Electric charges and fields

Electric Charge is the property associated with matter due to which it produces and
experiences electric and magnetic effect.

SI unit of charges coulomb(C)

Dimensional formula: M0L 0T 1 A1

Properties of charges
1. Electric charges exist in two varieties, positive and negative charges. Proton, electron,
alpha particle are examples of charged particles.
2. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
3. The electric charge is additive in nature. If a system contains n charges q1 , q2 , q3 , …, qn,
then the total charge of the system is q1 + q2 + q3 + … + qn .
4. The electric charge of a system is always conserved.
Law of conservation of charges:
It states that for an isolated system the net charge always remains constant.
5. The charge is quantised.
The charge on a body must always appear as an integral multiple of a unit charge e.
𝑄 = ±𝑛𝑒
The value of the elementary charge is e = 1.602192 × 10–19 C

Charge on a proton: + e = + 1.602192 × 10–19 C

Charge on an electron: -e = - 1.602192 × 10–19 C

Charge on an alpha particle = _____________________________________

Quarks are not elementary particles. They are constituent particles of protons and neutrons
𝑒 2𝑒
having charges ± or ± .
3 3
They cannot occur individually.

Methods of charging
1. Charging by friction: when two bodies are rubbed to each other, electrons from one body
often are transferred to the other. This type of charging is called charging by friction.

2. Charging by conduction: This type of charging is only possible in case of metals.

Suppose the charge on a metallic sphere is q. If the sphere is put in contact with an identical
uncharged sphere, the charge will spread over the two spheres. By symmetry, the charge on
each sphere will be q/2.

1
 Points to remember
1. Conduction is possible only for metals.
2. Spheres of same metal and same radius have the same capacity to hold charges.
3. The distribution of charges in a sphere is uniform, however the distribution over objects
with sharp edges may vary. It is usually higher at pointed ends.
4. All charges will reside on the surface. So it makes no difference if the sphere is hollow or
completely filled.
5. Protons don’t move, electrons are responsible for the movement of charges.
3. Charging by induction

Questions

1. A solid sphere will carry more charge than a hollow sphere of the same radius.
state if the above statement is true or false and justify your answer.
2. +q, +2q, +3q, +4q, ……(up to +20q) charges are situated at coordinates (0,0) ,
(1,0) ,(2,0) , ….. (Up to 20). What is the total charge stored in the system?
3. A charged conductor has its charge only on its outer surface. This statement is
true for which of the following?
a) For all conductors
b) Only for spherical conductors
c) For hollow conductors
d) For those conductors which don’t have sharp edges
4. If an object is positively charged, theoretically the mass of the object ______
a) Increases slightly by a factor of 9.11*10-31 kg
b) Decreases slightly by a factor of 9.11*10-31 kg
c) Remains the same
d) May increase or decrease

2
5. Which one of the following is the correct diagram of charge distribution in a
hollow sphere?
a.
b)

c) d)

6. Two equally charged spheres attract each other. Now if they touch each other
then they will _____
a) Attract each other with the same amount of force
b) Repel each other
c) Attract each other with less amount of force
d) not attract or repel
7. If a body gives out 10 9 electrons every second how much time is required
to get a total charge of 1C?
8. How many electrons are present in 1 coulomb of charge?
9. An object has an excess charge of -1.92x10-7C. How many excess electrons
does it have?
10. Two bodies A and B carry charges -300µC and -400µC. How many electrons
should be transferred from B to A so that they acquire equal charges?
11.How can you charge a metal sphere positively without touching it?

Coulomb’s law
The coulomb’s law states that, the electrostatic force between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges, inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between the two charges, and acted along the line joining the
two charges.

3
 Thus, if two point charges, q1, q2 are separated by a distance r in vacuum, the magnitude of
the force (F) between them is given by
|𝑞1 𝑞2 |
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
Here, constant k is given as
k = 1/4πε 0
In SI units, the value of k is about 9 × 109 Nm2C-2.
Coulomb’s law can be written as

1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
ε0 is the absolute permittivity of free space.
The value of ε0 in SI units is ε0 = 8.854 × 10–12 C2 N–1m –2

• If the charges are situated in a medium other than vacuum the quantity ε 0 is
replaced by ε, that is, absolute permittivity of that medium.
𝜀
• The ratio =𝜀𝑟
𝜀0
It is called the relative permittivity of the medium with respect to vacuum.
Sometimes also given as K called the dielectric constant of the medium.
𝜀 𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐
• = = 𝜀𝑟 = 𝐾
𝜀0 𝐹 𝑚𝑒𝑑

Coulomb’s law in the vector

Consider two charges q1 and q2, separated by a distance r apart.

