CAPTURE FISHERIES

Jhon Mar A. Majerano

Faculty, Southern Leyte State University- Main Campus, Sogod, Southern Leyte

Introduction
World population is expected to increase from the present 6.8 billion people to about
9 billion by 2050. For an archipelagic country with abundant sources of nutritious and healthy
food from marine sources, there has been a consistent increase in the demand for fisheries
products over the years and in the future. The primary purpose of capture fisheries is to
address the food requirements of the people. The challenge to national and international
policy and legal frameworks within which it is nested, is to ensure a sustainable harvest,
maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functions, and adapt to climate change.
This report illustrates an overview of the variety of fish and other aquatic organisms
that inhabit the inshore and offshore fishing community and the different kinds of fishing
gears used in fishing. The technique and science of catching fish and other edible aquatic
organisms either by use of fishing gears or by use of hands is called fish capture. It also
discusses the elements of capture fisheries, global fisheries production, the state of
resources and related issues, contribution to food security, and governance.

Brief History of Fishing

Fishing is no more than gathering of aquatic resources which served as early as
mankind. It is said to be older than agriculture since it is simpler in the sense that fishing is
merely the harvesting or extraction of fish and fisheries resources from their habitat with or
without the use of gears and vessels.
Hunting concept is the same as fishing except for the differences in medium.
Methods of hunting are similar both in land and water such as the use of spear and
harpoons, traps, shooting, and hook-catching. Techniques would vary due to the more
difficult conditions in hunting in or through water. Fishing methods developed over time to
adapt to the medium.
Our Alborigines confined their activities to catching of freshwater fishes and
crustaceans through their bare hands, stones, and the bow and arrow.
The Malays from the Malaysia brought with them
effective methods of fishing devices like fish coral and
fish pens. Later, the Japanese and Chinese brought
improved means of fishery like gill net, long line, and the
trawl.
Today, there are different kinds of fishing gears used by
small boat and large-scale fishermen. Modern fishing
technology includes the use of radar and electricity.

Figure 1. Aboroginal man hunts

in a swamp using a spear.
Classification of Capture Fisheries
Major Fishery Resources
Adaptation from Steven F. Edwards, in Large Marine Ecosystems, 2005

Fishery resources are stocks of target species and their environment. Gordon (1954,
p. 129), who advanced an elegant theory of rent dissipation along only the biomass and
productivity margins of a fish stock, actually described multiple attributes of fishery resources
in some detail.
Fishery resources have a comprehensive definition and, in general, refer to all
animals that predominantly inhabit aquatic habitats and are captured by humans (Gartside
and Kirkegaard, 2009). Therefore, invertebrates (e.g., mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms,
and even sponges) and vertebrates (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals) are
considered fishery resources, although only fishes and crustaceans (i.e., marine lobsters,
shrimps, and crabs) are quantified in fisheries statistics.
Despite several types of fishing resources, fishes (Chondrichthyes, Actinopterygii,
and Sarcopterygii) have been by far the most targeted group. Indeed, the higher importance
of those animals’ commercialization has been driven forward by their use for food supply
since the medieval period, being important, for instance, to the economy of several coastal
cities in the North Sea and the English Channel (Boyer, 1967). Furthermore, fisheries
production has grown throughout decades responding to an increase in demand and in the
number of fishers, as well as the improvement of fisheries technologies. In 1950, fishing
production comprised 20 million tonnes; in 2014, production has been estimated at 167.2
million tonnes, 87.5% of which (146.3 million tonnes) was destined to human consumption
(FAO, 2016).
Fishery resources are comprised of myriad biological (e.g., plankton, fish, and
mammal species), chemical (e.g., salinity, oxygen concentration), and physical (e.g.,
sediment type, oil and gas reserve, currents, space) attributes which can be further
differentiated by quantity, quality, and relational attributes. For example, a species of fish
could be defined by stocks, biomass, population, structure (age, size, sex), geographic
location and scale, gene pool, disease, dynamics (life cycle, migration, fecundity,
recruitment, growth rate, natural mortality), coexistence with other species, diet, habitat
requirements, and so forth.
Finally, fishery resource dynamics take place at different spatial and temporal scales,
and are highly uncertain (Sherman and Alexander 1986). Larval survival is an enigma, and
recruitment of species to a fishery is non-normal and quite variable. The possible influence
of habitat disturbance on the productivity of fishery resources is also unknown, even
qualitatively.

