B.L.D.E.

A’s
V.P. Dr. P.G.
HALAKATTI COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, BIJAPUR.

MANUAL
OF
HYDRAULICS AND HYDRAULICS

MACHINARY LAB (10CVL57)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Prepared By: Prof. R B LOKHANDE

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to Certify that Mr./Miss…………………………………………………….

..........……………………………. Roll No. ……………………..…………………

VTU No. ………………………………….… of V Sem. B.E. CIVIL Has

completed his / her laboratory work in the subject “HYDRAULICS AND

HYDRAULICS MACHINARY LAB” for the academic year ……………………

Staff In-charge H.O.D. Principal

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Calibration of Collecting Tank (Gravimetric Method) 3

2. Calibration of Pressure Gauge (Dead Weight Method) 4

3. Verification of Bernoulli’s Equation 7

4. Calibration of a 90o Traingular Notch 9

5. Calibration of a Rectangular Notch And Cipolletti Notch 11

6. Calibration of a Broad Crested Weir 13

7. Calibration of a Venturi Flume 15

8. Calibration of a Venturimeter 17

9. Determination of Darcy’s Friction Factor for a Straight Pipe 20

10. Determination of Hydraulic Coefficients of a Vertical Orifice 23

11. Determination of Vane Coefficients for a Flat Vane & Semicircular Vane 26

12. Performance Characteristics ao a Single Stage Centrifugal Pump 28

13. Performance Characteristics of a Pelton Wheel 31

14. Performance Characteristics of a Kaplan / Francies Turbine 34

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 1. CALIBRATION OF COLLECTING TANK ( GRAVIMETRIC METHOD)

Date of Expt.:
Date of Submission. : Marks
Experiment No. 1 Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment: Calibration of collecting tank by gravimetric method.

Apparatus: Collecting tank, Scale, weighing balance.

Figure: Collecting tank set-up

Figure. Collecting tank apparatus

Theory:

Calibration is defined as the set of observations that establish under specified condition, the
relationship between values of quantities indicated by measuring system and corresponding values
released by standards. The purpose of calibration is to increase the confidence in reading obtained
from device.
Procedure:

1. Determine the diameter of the given tank.

2. Take empty weight of the tank
3. Fill the tank with water up to certain height and note down the weight of the tank plus water.
4. Repeat the third step for variable depth of water and calculate the mean volume of the tank

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 Observation:

1. Weight of the empty tank, W1= Kg

2. Weight of water collected + empty weight of tank, W2 = Kg
3. Actual weight of water collected in tank, W= W2 - W1 = Kg
4. Density of water, γw = 1000 Kg/m3
5. Diameter of the tank, d = m

Tabulation

Sl. Height of water Measured volume Weight of water Actual Volume Error In
No. collected in tank = collected in tank (m3)
(1) – h (m) - W2 (kg)
(m3) (m3)
(2) (4) (5) (6)
(3)
1
2
3
4

Result: Mean error of the given tank is =

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 2. CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGE ( DEAD WEIGHT METHOD)

Date of Expt.:
Date of Submission. : Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment: To calibrate pressure gauge by using dead weight pressure gauge tester.

Apparatus: Bourdon gauge, dead weight tester, tester oil.

Theory:
Pressure gauge, especially Bourdon’s gauge is calibrated by means of dead weight tester. The
essential components of such a tester is reservoir ‘R’, cylinder ‘C’, barrel ‘B’ and passage up to
‘C’ to hold up clean dry oil. A spindle ‘S’ with highly finished surface and precise cross-
sectional area slides vertically in the barrel ‘B’ through close fitting, highly polished bearing ‘b’
and carries the table ‘T’ at its upper end. Its lower end rests on ‘HP’ piston. Screws ‘Ls1’ and
‘Ls2’ lock the passage of oil when required. The tester is mounted on a stand ‘ST’. It is provided
with special precise weights marked in terms of pressure.

A double piston ‘DP’ can be moved forward and backward by rotating the handle ‘H’. The
double acting piston works both ways and does not allow the oil to leak. The gauge under
calibration can be connected at ‘D’ such that the connection is leak tight. With ‘Ls1 ’ and ‘Ls2’
open, the handle is rotated such that the oil is just in level with the gauge connecting points ‘D’,
and ‘Ls2’ is now locked. The gauge ‘G’ is mounted carefully. ‘H’ is rotated until the table ‘T’ is
at raised position in line with the upper edge of colour band. ‘Ls1’ is then locked. ‘Ls2’ is
opened and the handle H is rotated such that the gauge needle just moves and reads some
minimum pressure characteristics of the tester because of the weight of the unloaded table acting
through the piston’ LP’.

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 A weight is placed on the table increasing the pressure on the oil in the tester. The gauge
pressure reading should give a reading corresponding to the amount scribed on the weight if it is
operating correctly. If not, the dial is rotated so that the needle points to be correct pressure.
Another weight is added and another gauge reading is noted and so on. A combination of
weights can be used with thinner piston ‘HP’, with a multiplying factor given by the
manufacturer, Say 20. Such a tester can give pressure values accurate up to + 0.05% of the
pressure being measured. The range of pressure is typically 0.5 to 10000 kg / cm2 using dual
spindles.
The pressure range that dead weight tester can measure is limited by the area of cross – section
of the spindle S and the number of weights that can be safely placed on the table. In order to
increase the range, another spindle of smaller cross section can be provided increasing the
pressure range for the same weight placed on the table by a factor equal to the ratio of the cross
sectional area of the two spindles. The weights are typically for 0.05, 0.1, 0.5,1,2,5,9,10 kg /cm2.
With thinner spindle and factor of 20 these can give 1, 2,10,20,40,100,130,200 kg / cm 2.
Procedure:
1. Adjust the pointer in the pressure gauge to zero reading.
2. By using the filter nob, fill the tester oil into the machine
3. Slowly apply the pressure by revolving the hand head in clockwise direction, till the weight
carrier is slowing lifted.
4. The weight carrier must be rotated slowly as due to friction between the weight and bottom
position of machine rod.
5. Apply the load on pressure plunger and note down the pressure gauge readings.
6. Repeat the procedure by increasing the load as well as by decreasing the load.
7. Note down the error between actual and corresponding readings.

Observation:
1. Range of pressure gauge= Kg/cm2
2. Area of the piston= cm2
3. Least count of pressure gauge =
4. Oil used =
Tabulation
Pressure on Pressure gauge reading Mean Error = Pressure on
Sl no. plunger (kg / cm2) Pressure plunger - Mean
(kg / cm2) Increase Decrease (kg / cm2) pressure (kg / cm2)

1
2
3

Result: Mean error of the given pressure gauge =

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 3. VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Date of Expt.:
Date of Submission. : Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment: Verification of Bernoulli's theorem.

Apparatus: Bernoulli’s apparatus, stop watch.

Figure: Bernoulli’s apparatus experimental set-up

Figure. Bernoulli’s apparatus setup

Theory:
For a steady, continuous, incompressible, non-viscous fluid flow, the total energy or total head
remains constant at all the sections along the fluid flow provided there is no loss or addition of
energy.

+ +Z= Total head = constant

Where P/ γ = Pressure head (m)

V²/2g = Velocity or kinetic head (m) (V = Q/A = m/s)
Z = Potential head (Height above some assumed datum level)

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 Procedure:
1. Measure the area of conduit at various gauge points.
2. Open the supply valve and adjust the flow so that the water level in the inlet tank remains
constant
3. Measure the height of water level (above the arbitrarily selected plane) in different
piezometric tubes.
4. Measure the discharge of the conduit with the help of measuring tank.
5. Repeat the step (1) to (4) for two more readings.
6. Plot graph between the total head (or energy) and distance of gauge points starting from u/s
side of conduit.
Observation:
Diameter of collecting tank, D = m
Depth of collecting tank, d= m
Area of the collecting tank, A = m2
Volume of water collected in measuring tank, V = A*d = m3
Tabulation
Run Initial Final Rise in Volume Discharge
no. level level level(d) V = A*d Q = Volume /time
units m m m m3 m3/sec
1
2
3
Total head-
Piezometer Details 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Tube no.
Pressure head - p/γ
Velocity = Q/A
Run Velocity head = V2/2g
number 1 Datum head= Z = 0
Total head= + +Z
Pressure head - p/γ
Velocity = Q/A
Run Velocity head = V2/2g
number 2 Datum head= Z = 0
Total head= + +Z

Result: The run number ……… verifies Bernoulli's theorem.