Force ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹12 is force on q1 due to q2

Force ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹21 is force on q2 due to q1

Consider 𝑟̂
12 to be unit vector from 2 to 1, and

𝑟̂
21 unit vector from 1 to 2.

thus, force on charge 1 due to 2 is given as

4
 1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 12 = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 12
Similarly,

Force on charge 2 due to 1 is given as

1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 21 = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 21

Since, 𝑟̂
12 = - 𝑟̂
21

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Therefore, 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 = −𝐹21

This shows that the forces exerted by the two charges on each other are equal and opposite and act along
the line joining the two charges.

These equations are valid when both the charges are like charges and the force is repulsive.

• If the charges are unlike then the force will be attractive and a negative sign added to the equation.

FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES

Force on any charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum of all the forces on that
charge due to the other charges, taken one at a time. The individual forces are unaffected due to
the presence of other charges. This is termed as the principle of superposition.
Consider a system of three charges q1, q2 and q3. The force on charge q1, due to two other charges
q2, q3 can therefore be
obtained by performing a
vector addition of the forces
due to each one of these
charges.

Thus, if the force on q1 due to q2 is

denoted by 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 , 𝐹12 , is given as

1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 12 = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12 2 12
the force on q1 due to q3 , denoted by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 13 ,, is given by

1 |𝑞1 𝑞3 |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 13 = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟13 2 13

5
Thus the total force ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 on q1 due to the two charges q2 and q3 is given as

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 + 𝐹13

1 |𝑞1 𝑞2 | 1 |𝑞1 𝑞3 |
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = 𝑟
̂12 + 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟13 2 13
For n charges, force can be generalised to a system of n charges.

For system of charges q1 , q2 , ..., qn , the force on q1 due to q2 is the same as given by Coulomb’s law,
i.e., it is unaffected by the presence of the other charges q3 , q4 , ..., qn .

The total force F1 on the charge q1 , due to all other charges, is then given by the vector sum of the
forces
𝑛
𝑞 𝑞
𝐹1 = 1 ∑ 2𝑖 𝑟̂
⃗⃗⃗ 1𝑖
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1𝑖 𝑖=2

12.Can a charged body attract a neutral body?

13.If the force experienced by charge q1=2 µC, due to charge q2=6µC is 3i+4j ;
what is the force experienced by q2 due to q1?
14.Two identical conducting spheres A and B with charges -50e and +20e
respectively, touch each other. What will be the resulting charge on each
sphere?
15.Why a nylon or plastic comb gets electrified on combing dry hair or on
rubbing, but a metal article like spoon does not. Give reason.
16.Metallic bodies of the electric appliances such as electric iron, refrigerator
are connected to the earth wire. Why?
17.Two charged spheres with charges of 2x 10-7C and 3x10-7C are placed 30cm
apart in air. Calculate the force between the two charges.
18.Two small balls each carrying +q are connected by a non-conducting wire of
length l. Calculate the tension in the wire.
19.The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge q1=0.4µC due to another
small sphere of charge -0.8µC in air is 0.2 N.
a. What is the distance between the two spheres?
b. What is the force on the second sphere due to the first sphere?
20.Two identical conducting balls having equal positive charge q C are
suspended by two insulating strings of equal length. What will be the effect
on the force when a plastic sheet is inserted between them?

6
21.Coulomb’s law for electrostatic force between two point charges and Newton’s
law for gravitational force between two stationary point masses, both have
inverse-square dependence on the distance between the charges/masses.
(a) Compare the strength of these forces by determining the ratio of their
magnitudes (i) for an electron and a proton and (ii) for two protons.
(b) Estimate the accelerations of electron and proton due to the electrical force
of their mutual attraction when they are 1 Å (= 10-10 m) apart? (mp = 1.67 × 10–
27
kg, me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg)
22.Two-point charges having equal charge, separated by 1m distance
experiences a force of 8N. What will be the force experienced by them when
they are immersed in water at the same distance apart? (Kwater=80)
23. A free pith ball of 8g carries a positive charge of 5x10-8C. What must be the
nature and magnitude of the charge that should be given to a second pith
ball fixed 5cm below the former pith ball so that the upper pith ball is
stationary.
24.Two insulated charged copper spheres A and B have their centres separated
by a distance of 50cm.
What is the mutual force of electrostatic repulsion, if charge on each is 6.5
x10-7C? the radii of A and B are negligible as compared to the distance
between them.
What is the force of repulsion if;
a. Each sphere is charged to double the previous charge and the distance
between them is reduced to half.
b. The two spheres are placed in water, with dielectric constant 80.
25.Three point charges of +2µC, -3 µC and -3 µC are kept at the vertices A, B,
and C respectively of an equatorial triangle of side 20cm. What should be the
sign and magnitude of the charge to be placed at the midpoint M, of the side
BC, so that the charge at A remains in equilibrium?
26. Consider three charges q1, q2, q3 each equal to q at the vertices of an
equilateral triangle of side l. What is the force on a charge Q (with the same
sign as q) placed at the centroid of the triangle?
27. Consider the charges q, q, and –q placed at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle, as shown in the figure. What is the force on each charge?

