ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

ISO 21001: 2018 - KLECET

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY

Course Code BPHYS101/202 CIE Marks 50

No. of Hours/Week 02 SEE Marks NA
Exam Hours 03 Credits 04(0:0:2:0)
Semester I/II Academic Year 2023-2024
Prepared by Suraj Mangavati and Raghavendra Kulkarni

Course Objectives:
• Understand the measurement techniques and usage of instruments in physics.
• Demonstrate competency and understanding of the basic concepts found in experimental
Physics.
• Construct and analyze the electronic circuits.
• Estimate the error in measurements and the ability to prepare a valid laboratory record.

Course Outcomes:
Upon completion of this course, students will be able to

1. Understand the measuring techniques.

2. Operate different instruments and be capable to analyze the experimental results.

3. Construct the circuits and their analysis.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:

• Be present in the laboratory 10 minutes earlier to the scheduled time with all the necessary
things such as observation book, lab manual, journal sheets, calculator, pencil, scale, eraser
etc., Keep your working table clean and tidy. Throw the waste into the dust bin provided.
• Understand the theory given before you carry out the experiment and keep your journal on
the concerned teacher table.
• Proceed to experiment table, do the connections and wait until the instructions are given.
• Record your observations as and when you proceed and not after the completion. Perform
the calculations independently and show the graph and calculations done in detail to the
concerned teacher and get his/her signature before leaving the laboratory.
• Over-written values will not be considered for valuation.
• If you complete your experiment before 3 hours, you may write the journal etc.

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Sl. No Page
List of Experiments Date
No.
1. Study series and parallel LCR resonance and hence calculate
bandwidth, and quality factor.
2. I-V characteristics of Photodiode

3. Determine the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical

fiber
4. Determine the wavelength of the laser source using a diffraction
gratingelement.
5. Determine the Fermi energy of metal (copper).
6. Study the I-V Characteristics of the Given Bipolar Junction Transistor.
7. To determine the dielectric constant by charging and discharging
thecapacitor.
8. Determination of Magnetic field intensity along the axis of a
circularcoil carrying current.
9. Determination of Plank’s Constant using LEDs.
10. To find the resistivity of a semiconductor using the Four Probe
method
11. Viva Voce

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Expt. No. : 1 Date:

Study Series and Parallel LCR Resonance and hence Calculate Inductance, Bandwidth
and Quality factor
Aim:
a. To study the frequency response of the series and parallel resonance circuits.
b. To determine the bandwidth and quality factor of the circuit in series & parallel resonance.

Apparatus: Frequency generator, AC milli-ammeters (0-20 mA), resistor and capacitor of

known values, inductor (unknown) connecting cords etc.
Theory:
Series resonance AC circuit: Consider a circuit containing inductance, L, capacitor, C and
resistor, R in series as shown in figure 1. When an alternate e.m.f., V (=V max sin ωt) is applied
to the circuit an alternate current flow in the circuit. Let ‘I’ be the current, at any instant. The
voltage drop, VR across the resistance, R is in phase with current, the voltage drop, V L across
inductance, L leads the current by 90 o and the voltage drop, VC across the capacitance, C lags
the current by 90o. The resultant of VL and VC, (VL - VC) leads the current by 90 o, provided
(VL>VC) and will lag current by 90 o if VC >VL (figure 2)

75mH 0.1μF 750Ω VL

VL VC VR VL-VC θ
I

Vc
V, f

Figure. 1 Function Figure. 2

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, is in phase with the current

, leads the current by 90o
, lags the current by 90o

The applied potential difference will be given by

Therefore,

Where, ‘Z’ is the impedance of the circuit

Where XL inductive reactance and XC - capacitive reactance

Therefore,
The effective reactance is inductive or capacitive depending upon XL>XC or XL<XC. The
inductive reactance, XL is directly proportional to the frequency and increases as the frequency
increases from zero onwards. The capacitive reactance, X C is inversely proportional to the
frequency and decreases from an infinite value downwards. At certain frequency, both the
reactance (XL & XC) becomes equal and this frequency is called resonant frequency (fr).
Hence, at resonant frequency, as the two reactance’s are equal i.e., X L = XC (or) XL - XC = 0.
Then VL = VC (figure 3),

Therefore, ωL = 1/ωC because, ω = 2πf

Therefore,

I
VL

I
VR fr f

VC Figure. 3(a) Figure. 3(b)

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where, VL = VC, net voltage = VR

When XL = XC at resonant frequency, the impedance is minimum and equal to the resistance.
i.e., Z = R. In an ac circuit containing R, L and C the supply voltage is magnified at resonant
frequency as VC reaches a value far excess of the supply voltage. “The ratio of VL or VC with
applied voltage at resonant frequency is called voltage magnification and is denoted by Q
factor i.e., the quality factor”
Q = VL / V = IXL / IR = XL / R (as Z = R) or Q = 2πfr (L / R)

As

Parallel Resonant Circuit: Consider a circuit containing inductance, L, and resistor, R in

parallel with a capacitor, C as shown in figure 4. It is assumed that the resistance of the
inductance coil is negligible. The current in the inductance, I L will lag in phase by 90o to the
applied Voltage V. while the current in the capacitor I C will lead in phase by 90o the applied
voltage, V. These currents being out of phase can be considered equivalent to an AC. If the
supply current is “I” then I = IL + IC.
If IC > IL, at a particular frequency, then I = IC – IL = (V/XC) – (V/XL)
Since I leads by 90o on V, in this case the circuit is ‘net capacitive.’
If IL > IC at a particular frequency, then I = IL – IC = (V/XL) – (V/XC)
Since I lags by 90o on V in this case the circuit is ‘net inductive’.
Suppose V, L and C are kept constant & frequency f of the supply is varied from low to high,
the magnitude of I varies according to the relative magnitudes of X L (2πfL) & XC (1/2πfC). A
special case occurs when XL = XC, then IL = IC & so, I=0 at a particular frequency called
resonant frequency fr.

Therefore

Since Z=V/I & I=0 at fr, it follows that Z = ∞ at fr for a parallel inductor-capacitor circuit.

In practice when resistance R is taken in series with L, a similar variation of Z with f is

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obtained. But the maximum value of Z is finite now and Z = L/CR. In this case also the
resonant frequency is practically still given by

Function generator
Net inductive IC

I Net I 900
capacitive
I V
C, 0.1μF

IC IL
f
IL
L
Variation of I with ‘f’
Figure. 4a L,C and R in parallel Figure. 4b

Experimental Procedure:

Series resonance:
• The circuit connection for LCR series combination is made as shown in the circuit diagram.
• The supplied points are switched on, and the output of the oscillator is adjusted suitably,
which is kept constant throughout the experiment.
• The frequency ‘f’ is increased in appropriate steps and the corresponding readings of current
‘I’ in mA are entered in tabular column under series resonance.
• The frequency for which current reaches its maximum value (Imax) is called resonant
frequency (fr). The readings are plotted with frequency in Hz along X-axis and the current in
mA along the Y-axis. A resonance curve as shown in nature of graph will be obtained in
which fr and Imax are marked.
• The quality factor, Q of the circuit is evaluated by using the equation,
Q = (fr /f) where, f = (fb - fa) is the bandwidth
• The circuit connection for LCR parallel combination is made as shown in the circuit
diagram.
• The frequency, f is varied and the corresponding circuit currents are noted. The readings are
entered in tabular column under parallel resonance.
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• In this case the resonance frequency ‘f r’ corresponds to the minimum value of current (Imin)
in the circuit. The readings are plotted as earlier and the resonance curve as shown in nature
of the graph will be obtained. fr and Imin are marked. The Quality factor is determined.

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• The value of inductance is calculated in Henry using the formula given and verified with the
value connected in the circuit
EXPERIMENTAL PART

Formula:
𝑅
1. Band width, f = in Hz
2𝜋𝐿

Circuit Diagrams:
Series resonance

Parallel resonance

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Nature of Graphs:

Series resonance Parallel resonance

Record of Observations:
1. Resistance, R = ..................... 
2. Capacitance, C = .......... μF
3. Inductance, L = ........... mF
4. Tabular Column:

Current ‘I’ in mA.