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 4. CALIBRATION OF A 90O TRAINGULAR NOTCH

Date of Expt.:
Date of Submission: Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment: To determine the coefficient of discharge of a triangular notch.

Apparatus:
1. Experimental set-up fitted with V-notch
2. Collecting tank
3. Hook gauge and stop watch.
Figure: Triangular notch experimental set-up.

Figure. Front section of V- notch

Theory:
A notch may be defined as an opening provided in the side of a tank such that the liquid surface in
the tank is below the top edge of the opening. The notches are classified depending upon the shape
of the opening, according to the effect of the side on the nappe, the shape of the crest and the
discharge conditions.
Considered a triangular notch fitted at the end of a channel. Let H be the head of water over the
notch and θ be the crest angle.
Considered an elemental strip of flow area at depth h below the free surface with thickness Ϭh as
shown in figure.
Area of the strip, ϬA =2(H – h) tan x Ϭh
Velocity of water flowing through the strip, Ϭv = √

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 Discharge through the strip, ϬQ = v* ϬA= √ x 2(H – h) tan x Ϭh
Therefore, total discharge (theoretical) is
Qth = ∫ √ x 2(H - h) tan x Ϭh

= √ ( ) ……………….. cm3/sec

Total discharge (Actual) is, Qact = = V / t …………………. cm3/sec

Hence, the coefficient of discharge (Cd), Cd = Qact / Qth

In general,
Qact = Q = KHn
Where K is the co-efficient and n an exponent

Procedure
1. Note down the crest angle (θ).
2. The dimensions of the collecting tank are noted.
3. Water is then allowed to flow at the level of tip of notch i.e, initial reading of the hook
gauge is noted as (H1).
4. Water is then allowed to flow over the notch.
5. The hook gauge is adjusted such that its tip coincides at the top of flowing H2O surface(H2)
6. The reading of the hook gauge is noted, H = H2 - H1 in cm
7. The time required to collect 10 cm depth of water in the collecting tank is noted (d= d2 –d1).
8. The flow is then varied and above procedure is repeated for four times and the results are
tabulated.
9. Calculate the actual discharge, theoretical discharge and coefficient of discharge (Cd), as
per above given equation.
10. Draw the graph of log Qact is plotted against log H and the slope is computed. The
computed values are verified with the graphical values.

Observations
1)  =……0
2) Collecting tank reading:
Diameter of collecting tank = D …………………………………………….cm2
C/S area of the collecting tank = ………………………………………cm2
Depth of water collected in the tank, d = d2 –d1…...…………………………. cm
Volume of water collected = V …..…………………….. cm3
3) Acceleration due to gravity = g = 981…….………………..…...cm/sec2

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 Hook Gauge Collecting Tank Qact =
Time Qth = Cd =
Sl. Readings in cm Readings in cm Average
‘t’ in
No. I.R. F.R. Diff I.R. F.R. Diff Cd
in sec in cm3/s cm3/s
H1 H2 (H) d1 d2 (d)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Graphical Verification:
Plot log Qact (Y-Axis) versus log H (X- Axis) or Qact versus H on log – log graph.
Nature of Graph:

1) log K, is converted into K = antilog K

2) n = Slope =

Sl. H Log H Qact Log Qth = KHn Cd = AVG

No. in cm cm3/sec Qact cm3/sec Cd
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Result:
Calculated value of coefficient of discharge =
Graphical value of coefficient of discharge =

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 Review of Learning Objectives:
Q1. Define notch and explain its classifications
Ans: Notch is an opening provided in the side of a tank or channel to measure the rate of flow.
The surface of the liquid will be below the top edge of the notch.
i. Based on the shape – Rectangular, Triangular (V), Trapezoidal, Cippoletti, Parabolic,
stepped notches.
ii. Based on the end condition – Notch with end contraction and notch without end contraction.
iii. Based on the crest – Sharp crested and beveled notch.

Q2 Define the co-efficient of discharge, Cd. what is its significance?

Ans: Cd is defined as theof actual discharge to the theoretical discharge. The value of Cd is
always less than 1 as actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge due to losses .
Hence, Cd expresses the amount of loss.

Q3 Why a triangular notch is preferred over a rectangular notch for measuring low
discharge.
Ans: For low discharge, the head over the triangular notch is considerable than a rectangular
notch, which gives the accurate measurement of discharge.
Q4 Explain the advantages of triangular notch over rectangular notch.
i. For low discharges, the head over the triangular notch is considerable than a rectangular
notch, which gives the accurate measurement of head and discharge and reduce the
measurement error.
ii. The formula for V-notch is simpler as it involves the measurement of head only (if it is a
right angled notch).
iii. The coefficient of discharge is fairly constant.
iv. The ventilation is not required.
v. The head due to velocity of approach may be ignored without much error.
Q5 Under what conditions you prefer triangular notch?
Ans: For low discharges, the triangular notch is preferred than a rectangular notch.
Q6 If 10% of error is made in the measurement of head over the triangular notch, what is
the corresponding error in computed discharge?
Ans. The error in discharge corresponding to 10% error in the measurement of head is 25%.
Q7 What is the meaning of calibration?
Ans: Calibration indicates the determination of coefficient of discharge, Cd, of a measuring
device. It also represents the standardization of the device.
Possible Errors:
1. Uncertainty in the measurement of flow depth in the channel due to improper recording of point
gauge reading.
2. Observational error in reading piezometer of the collecting tank.
3. Error in recording the time of collection of water.
4. Improper operation of gate valve.

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 5. CALIBRATION OF A RECTANGULAR NOTCH AND CIPOLLETTI
NOTCH

Date of Expt. :
Date of Submission: Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment: To determine the coefficient of discharge of a rectangular notch.

Apparatus: Rectangular notch, piezometer, collecting tank, hook gauge, stop watch.
Figure:

Figure: L- section and front section on rectangular notch

Theory:
Theory Consider a rectangular notch of crest length, L, fitted at the end of a channel as
shown in Figure. Let H be the head of water over the crest of notch. Also, consider an elemental
strip of flow area at depth, h, below free surface with thickness dh as in Figure.
Area of the strip, d4 = L x dh.
Velocity of water flowing through the strip, v = √
Discharge through the strip dQ=v x dA=√ x (L x dh)
Therefore, total discharge (theoretical) is Qth =∫ √ = √ * LH3/2 cm3/sec

Actual discharge Cd = Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge.

Hence.
Qact = Cd √ * LH3/2 cm3/sec

In general, Qth = KHn

Where K is the coefficient and n an exponent.

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 Procedure:
1. Note down the crest length of the notch (L).
2. Record the dimensions of the measuring tank (diameter).
3. Open an inlet valve and allow the water to flow into the channel and rise up to the crest of
the notch.
4. Adjust the point gauge to touch the free surface and note down the point gauge reading
(H1).
5. Increase the inflow discharge to certain value and allow it to reach steady state. Adjust the
point gauge to touch the surface of water and record the point gauge reading (H2).
6. Calculate the head over the crest of the notch by H = H2 - H1.
7. Collect the water in the measuring tank for a known height (d) and record the time of
collection (t) or collect the water for a known time interval and note down the depth of
water in the tank.
8. Calculate the volumetric (actual) discharge, Qact = volume /time = *d cm3/sec
9. Compute the theoretical discharge, Qth Cd √ * LH3/2 cm3/sec

10. Determine the coefficient of discharge, Cd =

11. Repeat the procedure for different discharge (increasing/decreasing) values.
12. Draw the graph of log Qact is plotted against log H and the slope is computed. The
computed values are verified with the graphical values.
Observations:
1) Length of the crest = L = …………………………………... cm
2) Collecting tank reading:
Diameter of the tank D= ………………………………cm
C/S area of the tank = ………………………………..…… cm2
Depth of water collected = d = ………………………………… cm
Volume of water collected = V = ………………...….. cm3
3) Acceleration due to gravity = g = 981 cm/s2
Hook Gauge Collecting Tank Qact =
Time Qth = Cd =
Sl. Readings in cm Readings in cm Average
‘t’ /t in
No. I. R. F. R. Diff I. R. F. R. Diff Cd
sec in cm3/sec
H1 H2 (H) (d) cm3/sec
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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 Graphical Verification:
Plot log Qact (Y-Axis) versus log H (X- Axis) or Qact versus H on log – log graph.
Nature of Graph:

1) log K, is converted into K = antilog K

2) n = Slope =

Sl. H Log H Qact Log Qth = KHn Cd = AVG

No. in cm cm3/sec Qact cm3/sec Cd
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Result:
Calculated value of coefficient of discharge =
Graphical value of coefficient of discharge =

Review of Learning Objectives:-

Q1 When do you use rectangular notch?