7
 28. Four point charges qA = 2 µC, qB = –5 µC, qC = 2 µC, and qD = –5 µC are located
at the corners of a square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the force on a charge
of 1 µC placed at the centre of the square?
29. A charge q is placed at the centre of the line joining 2 equal charges (Q).
Show that the system of 3 charges will be in equilibrium if q=-Q/4.

Electric field:
An electric field is present in the space around an electric charge.
To determine an electric field at a point P due to a point charge Q:
Consider a point charge Q placed in vacuum, at the origin O. when another charge
qo is brought at P where the electric field is to be found, the field produces an
electrostatic force on the test charge q0.
The charge, producing the field is called source charge which should be much larger
than the test charge.
A test charge should be vanishingly small.
⃗⃗ at a given point can be defined as the force on a positive test
The electric field 𝑬
charge placed at that point, divided by the magnitude of the test charge.
⃗𝑭
⃗⃗ =
𝑬
𝒒𝟎
|𝑸|
⃗𝑬
⃗ =𝒌 𝒓̂
𝒓𝟐
For positive charges, the electric field will be directed outwards from the source
charge.
If the source charge is negative the electric field will be directed radially inwards to
the source charge.

Electric field lines:

An electric field line is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent to it at each
point is in the direction of the net field at that point.

8
It is a path along which a unit positive charge would move if it is free to do so. They
are imaginary lines.

Properties of electric field lines:

1. Field lines start at positive charges and end on negative charges.
2. The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of electric field
at that point.
3. Two electric lines of force can never cross each other: it is because electric
field at any point has a unique direction. In case the two lines of force
intersects at a point, then it will mean that at that point electric field has two
directions, which is not possible.
4. The field lines exert lateral pressure on each other. i.e. they tend to repel
each other.
5. The field lines possess longitudinal tension, i.e. they tend to contract
lengthwise.
6. The field lines do not pass through a conductor, it means the electric field
lines inside a conductor is always zero.
7. The relative closeness of lines of force in different regions of space gives the
idea about relative strength of electric field in different regions.
The regions with field lines closely spaced have strong electric field and the
regions where the field lines are further apart, electric field is weak.

9
 Electric dipole
A pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by a certain distance is
called an electric dipole. An electric dipole consists of two charges +q and -q
separated by a distance 2a. The distance AB is called the length of the dipole
and is a vector whose direction is from -q to +q.

Electric dipole moment:

It is defined as the product of either charge and the length of the electric
dipole. It is denoted by 𝑃⃗, which has same direction as the length of the
dipole.
Thus,
𝑃⃗ = 𝑞(2𝑎)
Electric field at a point on the axis of the dipole.
Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point-charges, -q and +q separated
by a distance of 2a. Suppose the charges -q and +q are located at points A and B
respectively, and let P be a point on the axial line where electric field is to be
determined. Let point P be located at a distance x from the midpoint of the
dipole.

Let EA be the Electric field at P due to -q and is given as

1 𝑞
𝐸𝐴 =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
Along PB
Let EB be the electric field at P due to +q and is given as
1 𝑞
𝐸𝐵 =
4𝛱𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
Along BP

10
The resultant electric field Ep at P due to the two charge will thus be
𝐸𝑃 = 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸𝑝 = 2
−
4𝛱𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 4𝛱𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2

1 1 1
𝐸𝑃 = ( − )
4𝛱𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2

𝑞 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
𝐸𝑝 =
4𝛱𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2

𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
𝐸𝑝 = [ 2 ]
4𝛱𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2

2(2𝑎𝑞)
𝐸𝑝 =
4𝛱𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 )2

2𝑝𝑟
𝐸𝑃 =
4𝛱𝜀0 2 − 𝑎2 )2
(𝑟

Directed along BP

If the observational point is very far from the dipole i.e. r>>a then,
a2 can be neglected in comparison with r2, and the above equation can be written
as
2𝑝
𝐸𝑃 =
4𝛱𝜀0 𝑟 3
Directed along vector P

11
 Electric field at a point on the equator (perpendicular bisector of dipole)
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges +q and -q separated by a
distance 2a.
Let P be a point on the perpendicular bisector, at a distance r from the
centre of the dipole.