Impacts of Fishing on the Ecosystem

Impacts of fisheries on the environment have been abundantly described and
reviewed. More specifically, it reduces the fish abundance, spawning potential, and
possibly, population parameters (growth, maturation, etc.). Fish catch modify their age and
size structure, sex ratio, genetics and species composition of the target resources, as well as
of their associated and dependent species.
 When poorly controlled, fisheries develop excessive fishing capacity, leading to
overfishing, with major ecosystem, social and economic consequences. Fishing may also
affect ecological processes at very large scale. The overall impact has been described as
comparable, in aquatic ecosystem, to that of agriculture on land in terms of the proportion of
the system’s primary productivity harvested by humans (Pauly and Christensen, 1995).
Overfishing transforms an originally stable, mature and efficient ecosystem into one
that is immature and stressed. This happens in various ways. By targeting and reducing the
abundance of high-value predators, fisheries deeply modify the trophic chain and the flows
of biomass (and energy) across the ecosystem (e.g. Pauly, 1979). They can also alter
habitats, most notably by destroying and disturbing bottom topography.
The alteration of the habitat by various human activities may be physical (e.g. by
adding artificial structures like artificial reefs, oil rigs, aquaculture installations), mechanical
(e.g. through the “ploughing” effect of dredges and trawls), or chemical (e.g. through
injection of nutrients, pesticides, heavy metals, drugs, hormones).
Fishing may result in changes in productivity of resources (some positive and some
negative) and affects associated species. Some aspects of fisheries can have significant and
long-lasting effects, e.g. destructive fishing techniques using dynamite or cyanides or
inadequate fishing practices (e.g. trawling in the wrong habitat); pollution from fish
processing plants; use of ozone-depleting refrigerants; dumping at sea of plastic debris
that can entangle marine animals or be swallowed by turtles; loss of fishing gear, possibly
leading to ghost fishing; lack of selectivity affecting associated and dependent species,
resulting to discards, juvenile mortality that can be a threat to endangered species, etc.
Poorly-managed large-scale mariculture can damage coastal wetlands and
nearshore ecosystems, often used as nurseries by key capture fishery resources, and
contribute to ecosystem contamination with food residues, waste, antibiotics, hormones,
disease and alien species.

Overview and Status of Marine Fisheries

Capture fisheries refers to all kinds of harvesting of naturally occurring living resource in
both marine and freshwater environments. According to FAO, both Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans are considered fully fished and seed some prospects for increasing Indian Ocean
Fisheries as India has one of the longest coastlines in the world. They examined long term
trend of 200 major fish resources representing 77% of the marine fish landings of the world
and concluded that:
 About 47% to 50% of the stocks are fully exploited
 An estimate of 25% to 27% are under exploited or moderately exploited.
 Another 15% to 18% are over exploited and have no potential for further increase.
 The remaining 9% to 10% stocks have been depleted.
High landings are dependent on one or two productive stocks such as Alaska Pollock
and Japanese Anchovy in the North West Pacific, Atlantic Herring in the North East Atlantic,
and Skipjack and Yellowfin Tuna in the Western Central Pacific. The overall trend depends
on major tuna stocks and older categories of marine fish.

State and Trends of World Fisheries and its Implications

Adaptation from FAO State of World Fisheries 2022

Based on FAO’s assessment, the fraction of fishery stocks within biologically

sustainable levels decreased to 64.6% in 2019, that is 1.2% lower than in 2017 (Figure 2).
This fraction was 90% in 1974. In contrast, the percentage of stocks fished at biologically
unsustainable levels has been increasing since the late 1970s, from 10% in 1974 to 35.4%
in 2019. This calculation treats all fishery stocks equally regardless of their abundance and
catch. Biologically sustainable stocks account for 82.5% of the 2019 landings of assessed
stocks monitored by FAO.