Ans: Rectangular notch is used when the discharge to be measured is larger.

Q2 What is the end contraction? What are its effects?

Ans: In the case of a rectangular notch, the nappe width is reduced due to contraction at the two
ends, which is called end contraction. The end contraction reduces the discharge over the notch.

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 Q3 What is the meaning of suppressed notch?
Ans: A notch is called suppressed notch when the effect of end contraction on the notch width
does not exist. In such a case, the crest length of notch will be equal to the width of the channel.

Q4 Explain the end contraction of a rectangular notch.

Ans: In case of a rectangular notch the crest width is reduced by contracted nappe by an amount
equal to 0.1H at each end as per Francis. Hence, the net nappe length becomes (L — 0.2H).

Q5 What is the effect of velocity of approach on the discharge?

Ans: The velocity with which water approaches or reaches the weir or notch before it passes over
it, is called velocity of approach, Va. It is computed by dividing the discharge by the approaching
flow area. It will give an additional head to the flowing water given by ha = Va2/2g. The discharge
estimated considering the velocity of approach will be larger than that without the velocity of
approach.
Q7 If 12% of error is made in the measurement of head over the notch, what is the
corresponding error in computed discharge?
Ans: The error in discharge corresponding to 12% error made in the measurement of head is 18%.

Q8 Define the nappe.

Ans: The sheet of water flowing over the notch or weir is called nappe or vein.

Possible Errors

1. The errors in the measurement of flow depth as a result of improper point gauge reading.
2. Wrong observation of piezometer of the collecting tank.
3. Mistake in recording the time of collection of water.
4. Improper operation of gate valve.

Precautions

1. Properly fix the notch model.

2. Operate the point gauge properly.
3. Ensure constant head flow condition.
4. Check the priming of the pump during experimentation.
5. Properly confirm the gate valves condition to avoid leakages.
6. Consult the laboratory technical staff in any emergency.
7. Operate the equipment under the supervision of laboratory technical staff.

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 6. CALIBRATION OF A BROAD CRESTED WEIR

Date of Expt. :
Date of Submission. : Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment : To determine the coefficient of discharge of a Broad crested weir.

Apparatus: Triangular notch, collecting tank, hook gauge, scale etc.

Figure: Broad crested weir experimental set-up.

Figure: Broad crested weir apparatus

Theory:
A weir having a wide crest is known as a broad crested weir, Such a weir differs from a
narrow or sharp crested weir in respect that in case of a narrow or sharp crested weir as water
flows over it the jet of water touches only the upstream edge and it flows clear of the downstream
edge. On the other hand in case of broad crested weir as water flows over it the jet of water after
touching the upstream edge flows over the surface of the crest.
For broad crested weirs the flow adjusts itself to discharge at the maximum rate.

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 Procedure:
1. Note down the crest length ‘L’ of the broad-crested weir.
2. One hook gauge is provided on the notch side & manometer gauge provided on the weir side
3. Now the discharge is allowed till up to the crest level of the weir and notch, i.e initial reading
noted down.
4. Now allow to overflow water in certain constant height on notch side and weir side, i.e final
reading note down.
5. The difference of readings in the hook gauge on the weir side is noted as ‘H’ and that on the
notch side as ‘h’.
6. The actual discharge on notch (Qact) is given by the formula:
Qact = 8/15 2g xC x H5/2 x tan /2 …….cm3/sec
d

7. The theoretical discharge on weir side, (Qth) is given by the formula:

Qth = 2/3 2g x LH3/2 ………….….cm3/sec
8. The flow is then varied and above procedure is repeated.
9. The graph of logH is plotted against of logQact and calculations are graphically verified.

Observations:
1) Crest length of weir = L = m
2) Cd for given notch = 0.60 to 0.66
3)  = Crest angle of V- notch =……o
4) Qact = 8/15 2g xC x H5/2 x tan /2
d
cm3/sec
5) Qth = 2/3 2g x LH3/2 cm3/sec
6) Cd for the broad crested weir = Qact / Qth

TABULATION

Hook Gauge Collecting Tank Average

Sl. Readings weir side readings Notch side Qth = Cd of the
Qact = Cd =
No. cm3/sec broad
I.R. F.R. Diff I.R. F.R. Diff (h) cm3/sec crested weir
cm cm (H) cm cm cn cm
1
2
3
4
5

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 Graphical Verification:
Plot log Qact (Y-Axis) versus log H (X- Axis) or Qact versus H on log – log graph.
Nature of Graph:

1) log K, is converted into K = antilog K

2) n = Slope =

Sl. H Log H Qact Log Qth = KHn Cd = AVG

No. in cm cm3/sec Qact cm3/sec Cd
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Result:
Calculated value of coefficient of discharge =
Graphical value of coefficient of discharge =

Review of learning objectives:

Q1 Define the term weir

Ans: a weir is a concrete or masonry structure constructed across the river to measure the
discharge. The crest width of weir may be sharp, narrow or broad

Q2 How is weirs classified

Ans: the weirs are classified as given below:

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 1. Based on the head over the crest:- Sharp-crested, narrow-crested, broad-crested, and long-
crested weirs
2. Based on shape: - Rectangular, triangular (V), trapezoidal, cippoletti, parabolic and stepped
notch.
3. Based on end condition: - Weir without end contraction and weir with end contraction.
4. Based on the corner shape at the upstream end: - Sharp cornered and rounded end.
5. Based on the discharge condition: - Freely discharging and submerged
Q3 What is the difference between a notch and weir?
 Notch is a metal plate fixed in small laboratory channel, whereas the weir is a concrete
structure constructed across the river to measure the discharge.
 Notch is always sharp crested, whereas the weir may be sharp, narrow, broad or long
crested based on the crested width.

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 7. CALIBRATION OF A VENTURI FLUME

Date of Expt. :
Date of Submission. : Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment: To determine the coefficient of discharge of a venturi flume

Apparatus: Venturi flume, collecting tank, stop watch, scale etc.

Figure: Venturiflume experimental set-up

Figure. Venturiflume apparatus

Theory: A venturi flume is a critical-flow open flume with a tapered flow which causes a drop in
the hydraulic grade line, creating a critical depth. It is used in flow measurement of very large flow
rates, usually given in millions of cubic units. A venturimeter would normally measure in
millimetres, whereas a venturiflume measures in metres. Measurement of discharge with venturi
flumes requires two measurements, one upstream and one at the throat (narrowest cross-section), if
the flow passes in a subcritical state through the flume. If the flumes are designed so as to pass the
flow from sub critical to supercritical state while passing through the flume, a single measurement
at the throat (which in this case becomes a critical section) is sufficient for computation of
discharge.
Venturiflumes have two advantages over weirs where the critical depth is created by a vertical
constriction. First, the hydraulic head loss is smaller in flumes than in weirs. Second, there is no
dead zone in flumes where sediment and debris can accumulate; such a dead zone exists upstream
of the weirs.