The magnitude at point P due to -q is given as

1 𝑞
𝐸𝐴 =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )
And directed along BP
The magnitude at point P due to -q is given as
1 𝑞
𝐸𝐵 =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )
And directed along PA

Resolving the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸𝐴 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝐵 , we get EAsinθ and EBsinθ having same
magnitude and opposite in direction. Hence, they cancel each other. EAcosθ and
EBcosθ are same in magnitude as well as in direction, therefore, they will add up
to form the resultant vector.
Ep= EAcosθ + EBcosθ

12
 1 𝑞 𝑎
𝐸𝑝 = 2 1
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )
(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )2
2𝑎 𝑞
𝐸𝑝 = 3
4𝜋𝜀0
(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )2

Directed opposite to dipole moment vector.

If a<<r
We can neglect a2 and the above equation will be reduced to
2𝑎 𝑞
𝐸𝑝 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
Directed opposite to the direction of the dipole moment.
• Electric field due to a dipole is inversely proportional to r3 however
electric field due to a point charge is inversely proportional to r2.

Electric dipole in uniform electric field

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges -q and +q, separated by 2a, and
placed in a uniform electric field at an angle θ with the field.

The two charges experience a force of qE and -qE at A &B respectively due
to the uniform electric field.

13
The net force on the dipole is zero as the two forces are equal and opposite. But
as the line of force is different for the two charges torque acts on the dipole.
torque = either force × perpendicular distance between the forces
𝝉 = qE x (2a sin θ)
𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝜏 = 𝑃⃗ × 𝐸⃗
When a dipole is placed in a uniform electric field the net force is zero and only
torque acts on the dipole.
Case 1: if θ=0
𝜏=0
This is a stable condition or equilibrium position.
Case 2: if θ=900
𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸
Torque on the dipole is maximum if the dipole is aligned perpendicular to the
electric field.
Case 3: if θ=180
𝜏=0
Here the dipole is in unstable condition.

Continuous charge distribution:

Charge distribution may be 1 dimensional, 2 D or 3D accordingly it is termed as
linear charge distribution, surface charge distribution and volume charge
distribution respectively.
Linear charge distribution(λ):
When charge is distributed along a line, straight or curved, the charge distribution
is linear.
Consider the uniform distribution of charge q over a straight rod of length l. Then
the line charge distribution over the rod is given as

14
 𝑞
𝜆=
𝑙
Unit Cm-1
If charge q is uniformly distributed over a circular ring of radius r then its linear
charge density is
𝑞
𝜆=
2𝜋𝑟
Surface charge density (𝝈):
When charge is distributed over a surface plane or curved the charge distribution
is called surface charge distribution.
Consider the uniform distribution of charge q over a plane surface of area A. Then
the surface charge distribution over the plane surface is given as
𝑞
𝜎=
𝐴
Unit: Cm-2
If charge q is uniformly distributed over the surface of spherical conductor then
the charge distribution on the conductor is given as

𝑞
𝜎=
4𝜋𝑟 2
Volume charge density (𝝆)
When charge is distributed over a volume of an object the charge distribution is
called volume charge distribution.
𝑞
𝜌=
𝑉
Consider the uniform distribution of charge q over a volume of a sphere. Then the
volume charge distribution over the sphere is given as
𝑞
𝜌=
4 3
3 𝜋𝑟
Unit: Cm-3

15
Area vector:
It is a vector having the length representing the magnitude of area, and the
direction perpendicular to the area.
For a closed surface direction of the area vector is outwards.