Sl. No. Frequency in Hz.
Series resonance Parallel resonance
1. 200

2. 400

3. 600

4. 800

5. 1000 (1K)

6. 1.2K

7. 1.4K

8. 1.6 K

9. 1.8K

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10. 2.0K

11. 2.2K

12. 2.4K

13. 2.6K

14. 2.8K

15. 3.0K

Experimental Calculations:
1. Series resonance circuit (from graph)
Resonant frequency, fr = ………Hz.
fa = …………Hz. fb = ................ Hz.
Band width (series), Δf = fb – fa in Hz.
Δf =………… ……….…….= ............. Hz.
Quality Factor, Q = fr /Δf = ………….… = ............. (unitless)

2. Parallel resonance circuit (from graph)

Resonant frequency, fr = ............ Hz.
fa = …………Hz. fb = ................ Hz.
Band width (parallel), Δf = fb – fa in Hz.
Δf =………… ……….…….= ............. Hz.
Quality Factor, Q = fr /Δf = ………….… = ............. (unitless)
3. Calculating inductance, L (using fr from experiment)

4. Quality factor, Q (using L obtained)

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Result:

Parameters Series Resonance Parallel Resonance

Theory Practical Theory Practical

Resonance frequency, fr

Quality Factor, Q

Band width, Δf

Signature of the Faculty with date

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Expt. No. : 2 Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTODIODE

AIM: To study the reverse bias characteristics of the photodiode and hence to find the Responsivity.

APPARATUS: Photodiode, Bulb, power supplies and Ammeter, micro ammeter, Voltmeters.

PRINCIPLE: A photodiode is wo-terminal junction diode in which the reverse saturation current
changes when it’s reverse biased junction is illuminated by suitable wavelength of light. This small
amount of reverse saturation current is due to thermally generated electron-hole pairs. The number
of these minority charge carriers depends on the intensity of light incident on the junction. When the
diode is in a glass package, light can reach the junction and thus changes the reverse current.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: µA
- + + -
Photo
- diode
A
- -
0 – 5V 0 – 15 V
V V Source
Source
+ Bulb +
+

PROCEDURE:-

To study the reverse bias characteristics of the photodiode.

1) The electrical connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram;

2) The photodiode is moved towards the bulb and the distance between them is adjusted to around
1cm.
3) The Power supplies are switched on and the voltage across the bulb is increased or the distance
between the bulb and the diode is adjusted till the microammeter reads photocurrent of 5A.
4) For this fixed intensity of the bulb the reverse bias voltage across the photodiode varied as 1, 2, 3
and 4 volts and the corresponding microammeter reading is recorded in the tabular column.
5) The experiment is repeated by varying the intensity of the bulb for 10A and 15A of
photocurrents.
6) The graph is plotted between current versus voltage for different intensity of the bulb in the third
quadrant of the graph, because the current and voltages are for the reverse bias.

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7) The characteristics of the photodiode in reverse bias condition are obtained as shown in the
specimengraph.

Specimen graph:-
Reverse bias Voltage
in Volts
4V 3V 2V 1V 0V

For Low intensity of light 10

Reverse bias current
In A
For Moderate intensity of light
20

For High intensity of light

30

Photo diode reverse characteristics curves

OBSERVATIONS:

Reverse bias characteristics

For various Intensities of the

Bulb
Low intensity Moderate intensity High intensity
Sl
No. Biasing Current(I) Biasing Biasing
Current (I) Current (I)
voltage in in A voltage voltage in
volts involts in A volts in A

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10

Result: - The I-V characteristics of the given photodiode for different intensity of light is as
represented in the graph. From the graph it is clear that the reverse saturation current is
independent of biasing voltage and depends only on light intensity.

Signature of the Faculty with date

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Expt. No. : 3 Date:

Determine Acceptance angle and Numerical Aperture of an Optical Fiber
Aim: Using IEEE 1394 Fire wire cable (Optical Fiber Cable) and 625nm diode laser numerical
aperture (NA) and acceptance angle is determined.
Apparatus: OFC 1.5m (IEEE 1394 fire wire cable), diode laser- red 625nm, X-Y bed carrying a
screen and a movable chuck
Introduction: In modern communication systems, fiber optics plays a major role in linking
communication systems. In particular, landline telephone systems are connected via optical fiber
cable (OFC). Linking the cable to a communication system is an important aspect of communication.
Light coming out of the fiber before falling on to a detector or light entering the fiber optic cable
from the source encounters a change in the medium which results in refraction of light. Figure-2.1
shows that a light beam emerging from a fiber optics cable diverges due to change in the refractive
index of the medium. As air has lower refractive index than a cable, it results in the divergence of
the beam. If the size of the detector used is smaller than the area of cross section of the diverging
beam, part of the information will be lost in the process of detection. Hence the divergence of beam
has to be small in order to have proper communication. To account for this, a parameter, called
numerical aperture, is defined.
Numerical Aperture (NA) Numerical aperture is an important parameter of a cable. In optics,
aperture refers to the opening through which light passes and falls on the optics. Hence aperture has
dimensions of area (L2). Light from the optical fibre cable (OFC) comes out of the cable and falls on
the detector. As the name implies, numerical aperture is a number which varies between 0 and 1. In
other words, the numerical aperture also indicates the amount of light linking the cable and the
detector or the source. Smaller the numerical aperture better will be the cable. Numerical aperture of
a cable is defined as sine of the half angle of the cone generated due to the divergence of rays, as
shown in Figure-2.1.
NA = Sinθº ….1
In Figure-2.1, light coming out of an OFC falls on a screen, kept at a distance ‘L’ from it, on which
an image of the laser spot is seen. This spot and the emerging light form a cone. If ‘D’ is the
diameter of the circular spot and ‘f’ is distance between the screen and the OFC then

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Tan θº = (D/2)/f = D/2f….2

By measuring D and f, the value of tan θ can be determined; hence the numerical aperture can be
calculated from the equation
NA = Sin θº = Tan-1(D/2f) ….3
Figure 1 shows the NA and the angle θº.
Figure 2 shows the complete experimental setup. A fixed screen is graduated in millimeter with
2mm pitch, i.e. the distance between two vertical lines on the screen is 2mm. Figure 2 shows the
complete experimental set-up.
The X-Y bed consisting of a scale is fitted along the X-axis with zero coinciding with the screen. On
this X axis a needle fixed above the scale which moves along with the chuck indicates the distance
‘f’ between the fixed screen and chuck holding the OFC. The Y motion is used to adjust the spot at
the center of the graduated screen.
Figure 3 shows the X-Y bed and figure 4 shows the OFC cable used.

Figure 1: Laser light emerging from the Fig.3. The X-Y bed carrying graduated screen
cable and forming a divergent cone of rays and chuck (OFC holder)

Figure 2: Numerical aperture experiment set-up Fig.4. OFC used in the experiment
Procedure:
1. The optical cable is coupled to the laser and it is ensured that the laser light comes out of the
other end of the cable.
2. The other end of the cable is tied to the chuck fixed on the X-Y bed.

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3. The chuck carrying the OFC is brought close to the graduated screen and the laser spot is seen on
the graduated screen, as shown in figure 5.
4. By adjusting the fine motion screw of the microscopic bench, the spot size is reduced to 8mm
i.e., Spot size = D = 8mm

Figure 5: Laser spot, about 12 mm wide, formed on the graduated screen

5. The distance between the fixed screen and chuck carrying the OFC is noted on the graduated
scale fixed along the X-axis as f.
1. The value of ‘tan θº’ is calculated and presented in Tabular column.
2. NA is calculated using equation 3 and tabulated.
6. The experiment is repeated by increasing the size of the spot to 10mm and the corresponding
value of ‘f’ is noted. This is done until the spot becomes sufficiently bright and clear. The
readings obtained are tabulated in Tabular column.
7. The experiment is repeated with another cable of 1m length and the readings obtained are
tabulated in Tabular column. A graph showing the variation of D with f is given in figure 6
which is seen to be a straight line.
Experimental part:
Formula:
Numerical aperture = sin θº
Angle of acceptance = θº

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Nature of graph:

Figure 6: Diameter of the spot versus distance from the screen

Tabular Column: Variation of D and f

Cable D(mm) f(mm) Tan θº= D/2f θº Sin θº

Cable-1: 1.5m 8
MX1216 10
IEEE 1394
Fire wire 12
cable-1 14
16
18
20
22
24
26
Average

Result:
Fiber optical Cable-1
(1.5m)
Numerical aperture, NA, Sin θ°
Acceptance angle, θº

Signature of the Faculty with date

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Expt. No. : 04 Date:

Determine the Wavelength of the Laser Source using Diffraction Grating Elements

Aim: To determine the wavelength of given LASER using diffraction grating elements.