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 Procedure:
1. Note down the widths of the inlet channel (B1) and at the throat channel (B2), measure the
diameter of the collecting tank.
2. Adjust the point gauge to touch the bottom surface of the flume at inlet and throat and note
down the reading H1 and h1 respectively.
3. Allow water in the flume by slightly opening the outlet gate and create a hydraulic jump on
the downstream side of the venturiflume. Adjust the supply gate based on the requirement.
4. Bring the point gauge to touch the water surface and record the point gauge values at inlet
and throat as H2 and h2 respectively.
5. Now measure the head of water at inlet H = H2 – H1 and at throat h = h1 – h2.
6. The time required to collect 10cm depth of water in the collecting tank is noted.
7. The flow is varied and above procedure is repeated for four times and results are tabulated.
8. Calculate actual and theoretical discharges
9. The graph of log Qact is plotted against log10 H and the slope is computed.
10. The computed values are verified with graphical values.
a1 a 2 2 g H  h 
Qthe  cm3/sec Qact = cm3/sec
a a
2
1
2
2

Observations:
a) Width of the inlet = B1 = ……………………………………………….. cm
b) Width of the throat = B2 = ……………………………………………… cm
c)
Area of the inlet a1 = B1*H1 = …………………………………………… cm2
d) Area of the throat a2 = B2*h1 = ………………………………………… cm2
e) Collecting tank diameter D = ………………………………………………cm
f) Depth of water collected = d = …………………………………………… cm
g) Volume of water collected in collecting tank = V = ……………....cm3
h) Acceleration due to gravity = g = 981 cm/sec2

Hook gauge reading Hook gauge reading Collecting tank readings

Sl. Inlet (H) in cm at throat (h) in cm (d) in cm
Qact
No. I.R. F.R. Diff I.R. F.R. Diff IR FR Diff Time t Qth Cd
=V/t
H1 H2 (H) h1 h2 (h) d1 d2 d (sec)
1
2
3
4
5

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 Graphical Verification:
Plot log Qact (Y-Axis) versus log H (X- Axis) or Qact versus H on log – log graph.

Nature of Graph:

1) log K, is converted into K = antilog K

2) n = Slope =

Sl. H Log H Qact Log Qth = KHn Cd = AVG

No. in cm cm3/sec Qact cm3/sec Cd
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Result:
Calculated value of coefficient of discharge =
Graphical value of coefficient of discharge =

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 Review of Learning Objectives

Q1 Define the venturi flume.

Ans: A venturi flume is gauging flume used in the open channels to measure the discharge.

Q2 What is the use of a venturi flume?

Ans. The venturi flume is used to measure the discharge in open channels.

Q3 What is the difference between venturi flume and Venturi meter.

Ans. The venturi flume is used in open channels, whereas Venturi meter has application in pipes,
both are employed to measure the discharge.

Q4 What are the different methods of fluming a channel?

Ans. The flurning is done by one of the following ways:
(a) By reducing the width of channel in the direction of flow, called channel contraction.
(b) By raising the bed level of the flume with the provision of hump
(c) By combining both channel contraction and hump.

Q5 Define the specific energy.

Ans: The energy of flowing fluid per unit weight with reference to the channel bottom taken as
datum is called specific energy.
The specific energy E is given by: E = y +V2/2g
Where, y is the depth of flow, V the velocity of flow and g the gravitational acceleration.

Q6 What is the difference between specific energy and total energy?

Ans: Specific energy is the sum of pressure head (y) and kinetic head (V2/2g), whereas total
energy is the sum of datum head, pressure head and kinetic head.
Specific energy: E = y + V2/2g
Total energy: E = Z + p/γ + V2/2g

Q7 What do you mean by standing wave?

Ans: A standing wave is nothing but a hydraulic jump formed when supercritical flow meets the
subcritical flow hump.

Possible Errors
1. The errors in the measurement of flow depth as a result of improper point gauge reading.
2. Uncertainty in reading manometer levels.
3. Wrong operation of gate valve.

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 8. CALIBRATION OF A VENTURIMETER

Date of Expt. :
Date of Submission: Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment: To determine the coefficient of discharge of a venturimeter

Apparatus: Venturimeter, collecting tank, stop watch etc.

Figure: experimental setup.

Figure. Venturimeter apparatus

Theory:
A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through a pipe. The
basic principle on which a venturimeter works is that by reducing the cross-sectional area of the
flow passage, a pressure difference is created and measurement of pressure difference enables the
determination of the discharge through the pipe. Since the cross-sectional area of the throat is
smaller than the cross-sectional area of the inlet section, the velocity of flow at the throat will
become greater than at the inlet section. The increase in velocity of flow at the throat results in
decrease of pressure at this section. The pressure difference between these sections is determined
by connecting a differential manometer between the taps provided at these sections. Measurement
of pressure difference enables the rate of flow to be calculated. The actual discharge (Qact) is
calculated by the formula:

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 Qact = V / t = ………………. cm3/s
If “a1” and “a2” be the cross-sectional areas at the inlet section and throat section
respectively and “ H ” is the difference between pressure heads and “ g ” is the acceleration due to
gravity. Then the theoretical discharge (Qth) is given by the formula:

Qth = a1 x a2 x 2gH
2
(a12 - a2 ) ………………. cm3/s

The coefficient of discharge is given by the formula:

Cd = Qact / Qth

Procedure:
1. The diameter of the inlet and throat are measured and their cross-sectional areas are
calculated.
2. A differential manometer is connected between the inlet and the throat and water is allowed to
pass through the venturimeter.
3. The difference between the two limbs of the manometer is noted(x in cm).
4. The dimensions of the collecting tank are noted.
5. The time required to collect 20 cm depth (d in cm) of water in the collecting tank is noted.
6. The flow is then varied and above procedure is repeated for four time and the results are
tabulated.
7. The actual discharge and theoretical discharge are calculated.
8. The graph of log Qact is plotted against log H and the slope is computed.
9. The computed values are verified with the graphical values.

Observations:
a. Diameter of inlet = d1 = ……………………………………………………cm
b. Diameter of throat = d2 = …………………………………………………. cm
c. C/s area of inlet = a1 = *d12 / 4 …………………………………………cm2
d. C/s area of throat = a2 = *d2 / 4 ……………………………………….. cm2
2

e. Collecting tank dimensions = D = ………………………………………….. cm

f. Depth of water collected = d = ……………………………………………..cm
g. Volume of water collected in collecting tank = V = …………….... cm3
h. Acceleration due to gravity = g = 981 cm/sec2
i. Specific gravity of mercury = m = 13.6
j. Differential mercury manometer reading,(x in cm) , H = x(Sm – 1) in cm

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 Table:
Differential mercury Collecting Tank
H= Time
Sl. manometer readings in cm readings in cm Qact Qth
x(Sm – 1) ‘t’ Cd =
No. I.R. F.R. Difference I.R. F.R. Diff = V/t =
cm sec
cm cm (x cm) cm cm (d cm)
1
2
3
4
5

Graphical Verification:
Plot log Qact (Y-Axis) versus log H (X- Axis) or Qact versus H on log – log graph.
Nature of Graph:

1) log K, is converted into K = antilog K

2) n = Slope =

Sl. H Log H Qact Log Qth = KHn Cd = AVG

No. in cm cm3/sec Qact cm3/sec Cd
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Result:
Calculated value of coefficient of discharge =
Graphical value of coefficient of discharge =

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 Review of Learning Objectives

Q1 What is the use of Venturimeter?

Ans: A Venturimeter is the device used to measure or determine the rate of flow or discharge of
fluid through a pipe.

Q2 What is the basic principle on which Venturimeter works?

Ans: The Venturimeter works on the principle of developing the pressure difference in the
direction of flow by decreasing the cross-sectional area of the flow and the measurement of this
pressure difference enables the determination of the flow through the pipe.

Q3 Explain the construction of Venturimeter.

Ans: The venturimeter consists of convergent cone of smaller length, cylindrical throat and the
larger divergent cone. Convergent cone tapers from the original pipe diameter to the throat size,
whereas the divergent cone enlarges from throat size to the original pipe size.

Q4 What is the range of included angle of the convergent and divergent cones?
Ans: Convergent angle = 21° ± 1° and divergent angle = 5' to 15°.