Electric flux ∆φ
Electric flux is the measure of number of electric field lines passing through the
surface held in the field.
It is a scalar quantity.
SI unit Nm2C-1
Electric flux ∆φ through an area element Δ𝑆 is given as
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆ϕ = 𝐸⃗ . Δ𝑆
∆ϕ = E Δ𝑆 cos 𝜃
If the field is not uniform over a given surface area then to calculate total electric
flux through any surface, divide the given surface into small area elements, ds,
calculate flux due to each element and add up using integration.
• Electric flux through a surface for different orientation:
1. When uniform field is parallel to the surface.
Here θ=900
∆ϕ = E Δ𝑆 cos 90 = 0
2. When uniform field is perpendicular to the surface
Case 1. θ=00
∆ϕ = E Δ𝑆 cos 0 =E Δ𝑆

16
 Case2. θ=1800
∆ϕ = E Δ𝑆 cos 180 =-E Δ𝑆

1. For 0° < θ < 90°, Ф is positive.

2. For θ = 90°, Φ is zero.
3. For 90° < θ < 180°, Φ is negative.

Electric flux can be positive, negative or zero.

Gauss’s law:
It states that the total flux through a closed surface is 1/𝜀0 times the net charge
enclosed by the closed surface.

𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 𝜀0
Where q is the charge enclosed inside the closed surface.
Proof for Gauss’s law
Consider a charge q enclosed in a spherical surface of radius r.

Divide the sphere into small area elements, as

shown in the figure. The flux through an area
element dS is given as
⃗⃗⃗⃗
d𝜙 = 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
d𝜙 = 𝐸𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝑠

𝑞
𝜙=∮ 𝑑𝑠
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑞
𝜙= ∮ 𝑑𝑠
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑞
𝜙= 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

17
 𝑞
𝜙=
𝜀0
The charge q is enclosed inside the closed surface.
➢ Note:
1. Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape or size.
2. Gauss’s law, includes the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface.
3. The charges may be located anywhere inside the surface.

30. Calculate the electric flux through the rectangle of side 5cm and 10cm kept
in a region of a uniform electric field 100NC-1. The angle between the area
vector and electric field is 600. Suppose the angle now becomes zero, then
what will be the electric flux?

Application of Gauss’s law:

Electric field due to an infinitely long straight wire:
Consider an infinitely long straight wire with uniform linear charge density. To
find electric field at a point P, at a distance r, from the axis of the wire, draw a
gaussian surface.

The Gaussian surface for a thin straight wire of uniform charge density will be a
cylinder. Draw a cylinder of radius r, and length l, such that it is co-axial with the
wire.
The Gaussian surface can be divided into 3 parts, 2 end caps and 1 cylindrical
surface.
Electric flux through the entire gaussian surface will be
𝜙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 + 𝜙3

18
 𝜙 = 𝐸𝑑𝑠1 cos 90 + 𝐸𝑑𝑠2 cos 90 + 𝐸𝑑𝑠3 cos 0
𝜙 = 0 + 0 + 𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 ……….. 1
According to definition of linear density we know that
𝑞
𝜆=
𝑙

𝑞 = 𝜆𝑙 ………….. 2
According to Gauss’s law
𝑞
𝜙=
𝜀0
Using eq2 in the gauss law we have
𝜆𝑙
𝜙= …………… 3
𝜀0

Equating equations 1 and 3 we have

𝜆𝑙
= 𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
𝜀0

1 𝜆𝑙
𝐸=
2𝜋𝑟𝑙 𝜀0

1 2𝜆
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

➢ Gaussian surface is imaginary surface chosen for calculating electric flux by

applying gauss theorem.
1
➢ It is clear that 𝐸 ∝
𝑟
➢ Direction of electric field E is radially outwards when the charge is positive.
➢ Direction of electric field E is radially inwards when the charge is negative

Electric field due to an uniformly charged thin infinite plane sheet:

Consider a thin infinite plane sheet. Let positive charge be deposited on it. Let
𝜎 is the uniform surface charge density on the sheet.
To find the electric field E at the distance r from the sheet, draw a suitable
gaussian surface. Consider a gaussian surface as a cylinder with area of cross
section ds on both sides of sheet at a distance r and parallel to the plane of the
sheet.

19
 Total flux will be
∅ = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
+ 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.
∅ = ∅1 + ∅2
⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 0
∅ = 2𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
∅ = 2𝐸𝑑𝑠 ………………………1
According to Gauss’s theorem
𝑞
∅= …………………………..2
𝜀0

We know that 𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝑠

Substituting in the above equation
𝜎𝑑𝑠
∅= …………………………..3
𝜀0

Combing equations 1 and 3 we have

𝜎𝑑𝑠
2𝐸𝑑𝑠 =
𝜀0
𝜎
𝐸= ………………..4
2𝜀0

The electric field is directed perpendicularly outwards in case of a positively

charged sheet, and perpendicularly inwards in case of negatively charged sheet.
The electric field is not dependent on the area of the gaussian surface.

20
21