Apparatus: Diffraction grating, LASER source, graph, movable stands with clamp on frame.
Theory: LASER is an artificial light source, which has some superior features when compared to
natural light sources. It is highly monochromatic and coherent.
When light passes through a small aperture whose dimensions are comparable with the λ of light
then light deviates from its rectilinear path and bends around the corner of the placed aperture of its
geometrical shadow, this phenomenon is called diffraction. Because the source and the screen are
placed effectively at an infinite distance from the diffracting element it forms a class of Fraunhoferr
diffraction.
An arrangement consisting of a large number of parallel slits equal-spaced (opaque) is called a
diffraction grating. The distance between the centers of two successive slits is called the grating
element. If “a” is width of the slit and “b” is the distance between the two slits. Then (a+b) is called
the grating element or grating construction.
When a wave from is incident on a grating surface, light is transmitted through the slits and
abstracted by the opaque portions such a grating is called a transmission grating. In a transmission
grating the grooves scatter light and so are opaque while the un-ruled surfaces transmit and act like
slits. Typically, a high quality grating (used for studying spectra in the visible range) has about
15000 grooves per inch, which gives a slit spacing of the order of a micron.
A plane transmission grating is mounted on the grating stand next to the LASER source. Now, the
screen is moved till the diffraction spots are observed on it. Identify the central maximum and first
order maxima on either side of the central maximum – on the screen; mark them as O, X1 and X2
respectively. Find the mean of X 1 and X2 i.e. ‘X’, distance between the screen and grating ‘D’ and
grating element using the number of lines on the grating. Repeat the experiment for different values
of ‘D’. Using the formula, d Sinθ = nλ the wavelength of the given LASER is calculated.
The condition for maximum intensity is

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Precautions:
1. A LASER beam is usually of high intensity and also it is highly directional, so it should not be
looked directly as it is hazardous to the eyes.
2. The LASER should be switched off immediately after noting observations.
Experimental Part
Ray Diagram:

Formula:
As per the theory of diffraction of light waves, we have

d Sinθ = nλ i.e., λ= Å

where,
λ = wavelength of the given LASER source d = grating element
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θ = angle of diffraction n = order of diffraction

here, tan θ = X / D
where, X = mean distance of diffraction spots on either side of the central maxima.
D = distance between screen and grating
Nature of graph:

Order of diffraction (n)

X1 X2

Observations:
Total no. of lines per inch on the grating, N = 500 LPI Grating element,
d = 1″/ Total no. of lines per inch on the grating
= 2.54 cm / Total no. of lines per inch on the grating

d = ……….m

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Tabular Column 1: Using grating element N1
Distance of Mean X
Distance diffraction spot (in cm)
Between from central λ = d Sinθ
Order of Screen θ
maximum = X1 +X2 tan θ n
Diffraction and 2 in
=X/D
‘n’ Grating LHS RHS degrees (in m)
‘D’ X1 X2
(in cm) (in cm) (in cm)

1
2
D1=
3
4
1
2
D2=
3
4

Mean λ = …..………….m= ............... Å

Calculations: λ =

Result:

The wavelength of LASER Source = -------------- Å.

Signature of the Faculty with date

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Expt. No. : 5 Date:

Determine the Fermi energy of Metal (copper)
Aim: To determine the Fermi energy of a conducting metal (Copper Wire).

Apparatus used: DC regulated power supply, digital milli ammeter, Digital milli voltmeter, Heating
arrangements, Thermometer (0-1600 C) and Copper Wire.

Theory: “Fermi level” is the term used to describe the top of the collection of electronic energy
levels at absolute zero temperature. This concept comes from Fermi – Dirac statistics. Electrons are
fermions and cannot exist in identical energy state by the Pauli’s Exclusion Principle. So at absolute
zero they pack into the lowest available energy states and build up a “Fermi sea” of electron energy
states. The Fermi level is the surface of that sea at absolute zero where no electrons will have enough
energy to rise above the surface. The concept of Fermi energy is important for the understanding of
the electrical and thermal properties of solids. Both ordinary electrical and thermal processes
involve energies of a small fraction of an electron volt. But the Fermi energies of metals are of the
order of few electron volts. For a metal, the density of conduction electrons can be implied from the
Fermi energy. Fermi energy also plays an important role in understanding the mystery of why
electrons do not contribute significantly to the specific heat of solids at ordinary temperatures.
“Fermi energy is the energy corresponding to highest level occupied by the electrons at
absolute zero temperature.” Further, in metals, Fermi energy gives us information about the
velocities of the electrons which participate in ordinary electrical conduction. The Fermi velocity, VF
of these conduction electrons can be calculated from the Fermi energy, EF using the relation,

where, m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg is the mass of electron, EF is the Fermi

Energy and VF is the Fermi velocity.
A Fermi gas is a collection of non-interacting fermions. It is a quantum mechanical version of ideal
gas. Electrons in metals and semiconductors can be approximately considered as Fermi gases. The
energy distribution of the fermions in a Fermi gas at thermal equilibrium is determined by their
density, the temperature and the set of available energy states using Fermi-Dirac statistics. It is
possible to define a Fermi temperature below which the gas can be considered degenerate. This

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temperature depends on the mass of the fermions and the energy. In metals, the Fermi temperature is
generally thousands of Kelvin’s, so they can be considered degenerate. The Fermi temperature, T F
can be obtained by the relation:

where, kB = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1 is Boltzmann constant.

The number of free electrons in a metal per unit volume is given by,

where, NA = 6.023 x 1026 per m3 is the Avogadro number,  = density of the metal and M = Mass
number of the metal
The electrical conductivity of the metal is given by,

here, L is the length of the metal wire, R is its resistance at a reference temperature and a is the area
of cross-section of the wire.

The relaxation time is given by,

where, e = 1.602 x 10-19 C is the electronic charge.
If VF is the Fermi velocity, then mean free path of electrons, λF = VF τ ............. (6)

Now Fermi energy,

where the constant A = λF x T and T is the reference temperature of the wire in Kelvin, r is the

radius of the wire , and is the slope of the straight line obtained by plotting resistance of the metal
versus temperature of the metal.

Procedure
• The connections are to be made as shown in the circuit diagram.
• A thermometer is immersed in the beaker containing copper coil.
• Heat the beaker until the thermometer attains high steady temperatures, the temperature and
corresponding voltage and current are noted down.
• The trial is repeated taking voltage and current readings for the interval of 5°C until the
temperature reaches 30°C.

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• A graph is drawn taking temperature in Kelvin along X-axis and the resistance in ohm on Y-axis.
The slope (ΔR/ΔT) of the straight line is calculated.
• The Fermi energy is calculated using the formula

where A= λF T = constant, L is length of the copper coil and r is the radius of the copper wire.
EXPERIMENTAL PART
Formula:

Record of observations:
1. Length of the copper coil, L = 3.6 m
2. Radius of the copper wire, r = 0.26 mm = ..................... m

Circuit Diagram:
mA
_ + Thermometer

Constant
current _
power

+ mV Copper wire
Water
A.C. mains

Nature of Graph:

R (Ω)

Slope= ∆R /ΔT

Temperature (°K)

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Tabular Column:
Temperature Voltage V Current I Resistance
Sl. No. t in C T = t + 273 in K in mV in mA R = V/I in Ω

1. 30C
2. 35C
3. 40C
4. C
5. 50C
6. C
7. C
8. 65C
9. C
10. C

Calculations:
Given: Electron density, n = 8.464×1028 kg/mol, at 318 K the constant, A = λF T =8.1464×10-
6
mK

Fermi Energy,
where, ( ∆R /ΔT) is the slope of the graph.