Figure 2. Global
trends in the state of
the world’s marine
fishery stocks, 1974–
2019

Biologically sustainable stocks consist of the maximally sustainably fished and

underfished stocks, accounting for, respectively, 57.3 percent and 7.2 percent of the total
number of assessed stocks in 2019. The underfished stocks maintained a decreasing trend
over the entire period (bouncing back slightly during 2018 and 2019), whereas the maximally
sustainably fished stocks fell between 1974 and 1989, to then increase, reaching 57.3
percent in 2019.
 Figure 3. Percentages of biologically sustainable and unsustainable fishery stocks by FAO major
fishing area, 2019
In 2019, among FAO’s 16 Major Fishing Areas, the Southeast Pacific (Area 87) had
the highest percentage (66.7 percent) of stocks fished at unsustainable levels, followed by
the Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37) 63.4 percent (Figure 3). In contrast, the
Northeast Pacific (Area 67), Eastern Central Pacific (Area 77), Western Central Pacific (Area
71) and Southwest Pacific (Area 81) had the lowest proportion (13–23 percent) of stocks
fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Other areas varied between 27 percent and 45
percent in 2019 (Figure 3).
In general, after excluding Arctic and Antarctic areas, which have minor landings,
three groups of patterns can be observed (Figure 4):
(i) areas with an overall declining landing trend following historical peaks;
(ii) areas with catches oscillating around a globally stable value since 1990,
associated with the dominance of pelagic, short-lived species; and
(iii) areas with a continuously increasing trend in catches since 1950.
The first group has the lowest percentage of biologically sustainable stocks (59.2
percent), the second group the highest (76.1 percent), while the third is in between (67.0
percent). When management intervention is not strong, an increasing trend of catch (the
third group) suggests development of fishing and lack of control, with resource sustainability
most likely in good shape. However, when there is an increasing trend, stock assessment
may involve great uncertainty and be unreliable due to the lack of contrast resulting from the
one-way-trip pattern in catch or catch per unit of effort. In contrast, a decreasing trend in
catch (the first group) usually suggests worsening sustainability of fishery stocks or
implementation of strict regulations but lack of recovery. The highest level of sustainability
(the second group) is likely to be associated with the full development of fisheries, mature
management and effective regulation in fishing. However, other issues, such as
environmental changes and social factors, can also influence catch trends.

Figure 4. The three temporal patterns in fisheries landings, 1950–2019

A).
B).

C).

Landings of fish varied greatly among fishing areas (Figure 4), and therefore, the
significance of each area for global fishery sustainability may vary depending on its
proportionate contribution to the global landings The temporal pattern of an area’s landings
often reveals information about its ecological productivity, fishery development stage,
management and fishery stock status.

Status and trends by major species

For the top ten species with the largest landings in 2019 –
1. anchoveta (Peruvian anchovy), (Engraulis ringens)
2. Alaska pollock (walleye pollock) (Gadus chalcogrammus),
3. skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis),
4. Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus),
5. yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares),
6. blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou),
7. European pilchard (Sardina pilchardus),
8. Pacific chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus),
9. Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and
10. largehead hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus)
On average, 66.7 percent of these stocks were fished within biologically sustainable
levels in 2019, slightly higher than the global average of 64.4 percent. European pilchard,
Atlantic cod and Atlantic herring had higher than average proportions of overfished stocks.
Tuna stocks are of upmost importance because of their large volume of catches, high
economic value and extensive international trade. Moreover, their management is subject to
additional challenges owing to their highly migratory and often straddling distributions. At the
global level, the seven species of tunas of principal commercial importance are albacore
(Thunnus alalunga), bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus), skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis),
yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) and three species of bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus,
Thunnus maccoyii, Thunnus orientalis). The main commercial tunas contributed 5.7 million
tonnes of catch in 2019, a 15 percent increase from 2017 but still 14 percent lower than the
historical peak in 2014. On average, of the principal commercial tuna species, 66.7 percent
of stocks were fished within biologically sustainable levels in 2019, slightly higher than the
all-species average, but unchanged in comparison with 2017.
Tuna stocks are closely monitored and extensively assessed, and the status of the
seven above-mentioned tuna species is known with moderate uncertainty. However, other
tuna and tuna-like species remain mostly unassessed or assessed under high uncertainty.
This represents a major challenge, as tuna and tuna-like species are estimated to account
for at least 15 percent of the total global small-scale fisheries catch (FAO, Duke University
and WorldFish, forthcoming). Furthermore, market demand for tuna remains high, and tuna
fishing fleets continue to have significant overcapacity. Effective management, including
better reporting and access to data and the implementation of harvest control rules across all
tuna stocks, is needed to maintain stocks at a sustainable level and in particular rebuild
overexploited stocks. Moreover, substantial additional efforts on data collection, reporting
and assessment for tuna and tuna-like species other than the main commercial species are
required.

