiser, David T. Pratt
Aircraft Engine Design, Second Edition
AIAA Education Series
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2002

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