E F= Joule
......................................
EF = eV = ....................................................eV
1.6021  10-19

Result:
Fermi energy EF = ----------------- eV
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Expt. No. : 6 Date:

Transistor characteristics
Aim: To study the input and output characteristics of a transistor and hence determination of the input resistance,
output resistance and the amplification factor.

Apparatus: Transistor, micro ammeter, milli ammeter, voltmeter and connecting wires, etc.

Theory: The transistor was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain in the year 1948 and was improved by
William Shockley in 1951. The three of them received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1956 for the invention of
transistor. Transistors form the basis of almost all modern electronic devices. A transistor consists of two P-N
junctions formed by sand witching either a P-type or N-type semiconducting material between a pair of opposite type
of semiconductor materials. Hence, the two types of transistors obtained are (i) PNP transistor [Figure 1(a)] and (ii)
NPN transistor [Figure 1(b)].

P N P N P N

E C E C

B B
Figure. 1(a) Figure. 1(b)

E – Emitter B – Base C – Collector

Terminals of Transistor: A transistor is regarded to be made up of two P-N junctions connected back to back. The
middle section of the transistor is known as ‘Base’. The section on one side of the base which supplies the free
charges is known as ‘Emitter’ and the section on the other side which collects these charges is known as ‘Collector’.
The junction between the emitter and base is known as Emitter-Base junction or simply Emitter junction. The
junction between collector and base is known as Collector-Base junction or simply Collector junction. In schematic
symbols of transistor an arrow is shown for emitter to indicate the direction of the conventional current.
Transistor action: For normal operation of the transistor the emitter junction must be forward biased and the
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collector junction must be reverse biased [Figure. 2(a) and 2(b)]. The forward biased emitter junction offers very low
resistance to the current flow and the reverse biased collector junction offers high resistance to the flow of current. A
weak signal is introduced at the low resistance emitter side and the output is taken from the high resistance collector
side. A transistor, therefore, transfers signal from low resistance side to high resistance side. Hence the name
transistor is derived from the two words TRANSferresISTOR.
E C E C
P N P N P N
IE B IC IE B IC
IB IB

Figure. 2(a) Figure. 2(b)

The current flow in the emitter base junction has to primarily carry out by the majority carriers in the emitter region.
The flow of majority carriers from the base to the emitter does not contribute to the collector current. Hence, in a
transistor the emitter region is heavily doped, the base is lightly doped. The collector is doped to a level greater
than that of the base and less than that of the emitter. For efficient working of a transistor, the collector current must
be a large fraction of the emitter current. This is possible only if emitter current is entirely due to the flow of the
majority carriers from the emitter and the loss of majority carriers from emitter in base is kept to a minimum. This is
possible only if the emitter is heavily doped and the base is made very thin.
The area of the collector junction is generally made considerably larger than that of the emitter junction. This is
necessary because the majority carriers from the emitter diffuse through the base in a forward direction and as well as
sideways. A large area of the collector junction prevents excess recombination of holes and electrons in the base
region.
Transistor configurations: A transistor is a three terminal device normally used as an amplifier. For an amplifier,
there should be two terminals for input and two terminals for output. Since the transistor has only three terminals, one
of the terminals is used as a common terminal to both the input and the output circuits. Accordingly, a transistor can
be connected in the following three different configurations:
1. Common – Base (CB) configuration.

2. Common – Emitter (CE) configuration.

3. Common – Collector (CC) configuration.

Regardless of the type of configuration, the emitter-base junction is always forward biased and collector-base junction
is reverse biased, when used as an amplifier. Each of these circuit connections has specific advantages and
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disadvantages. The common-emitter configuration has a specific feature of high gain which is due to the fact that the
change in base current affects the collector current more when compared with that of the common-base configuration
where the changes in base current affects the emitter current.
A bipolar transistor is usually regarded as a current amplifier, and its characteristics are usually described in terms of
current. In each configuration, the transistor has two characteristics, viz. (i) Input characteristics, and (ii) Output
characteristics.
Current Gain: Since the input controls the output current, the gain in the transistor is characterized by current gain or
current amplification factor.
In general current amplification is defined as the ratio of the output current to the input current. There are two current
amplification factors as given below:
a. The Alpha factor (α)
b. The Beta factor ( β )
a. The alpha factor (α): It is the property of the common-base circuits. It is the ratio of collector current (IC) to the
emitter current (IE) at constant collector to base potential (VCB). i.e.,
𝑰
𝜶𝒅𝒄 = ( 𝑪 ) -------------- 1
𝑰𝑬 𝑽
𝑪𝑩
The value of α is always less than 1.
b. The Beta factor (β): It is the property of the common-emitter circuits. It is the ratio of collector current (IC) to the
base current (IB) at constant collector to emitter potential (VCE). i.e.,
𝑰
𝜷𝒅𝒄 = (𝑰 𝑪 ) -------------- 2
𝑩 𝑽𝑪𝑬
In Junction transistors, β reaches the value of 40 and even 100 in some units whereas, α, for the same unit is less than
unity. The reason for this is that IB is very small as compared to IC.
Relation between α and β: For a transistor the emitter, collector and base currents are related to each other according
to the equation,
IE = IC + IB -------------- 3
Dividing both sides by IC, we get
IE IB
= +1 -------------- 4
IC IC
IC IC
But, we know that = α and =β
IE IB
1 1
Hence, we have, = +1
𝛼 𝛽
𝛽
or, 𝛼 = -------------- 5
1+𝛽

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1 1
Also we have, = − 1
𝛽 𝛼

𝛼
𝛽= -------------- 6
1−𝛼
Experimental Procedure (Output Characteristics):
• The circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
• Fix the base current, ‘IB’ for certain value (say 20µA), then vary VCE in steps of 0.05V and note down the
corresponding values of ‘Ic’ for the collector current until you get a constant value of Ic.
• Step 2 is repeated for different values of IB (say 40µA and 60 µA).
• A graph of IC v/s VCE is plotted for various IB values and the output resistance, Ro is calculated for anyone curve
(say for IB = 20 µA).
• Note down the steady values of IC for various IB values in Tabular column 2.
• Another graph for IC v/s IB is plotted. Finally the current amplification factor ‘β’ is calculated from the slope of
the graph.
Procedure (Input Characteristics):
• The circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
• First fix the C-E Voltage ‘VCE’ for certain value (say 0.5V), then vary VBE in steps of 0.05V and note down the
corresponding base current ‘IB’ (6 – 8 readings to be taken).
• Step 2 is repeated for different fixed values of VCE (Ex. 4.5V).
• A graph of VBE v/s IB for various fixed VCE is plotted.
• Finally the input resistance Ri is calculated from the graph.
EXPERIMENTAL PART (Input/Output Characteristics):
Formulae:
1. Current Amplification Factor, β = (∆IC /∆I B) (Unit less)
2. Input Resistance, Ri = ∆VBE /∆I B Ω
3. Output Resistance, Ro = ∆VCE /∆I C Ω
Circuit Diagram (Input / Output Characteristics):

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Tabular column 1: O/P Characteristics - Variation of collector current with base current
IB =20μA IB =40μA IB = 60μA
Sl. No.
VCE in Volts IC in mA VCE in Volts IC in mA VCE in Volts IC in mA
1. 0.00 0.00 0.00
2. 0.05 0.05 0.05
3. 0.10 0.10 0.10
4. 0.15 0.15 0.15
5. 0.20 0.20 0.20
6. 0.25 0.25 0.25
7. 0.30 0.30 0.30
8. 0.35 0.35 0.35

Tabular Column 2: Output Characteristics - Saturated collector current with base current.
IB in μA IC in mA
20
40
60
Nature of Graphs:
Output Characteristics Graphs:

