Advanced Firefighting

Course Notes
Contents
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 2

ADVANCED FIREFIGHTING COURSE CRITERIA – MNTB 1ST EDITION, MAY 2013 ......................... 3

ASSESSMENT .............................................................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPALS INVOLVED IN CONTROLLING FIREFIGHTING OPERATIONS ON
BOARD A VESSEL ....................................................................................................................................... 5

1.1 THE DANGERS OF FIRE ON BOARD AND ITS COMMON CAUSES ................................................................... 5
1.2 CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR A FIRE, ITS PRODUCTS AND LIKELY CONSEQUENCES.................................... 8
1.3 EXTINGUISHING METHODS .......................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 HOW FIRE SPREADS AND HOW TO PREVENT IT.......................................................................................... 14
1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES AND PREFERRED EXTINGUISHING METHODS .................................................. 17
1.6 STRATEGIES FOR CONTROL OF FIRES IN VARIOUS PARTS OF A VESSEL ................................................... 19
1.7 EFFECTS OF W ATER ON A VESSELS STABILITY ......................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER 2 CONTROL FIREFIGHTING OPERATIONS ABOARD SHIPS ......................................... 23

2.1 LIAISON WITH SHORE BASED FIRE-FIGHTERS .......................................................................................... 23

2.2 FIGHT FIRES IN ACCORDANCE WITH RECOGNISED PROCEDURES ............................................................. 26
2.3 COMMUNICATIONS DURING FIREFIGHTING OPERATIONS........................................................................... 37
2.4 CONTROL VENTILATION DURING FIREFIGHTING OPERATIONS ................................................................... 38
2.5 FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES INVOLVING DANGEROUS GOODS ................................................................. 40
2.6 MANAGEMENT & CONTROL OF INJURED PERSONS .................................................................................. 43
2.7 OPERATIONAL USE AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS OF FIXED FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS ................. 45

CHAPTER 3 ORGANISE AND TRAIN FIRE PARTIES........................................................................... 55

3.1 ORGANISE A FIRE PARTY TO IMPLEMENT EMERGENCY PLANS .................................................................. 55

3.2 SHIPBOARD FIREFIGHTING ORGANISATION AND COMPOSITION OF FIRE TEAMS ....................................... 57
3.3 CONTROL FIREFIGHTING OPERATIONS ...................................................................................................... 59
3.4 TRAIN FIRE PARTIES IN REALISTIC ON-BOARD SCENARIOS ....................................................................... 61
CHAPTER 4 INSPECT AND SERVICE FIRE DETECTION AND EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS AND
EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................................................................ 62

4.1 INSPECTION AND TESTING OF FIRE DETECTION AND FIRE ALARMS ........................................................... 62
4.2 INSPECTION AND TESTING OF FIXED FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS ........................................................ 64
4.3 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF PORTABLE FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT .............................................. 66
4.4 INSPECTION OF EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE TO FIRE TEAMS ........................................................................... 70
4.5 INSPECTION AND TESTING OF BREATHING APPARATUS (BA) ................................................................... 74
4.6 PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CLASSIFICATION SURVEYS .................................................................... 78

CHAPTER 5 INVESTIGATE AND COMPILE REPORTS ON INCIDENTS INVOLVING FIRE ............ 80

5.1 HOW TO ASSESS CAUSES OF FIRE............................................................................................................. 80

5.2 A TYPICAL FIRE INVESTIGATION REPORT ................................................................................................... 81

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INTRODUCTION

The Advanced Fire Fighting course is intended for those who have already
completed the Fire Prevention & Fire Fighting Course (Section A-VI/1-2 of the STCW
Code), or similar training acceptable to the MCA.

It deals with refreshing the theory of fire and how to prevent it, on-board safety in the
event of a fire, use of portable and other firefighting equipment and being an
effective team member in fighting fire.

This course also covers a range of additional theory elements for those in areas of
command and team leader roles. Each student must take charge of a team and/or
area of operations to safely demonstrate the relevant learning objectives.

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Advanced Firefighting Course Criteria – MNTB 1st Edition, May 2013
(revised 2015)

Aim

To give seafarers the essential education and training in fire prevention and
firefighting meeting the Knowledge, Understanding and Proficiency (KUP)
requirements set out in the following:

Table A-VI/1-3 (STCW 2010)

Function: Advanced Fire Fighting

Competence: Control firefighting operations aboard ships

Organise and train fire parties

Inspect and service fire detection and fire extinguishing systems

and equipment

Investigate and compile reports on incidents involving fire

Outcomes

There are five outcomes to the training.

Outcome 1: The learner understands the principals involved in controlling

firefighting operations on board a vessel

Outcome 2: The learner is able to control firefighting operations aboard ship

Outcome 3: The learner is able to organise and train fire parties

Outcome 4: The learner is able to inspect and service fire detection and
extinguishing systems and equipment

Outcome 5: The learner is able to investigate and compile reports on incidents

involving fire

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Assessment

Each student will be assessed by a variety of methods including; direct observation,

oral questioning, multiple choice questions and simulations. On completion of the
course the student will be able to:

• Understand firefighting procedures at sea and in port, with particular

emphasis on organization, tactics and command & procedures for
coordination with shore-based fire fighters
• Understand the use of water for fire-extinguishing, the effect on ship stability,
precautions and corrective procedures
• Practice effective communication and coordination during fire-fighting
operations
• Effectively control fuel, electrical and ventilation systems, including smoke
extraction
• Demonstrate knowledge of fire-fighting process hazards (dry distillation,
chemical reactions, boiler uptake fires, etc.) and firefighting involving
dangerous goods including fire precautions and hazards associated with the
storage and handling of materials (paints, etc.)
• Describe the management and control of injured persons
• Describe different strategies and tactics for control of fires in various parts of
the ship
• Identify the composition and allocation of personnel to fire parties
• Prepare contingency plans for fire incidents
• Understand and describe the use of fire-detection systems; fixed fire-
extinguishing systems; portable and mobile fire-extinguishing equipment,
including appliances, pumps and rescue, salvage, life-support, personal
protective and communication equipment
• Understand requirements for statutory and classification surveys
• Assess causes of incidents involving fire

These objectives directly relate to STCW Table A-V1/1-3

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Chapter 1 Principals involved in controlling firefighting operations
on board a vessel

1.1 The Dangers of fire on board and its common causes

Fires aboard ships will have to be fought by the crew in the first instance and very
often there may be no outside assistance. It leaves the seafarer with little option
when at sea to deal with the situation or risk abandoning ship.