Q5 What is the length of the convergent cone?

Ans: Length of convergent cone approximately equal to 2.7(D — d) where D is the diameter of
pipe and d the diameter of throat.

Q6 Whether the convergent cone is longer or divergent cone? Why?

Ans: The convergent cone is shorter than the divergent cone. The convergent cone is made shorter
to reduce the loss of energy due to acceleration. Similarly the divergent cone is made longer so as
to cause the gradual retardation of the fluid and eliminate flow separation. This decreases the
energy loss due to formation of eddies.

Q7 At what distance from the throat and convergent cone pressure taps are prodded?
Ans: The pressure tappings are made one at just upstream of the inlet section and the other in the
middle of the throat.

Q8 Can pressure taps be provided between throat and divergent cone? Why?
Ans: No. Because in the divergent cone flow separation occurs and pressure measurers will not
yield the discharge measurement.

Q9 What is meant by flow separation?

Ans: Flow separation is the departure of the flow from the boundary due to sudden divergence and
increase in the flow area or due to deviation.

Q10 Why there is no pressure tapping in the divergent cone of the Venturi meter?
Ans: Because in the divergent cone flow separation occurs and pressure measurement will not
yield the discharge measurement.

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 Q11 What should be the diameter of throat in terms of inlet diameter?
Ans: The throat diameter will be commonly 1/2 of the inlet diameter.

Q12 What is venturi head?

Ans: The difference in pressure heads at inlet and throat sections is called venturi head.
((P1/w) – (P2/w)) = h

Q13 What is the limit for reduction in throat diameter and why?
Ans: Diameter of throat may vary from 1/3 to 3/4 of pipe diameter (commonly 1/2 of the pipe
diameter) to avoid cavitation.

Q14 Explain the phenomena of cavitation.

Ans: Due to larger reduction in pressure, the liquid particles are converted into vapour bubbles at
throat portion. When these bubbles reach the location of high pressure, they burst due to
condensation. This bursting causes the removal or erosion of pipe material, which is called
cavitation.

Q15 Can Venturi meter be used in inclined and vertical pipes? Ans: Yes.
Q16 Define the coefficient of discharge.
Ans: The coefficient of discharge is defined as the ratio of actual discharge to the theoretical
discharge, represented by Cd, and is given by
Cd= Qact /Qth

Q17 What is the value of Cd of the Venturi meter for fluids of low viscosity?
Ans: Cd value for low viscous fluids is 0.98. The Cd value generally ranges between flow 0.97 and
0.99 for Venturi meter.

Possible Errors
1. Uncertainty in reading manometer levels.
2. Observational error in reading piezometer of the collecting tank.
3. Error in recording the time of collection of water.
4. Improper operation of gate valve.

Precautions
1. Ensure the priming condition of the pump during experimentation.
2. Ensure the supply condition under constant head.
3. Operate the manometer tappings appropriately.
4. Do not touch mercury if it is expelled out of manometer.
5. Maintain proper earthing of electrical connections.
6. Check the gate valves frequently to avoid leakages.
7. Operate the equipment under the supervision of laboratory technical staff.
8. In case of emergency, contact the laboratory technical staff.

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 9. DETERMINATION OF DARCY’S FRICTION FACTOR FOR A
STRAIGHT PIPE

Date of Expt.:
Date of Submission: Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment: To determine the frictional coefficient of a pipe flow.

Apparatus: Differential Mercury Manometer, collecting tank, stop watch etc.

Theory:
A pipe is a closed conduit which is used for carrying fluids under pressure. The fluid
flowing in a pipe is always subjected to resistance due to shear forces between fluid particles and
the boundary walls of the pipe and between the fluid particles themselves resulting from viscosity
of the fluid. The resistance to the fluid is known as frictional resistance. Since certain amount of
energy possessed by the flowing fluid will be consumed in overcoming this resistance to the flow,
there will always be some loss of energy in the direction of flow. If “ v ” volume of liquid
collected in time “ t ”, then the actual discharge is given by the formula :
Qact = V / t ……………………. cm3/sec
If “a” is the cross-sectional area of the pipe and two sections at a distance “L” are
considered, then velocity “v” is given by the formula:

v= ………………….cm/sec

If “ g ” be the acceleration due to gravity and “d” the diameter of the pipe, “hf” the head
loss due to friction, then the frictional factor is calculated by the formula :

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 Procedure:
1. The diameter of the pipe is noted and its cross-sectional areas are calculated.
2. A differential manometer is connected between two sections at a distance “L”.
3. Water is allowed to flow through the pipe.
4. The dimensions of the collecting tank are noted.
5. The difference between the two limbs of the mercury manometer is noted (x in cm).
6. The time required to collect 10 cm depth (h) of water in the collecting tank is noted.
7. The flow is then varied and above procedure is repeated for four time and the results are
tabulated.
8. The actual discharge is calculated.
9. The ratio hf/L of is taken as “I” and velocity is calculated.
10. A graph of loghf it is plotted against log C i.e., velocity and results are computed.
11. The calculated values are verified with the graphical values.

Observations:
1. Length of Duct, L = ………………………………………….. cm
2. Diameter of the pipe, d = ……………………….……………… cm
3. Depth of water collected, h = ………………………………... cm
4. Diameter of the collecting, D = ………………………………… cm
5. Volume of water collected, V = ……………………….... cm3
6. Acceleration due to gravity, = g = 981 cm/sec2
7. Specific gravity of mercury, = Sm = 13.6
8. Loss of head, hf = x(Sm – 1) …………………………………...cm
Tabular column:

Differential mono- Collecting Tank Darcy’s

meter readings in cm readings in cm hf = Time Qact Velocity friction
Sl.
No. I.R. F.R. Diff I.R. F.R. Diff x(Sm- 1) ‘t’ = v= factor
in cm sec cm3/sec cm/sec
(cm) (cm) (x cm) (cm) (cm) (h)
1
2
3
4
5
Result:
Calculated value of frictional factor =

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 10. DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS OF A
VERTICAL ORIFICE

Date of Expt. :
Date of Submission: Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment: To determine the coefficients of an orifice.

Apparatus: Orifice, collecting tank, hook gauge, piezometer etc.

Figure: experiment setup of a vertical orifice.

Theory:
Consider a tank provided with a small orifice on one of the sides and an arrangement for
the supply of liquid in the tank as shown, by adjusting the inflow of the liquid in the tank equal to
the outflow (or efflux) through the orifice a constant head ‘ h ’ of the liquid above the centre of the
orifice is maintained under which a jet of liquid emerges through the orifice. Let ‘ V ’ be the
velocity of the jet at vena-contracta. If x and y are respectively the horizontal and the vertical
distances of the point from the vena-contracta, then it may be considered that as the fluid particle
moves from its original position at vena-contracta to its new position at the point in time ‘ t ’. it is
displaced horizontally through a distance x and at the same time it drops down under the action of
gravity through a vertical distance y from the vena-conctracta the coefficient of velocity is given
by the relationship.

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 List of formula used:
a) Volumetric (actual) discharge, Qact = cm3/sec………………..(1)

b) Theoretical discharge, Qth = a0*√ cm3/sec………………..(2)

Where a0 = C/s area of the orifice mouth in cm2
H = Constant head maintained in the overhead tank in cm
c) Coefficient of discharge Cd = …………………………..……………….(3)

d) Plot graph between x in y-axis and 2√ in x-axis and obtain Cv = ………..(4)

√

e) Coefficient of contraction, Cc = ………………..(5)

Procedure:
1. Note down the diameter of orifice (do).
2. Compute the cross-sectional area of the orifice (a0).
3. Record the dimensions of the measuring tank (length, a and width, b).
4. Fix the orifice to the overhead tank.
5. Open the inlet valve and allow the water to attain a constant head in the overhead tank and
note down the head (H).
6. Collect the water in the measuring tank for a known height (d) and record the time of
collection (t).
7. Calculate the volumetric (actual) discharge Qact = (a * b * d)/t.
8. Determine the theoretical discharge Qth = a0*√
9. Calculate the coefficient of discharge Cd, Qact = Cd*Qth
10. Obtain the coordinates of the jet (x and y) from below table 2.
11. Plot graph between x in y-axis and 2√ in x-axis and obtain Cv =
√

12. Compute the coefficient of contraction, Cc, =

13. Repeat the procedure for different discharge (increasing/decreasing) values.

Observations

1. Diameter of orifice, do =………. cm.

2. Cross-sectional dimensions of measuring tank, a x b = ……… cm x……….. cm.
3. Cross-sectional area of orifice, ao =…………………cm2

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 Table 1

Constant Depth of Time of Volumetric Theoretical Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient

Sl head in water collectio Discharge Discharge of of of
No. the tank collected n ‘t’ Qact (cm3/s) Qth (cm3/s) Discharge Velocity Contraction
H (cm) d (cm) sec Cd Cv Cc

1
2
3
4

Table 2

Head H = ……….cm Head H = ……….cm Head H = ……….cm Head H = ……….cm

x (cm) y (cm) x (cm) y (cm) x (cm) y (cm) x (cm) y (cm)

Graph
1. Plot Qact Versus H
2. Plot x and 2√

Nature of graphs
Typical nature of graphs is shown in figure below.