Collector IC3 IB = 60µA

Current, IC IC
(mA) IC2 IB = 40µA (mA) ΔIC
IC1 IB = 20µA
ΔIB

VCE (Volts) IB in µA
Graph 1: Collector Current (IC) Vs Voltage across collector Graph 2: Output Current (IC) Vs Input
and emitter junction (VCE) Current (IB)
Tabular column 3: I/P Characteristics -Variation of base current with base to emitter voltage.
VCE = 0.5 Volts VCE = 4.5 Volts
Sl. No.
VBE in Volts IB in μA VBE in Volts IB in μA
1. 0.00 0.00
2. 0.50 0.50
3. 0.55 0.55

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4. 0.60 0.60
5. 0.65 0.65
6. 0.70 0.70
7. 0.75 0.75
8. 0.80 0.80

Input Characteristics Graph:

VCE = …V
IB _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ VCE =……V
(in µA)
∆I B
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

∆VBE
VBE (in volts)
Graph 3: Variation of base current with base to emitter voltage
Calculations:
Current gain, β =Slope = ∆IC /∆I B= ----------------- = ---------------

Input Resistance, Ri = ∆VBE /∆I B = ----------------- = --------------- Ω

Output Resistance, Ro = ∆VCE /∆I C = ---------------- = ---------------- Ω

Result:
The input and output characteristics of the given transistor are studied.
The current amplification factor, β = ----------
Input Resistance, Ri = ----------- Ω
Output Resistance, Ro = ------------- Ω

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Expt. No. : 7 Date:

To Determine the Dielectric Constant by Charging and Discharging the Capacitor

Aim: To determine the dielectric constant by charging and discharging of a capacitor.

Apparatus: RC charging discharging experimental setup consisting of digital stop clock 0.1 sec
resolution, digital dc voltmeter 0-20V, set of resistors and capacitors of known dimensions and 5V
DC power supply.
Theory: A parallel plate condenser is formed by keeping two metallic plates parallel to each other.
By applying a potential across the two plates an electric field is produced inside the space between
the two plates. By placing an electrically insulated material i.e., dielectric material within the plates
the capacitance can be increased. The resulting capacitance of the parallel plate condenser is given
by

Where,
C Capacitance in farad,

K Dielectric constant

ε0 Permittivity of free space 8.85x10-12 Fm-1

A Area of the plate and

d distance between the plates or thickness of the dielectric material.

A capacitor can be charged using a resistor and a DC source. The capacitor will charge
exponentially. The instantaneous voltage across the capacitor during charging is given by

Circuit diagram shows charging-discharging circuit arrangements using DC voltage source. When
the switch is thrown to the discharge position the capacitor loses its charge hence it discharges
through R. Therefore, the voltage across capacitor starts decreasing until it becomes zero. The
instantaneous voltage across the capacitor during discharge is given by
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Where, R is resistance in ohms, C is the capacitance in farad, t is the instantaneous time in second
and Vo is the maximum voltage to which capacitor is charged
The charge-discharge curve (See nature of graph) intersects at a point Tp. At this instant of time Tp
the voltage across the condenser is the same during charge and discharge process.
Therefore, we have

or

By physically measuring the dimensions of the capacitor dielectric constant can be determined.

The capacitor dimensions are mentioned in mm in general. Hence equation 5 is rewritten as

Where, A is anode foil area in mm2, R is the resistance in ohms

TP is in second, o = 8.85x10-12 Fm-1
d is the separation between the foils or the thickness of the paper in mm
There are two types of electrolytic capacitors namely the etched foil and the plain foil capacitors. In
the etched foil capacitor the surface area of the anode foil is increased to 20-300 times by a special
etching process. The unevenly etched foil results in larger area and hence it reduces the capacitor
size. After the chemical etching the foil appears like multilayer plate hence the effective surface area
is increased. Aluminum oxide Al2O3 is then deposited over this foil which acts like the dielectric

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material. In between the anode and cathode foils paper is used to avoid electrical contact between
anode and cathode. The sandwiched foil is then rolled tightly to form a cylindrical structure and it is
dipped in ethylene glycol solution. Three dielectric materials are used namely Al 2O3, paper and
ethylene glycol. Hence the dielectric constant is the resultant of these three materials.
In plain foil capacitor, there is no etching process. Hence the foil remains the same as its physical
area. In the experimental setup provided three 25V plain foil capacitors are used as C1, C2 and C3.
The physical dimensions of which are measured by opening the capacitor. Over the surface of anode
foil very thin layer of Al 2O3 is chemically deposited. The thickness of this deposition is of the order
of few microns. Hence it is very thin compared to paper thickness hence separation between the
anode and cathode foil is taken as paper thickness.

Procedure
• The circuit connections are made as shown in Figure 1. R selected as 100KΩ and Capacitor C1 is
selected and connected to the circuit using patch cords.
• The digital stop clock is reset by pressing reset button. The display indicates 00.0.
• Switch S1 (Charge-discharge) is thrown to the charge position.
• Switch S2 (Halt-Start) is thrown to the start position watching the digital stop clock and the
voltmeter.
• Without stopping the clock for every 5 seconds the voltmeter reading is noted up to 60seconds.
• When the capacitor is charged to maximum voltage (4.5V and above), the charging is stopped
and the charge-discharge switch is thrown to discharge position and reset the clock.
• The voltage across the discharging capacitor is noted for every 5 seconds interval without
stopping the clock. This is done until the capacitor is discharged fully (up to 60 seconds).
• A graph is drawn taking voltage in volt along the Y-axis and time in second on X-axis (Nature of
the graph). The charging and discharging curve intersects at a point P, where the voltage across
the capacitor during charging and discharging remains the same. The corresponding time, T p is
noted.

• Dielectric constant is determined using the equation,

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EXPERIMENTAL PART
Formulae:

1. Dielectric constant
where,
Tp, is the time required to get charged / discharged to 50% of the capacitance (from graph),
d is the thickness and A is the area of the dielectric material,
R is the resistance in the circuit and
ε0= 8.85x10-12 F/m is the permittivity of the free space.

2. Tp (Theoretical) = RC ln2 in second

3. Observations:
1. Resistance R = 100KΩ, Capacitance C1 = 108μF
2. Physical dimensions of C1 capacitor: (i) Length (l) = 47 mm (ii) Breadth (b) = 5 mm (iii)
Separation (d) = 0.075 mm

Circuit Diagram: Nature of graph:

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Tabular Column:
Time Voltage across the capacitor (in V)
Sl. No. in seconds During Charging During Discharging
1. 0
2. 5
3. 10
4. 15
5. 20
6. 25
7. 30
8. 35
9. 40
10. 45
11. 50
12. 55
13. 60
Calculations:

1. Time period, Tp (Theoretical): Tp = RC ln2 =…………….x…………….x……………

= .................... second

2. Time period, Tp (Experimental): Tp = ................... second (from the graph)

3. Dielectric constant:

Result: Dielectric constant, K (theoretical) = ------------------- (unit less)

K (experimental) = ------------------ (unit less)

Signature of the Faculty with Date

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Expt. No. : 8 Date:

Magnetic field intensity at the center of a circular coil carrying current (by deflection method)

AIM: To determine the magnetic field intensity along the axis of a circular coil carrying current and
earth’s horizontal magnetic field by deflection method.

APPARATUS: Deflection magnetometer, sprit level, commutator, ammeter, variable power supply
and connecting wires.