The construction of ships must include many areas that would not normally be
located next to each other, engine rooms, cargo spaces, accommodation spaces for
example. The different areas on board each have their own fire risk and fire load.

Recognising the different risks in these areas, as well as an understanding of the

chemistry of fire is important to prevent fires on board.

Recognising a fire risk and correcting the situation before there is a fire, shows that
“prevention is better than cure”.

Constant vigilance should be maintained at all times when working at sea utilising all
the information from this course to enable you to work in a safe environment.

Dangers of fire

The dangers of fire on board a vessel can be broken down into a number of areas;
danger to life, danger to the vessel, danger to the environment and danger to the
reputation of the company, the first three are obviously the most important, however
an organisation that is constantly having fires whether they pose a risk to life or
vessel or not, will soon lose the confidence of their customers and will ultimately lose
trade.

Danger to life is the most important and can affect crew, passengers and marine life.
The primary dangers of any fire are the products of combustion which are heat and
smoke. The heat will vary dependant on the size, type and location of the fire.

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Fires in enclosed compartments are more dangerous than those on open decks as
the heat is not able to dissipate, and will also provide more danger from smoke and
the products of combustion as you are in an enclosed space. Fires in enclosed
spaces can also lead to two distinct phenomena known as ‘Flashover’ or ‘Backdraft’,
see section 1.4.

Any fire not dealt with in its initial stages will grow rapidly and will then start to affect
the integrity of the vessel and could ultimately lead to abandonment.

Any fire water run-off will contain many harmful toxins which can be detrimental to
marine life, and even the fire extinguishing media can be harmful i.e. Foam and Dry
Powder.

Causes of fire

There are many causes of fire on board ship in the different areas, below are a list of
some of the more common examples.

• Improper discarding of cigarettes

• Smoking in bed
• Hot Work
• Tumble dryers exhaust full of fluff or lint
• Overloaded sockets or faulty equipment
• Accumulated rubbish
• Oily rags – through spontaneous combustion
• Oil leak or spray onto hot surfaces
• Oil accumulations at the bottom of furnaces
• Ventilation Hoods
• Unattended deep fat fryers or chip pans
• Ovens left on
• Cloths left on hotplates
• Certain cargoes can be dangerous under different conditions
• Leaking or damaged packaging
• Static build up can cause ignition of solvents when pouring

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On Board Safety

There is a clear need on board ship for constant vigilance and awareness. There are
distinct ways in which to prevent fire on board.

Good Housekeeping

When an area is kept clean and tidy, the fire risk lowers considerably. Ensuring
waste paper bins are regularly emptied is a simple fire prevention measure.

There are many areas where bad housekeeping results in fires:

• Galley extracts full of grease

• Tumble dryers, exhausts full of fluff, lint and dust
• Engine room drip trays and bilges which have collected oil
• Oil soaked lagging etc.

Equipment maintenance

Scheduled maintenance can ensure all equipment remains in good condition and
reduce the risk of any defect or failure starting a fire. A maintenance program should
consist of regular care, testing and inspection, repair or replacement and record
keeping detailing checks and routines.

Safe Practice

Procedures can be safely regulated by "Permits to Work" which will ensure that all
necessary precautions have been taken before maintenance is carried out.
Personnel must not be allowed to take short cuts. Manufacturer's instructions
coupled with the Company's Regulations and Code of Safe Working Practices are
supplied to provide guidance on how to operate safely.

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Issues that arise:

• No fire watch posted during hot work operations.

• Incorrect stowage of materials, dangerous goods etc.
• Poorly loaded or segregated cargoes.

Fire Patrol

On ships with greater than 36 passengers there is a requirement to make regular

patrols of the vessel with special regard to fire by personnel familiar with and trained
in the use of first aid firefighting appliances and equipment found on board. They
should pay due regard to all the areas identified in Section 1.1.

1.2 Conditions required for a fire, its products and likely consequences

The Fire Triangle

Fire is a chemical reaction which results in the production of heat, light and other by-
products such as smoke and toxic fumes.

Three elements are needed to produce fire:

• Oxygen
• Heat
• Fuel

All three elements must be present for combustion to occur, on many occasions two
elements are present and it is important for us to recognise this so that we do not
introduce the third.

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How Fires Start

There are 4 main ways to start a fire:

• A source of ignition
o a flame
o spark
o electrical
• Chemical reaction
• Heating the fuel above its Self-Ignition Temperature (SIT)
• Spontaneous Combustion

By Products

Fires in addition to generating heat and light also produce smoke and toxic products;
these are responsible for the majority of deaths in fires. Smoke is essentially the
incomplete (un-burnt) products of combustion; soot, vapour particles and gasses. It
is generally toxic and may contain asphyxiants, irritants, flammable gasses, vapours
and toxins. Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) are examples of
by-products of combustion which are extremely dangerous to humans. Due to the
inherent dangers of smoke any crew members operating in the environment must
wear Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA).

1.3 Extinguishing Methods

The three primary extinguishing methods are achieved by removing one side of the
fire triangle i.e.

• Starvation (removing fuel)

• Smothering (removing oxygen)
• Cooling (removing heat)

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Starvation

Removal of fuel which can be a combination of:

• Closing fuel oil or gas valves to stop the fuel supply

• Boundary Starvation - removal of potential fuel from around the six sides of
the fire compartment
• Good housekeeping so no fuel is present to catch light

Smothering

Exclusion of oxygen (air):

• Fire blanket
• Container lids
• Foam
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Other inert gas

Ventilation Control

Any system which is re-circulating air, (this is invariably the case with air
conditioning) must be switched off. Selective extraction for short periods may be
considered in some circumstances. Smothering methods must be maintained until all
the heat has dissipated otherwise re-ignition may occur.