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 Result:
Calculated value of Cc =
Graphical value of Cc =

Review of Learning Objectives

Q1 What is an orifice? Explain its classifications.
Ans: An orifice is an opening provided in the side or at the bottom of a tank through which the
fluid is discharged.
Classification:
(i) Based on the shape - Circular, rectangular and triangular.
(ii) Based on the discharging jet - Free, and submerged (partially/fully submerged).
(iii) Based on the upstream edge - Sharp edged, and bell mouthed.
(iv) Based on the ratio of size of the orifice (d) to the constant head (H) - Small (d < H/5)
and large (d > H/5).

Q2 What is the range of Cy for different orifices?

Ans: Range of Cd is 0.95 to 0.99.

Q3 What are the different methods of finding Cv and Cc.?

Ans: Methods of finding Cv - Jet distance measurement method, velocity measurement method,
and momentum method.
Methods of finding Cc - Micrometer contraction gage, ratio of Cd to Cv.

Q4 Explain the jet distance measurement method of finding Cv.

Ans: The coordinates (x, y) of the discharging jet with respect to the vena contracta are measured
and used to find the Cv with the help of principles of projectiles.
Cv, =
√
Where, H is the constant head over the orifice.

Q5 Explain the velocity measurement method of finding Cv.

Ans: The actual velocity of the jet at vena contracta is measured using the pitot tube. The
theoretical velocity is computed from the measured head (√ ). Then Cv = Vact/Vth.

Q6 Explain the momentum method of finding Cv.

Ans: In this method, the actual velocity of jet at vena contracta is determined using the impulse-
momentum equation.

Q7 What is the theoretical value of Cc. for a sharp edged orifice?

Ans: The theoretical value of coefficient of contraction for a sharp edged orifice is
Cc = = 0.611

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 Q8 What is the general value of coefficient of contraction used?
Ans: 0.64 to 0.65 is the value of coefficient of contraction used for an orifice (the range is 0.61-
0.69).

Q9 Explain the significance of micrometer contraction gauge when determining the

coefficient of contraction of an orifice.
Ans: The micrometer contraction gauge measures the diameter of the jet at vena contracta along
two perpendicular directions. The average of the two values gives the jet diameter at vena
contracta. Hence, the coefficient of contraction can be computed by the ratio of jet area at vena
contracta to the orifice area.

Q10 How do you determine the Cd of an orifice?

Ans: The actual discharge is measured by volumetric method. The known volume of water is
collected in a measuring tank and dividing it by the time required, the actual discharge is obtained.
The theoretical discharge is calculated by a√ (where, a is the area of the orifice).
Therefore, Cd = Qact/Qth.

Q11 Differentiate between a large and small orifice.

Ans: An orifice is called small if d < H/5 and large if d > H/5, where, d is the size of the orifice
and H is the head over the orifice.

Q12 What is the value of Cd that can be assumed when the width of the rectangular or the
diameter of the circular orifice is about 0.3 m or more?
Ans: As an approximation, Cd = 0.6 is used.

Q13 Define the coefficient of resistance.

Ans: The coefficient of resistance is the ratio of the loss of kinetic energy as the liquid flows
through the orifice to the actual kinetic energy possessed by the flowing fluid. It is given by

Cr = ( )
Possible Errors
1. Observational error in reading the piezometer of the collecting and overhead tank.
2. Error in recording the time of collection of water.
3. Uncertainty in reading the jet coordinates.
4. Improper operation of the gate valve.

Precautions
1. Ensure the priming condition of the pump during experimentation.
2. Ensure the supply condition under constant head.
3. Maintain proper earthing of electrical connections.
4. Check the gate valves frequently to avoid leakages.
5. Operate the equipment under the supervision of laboratory technical staff.
6. In case of emergency, contact the laboratory technical staff.

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 11. DETERMINATION OF VANE COEFFICIENTS FOR A FLAT
VANE & SEMICIRCULAR VANE

Date of Expt. :
Date of Submission: Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim:
To conduct an experiment on the jet on Vane apparatus and determine the vane coefficients for flat
vane and semicircular vane.
Apparatus:
1. Impact of jet apparatus
2. Stopwatch
3. Weights
4. Scale
Experimental set-up:
The schematic diagram of experimental set-up used to study the impact of jet on various vanes is
shown in figure.

The equipment consists of a high efficiency gun metal nozzle fitted to a 25mm. dia. Pipe supply
line with a gate valve. Vertically above the nozzle, a gun metal vane is fitted to a bracket of a
differential lever which balances the upward force of the jet from the nozzle. The lever is provided
with an adjustable no load crew mechanism. The force due to the jet on the lever is counter

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 balanced by metric weights placed on a hanger. Different types of vanes can be fitted to the
bracket.
For experimental purposes, two brass nozzles with nozzle outlet diameters of 8 mm and 10 mm
and two gunmetal vanes of the following shape are provided.
1. Semi-circular vane (180 deg. angle of deflection)
2. Horizontal flat vane (90 deg. angle of deflection)

Theory:
The study of impact of a jet of water is essential to understand the principle of an impulse
turbine such as Pelton wheel Turbine. When high pressure water from a source such as dam flows
through a nozzle in the form of a jet, the entire pressure energy of the water is converted into
kinetic energy at the nozzle. When this jet of water hits a vane positioned in front of it, the vane
deflects the jet and due to the change in the momentum of the water jet, a force is imparted to the
vane by the water.
For steady state the momentum equation is

F=∫ (1)

Where is the mass density of water, V the velocity of the jet, dA the area of jet and CS the
control surface.
Let a jet discharged from a nozzle under atmospheric pressure strikes a vane inclined at angle ß
with the direction of the jet as shown in figure. The force Fn normal to the vane, exerted by the jet
on the vane can be obtained by applying momentum equation normal to the vane as
Fn = Qo * Vo * sin ß (2)
Where Qo is the discharge and Vo is the velocity of jet
From this equation, Fy = Qo * Vo * sin2 ß (3.a)

The force Fy acts in the direction of jet on the vane, which is the lift force. In case the jet impinges
normal to the vane, ß = 90o, and hence, Eq. (3.a) yields
Fy = Qo * Vo (3.b)
For semicircular vane [see Figure 7.2 (b)]
Fy = Fn = Qo * Vo(1 + cos ß) (3.c)

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 The weight placed on the pan balances the vane. Hence the efficiency of the vane is given by

ɳ= = (4)

Experimental Procedures:
1. Fit the required vane on the lever arm.
2. Measure the differential lever arms and calculate the ratio of lever arms (2.056 in this
case).
3. Balance the lever systems by means of counter weight for no load.
4. Place a weight on the hanger.
5. Open the gate valve and adjust the jet, so that the weight arm is balanced.
6. The time required to collect 10 cm depth of water in the collecting tank is noted (d= d2 –d1).
7. Note: a) The pressure gauge reading – p.
b) The weight placed on hangar– W.
c) Time for 10cm rise in the collecting tank – ‘’ t ’’ time in second
8. Calculate the discharge by weight.
9. Actual lifting force measured = W x lever arm ratio kg * 981
10. Actual force for flat vane is Fact = 2.056 * W * 981