0 nI a2
B=
(a 2 + x 2 )
FORMULA: 3
2 2

Where B –the magnetic field intensity at the centre of a circular coil,

n – number of turns in the TG coil,
a – radius of the coil
x – distance between the centre of the coil and pointer in the
compass box
0 - permeability of free space = 4πx10-7 Hm-1.
I – the current through the coil
B
BH =
tan
Where BH – horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field and
θ – mean deflection in TG.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
A
x

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 PROCEDURE:

1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Arrange the deflection of the magnetometer in the magnetic meridian of the earth
3. Now align the plane of the coil with respect to 90°-90° line of the magnetometer.
4. Keep the magnetometer exactly at the centre of the coil (for this case x = 0).
5. Pass a current I (say 0.5A) to flow through the coil and the corresponding
magnetometer deflections θ1 and θ2 are noted.
6. The direction of the current is reversed by using the commutator C and the
corresponding magnetometer deflections θ3 and θ4 are noted.
7. Average deflection θ is calculated.
8. Calculate t h e magnetic field at the center of the coil by using the given
formula
9. Repeat the experiment for different values of x (say 5cm, 10cm, …) by sliding the
magnetometer along the axis.
10. Find the average of both B and BH.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Radius of the coil,a = 8.2 cm = 0.082 m and for n = 5 turns

Sl. No. Current I X Deflections in Average θ B 𝑩

𝑩𝑯 =
in A in cm degrees in degree in x10-5 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 T
10-5 T

1 0

2 5
1.8
3 10

4 15

Radius of the coil, a = 8.2 cm = 0.082 m and forn = 50 turns

Sl. No. Current I X Deflections in Average θ B 𝑩

𝑩𝑯 =
in A in cm degrees in degree in x10-5 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 T in

10-5 T
1 0
 2 5

3 10
0.2
4 15

Result: 1. Magnetic field intensity along the axis of a circular coil carrying current is ……….
3. Earth’s horizontal magnetic field by deflection method

Sl. No n = …… n = ……
I =…… I =……

x in cm B in x10-5 T B in x10-5 T
1 0
2 5
3 10
4 15
 Expt. No. : 9 Date:

PLANCK’S CONSTANT AND IR-LED WAVELENGTH DETERMINATION

Aim: To determine the Planck’s constant using LEDs and to determine the wavelength of IR LED

Apparatus: Planck’s constant experimental setup consists of 0-10V peak to peak sine wave
generator, digital peak reading voltmeter, six different know wavelength LED lights and dual trace
oscilloscope.

Introduction

Max Planck’s quantum theory and Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity have forced man to change
some of his most cherished philosophical beliefs. Understanding atomic and subatomic process in
quantum theory and understanding space and time in relativity are the fundamental theories of 20th
century physics.

Max Planck in his paper published in 1900 announced his derivations based on his revolutionary idea. “
The energy emitted by a resonator (black body radiator) is in discrete values or in quanta”

The packet of energy is given by

E = h …1

Where “h” is a universal constant now called as Planck’s constant in honor of the inventor. For
Planck it was a “lucky guess” rather than a firm conclusion. He theoretically calculated the value of
the constant appearing in his equation and obtained.

h = 6.55x10-34 Joules Second ( Js).

Which is very close to the present value h = 6.626x10-34 Js. In 1913, R M Millikan performed series
of experiments and determined Planck’s constant (h = 6.626x10-34 Js) very accurately.

Very recently high-precision measurements of Planck’s constant is performed using laser

interferometer and super-conducting magnets. The value obtained is h = 6.62606891x10 -34 Js, which
is the same as the one obtained by Millikan.

In lab experiments, Planck’s constant is determined using Phototube and Einstein’s equation.
Phototube is obsolete at present and the one available in the market are more than 50 years old.
Because of the aging effect, these tubes are not reliable. Getting accurate and consistent results are
not guaranteed in such phototubes. Hence, we are introducing a new method based on solid- state
lamp. LEDs are available in different colors and could be made use in the determination of “h”.
Wavelengths of the light emitted can be determined either forming Newton’s rings or using a
diffraction grating.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED is a two terminal solid-state lamp, which emits light with very low voltage and current. Thelight
energy radiated by forward biasing is given by equation-1.

hc
E= …2


Where c is the velocity of the light

λ is the wavelength of the light emitted and 1/λ is the wave numberh is
Planck’s constant

If V is the forward voltage applied across the LED terminals that makes it emit light (it is alsocalled
forward knee voltage) then the energy given to the LED is given by

E = eV …3

Where e is electronic charge

LEDs are very high efficiency diodes and hence this entire electrical energy is converted intolight
energy, then equating equations 2 and 3,

hc
eV = …4


From which Planck’s constant is given by

eV
h= …5
c
In equation-5 for different wavelength light, the forward knee voltage is determined, and the value
of h is calculated. Moreover, e/c =5.33 x 10-28 coulomb/meter is a universal constant and hence the
product λV must be a constant. This enables the determination of Planck’s constant.

Wavelength of LED light

The LED manufacturers are the best source for knowing wavelengths because they know the material
used. However, it is very difficult to get LEDs from the manufacturer directly in small quantities for
lab experiments. LED wavelength can be determined accurately in lab experiments by forming
Newton’s rings with Plano convex lens of know radius of curvature and sodium light.

LED Knee voltage

 Knee voltage of diode is the potential applied across the pn junction, that is self-sufficient to over
come barrier potential and a constant current flow is maintained through the diode. In lab
experiments by plotting I-V characteristics, the knee voltage can be determined. Another way of
determining knee voltage is using sweep technique in which the CRO sweep is fed by an ac signal
that varies from 0 to a peak value. During this rising voltage, the current through the LED will also
vary. A resistor in series with the LED samples this changing current. CRO time base in external
mode generate the I-V characteristics as shown in Figure-1. The knee voltage can be easily read on
the X-axis of the CRO. The voltage across the LED is a pulsating unidirectional. The peak value of
which can also be measured using a peak reading meter.

V
0

Knee
Voltage
Figure-1, LED characteristics and knee voltage
Experimental Procedure

The experiment consists of two parts.

Part A: Knee voltage determination using peak reading voltmeter Part

B: Determination of IR LED wavelength.

Part A, Knee voltage determination using peak reading voltmeter.

1. The circuit is rigged as shown in circuit diagram. The input to the LED is an ac signal. The rectified
output appears across the LED is a unidirectional pulsating. Hence, a peak reading meter is used to
read voltage across the LED.
2. Using a digital peak reading voltmeter, the voltage across the LED is measured and recorded in
Table-1 for given color LED light.
3. Trial is repeated by changing the LED and the corresponding knee voltage is noted in Table- 1
4. The product of wavelength and knee voltage is determined and its average value is calculated.
5. Planck’s constant is calculated using equation-5.
𝑒𝑉𝜆
ℎ=
𝑐
6. A graph is plotted, taking wavelength along X-axis and knee voltage along Y-axis.

Experimental part:
Circuit Diagram :
+10V
+5V Input 200Hz
Sine wave LED under V Peak reading
0 test voltmeter

Nature of graph:

Kn 4
ee
volt 3
age
(V) 2

300 500 700 900 1100

Wavelength (nm)

Tabular Column:
Color Wavelength (nm) Knee Voltage (V) λVx10-9
Yellow 576
Green 548
Blue 350
Red 620
Average λV = ……10-9

Part-B, Determination of IR LED wavelength

The IR LED is now connected, and the knee voltage is noted. The wavelength is calculated using.
1233 x 10−9
𝜆= = − − − − 𝑛𝑚
𝑉𝐼𝑅
 Results

The results obtained are tabulated in Table-3.

Table-3
Parameters Experimental Theoretical
h(Js) 6.526x10-34
IR- λ (nm) 910
λV (nmV) 1240
Expt. No. : 10 Date:

RESISTIVITY BY

THE FOUR PROBE METHOD

Aim: To Study the temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductor

(germanium)sample

Apparatus used :

Figure-2 shows the complete experimental set-up used for determining the energy gap. It
consists of four probes arranged linearly in a straight line at equal distance from each
other. A constant current is passed through the two outer probes and the potential drop
across the middle two probes is measured. An oven is provided with a heater to heat the
sample so that behavior of the sample is studied with increase in temperature.

Introduction

It is known that some solids are good conductors of electricity while others are insulators
and there is an intermediate class known as semiconductors. The difference in the
behavior of solids as regards their electrical conductivity can be explained in terms of
energy bands. It is known that in atom electrons revolve around the nucleus in different
orbits of permitted radii, as given by Bohr’s theory of atomic structure. Each orbit has
fixed amount of energy associated with it. The electrons moving in a particular orbit
possess the energy characteristic of that orbit. In case of a single isolated atom, the
electrons in a given orbit possess definite amount of energy depending upon the size of
the orbit; the larger the orbit, the higher is its energy. The energy possessed by the first
orbital electrons is known as the first energy level that of the second orbit electrons is
known as the second energy level and so on. However, in a solid an atom is significantly
influenced by the closely packed neighboring atoms and no two electrons in the same
orbit are in the same charge environment. Hence, electrons in the same orbit in any of
such atoms can have slightly different amounts of energy (i.e., have a range of energies)
rather than a single energy. So, the electrons moving in the same orbit in an atom can
have slightly different energy levels that form a cluster or band called energy band. Thus
the range of energies possessed by electrons of the same orbit in a solid is known as
energy band.
The range of energies possessed by the electrons in the first orbit is known as the first
energy band. Similarly, the range of energies possessed by the electrons in the second
orbit is known as the second energy band and so on. Though there are a number of
energy bands in solids, the valence band, the conduction band and the forbidden energy
band gap are important.