Status and Trends by Fishing Area

 The Northwest Pacific has the highest production among the FAO Major Fishing
Areas, producing 24.1 percent of global landings in 2019. Its total catch fluctuated between
17 million tonnes and 24 million tonnes in the 1980s and 1990s and was about 19.4 million
tonnes in 2019 (Figure 4B). Historically, Japanese pilchard (Sardinops melanostictus) and
Alaska pollock used to be the most productive species, with peak landings at 5.4 million
tonnes and 5.1 million tonnes, respectively. However, their catches have declined
significantly in the last 25 years. In contrast, landings of squids, cuttlefishes, octopuses and
shrimps have increased greatly since 1990. In 2019, two stocks of Japanese anchovy
(Engraulis japonicus) were overfished, while for Alaska pollock two stocks were overfished
and another sustainably fished. Overall, in 2019, about 55.0 percent of assessed stocks
were fished within biologically sustainable levels, and 45.0 percent fished outside these
levels, in the Northwest Pacific, a 10 percent increase compared with the last assessment in
2017.
In recent decades, catches in the Eastern Central Pacific have oscillated between 1.5
million tonnes and 2.0 million tonnes (Figure 4B). Total landings in 2019 were 1.9 million
tonnes, close to the maximum seen in history. A large proportion of the landings in this area
are small and medium-sized pelagic fish (including important stocks of California pilchard
(Sardinops sagax), anchovy and Pacific jack mackerel (Scomber japonicas), squids and
prawns. The productivity of these stocks of short-lived species are naturally more
susceptible to interannual variations in oceanographic conditions, which generate
oscillations in catches despite sustainable exploitation rates. Catches of California pilchard in
the Gulf of California stock have for instance recovered dramatically in the last three years,
most likely in response to favourable environmental conditions. As noted in previous years,
overfishing impacts selected coastal resources of high value, such as groupers, snappers
and shrimps. However, the status of these stocks is considered highly uncertain due to the
limited information available. The percentage of assessed stocks in the Eastern Central
Pacific fished within biologically sustainable levels has remained stable since 2015 at 85.7
percent, the second highest among fishing areas.