Cooling

Removing the heat energy from the fire:

• Water
• Foam (94-97% water)
• Boundary cooling
• Isolating any hot equipment

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Flame Inhibition

In addition to the fire triangle, another method of

extinguishment is flame inhibition which breaks the chain
reaction of the fire. The triangle is sometimes expanded to
four elements and referred to as the ‘fire tetrahedron’.

Dry powder interferes with the chemical reaction of a

flame and breaks this chain reaction, so the flame cannot continue to burn. However,
as no smothering, cooling or starving has occurred additional steps must be taken to
prevent re-ignition.

Extinguishers

Each extinguishing method is utilised by the different extinguishers that we have

available to us on board and are identified below.

Type Colour Code Method

British Standard

Water Cooling

Foam Cooling/Smothering

CO2 Smothering

Dry Powder Flame Inhibition

Wet Chemical Smothering

Fire Blanket N/A Smothering

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Water (Class A)

Suitability: Wood, paper, textiles.

Technique: Attack from upright position utilising full throw if possible. Keep low if
required to avoid heat and steam. Sweep the jet rapidly to break it up into water
droplets to enhance the cooling effect and move around the fire. Use the complete
contents of the extinguisher to completely dampen and cool the fuel.

Foam (Class A or B)

Suitability: Liquid spill or contained liquid fires.

Technique: Stay back from the fire and use the full throw of the extinguisher. On a
contained fire, spray the foam on the inside edge of the container and let the foam
blanket spread undisturbed. On an open spill fire, direct the foam jet upwards and
sweep side to side to allow the foam to drop gently on to the fire (snowing). Fully
discharge the foam extinguisher for maximum blanket thickness. Never direct the
foam into the flammable liquid. If the foam burns back there is a danger of re-
ignition, ensure you have enough extinguishers to create a full foam blanket over the
burning fuel.

CO2 (Class B)

Suitability: Liquids and inside electrical equipment or under engines where access
is difficult.

Technique: The gas comes out with some force and may scatter any fuel if the
discharge horn is placed too close to material or burning liquid. The gas must be
directed above the fuel to exclude the oxygen from its surface and smother the fire.
On an open fire use a sweeping action. As the CO2 changes state from a liquid to a
gas before it leaves the extinguisher, the discharge horn becomes very cold. There
is a danger of a cold burn if anything other than the handle or grip is touched by the
operator.

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Dry Powder (Class A, B or C)

Suitability: Ideal for low flashpoint liquids (e.g. petrol) and gases (propane,
butane); heavier oils such as cooking or lubricating oils may well be already above
their auto ignition temperature (AIT) and re-ignite once the dry powder extinguisher
is empty.

Technique: Keep low to avoid flare up when you start extinguishing. Sweep rapidly
from side to side and work from the front to the back. Do not walk into the fuel.
Although dry powder gives rapid knockdown it has no cooling or smothering effect on
oils and vapours may remain to be re-ignited. There will be a significant reduction in
visibility and airway irritation. It is therefore advised only to use on open decks, not
within the vessel.

Wet Chemical (Class F)

Suitability: Designed specifically to fight fires resulting from cooking oils and fats
up to 75 litres in size.

Technique: This fire extinguisher contains a specially formulated wet chemical

which, when applied to the burning liquid, cools and emulsifies the oil, extinguishing
the flame, sealing the surface and preventing re-ignition. It is essential when fighting
this class of fire that the extinguisher is used from a minimum of 1 metre (from
nozzle to the fire). Ensure the entire contents are fully discharged, even after the
flames have been extinguished, in order to cool the fat or oil effectively to prevent re-
ignition.

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Fire Blanket

Suitability: Chip pan fires, contained liquid fires, smothering

any small fire and for persons involved in fire.

Technique: Fold back the top edge over hands to protect

them, hold the hands up with the arms spread to allow the
blanket to hang in front of you to protect your body and face
from radiant heat and flames. Advance and drape over the fire
stretching towards the back to prevent the blanket dipping in the
liquid.

Stay calm and do not throw the blanket on to the fire as it may miss or tip the pan
over. Turn off any heat and leave to cool. If the blanket is removed prematurely the
oil may be hot enough to re-ignite.

A person with burning clothing should be laid on the floor as heat and smoke rises.
Use the blanket to pat out the flames but do not leave them in a rolled-up blanket
which may trap the hot smouldering clothing next to the skin.

1.4 How fire spreads and how to prevent it

When a material burns it releases energy in the form of heat.

This heat is transferred in one of three ways;

Conduction - movement of heat through a solid material. Air is

a poor conductor of heat whereas most metals are very good
conductors.

Convection - upward movement of hotter less dense gases through the air or in a
liquid as shown in the diagram. This can account for up to 75% of fire spread due to
the movement of the hot fire gasses and smoke to other areas.

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 Radiation - heat transfer by electromagnetic
waves through the atmosphere. An example of
radiation is the sun and how its heat reaches the
earth. Radiation will vary as to the size and
intensity of the fire, increasing as the fire gets
hotter. The fire-fighter should wear fire protective
clothing to insulate them against this heat.

Initial Response

Providing the following actions are taken in this order most emergencies can be dealt
with effectively. It is invariably the failure to inform others that allows the incident to
get out of control.

• Find - detect - using all senses, sight, smell, hearing

• Inform - raise the alarm - by any available means
• Restrict - close doors, isolate electrics, switch off fuel, stop ventilation etc.
• Extinguish - if it safe to do so or Escape and/or Evacuate

Fires usually start small and quickly grow in intensity. For this reason, a rapid
response can be an effective tool in extinguishing fires in their initial stages.

Growth is due to the process of combustion in which the heat given off will spread
(through conduction, convection and radiation) and heat other items nearby. These
will then start to release flammable vapour and ignite further items causing a chain
reaction and increase in intensity.