The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons. In
normal atom valence electrons have the highest energy. The range of energies possessed
by valence electrons is known as the valence band. In atoms of certain elements, the
valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus. Even at ordinary temperature, some
of the valence electrons may get detached to become free electrons. In fact, these free
electrons are responsible for conduction of electric current in a solid. For this reason,
they are called conduction electrons. The range of energies possessed by conduction
electrons or free electrons is known as conduction band. In general, these energy bands
are separated by some gaps which have no allowed energy levels. The separation
between conduction band and valence band on the energy level diagram is known as the
Forbidden Energy Gap. The width of the forbidden energy gap is a measure of the degree
of binding of valence electrons to the nucleus of the atom; greater the energy gap, more
tightly the valence electrons are bound to the nucleus. In order to push an electron from
valence band to the conduction band (that is to make the electron free), energy equal to
the forbidden energy gap must be supplied externally.

In conductors there is no forbidden energy gap and the valence band and conduction
band overlap each other. Due to this overlapping a slight potential difference across a
conductor causes the free electrons to result in an electric current. In insulators the energy
gap between valence band and conduction band is very large (~15eV). Therefore, a large
electric field is required to push the valence electrons to the conduction band. For this
reason the electrical conductivity of insulators is extremely small and may be regarded as
negligible under ordinary conditions. In semiconductors the energy gap between valence
band and conduction band is very small (~1eV). Therefore, comparatively smaller
electric field (smaller than insulators but larger than conductors) is required to push the
electrons from the valence band to the conduction band.

Thus the electrical behavior of conductors, insulators and semi- conductors can be
explained by the band energy theory of materials [1-6]. Determination of band gap energy
is one of the fundamental experiments in physics. The commonly used methods of energy
gap determination are:
 (a) Wheatstone bridge method,
(b) Reverse saturation current method,
(c) The Four Probe method

Temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor

Intrinsic semi-conduction: The process in which thermally or optically excited
electrons contribute to the conduction is called intrinsic semi-conduction. In the
absence of photonic excitation, intrinsic semi - conduction takes place at
temperatures above 0 K as sufficient thermal agitation is required to transfer
electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. Conductivity for intrinsic
semi-conduction. The total electrical conductivity is the sum of the conductivities of
the valence and conduction band carriers, which are holes and electrons,
respectively. It can be expressed as
𝜎 = 𝑒(𝑛e µe + 𝑛hµh) (1)
Where 𝑛e , µe are the electron's concentration and mobility,
And 𝑛h , µh h are the hole's concentration and mobility, respectively.
Drift mobility determines the average drift velocity in the presence of an applied
external field. It also depends on the temperature. The mobility is a quantity that
directly relates the drift velocity 𝑉d of charge carriers to the applied electric field
E across the material, i.e.
µ = 𝑉d/𝐸 (2)
In the intrinsic region the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes, 𝑛e
=𝑛h= 𝑛i , so Equation (1) implies that,
σ = e𝑛i (µe + µh) (3)

The electron density (electrons/volume) in the conduction band is obtained by integrating

(density of states x probability of occupancy of states) from the bottom to top of the
conduction band. The detailed calculations reveal that

Where N is a constant substituting 𝑛i in eq (3)

This shows that conductivity depends on temperature it decreases exponentially with decrease in
temperature.

Measurement of resistivity by the Four Probe method

 This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin wafer, such as a thin
semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. Figure-1 shows the semiconductor
sample. It is about 10 mm x 5 mm in size and is approximately 0.5 mm thick.

Apparatus used

Figure-2 shows the complete experimental set-up used for determining the energy gap. It
consists of four probes arranged linearly in a straight line at equal distance from each
other. A constant current is passed through the two outer probes and the potential drop
across the middle two probes is measured. An oven is provided with a heater to heat the
sample so that behavior of the sample is studied with increase in temperature.

Figure-1: Sample of Germanium semiconductor wafer

Figure-2: The Four Probes Experimental Set-up

Figure-3 shows the arrangement of the four probes that measure voltage and supply
current to the surface of the crystal. The probes are about 2 mm dia metal rods fitted to the
base using a spring. This arrangement provides a smooth touch on the crystal surface as
shown in Figure-3. The four probes are lowered to touch the surface by loosening the
screw that holds the four probes.

Figure-3: Four probes arranged linearly in a straight line with Crystal placed under the four
probes
Experimental procedure
1. The four-probe arrangement is placed on the sample as shown in Figure-3. Care is
taken to see that all the four probes touch the sample surface and make contact
with the sample. A constant current is passed through the outer probes connecting it
to the constant current source of the set-up.

2. The current is set to 2 mA. The voltage developed across the middle two probes is
measured using a digital milli-voltmeter. A thermometer is pre fixed on the
surface where crystal is mounted, this reads the same temperature as the
semiconductor sample is experiencing.

3. Before switching on the heater, Note the voltage and temperature.

4. Now switch “ON” the heater and note the voltage in mV at an interval of 5°C upto
100°C.
EXPERIMENTAL PART
Nature of Graph

1.4
00
log10 (ρ) 1.2
00
1.0
00
0.8
00
0.6
00
0.4
00
0.2
00
0.000
0.0 0.50 1.00 1.5000 2.50 3.00 3.50
00 00 2 00 00 00
000 1000
.0000
/T 1000/T

Figure-4: Variation of with inverse of temperature

Tabular Coloum

Table-1

W/S 0.25

f (W/S) 5.54
 Table-2: Current = 2mA

S/n T T V R ρ0 1000/T log (

ρ in ρ in 10 ρ)

°C °K mV Ω Ω -m Ω -m Ω -cm K-1
1 30
2 35
3 40

4 45
5 50
6 55
7 60
8 65
9 70

10 75

Result: The temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductor (germanium)

sample is as shown in Table – 2. The dependence of resistivity is exponential with
temperature.