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 11. Theoretical force for flat vane is FThe = ρav2
12. Theoretical force for Semicircular vane is FThe= 2 ρav2
13. The coefficient of vane efficiency the jet ɳ = Fact / FThe
14. Similarly calculate the coefficient of vane efficiency the jet for different vanes.
Calculations:

1. Diameter of the jet d =……….cm

2. C/S area of the nozzle or jet a =……….cm2
3. Area of collecting tank A = …….. cm2
4. Rise in water level (d=d1 - d2), h = ……..cm
5. Bulk density of water ρ = 1000 kg/m3 = 0.001 kg/cm3
6. Actual lifting force measured = W x lever arm ratio kg * 981
7. Actual force for flat vane is Fact = 2.056 * W * 981
8. Theoretical force for flat vane is FThe = ρav2
9. Theoretical force for Semicircular vane is FThe= 2 ρav2
10. The coefficient of vane efficiency the jet ɳ = Fact / FThe
Vane Type:
Sl. Load in Pressure Time for ‘h’ Discharge Velocity Actual Theoretical Fact
ɳ=
cm in water A*h Q force Fthe
No hangar in Q= V= Force
collecting in Fthe
‘W’ kg kg/cm2 t a Fact
‘t’ Sec

Result:
1. The efficiency of Semi-Circular Vane…………………
2. The efficiency of Horizontal flat vane…………………

Review of Learning Objectives

Q1 State the impulse-momentum equation.
Ans: The impulse of the resultant force is equal to the change in momentum of the body. It is
given by ΣF = ρQ(V2 - V1), where ΣF is the sum of the forces, ρ the mass density of fluid, Q the
discharge, V2 the final velocity of flow and V1 the initial velocity of flow.
Q2 Define the impulse and momentum.
Ans: Impulse is defined as the product of force and time. Momentum is the product of mass and
velocity.

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 12. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE STAGE
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Date of Expt.:
Date of Submission: Sign. of Teacher Marks
Experiment No.
Aim of the Experiment: To study the performance of a single stage centrifugal pump.
Apparatus: Single stage centrifugal pump, stop watch, Energy meter etc.
Figure:

Figure: Single stage centrifugal pump set-up

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 Theory:
The basic principle on which centrifugal pump works is that when a certain mass of liquid
is made to rotate by an external force, it is thrown away from the central axis of rotation and a
centrifugal head is impressed which enables it to rise to a higher level. If more liquid is constantly
made available at the centre of rotation, a continuous supply of liquid at higher level may be
ensured. Since in these pumps the lifting of the liquid is due to the centrifugal action these pumps
are called ‘centrifugal pumps’.
The pumps are of major concern to most Engineers and Technicians. The types of pump vary in
principle and design. The selection of the pump for any particular application is to be done by
understanding their characteristics. The most commonly used pumps for domestic, agricultural and
industrial purposes are; Centrifugal, Piston, Axial Flow (Stage pumps), Air Jet, Diaphragm and
Turbine pumps. Most of these pumps fall into the main class, namely, Rotodynamic, Reciprocating
(Positive Displacement), Fluid (Air) operated pumps.
In centrifugal pump the liquid is made to rotate in a closed chamber (Volute Casing), thus resulting
in the continuous flow. These pumps compared to Reciprocating Pumps are simple in construction,
more suitable for handling viscous, turbid (muddy) liquids. But, their hydraulic heads per stage at
low flow rates is limited, and hence not suitable for very high heads compared to Reciprocating
Pumps of same capacity. But, still in most cases, this is the only type of pump which is being
widely used for agricultural purposes.

Procedure:
1. Fill the pump with water and close the valve.
2. Close the discharge valve.
3. The pump is then started. As discharge valve is closed, no discharge will be observed, but
discharge pressure will be indicated. This is called Shut off head of the pump.
4. Now slowly open the discharge valve, so that small discharge is observed.
5. The speed of the shaft is measured by using a tachometer (N).
6. The suction and delivery pressure gauge readings are noted.
7. The time taken for 10 revolutions in the energy meter is noted.
8. Time for collecting 30 cm depth of water in the tank is also noted.
9. Then slowly varying the discharge valve, the above procedure is repeated.

Observations:
1. Diameter of delivery pipe, Dd = ………………………………. cm
2. Diameter of section pipe, Ds = ………………………………… cm

3. C/s area of delivery pipe, Ad = * Dd2 ……………………...… cm2

4. C/s area of section pipe, As = * Ds2 ………………………….. cm2
5. C/S area of the tank, l x b = …………………………………….. cm2

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 6. Depth of water collected, h = ………………………………….... cm
7. Volume of water collected, V = l x b x h ..………………………. cm3
8. Acceleration due to gravity, g = 981 cm/sec2
9. Energy meter constant, C = 150 Rev / KWh
10. Difference between suction and delivered pressure gauges, X = ……………………. m
Formula’s used:

Input = KW

Output = KW

Efficiency =  = x 100 = …………….. %.

Where
C = Energy meter constant in Rev / KWh
T = Time taken for 10 revolution on energy meter in second
ρ = 1000 Kg/m3 = density of water in Kg/m3
Q = actual discharge in m3/sec
g = gravitation force = 9.81 m/sec2
H = total head of water = G + V + X , in meter

Result:
The efficiency of a single stage centrifugal pump is ………………..

Precautions:
1. Priming is must before starting the pump. Pump should never be run empty.
2. Use clean water in the sump tank.
3. Use all the controls and switches carefully.
4. Do not disturb the pressure gauge connections.
Applications:
The most commonly used pumps for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes are;
Centrifugal pumps. These pumps fall into the main class, namely, Rotodynamic pumps.
Questions:
1. What is meant by a Roto-dynamic machine?
2. What is meant by priming of a pump?
3. What energy is converted in a pump?
4. What types of fluids are pumped by centrifugal pumps?
5. What are the pumping characteristics of a centrifugal pump?
6. What is meant by efficiency of a pump?

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 TABULATION

Sl. % of Delivery Section Total head Time Time for 10 Input Output Efficie
Qact=
No. value pressure ‘G’ Pressure ‘V’ H= taken to revolution in in ncy 
open 2 2
G + V + X collect 20 on energy m3/sec KW KW =
(1) (2) Kg/cm m Kg/cm m in m cm water meter (11) (12)
(3) (4)= (5) (6)= (10) *100
10(3) 10(5)
(7) (t sec) (8) (T sec) (9)

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 13. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PELTON WHEEL

Date of Expt.:
Date of Submission: Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim of the Experiment: To study the performance of Pelton Wheel Turbine.

Apparatus: Pelton wheel turbine test set-up, Venturimeter, Pressure gauge, Loading arrangement,
Tachometer etc.
Figure:

Theory:
Hydro-Power is one of major cheap source of power available on earth, and hence it is widely used
for generation of electric power worldwide. Water stored in the Dam contains potential energy.
This is utilized to run turbine, which then drives a generator. The output from the generator can be
transmitted to the areas of electric power requirement.
Turbines are basically of two types, viz. Impulse turbines and Reaction turbines. In impulse
turbines, water coming from high head acquires high velocity. The high velocity water jet strikes
the buckets of the turbine runner and makes it to rotate by impact force. In reaction turbine, total
head of water is partly converted into velocity head as it approaches turbine runner and it fills the
runner and pressure of water gradually changes as it flows through runner. In impulse turbine, the
only turbine used now-a-days is Pelton Wheel Turbine. In reaction turbines, Francis Turbine and
Kaplan Turbine are the examples.
The Pelton Wheel consists of runner consisting of a circular disc with number of evenly spaced
round, its periphery. The buckets have a shape of double sem-ellipsoidal cups. Each bucket is
divided also two symmetrical parts by a sharp-edge known as splitter. The jet of water impinges on
the splitter. The buckets are so shaped that the angle at the outlet tip varies from 100 to 200. So that
the jet of water gets deflected through 1600 or 1700. The back of the bucket is so shaped that as it

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 swings downward into the jet no water is wasted by splashing. Further at the lower tip of the
bucket a notch is cut which prevents the jet striking the preceding bucket being intercepted by the
next bucket very soon and it is also avoids the deflection of water towards the center of the wheel
as the bucket first meets the jet. In order to control the quantity of water striding the runner, the
nozzle fitted at the end of the penstock is provided with a spear or needle having a streamlined
head which is fixed to the end of a rod. The spear may be operated either by a wheel or a governor.