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Typically fires involved in a compartment such as a cabin will follow the fire
development curve shown in the diagram below.

Ignition is the start of the

fire and we see a steady
increase in temperature
as it grows incorporating
more materials. Smoke
and hot gasses start to be
produced, rising in the
compartment, forming a
hot layer at the top of the
space. In addition to the
heat from the fire this layer of smoke can ignite and radiates heat downwards into
the compartment.

The heat levels inside the space increase to the extent where, along with the
possible combustion of hot gasses, all the items begin to break down and release
combustible gasses (pyrolisation). This sees a rapid conflagration known as
‘Flashover’ in which the temperature very rapidly increases and all the items in the
space ignite. The temperature now reaches its maximum as now all the items are on
fire.

We now see a reduction in the heat as the fuel is used up inside the space. The
other reason for a possible reduction in intensity is a lack of oxygen, this can be
dangerous to fire fighters if when entering the space oxygen is re-introduced causing
a re-ignition which can often be violent. This is known as a ‘backdraft’. In order to
prevent this care should be taken utilising the correct door opening procedures.

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1.5 Classification of fires and preferred extinguishing methods

Fires are classified depending on the type of fuel; this allows us to select the most
appropriate medium for the fire. Different Countries have different classification
systems:

UK USA Australia
A - Solid A - Solid A - General combustibles
B - Liquid B - Liquid/Gas B - Combustible & liquids
C - Gas C - Electrical C - Gases
D - Metal D - Metal D - Metal
F - Cooking Oil K - Cooking Oil E - Electrical
F - Cooking Oil

This section deals with the UK classification system only.

Class A – Solids

Woods, paper, plastics are some example of solids (usually organic in

nature) that burn. These are heated to their ignition point where they will break down
and release combustible gases (pyrolisation). The fire will release heat, and this will
continue to heat other materials which can lead to the growth of the fire. They will
typically leave behind smouldering, glowing embers which can retain a lot of heat.
For this reason, water, a good coolant, is effective at removing that heat energy.
Foam which also contains water is a good coolant as well.

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Class B – Liquids & Liquefiable Solids

When a flammable liquid burns it is the vapour that combusts, not the
liquid itself. Flammable liquids release these vapours at different temperatures; this
is called the flash point. Liquids that have a low flashpoint of below 60°c (so more
likely to release flammable vapour) like petrol are termed as volatile.

Smothering will help prevent the vapours, cutting them off at the surface and
therefore is a good method of extinguishing liquid fires. Liquids will ignite when
heated without the application of a flame or spark; this is called their auto ignition
temperature.

Class C – Gasses

Fires involving flammable gases can be extremely hazardous; these are

best extinguished by isolating the fuel. It is important to cool around the area and
cylinder (if involved) with water to prevent further hazards such as a BLEVE (Boiling
Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion) from occurring. Gas fires may be extinguished
by dry powder.

Class D – Metals

Metal fires such as magnesium, lithium or aluminium typically burn with

an intense heat and using a common extinguishing medium can cause an adverse
reaction. There is a special Class D Dry Powder extinguisher designed for metals
which works by smothering the fire, sand can also be used to smother small fires.

Class F – Cooking Oils

Because of the high temperatures that cooking oils can reach they can
be difficult to extinguish using ordinary foams. Specially formulated wet chemicals
when applied to the burning liquid cools and emulsifies the oil, extinguishes the
flame, seals the surface and prevents re-ignition.

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Electrical Risks

Electricity, is not a class of fuel, but is a risk or complication in all types

of fire. To protect the fire fighter and reduce the risk of sparking or heat energy
sources the power supply should be isolated. In cases where it is unclear if power
has been isolated the fire fighter should use only non-conductive media such as dry
powder or carbon dioxide.

1.6 Strategies for control of fires in various parts of a vessel

Containment

Fires can be contained in vessels by a system of compartmentation:

• Ships will be subdivided by thermal and structural boundaries

• Thermal insulation of these boundaries will take into account the fire risk
within the compartment and adjacent spaces
• The integrity of the divisions should be maintained at openings and
penetrations, i.e. Fire Doors, Dampers, Baffles etc.

These fire divisions are rated as either A, B or C class divisions and will provide
various levels of fire and heat protection. Fire dampers are also provided in
ventilation ducting to limit the spread of heat and smoke.

A and B class divisions will meet certain requirements when subjected to a standard
fire test. In this test, a bulkhead sample is exposed to a test furnace with
temperatures as follows:

A Class Division

Constructed of steel (or equivalent) and stiffened.

• Prevents the passage of flame and smoke for 60 minutes

• Does not rise above specified temperature for a required period;
o A60 – 60 Minutes

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 o A30 – 30 Minutes
o A15 – 15 Minutes
o A0 – No temperature requirements

B Class Division

• Prevents the passage of flame and smoke for 30 minutes

• Does not rise above a specified temperature for a required period;
o B15 – 15 Minutes
o B0 – No temperature requirements

C Class Division

These divisions are constructed of non-combustible materials but there are no

requirements to prevent the passage of smoke or flame nor limitations relative to the
temperature rise.

Tables in SOLAS detail the appropriate class of bulkhead or deck to be used

between spaces on all ships.

Passenger Ships

A Class Divisions

In general, main vertical zones bounded by A Class divisions should not exceed 40
metres in length. A Class divisions are also used as boundaries protecting spaces
that provide vertical access (stairways etc.), the boundaries of machinery spaces
and those separating accommodation from cargo and service spaces and others.

B Class Division

All corridor bulkheads, which are not required to be A Class, must be B Class.

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C Class Division

C Class divisions are used for inter-cabin bulkheads and inter-sanitary

accommodation and must be constructed of approved non-combustible materials.

Cargo Ships

The fire resistance will vary depending on the degree of fire detection or whether a
sprinkler system is fitted. There are various methods in SOLAS to achieve the
required protection, dependent on other measures. spaces.

Tankers

A60 materials must be used for those areas of superstructure and deckhouses
facing the cargo deck and for 3 metres aft on either side, engine casing, uptake and
cargo pump rooms.