**************
VIVA-VOCE
SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE
1. What is resonance?
When the natural frequency of the system matches with the applied frequency, the system is set to be
under resonance.
2. What is the condition for the resonance in LCR circuit?
At resonance, the capacitive reactance is equal to the inductive reactance, ie, X C = XL => 1/ 2πfc =
2πfL i,e LC = 1/ (4π2f2 )
3. How do we identify the resonance in the LC circuit?
When LC is in series with power supply, the current attains the maximum at resonance frequency
where as when LC is in parallel, the current will be minimum at resonance frequency.
4. Why a series resonance circuit is called an accepter circuit and the parallel circuit a rejecter
circuit?
In LCR series, the circuit accepts one frequency component out of the range of ac input signals and
attains maximum current at that frequency known as resonance frequency. And hence the LCR
series circuit is called an acceptor circuit. Similarly, in parallel resonance circuit rejects the signal of
the same frequency as its own resonance frequency. LCR parallel circuit is called rejecter circuit.
Where, L is coefficient of self inductance and is often referred as self inductance, dI/dt is the rate of
change of current. The coefficient of self inductance is numerically equal to emf induced in it when
the rate of change of current dI/ dt = 1 amp/sec.
5. What is power factor?
Power factor is defined as the ratio of the resistance to the inductance.
6. What is resonance frequency?
Resonance frequency is the frequency at which the inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive
reactance.
7. Define inductance reactance XL and capacitance reactance XC?
Inductance reactance of a coil is the effective opposition offered by the inductor to the flow of
current. It is given by X L = ωL = 2πfL Capacitance reactance of a coil is its effective opposition
offered by the capacitor to the flow of ac current. It is given by XC =1/ ωc = 1/ 2πfc.
8. What is quality factor?
The sharpness and quality factor give a measure of the rate of fall of current amplitude from its
resonance frequency value on either side of it.
9. Why series LCR called high is pass filter and parallel LCR low pass filter?
The band width in series LCR is very high and it allows large range of frequencies whereas in
parallel LCR, the band width is very low and it allows only small range of frequencies.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
1. Define capacitance of a capacitor?
A capacitor is a device on which electric charge maybe stored, so that it passes electrical energy. In
practice, an arrangement of two conductors separated by an insulator or vacuum forms a capacitor.
Capacitance of a conductor may be defined as the ratio of the electric charge required to raise its
potential by unit amount.
2. What is the SI unit of capacitance?
Farad is the SI unit of capacitance, it is denoted by F. (It is very large unit)
3. What happens to the capacitance of a capacitor on introducing a dielectric material between
the plates?
The introduction of a dielectric material increases the capacitance of a capacitor.
4. Define dielectric constant.
The dielectric constant or the relative permittivity of a medium is defined as the ratio of the
capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric (C d) to its capacitance with air or vacuum (C a). ⇒ εr = Cd /
Ca
5. Is there any difference between dielectric and an insulator?
Both dielectric and insulator don’t contain free electrons and hence don’t conduct electricity but
dielectrics transmit electrical effect and insulators don’t transmit electrical effects.
6. Why dielectrics are used in capacitor?
To increase the value of capacitance of a capacitor.
7. Define the terms electric dipole and dipole moments.
Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance form an electric dipole. The
magnitude of one of the charges and the distance of separation between the two charge centers is
called dipole moment. Μ = q x l
8. Define the term polarization of dielectric materials.
The elongation or orientation of dielectric atoms due to separation of charges in the atoms under the
action of an external electric field is called polarization.
9. What are non- polar and polar molecules?
If the charge centers of positive nucleus and negative electron cloud coincide, the molecule is called
non-polar molecule. If the charge centers do not coincide, the molecule is called polar molecule.
10. Guess a possible reason why water has a much greater dielectric constant than say mica.
The dielectric constant of water is large (≈ 80) because the water molecules have permanent dipole
moment.
11. Name any two types of capacitors based on their shapes.
Spherical capacitor
Cylindrical capacitor
12. Name the capacitors which are in practical use.
The most commonly used capacitors are (i) paper capacitor (ii) mica capacitor
(iii) variable air core capacitor (iv) electrolytic capacitor & (v) ceramic capacitor.
13. What are the uses of capacitors?
Capacitors are used to (i) store electrical charge (ii) store electrical energy
(iii) eliminate sparking in electrical circuits (iv) block dc etc
14. Is charging & discharging a linear or exponential function?
Exponential function
15. What are dielectrics?
Substances which do not contain free electrons and which do not conduct electricity, but transmit
electrical effects are called dielectrics.
16. How long will it take for an ideal capacitor to discharge completely?
Infinity.
 DETERMINATION OF FERMI ENERGY
1. What is meant by Fermi energy?
It is the maximum energy that an electron in a metal can possess at absolute zero. Importance: Fermi
energy helps to determine the energy of the particle at any temperature.
2. Define Fermi energy level with its importance.
It is the highest reference energy level of a particle at absolute zero. It is the reference level which
separates the filled energy levels and vacant energy levels.
3. What is meant by Fermi temperature?
It is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free electron in a solid becomes
equal to the Fermi energy at 0 k.
4. Fermi velocity: The velocity of the electrons which occupy the Fermi level is called Fermi
velocity.
5. Insulator: Solid materials which do not conduct electric current under normal conditions are
known as insulators.
6. Conductors: Materials which conduct electric current when a potential difference is applied
across them are known as conductors.
7. Fermions: Particles with odd half integral spins (1/2, 3/2, 5/2…) are known as fermions.
Fermions obey Pauli’s exclusion principle.
8. Define Ohm’s law.
When a potential difference across the ends of a metal conductor is v, the resulting current I is within
wide limits directly proportional to V
V =IR I=V/R (or) R=V/I
R is the resistance of the conductor which depends on its dimensions, composition and temperature
but is independent of v.
9. Valence band: The electrons in the outer most orbital are called valence electrons or free
electrons. In the solid these electrons are occupied by an energy band called valence band (VB). At
0k the VB is fully filled with electrons.
10. Conduction band: It lies next to the valence band. It is an empty band (or) partially filled
electron band. At 0˚K the CB is an empty band.
11. Explain the phenomenon of negative temperature co-efficient of resistance for semi
conducting materials.
For semiconductors, the resistivity is inversely proportional to the temperature (ρ α1/t) (i.e.) It has
negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.
12. What is meant by free electron?
Free electron is the electron which moves freely or randomly in all directions in the absence of
external electric field. These electrons collide with each other and also with the lattice elastically and
hence there is no loss in energy.
13. What is meant by bound electron?
The electron which is tightly bound to the nucleus is called bound electron.
14. Discus the variation of resistivity of a conductor with respect to temperature.
The resistivity of a conductor remains constant at lower temperature. The resistivity is non linear
with respect to temperature below Debye temperature and is directly proportional to t near room
temperature.
15. Explain the variation of Fermi energy with respect to the temperature
In intrinsic semiconductors at 0˚k the Fermi energy lies exactly midway between the CB and VB. In
extrinsic semiconductor at 0˚ Kelvin, for n type it lies near the conduction band and for p type it lies
near the valance band
DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER
1. What is the acronym of LASER?
LASER stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
2. What is diffraction?
Diffraction is the process of bending of light and hence its encroachment into geometrical shadow
region when it passes through small obstacle whose size is comparable with the wavelength of light.
3. What is diffraction grating?
Grating is a optically flat glass plate on which many equidistant rulings are drawn with the help of
tip of the diamond.
4. Types of grating
There are two types of grating. i) Transmission grating and ii) Reflection grating.
5. What is grating constant?
It is the distance between two consecutive lines in the grating.
6. Which property of light is used to explain diffraction?
Wave property of light.
7. What is the effect on the diffraction pattern if we increase the number of lines per unit
length?
The dots become wider.
8. What is the condition to be satisfied to get observable diffraction?
The size of the aperture should be comparable with the wavelength of light.
9. Do we get the same pattern if mercury vapour lamp is used?
Since mercury vapour lamp is polychromatic, a spectrum is obtained instead of diffraction pattern.
10. What is the result if we increase the distance between screen and grating?
The distance between the dots becomes more, though the diffraction angle remains same.
11. What is the effect on diffraction pattern if we use a blue laser?
Since wavelength of blue is less, the dots become closer.
12. What type of laser is used in the experiment?
Semiconductor diode laser
13. Give some properties of laser
Laser is monochromatic, intense, parallel, unidirectional and coherent source of light.
14. What is monochromatic light?
Light of single wavelength
15. What is a coherent source of light? Give an example.
Two sources of light are said to be coherent if they have a constant phase relation between them.
Laser is one example for coherent source.
I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A PHOTO DIODE
1. What is optoelectronics?
It is the technology that makes use of the principles of optics and electronics. It is also called
photonics.
2. Mention any two optoelectronic devices.
Led (light emitting diodes), photodiodes.
3. Photodiode: A photodiode is a p-n junction diode in which the reverse saturation current
increases when it is illuminated with light.
4. Laser diode: A laser diode is a p-n junction diode which produces coherent light as in laser.
5. What is dark current?
When the applied voltage across the diode is less than the breakdown voltage of the diode and there
is no light incident on the photodiode, a small current flow through the circuit because of the
minority charge carriers. This is called dark current.
6. What is biasing? When is a diode said to be forward and reverse biased?
Applying an external voltage across the diode is called biasing. When the + ve terminal of the source
is connected to the p type and –ve to the n type of the diode, it is said to be forward biased. When the
+ve terminal of the source is connected to the n type and – ve to the p type of the diode, it is said to
be reverse biased.
7. Depletion region: The region developed across the junction due to the diffusion of the charge
carriers is called depletion region
8. In which type of biasing does the depletion region widen?
The depletion region widens in the reverse biased condition.
9. Mention any two applications of photodiode.
Detection of both visible and invisible radiations and optical communication equipments.

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