Procedure:
1. Fill in the underground tank with clean water.
2. Open the gate valve in the discharge pipe of the pump fully.
3. Check nut bolts & the driving belt or proper tightening.
4. The inlet and outlet of the differential manometer are connected to the venturimeter.
5. The air bubble is removed from the glass tube.
6. Now the percentage of the opening valve is 100%.
7. Start the Pelton wheel turbine.
8. Initially apply load on hanger 2 Kg and later increase load on hanger i.e, 4 Kg, 6Kg & 8Kg
for different procedure.
9. The differential mercury manometer readings are noted.
10. The speed of the shaft is noted i.e., R.P.M. with the help of a Tachometer.
11. The inlet and outlet pressure gauge readings are note down in Kg/cm2.
12. The above procedure is repeated for decreasing order of percentage valve values are 75%,
50%, and 25% value opening and simultaneously different load patterns are 4 Kg, 6Kg &
8Kg.
Observations:
1) Diameter of brake Drum = d =……………………… m
2) Diameter of Rope = dr = ………………………. m
3) Effective Brake Dia = D = d + dr = …………..…….. m
4) Inlet diameter of venturimeter = d1= ……………….. m
5) Throat diameter of venturimeter = d2= ……………… m
6) Inlet area of venturimeter = a1= ……………………... m2
7) Throat area of venturimeter = a2= …………………… m2
√
8) Actual discharge = Qact = ………. m3 /sec
√ –

h= in m where x ……..in cm and Cd = 0.98

x = Manometer difference across venturimeter ... cm

9) Water Power or Input power = …………….. Kw

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 10) Brake Horse Power or Output = …….. Kw
11) Efficiency of turbine, ɳ = * 100 ………………… %

Where W = net weight = (Wg – Ws) …………………………... kg

Wg = Weight in Hanger …………………………………. kg
Ws = Spring load …………………………........................ kg
N – Revolution per minute (RPM) from tachometer

Result:
The efficiency of a Peltan wheel turbine is ………………..

Precautions:
1. Do not start pump set if the supply voltage is less than 300 V (phase to phase voltage).
2. Do not forget to give electrical earth and neutral connections correctly. Otherwise, the
RPM indicator gets burnt if connections are wrong.
3. Frequently, at least once in three months, grease all visual moving parts.
4. Initially, fill-in the tank with clean water free from foreign material. Change the water
every six months.
5. At least every week, operate the unit for five minutes to prevent any clogging of the
moving parts.
6. To start and stop the supply pump, always keep gate valve closed.
7. It is recommended to keep spear rod setting at close position before starting the turbine.
This is to prevent racing of the propeller shaft without load.
8. In case of any major faults, please write to manufacturer, and do not attempt to repair.

Questions:
1. On what principle the Pelton wheel turbine works?
2. What is the shape of buckets in Pelton wheel turbine?
3. What is the clearance angle of the buckets? State why it is not 1800?
4. Define unit quantities and specific speed.
5. Why multiple jets are used in Pelton wheel turbine?

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 Manometer Load on Net
% of Pressure reading Dynamometer Net Manometer Actual
Load Speed Av.
Sl. gauge gauge head head dis In Out
openi IR Diff. W= RPM
charge put put Eff. Eff.
No. reading FR Wg Ws H=10P h=
ng 2 C =x ( Wg-Ws) (N) Q % %
P kg/cm cm in Kg in Kg m in m 3
value m cm in Kg in m /s
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

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 14. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A KAPLAN /
FRANCIES TURBINE

Date of Expt.:
Date of Submission: Marks
Experiment No. Sign. of Teacher

Aim: To determine performance of Francies turbine.

Apparatus: Manometer, Pressure gauge, Vacuum gauge.

Figure: Experimental setup

Venturi meter

Control
valve
H.P.motor

Under
Drought tube ground
tank

Figure: Experimental setup of Francies turbine.

Theory:
The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as Francies
turbine after the name of T.B. francies an American engineer who in the beginning designed
inward radial flow reaction type of turbine. In the modern francies turbine the water enters the
runner of turbine in radial direction at outlet and leaves is axial direction at inlet of runner the
modern francies turbine is a mixed flow type turbine. The velocity of at inlet and outlet of turbine.
The discharge is radial at outlet.
The most commonly used pumps for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes are:
Centrifugal, Piston, Axial Flow (Stage pumps), Air Jet, Diaphragm and Turbine pumps. Most of
these pumps fall into the main class, namely, Rotodynamic, Reciprocating (Positive
Displacement), Fluid (Air) operated pumps.

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 Procedure:
1. Fill in the underground tank with clean water.
2. Open the gate valve in the discharge pipe of the pump fully.
3. Check nut bolts & the driving belt or proper tightening.
4. The inlet and outlet of differential mercury manometer are connected to venturimeter.
5. The air bubbles are removed from grass tube.
6. Initial the percentage of the opening valve value is 100%.
7. Now starts the Francies turbine.
8. Apply the initial weight on hanger 2 Kg and later increase weight on hanger 4 Kg, 6 Kg
and 8 Kg for different procedure.
9. The differential mercury manometer readings are noted i.e, x in cm
10. The speed of the shaft (N) is note down i.e., R.P.M. with the help of a Tachometer.
11. The inlet pressure gauge in kept constant i.e, P1 = 1 Kg/cm2 and while outlet pressure
gauge reading is note down in Kg/cm2.
12. The above procedure is repeated for different set of % valve opening and weight patterns
reading are note down.

Observations:
1. Radius of break drum, R = ……………….m
2. Venturimeter inlet diameter d1 = …………m
3. Venturimeter outlet diameter d2 = ………..m
4. C/s area of inlet diameter a1 =………………m2
5. C/s area of outlet diameter a2 =………………m2
√
6. Actual discharge = Qact = ………. m3 /sec
√ –

h= in m where x ……..in cm and Cd = 0.98

x = Manometer difference across venturimeter ... cm
Specific gravity of mercury Sm = 13.6
7. Net head of turbine, H = P1 – (-P2)
8. Water Power or Input power = …………….. Kw

9. Brake Horse Power or Output = …….. Kw

W= (Wg –Ws) in Kg
Wg= Weight in Hanger in Kg Ws = Spring balance load in Kg.

10. Efficiency of turbine, ɳ = * 100 ………………… %

Result :
Overall efficiency of the Francies turbine =

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 Tabulations:

% of Inlet Outlet Mercury Load on Net Load Speed Net Actual Input Output ɳ
gauge pressure pressure Manometer Dynamomet RPM head discharg in Kw in Kw
Sl. W= in
value gauge gauge Reading in cm er H in e Q in
No. Wg –Ws (N) %
openi reading reading IR FR Diff. Wg Ws m m3/sec
in Kg
(1) ng (2) P1 Kg/cm2 P2 in in x in in in (11) (12) = (13) (14) (15) (16)
10((3)+(4))
(3) Kg/cm2 cm cm cm Kg Kg (10)
(4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

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 Precautions:

1. Operate all the controls gently.

2. Never allow to raise the discharge pressure above 1 kg/cm2
3. Always use clean water for experiment.
4. Before starting the pump ensure that discharge valve is opened fully.

Applications:

1. To drill oil from deep wells.

2. To pump any liquid which is free from debris.

Questions:

1. What is the main aim of the experiment?

2. What is meant by a positive displacement pump?
3. What types of fluids are pumped by Reciprocating pumps?
4. What are the pumping characteristics of a Reciprocating pump?
5. What is the normal efficiency of a Reciprocating pump?
6. What are the normal precautions to be taken when operating a pump?
7. What is the function of air vessel?

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