1.7 Effects of Water on a vessels stability

The officer in charge of firefighting operations must constantly bear in mind the
stability of the ship. This can be affected by numerous factors, in particular:

- The amount and position of water put on-board for firefighting

- The amount and position of water pumped out from parts of the ship
- The movement of cargo etc., from one part of the ship to another
- Uncontained water or liquids may reduce a vessels stability
- Debris and other items dislodged during firefighting can cause blockage to
scuppers
- Water usage should be monitored and recorded as incident progresses
- Shore side services & Firefighting tugs have the ability to pump very large amounts
of water

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When a vessel with a full tank is heeled, the liquid within the tank acts like a solid
mass. Its centre of gravity, being the centre of its volume, remains constant and
therefore does not cause any change in the vessel’s centre of gravity (G) or its
metacentric height (GM) as the vessel is heeled.

When a vessel with a partially-filled tank is heeled, the liquid will seek to remain
parallel with the waterline. The centre of gravity of the liquid, being the centre of its
volume, will move with the liquid and can have a considerable effect upon the
vessel’s stability. This effect is similar to that caused by adding weight on deck, i.e.
raising the vessel’s centre of gravity which causes a decrease in the vessel’s
metacentric height, and thereby its stability.

MS Herald of Free Enterprise was a roll-on/roll-off (RORO) ferry which capsized

moments after leaving the Belgian port of Zeebrugge on the night of 6 March 1987,
killing 193 passengers and crew.

The 8-deck car and passenger ferry, owned by Townsend Thoresen, had been
designed for rapid loading and unloading on the competitive cross-channel route,
and there were no watertight compartments. When the ship left harbour with its bow-
door open, the sea immediately flooded the decks, and within minutes it was lying on
its side in shallow water.

Although the immediate

cause of the sinking was
found to be negligence by
the assistant boatswain,
who was asleep in his
cabin when he should
have been closing the
bow-door, the official
inquiry placed more blame
on his supervisors and a
general culture of poor communication in Townsend Thoresen.

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Chapter 2 Control firefighting operations aboard ships

2.1 Liaison with Shore Based Fire-fighters

Liaison is vital when a ship is in harbour for any length of time and especially when
the ship’s company is depleted by shore leave.

As a rule, the owners of a ship have a legal right to control access to their property,
the ship, and to decide what assistance the ship may require. They may also
dispense with assistance already accepted but in doing so may incur legal liability.

The Authority to exercise these property rights is usually delegated to the ship’s
Master (Captain). Shore based fire brigades and other persons invited to assist ships
in difficulty must respect the ultimate control of the owners as exercised through the
Master. However, the Master of a ship, in exercising this control is subject to various
legal duties to take all reasonable
care to secure the safety of
personnel and ship. In most
cases where a ship in port is
threatened by fire, the concept of
‘reasonable care’ would require
the Master to accept the services
of the local fire brigade and
recognise their expertise and
resources, delegating control of the operations to the Fire Chief concerned. The
decision to do so or not must always be with the Master who will be fully accountable
in law for the consequences of such a decision.

There are exceptions to the above general rule where the ship fire also threatens the
safety of the wider public and the property interests of others e.g. harbour
installations including protection of the environment. In such cases national laws 1
often provide statutory rights of intervention which override the above property rights.

1
In the UK – Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004, Section 11

23
Power is granted to various national and local authorities, in defined circumstances
and for specified reasons, to take control of all such actions as may be required to
contain or minimise such dangers. Those likely to be involved should be familiar with
their nature and extent as any abuse or misuse of such powers, no matter how well
intentioned, can be subject to legal redress in the courts.

The following are areas for consideration alongside:

• How to summon emergency services

• Inviting fire crews to familiarise
themselves with the layout of the ship
• Invite suggestions on cutting down fire
risks
• Arrange combined training exercises
with the Fire Service
• Learn the local Fire Service pre- plans
are for a ship fire
• Have a fire wallet available containing: stability data, fire plans, ventilation &
bilge plans, cargo manifest
• Obtain a copy of the port local disaster plan
• Is there a language barrier? If so, know where an interpreter can be
contacted 24 hours a day

Additional considerations will be:

• Are Fire Service hose couplings compatible with the ship’s fire main?
• Ensure quaysides are clear at all times allowing access for emergency
vehicles
• Arrange to have a responsible officer to meet the Fire Service at the top of the
gangway
• Prepare to lay a guideline or guide tape from the fire area to the gangway
• What arrangements are there for obtaining additional supplies of carbon
dioxide: bulk supplies, cylinders?
• What arrangements are there for extra foam supplies?

24
 • What arrangements are there to make available fire tugs/boats if ship is
anchored offshore?
• Ships stability
• In the event of a fire on board your vessel a fire officer will require a brief and
ask you some of the following questions. The first question will be;
• Is there anyone missing?

Other questions that may be asked include:

• Where is the fire?

• How did the fire start?
• How long has the fire been burning?
• What Class of fire is it?
• What has been or is being done about it?
• Are there dangerous goods on board?
• What is the state of the fire main?
• What is the state of the fire party?
• How much water has been pumped into the ship?
• Is there any danger of electricity in the compartment?
• How critical is stability at present?
• How many access points are there?

When a ship is under repair, the responsibility for fire prevention and firefighting must
be clearly defined. The repair yard often takes responsibility for this, if so, there
must be a clear agreement in writing to this effect. Divided responsibility must
always be avoided as it can only lead to confusion and has been the main cause of
the disastrous loss of certain ships.