The Southeast Pacific produced 7.8 million tonnes of aquatic animals in 2019,
accounting for about 10 percent of global landings, with a clear decreasing trend since the
1990s (Figure 4A). The two most productive species were anchoveta and jumbo flying squid
(Dosidicus gigas), with landings of almost 5.0 million tonnes and 0.9 million tonnes,
respectively. These species are considered to be within biologically sustainable levels,
mostly due to a decrease in landings since the early 1990s as part of a more precautionary
and effective fisheries management of anchoveta. Araucarian herring (Strangomera
bentincki) was also harvested within sustainable levels. In contrast, South American pilchard
(Sardinops sagax), South Pacific hake (Merluccius gayi) and Southern hake (Merluccius
australis) continued to be overfished, and Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) is
currently being fished at unsustainable levels. Although the majority of the catch
(approximately 95 percent) within this region comes from stocks at sustainable levels,
overall, just 33.3 percent of the assessed stocks in the Pacific Southeast were fished within
sustainable levels in 2019.
The Eastern Central Atlantic has seen an overall increasing trend in catches, but with
fluctuations since the mid-1970s, reaching 5.4 million tonnes in 2019, the highest value in
the time series (Figure 4C). European sardine is the single most important species, with
reported catches of about 1 million tonnes per year since 2014 and its stocks remain
underfished. Round sardinella (Sardinella aurita) is another important small pelagic species.
Its catches have been generally decreasing to about 184 000 tonnes in 2019, only about 50
percent of its peak value in 2001. The species is considered overfished. The demersal
resources are known to be intensely fished in the region, and the status of the stocks varies
– some are classified as sustainable and others as unsustainable. Overall, 60 percent of the
assessed stocks in the Eastern Central Atlantic were within biologically sustainable levels in
2019.
In the Southwest Atlantic, total catches have varied between 1.8 million tonnes and
2.6 million tonnes (after an early period of increase that ended in the mid-1980s), reaching
1.7 million tonnes in 2019, a 5 percent decrease from 2017 (Figure 4A). The species with the
largest landings is the Argentine shortfin squid (Illex argentinus), representing 10–30 percent
of the region’s total catches historically. However, landings of this species decreased to 250
000 tonnes (14 percent) in 2019, and in contrast, Argentine red shrimp (Pleoticus muelleri)
catch has grown significantly since 2005. Both were fished within biologically sustainable
levels. In 2019, Argentine hake (Merluccius hubbsi) catch increased by 26 percent from
2017 and thus represents the most important species in terms of catch volumes for the
region with 449 000 tonnes. One of the hake stocks had recovered to biologically
sustainable levels in 2019 as a result of significant efforts to improve assessment and
management, including reductions in fishing mortality. Moreover, Patagonian grenadier
(Macruronus magellanicus) and whitemouth croaker (Micropogonias furnieri) have shown an
increase in catches of about 70 percent and 20 percent, respectively, since 2017. Overall,
60.0 percent of the assessed stocks in the Southwest Atlantic were fished within biologically
sustainable levels in 2019, a 20 percent improvement from 2017.
In 2019, landings in the Northeast Pacific remained at the same level as 2013, at
about 3.2 million tonnes (Figure 4B).
The Northeast Atlantic is the third most productive area and had a catch of 8.1 million
tonnes in 2019, a decline of 1.2 million tonnes from 2017. Its landings reached a peak of 13
million tonnes in 1976, then dropped, recovered slightly in the 1990s and have been
decreasing since (Figure 4A).
The Northwest Atlantic produced 1.7 million tonnes of aquatic animals in 2019 and
continued a decreasing trend from its peak of 4.5 million tonnes in the early 1970s (Figure
4A).
Total catches in the Western Central Atlantic reached a maximum of 2.5 million
tonnes in 1984, then declined gradually to 1.2 million tonnes in 2014, and rebounded slightly
to 1.4 million tonnes in 2019 (Figure 4A).
The Southeast Atlantic has shown a decreasing trend in landings since the late
1960s, from a total of 3.3 million tonnes to 1.4 million tonnes in 2019 (Figure 4A).
After reaching a historical maximum of about 2 million tonnes in the mid-1980s, total
landings in the Mediterranean and Black Sea declined to a low of 1.1 million tonnes in 2014;
since 2015, they have recovered slightly, with a catch of 1.4 million tonnes in 2019 (Figure
4A).
The Western Central Pacific produced the second largest landings, 13.9 million
tonnes (17 percent of the global total) in 2019, continuing the linear increasing trend since
1950 (Figure 4C).
The Eastern Indian Ocean continues to show a steady increase in catches, with 6.8
million tonnes in 2019. In the Western Indian Ocean, total landings continued to increase
and reached 5.5 million tonnes in 2019 (Figure 4C).
Conclusion/Recommendation
To conclude, capture fisheries play a crucial role in meeting global demands for
seafood and providing livelihoods for millions of people worldwide. However, the impacts of
fishing activities on marine ecosystems are substantial and multifaceted. Overfishing, habitat
degradation, bycatch, and the use of destructive fishing gear are among the primary
concerns affecting the sustainability of capture fisheries. These challenges not only
jeopardize the health of fish stocks but also disrupt the balance of marine ecosystems,
leading to cascading effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services.
The major fishery resources targeted in capture fisheries encompass a diverse array
of species, including pelagic fish, demersal fish, and invertebrates. Each fishing area has its
own unique set of species that are exploited based on regional ecological characteristics and
economic considerations. Despite the potential for sustainable management, many fisheries
face issues such as overcapacity, lack of effective governance, and illegal, unreported, and
unregulated (IUU) fishing, contributing to the depletion of fish stocks and compromising the
long-term viability of the industry.
Examining the status and trends of world capture fisheries reveals a complex and
dynamic picture. While some regions have made progress in implementing responsible
fisheries management practices, others continue to experience declines in fish stocks and
environmental degradation. The challenges vary across major fishing areas and species,
with some showing signs of recovery through effective conservation and management
measures. Overall, addressing the sustainability of capture fisheries requires a coordinated
global effort, encompassing improved governance, technology innovation, ecosystem-based
management approaches, and international collaboration to ensure the health and resilience
of marine ecosystems and the future viability of the world's fisheries.

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