25
2.2 Fight fires in accordance with recognised procedures

Breathing Apparatus (BA) Techniques

Door Opening

When opening doors inside a structure

involved in fire the temperature of the
surface of the door and its fitting should be
tested. Look around the edges of the door
for signs of heat and smoke. Apply a small
amount of water on door (painting) to
ascertain its temperature. If a fire, or
potential backdraught condition is suspected, then certain precautions must be taken
to prevent injury:

• Ensure that suitable firefighting equipment is available and in position

• Determine the type and the direction of opening of the door

• If the door opens towards the team

• The team should be positioned on the hinge side of the door
• Use door as shield, brace leg against door
• Keep low, pass nozzle to second in team
• Warn the team, open no more than 10cm for 10sec
• Look into the compartment at low level to assess the conditions
• If it is safe, proceed through the door

• If the door opens away from the team

• The team should be positioned on the handle side of the door
• Use the wall on the opposite side to the door’s hinges as protection
• Keep low
• Keep hold of the handle, maintain control of the door.
• Pass nozzle to second in team
• Warn the team, open no more than 10cm for 10sec

26
 • Look into the compartment at low level to assess conditions
• If it is safe, proceed through the door

In any event doors should be left in the closed position after exiting to stop the
spread of fire.

Search Procedures

BA wearers must balance the need for making progress and taking safety measures
to avoid the numerous potential hazards found at all incidents. The following safety
measures must always be adopted to reduce the possibility of accidents:

• A BA wearer should adopt the BA shuffle if visibility is poor

• The weight of the body should be placed on the rear foot until the advancing
foot has tested that it is safe to move forwards
• The feet should not be lifted from the ground; the foot should slide forward to
detect obstructions or openings and other dangers such as a buckling deck
• As you move forward, you should raise the free hand in front of you, lightly
clenched with the back outermost to feel for obstructions. If the back of the
hand touches a live electrical wire the shock will throw you clear and will not
cause the hand to grasp the wire.
• Searches should be carried out methodically to a pre-planned route detailed
by the OSC/Team Leader before the search has begun. There are two
directions in which a search can be carried out:
• Left hand search (maintaining contact with a bulkhead using the left hand on
the way into the incident).
• Right hand search (maintaining contact with a bulkhead using the right hand
on the way into the incident).
• These searches can be carried out using two different methods of search
pattern depending on the circumstances of the task.

27
Search Patterns

Indirect Search (Compartment Search)

When teams are briefed to search and locate a casualty or the seat of a fire, then
team members must spread out to cover the maximum area possible whilst
maintaining physical contact. The team leader is responsible for maintaining the
designated search pattern and wherever possible, the team must remain at right
angles to the bulkhead. Any hatches or doors that are found on the opposite side to
the search should be briefly assessed and if they cannot be searched without leaving
the designated search pattern, the team should make note of it and inform the team
leader.

Direct Search (Traverse)

When teams are briefed to go to a specific area of a structure on either a left or right-
hand search pattern to carry out a search for casualties, locate a fire, or relieve a
team then there is no requirement to search the areas of the structure prior to the
arrival at the designated area. Therefore, teams will proceed one behind the other
with the team leader as the pathfinder, remaining team members must still carry out
personal search procedures. Also, direct search patterns can be used by teams
withdrawing from an incident.

Temperature Monitoring

Burns through heat transmission can cause serious injury. In a fire situation heat will
be transferred to the BA wearers by:

• Conduction through direct contact with hot surfaces

• Convection through high atmosphere temperatures caused by the fire
• Radiant heat
• Excessive steam production

28
When working in BA, crew members may not recognise the temperature within a
compartment due to the nature of their protective clothing which isolates them from
the potentially hazardous conditions of high radiant heat and atmospheric
temperatures. Careful monitoring of your own physical condition and recognition of
your own limitations are important to ensure you do not become a casualty.

When firefighting in an enclosed space you will need to monitor the conditions to
determine a safe position to fight the fire. In a compartment with no vertical
ventilation you may have to adopt a crouching or kneeling position. However, if there
is vertical ventilation (vertical or raking ladder) then a more upright position may be
comfortable. Whatever your position you should apply the water in short sharp
bursts, then monitor the steam production before re-applying. Repeat this process as
necessary until the fire is extinguished.

If a BA wearer starts to experience burns through their fire kit they should withdraw
immediately and remove it as soon as possible, this will require the whole team
exiting the risk. Usually the first signs of heat transmission through the PPE are felt
on the ears, at the shoulder straps and back of the hands where the material of the
PPE is in contact with the body.

Hose

Fire hose enables the movement of water or foam solution to where it is required for
firefighting. Modern hoses are made from synthetic materials and are not prone to rot
however they may be damaged by shock or abrasion.

• Where a hose leads over sharp edges protect it with a mat

• Where a hose is led through a doorway make sure the door is held ajar with
wooden blocks or wedges
• Open and close nozzles or hydrants slowly to prevent water hammer

29
The diameter of hoses is not specified but can be 38mm, 45mm or 64mm. They
should be long enough to project a jet of
water into any space they are required to be
used. They shall be at least 10m long but not
more than 15m in machinery spaces, 20m in
other spaces and open decks and 25m for
open decks on ships with a maximum width
more than 30m.

Coiled Hose

Hoses can be either in a “Dutch roll” on a bight or a

coiled roll. Either method can be used but the
same one should be used throughout the ship.

The “Dutch roll” has the advantage that both

coupling remain in hand when the hose in rolled
Dutch Rolled Hose
out.

After use, the hose should be drained out by walking along it and lifting it to shoulder
level (under-running), any contaminates washed off and the couplings rinsed in fresh
water.

Couplings

Whichever type of coupling is found on board they will be uniform throughout the
whole vessel.

Instantaneous Couplings

These couplings push together, and two spring loaded lugs

hold the two together. To release, the lugs are pulled outward
simultaneously. Each hose has a male and female coupling.

30
Storz type coupling

These couplings twist together locking into place, they will

often come with a ‘C’ type spanner to assist in locking and
unlocking. Both ends of the hose are the same enabling
more adaptability.

International Shore Connection

Because of the non-standardisation of couplings every

vessel over 500 gross tonnes must be fitted with an
International Shore Connection.

It permits connection of the shipboard fire main with

another ship or shore facility when the hose couplings
are different to allow the damaged ship’s fire main to be
pressurized.

Nozzles

Nozzles on board must have the ability to offer a jet, a spray and shut off option.
These may be facilitated in a number of ways, but this is the minimum.

Common water types include:

Unifire V-12 Nozzle

Akron Turbo Jet Nozzle

31
The fact that all nozzles can be shut off means that the amount of water used can be
controlled which:

• Limits the amount of water damage

• Limits the effect that excess water may have on the ship's stability
• Preserves water pressure in the fire main for use elsewhere in the ship
• Controls the humidity in the space by turning the nozzle off for a moment to
allow the steam to dissipate

The nozzle can be adjusted to a jet so that:

• Water can be delivered a long way if necessary

• The force of the jet can be used to assist water penetration when damping
down after a fire

It can be adjusted to a spray so that:

• The nozzle is being used in the most effective way ensuring the water is
sprayed on the fuel and not just on hot smoke

The cooling effect of water will be most effective if it is applied in the form of a spray
rather than a jet.

Precautions

The nozzle should always be pointed at the deck to adjust it correctly before
attacking the fire.

Possible hazards are:

• Hitting a hot steel bulkhead which will create large volumes of steam without
affecting the severity of the fire
• Striking another person unseen in the smoke leading to injury or dislodging
their facemask
• Striking live electrics
• Hitting burning flammable liquids creating a boil over

32
Fog Lance

A fog applicator or fog lance can be inserted into the end of the nozzle or be
standalone kit. It can be used in places which are difficult to access e.g. under
vehicles, engine compartments, but steam production will be considerably higher
than that produced by a normal spray. The fog lance
is found on all types of car carrier and ro-ro ships
where it can be particularly useful in extinguishing
fires underneath lorries or cars where the drencher
system cannot reach. They can also be found in the
engine rooms of passenger vessels.

Foam Making Equipment

Additional foam making equipment is carried on board vessels in the engine room
and may be required for other areas including helidecks or cargo areas. There are a
number of different foam types available.

Foam Types

Protein Foam

This is based on hoof and horn meal from a slaughterhouse and has a good
resistance to higher oil temperatures. It is mainly used in the fixed foam systems on
tankers. Manufacturers will recommend in which temperature range it must be
stored because it may deteriorate and lose its properties in very hot or cold
conditions. Tankers require a sample of their foam compound used for pump rooms
and deck fires to be tested annually.

Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)

This foam is detergent based. Because of its film forming properties it is particularly
good on low flash point liquids as it resists re-ignition. On hotter fires (high flash

33
point) there may be a tendency for the thin aqueous (water) film to boil away. It is
very commonly used in extinguishers and can be found in some tanker fixed
systems.

Film Forming Fluoro Protein Foam (FFFP)

This foam has the film forming properties of AFFF and the heat resistance of protein
foam.

Low expansion foam (LX) is the usual type found aboard ship.

Foam is normally supplied as a 6% or 3% concentrate, this means that:

• 6% foam concentrate + 94% water and air

• 3% foam concentrate + 97% water and air

The percentage will be written on the side of the drum.

Foam Compound

Properties of firefighting foam.

• Resistance to burn back - Foam being boiled away from the flame front
• Resistance to re-ignition - Hot vapour boiling up through the foam blanket
after the fire is out leading to re-flash

Foam expansion ratios

• Low expansion: shall not generally exceed 12 to 1

• Medium expansion: between 50 to 1 and 150 to 1
• High expansion: shall not exceed 1000 to 1

Revised guidelines for the performance and testing criteria and surveys of foam
concentrate for fixed fire extinguishing systems are contained in MSC.1/Circ.1312

34
June 2009.These guidelines apply to foam concentrates used for fixed deck foam
extinguishing systems required for:

• Tankers
• Chemical tankers
• Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in bulk (IBC Code)

They also apply to foam concentrates (low and high expansion foam) in fixed foam
extinguishing systems in machinery spaces and portable foam applicators.

Foam Making Equipment

The Inline Inductor

This allows the foam to be injected into the

fire hose two lengths back from the fire front,
in a safe area where foam supplies can be
maintained by deck crew.

A foam nozzle will be required to aspirate the foam liquid.

Foam Nozzle

These come in a variety of types and will aspirate

(add air) to the foam as it leaves the nozzle. The
nozzle can be used with an inline inductor as
shown above or often in a standalone mode where
the pickup tube comes from the nozzle and is
added to the foam concentrate.

35
This can be operated with or without an inline inductor,
with the pickup tube being removable. Typically, these can
throw foam up to 20m.

Wheeled units

Larger foam, dry powder and carbon dioxide wheeled units are usually found in
engine rooms and often placed near manifolds during tanker loading or discharge.
They are operated on the same principle as hand held extinguishers.

Because of their larger capacity and higher application rates they can control larger
fires. Do not place them too close to high fire risk areas where a fire may limit
access.

CO2 Unit Dry Powder Foam

36
2.3 Communications during firefighting operations

Radio communication is key to the efficiency and safety within operations; this is
particularly true during fire incidents. Even the best radio system can suffer from
interference, because of this it is possible that others cannot hear anything or
everything that is said. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that proper procedures
and simple plain language are used to save time.

All teams are to follow these procedures when communicating on the radio,

• Radio messages and traffic should be kept short

• Do not interrupt other users – except for priority messages prefix with “Urgent,
Urgent, Urgent”
• Always yield to more important messages
• Speak slowly and clearly
• Use easily understood words
• Avoid ambiguity

Radio discipline is the responsibility of every operator and you should adhere to
the following:

• Listen before you speak

• Use correct procedure
• Maintain constant radio watch
• Answer all calls promptly
• Keep the airways free of unnecessary talk
• Be brief and to the point

37
2.4 Control ventilation during firefighting operations

Due to the fire, resistive divisions required aboard ships, a fire should be able to be
contained within the space by:

• Boundary cooling
• Boundary starvation
• Isolation of recirculated air
• Patrols

Ventilation Systems

Smoke extraction systems have been

incorporated into buildings for many
years however no international
attention was paid to ship design until
158 people died aboard the
Scandinavian Star in April 1990.

Some passenger vessels can slightly over-pressurise their stairwell escape routes
which prevents smoke in accommodation entering the stairwell where other
passengers or personnel are escaping from different levels. The only problem is that
the deck where the fire has started remains smoke-logged which may lead to
fatalities. Other newer passenger vessels do have smoke detectors in the cabin
exhaust. When a fire is detected, all recirculated and fresh air being supplied is
stopped, with only the toilet extraction left on to allow smoke and other products an
escape.

If the muster is complete, all ventilation systems can be shut down and the fire
attacked by the fire team. Once they have covered or extinguished the fire they may

38
well request ventilation by whatever means. Tactical ventilation of a space may
generally be very successful if employed, but if there are fire-fighters inside they
must decide or approve how this is achieved.

When initial firefighting attempts are unsuccessful, early use of fixed installations into
engine rooms is generally recommended. There may, however, be circumstances
where an entry is required. Entry must be made at the lowest level possible and,
when this has been affected, a funnel flap may be opened to allow the steam and hot
gases to escape. There is always a concern that the fire will be fed with more
oxygen but, providing there is a limited opening at the entry point, a chimney effect
will not be created.

The benefits of ventilation are:

• Increased visibility and therefore greater mobility

• Lower heat and humidity levels
• Casualties will survive longer

At present the only requirement for smoke extraction applies to public spaces i.e.
atria on passenger vessels that span three or more open decks. They must have an
automatic smoke extraction system activated by smoke detector or manual control
so that the space can be exhausted in 10 minutes or less.

39
2.5 Firefighting procedures involving dangerous goods

The International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG)

gives specific details on the carriage of Dangerous Goods in
packaged form, solid or bulk.

In short safe carriage can be achieved by:

• good packaging
• correct marking, labelling and placarding
• appropriate segregation
• complete documentation

The IMDG Code specifically states that it does not apply to ship’s stores and
equipment, however many dangerous or potentially dangerous chemicals are carried
on board vessels and these will vary according to the type of ship. If dangerous
ship’s stores are stowed according to the IMDG Code, this would show that all
precautions had been taken in the event of an accident.

Classification in the IMDG Code is as follows:

40
The segregation table provided in IMDG Code 7.2.4 identifies general requirements
for separation between hazard classes and divisions.

The IMDG code consists of two volumes and one supplement.

Volume 1 contains sections on:

• General provisions, definitions, training

• Classification
• Packing and tank provisions
• Consignment procedures
• Construction and testing of packaging
• Transport operations

Volume 2 contains:

• Dangerous goods list, presented in tabular format

• Limited quantities exceptions
• The index
• Appendices

41
The Supplement contains the following texts related to the IMDG Code:

• EMS Guide
• Medical First Aid Guide
• Reporting Procedures
• Packing Cargo Transport Units
• Safe Use of Pesticides
• INF Code

The Emergency Schedules (EmS) Guide contains guidance on Emergency

Response Procedures for Ships Carrying Dangerous Goods including the EmS to be
followed in case of incidents involving dangerous substances, materials or articles,
or harmful substances (marine pollutants), regulated under the International Maritime
Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code).

The Emergency Schedules for FIRE contains specific guidance for ten groups of
dangerous goods and gives general guidelines for dealing with fires on-board.

42
2.6 Management & Control of Injured Persons

The main risks from fire involve the both the effects of smoke and heat.

Burns

The severity of a burn is defined as the depth in relation to the area of burn. The
complexity of a burn relates to where it occurs on the body. The depth is classed as:

Superficial red, tender, no blisters

Partial red, tender, blisters

Deep all layers, appearance varies (e.g. white, charred)

The area is considered as the palm being 1% of their body surface. Its size can be
used as a template to measure the total body area burnt.

Management of burns

• remove from source of heat

• cool for at least 10 minutes, 20 for chemicals
• remove constrictions, e.g. rings, watches, necklace
• lightly cover with non-fluffy dressing

Special Considerations

• do not remove burnt on clothing this may cause further damage tissue
• monitor airway, it can swell very quickly and stop breathing
• rinse with cold water for mouth burns

43
Heat and Humidity

The body core must be kept within a few degrees of 37oC (98.6oF) as it contains
important organs. Heat production is increased by exercise and is lost by:

Heat loss by radiation (50%)

If the surrounding atmosphere is cooler than the body then it will tend to lose heat.
Clothing interferes with radiation and will naturally reduce heat loss from the body
but equally it will protect the body from absorbing heat radiated towards it.

Heat loss by convection (25%)

Rising hot gases are replaced by cooler ones.

Heat loss by vaporisation (25%)

The evaporation of sweat cools the blood below the surface of the skin, unfortunately
excessive sweating over a short period leads to salt loss and heat exhaustion. Fire
fighters must replace these body fluids with as much fresh water as they require.
Conditions of high humidity are a feature of shipboard fires, so the sweat cannot
evaporate. The last line of defence to lose heat is to pant, further reducing the
duration of the BA set.

Smoke Inhalation

Smoke inhalation can cause serious respiratory complications. The hot smoke
injures or kills by a combination of thermal damage, poisoning and pulmonary
irritation and swelling, caused by carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and other
combustion products.

44
2.7 Operational use and safety considerations of fixed fire extinguishing
systems

SOLAS sets out the requirements for the protection of certain spaces with the
appropriate fixed fire system. The following sets out the most common systems
found on-board, how they work and where they will be located.

Sprinkler System

A sprinkler system is a wet pipe fire detection system with the

added advantage that it immediately sprays water on to the fire.

A charged system of pipes kept pressurised with fresh water has

outlets which are sealed by a glass bulb containing a liquid of a
known coefficient of expansion.

57°C Orange
68ºC Red accommodation
79ºC Yellow
95ºC Green saunas
121ºC - Blue galleys, laundries
141ºC

At a certain temperature (above) this coloured liquid will expand and break the glass,
this breaks the seal on the assembly and the water released hits the diffuser and
sprays on the fire. The flow of water activates an alarm and indicates the section
activated. When the pressurised freshwater reserve falls (about 1½ ton tank) a
dedicated seawater pump cuts in and maintains the flow.

Other heads will not be activated unless they are affected by heat; if too many heads
are activated, the pressure will not be maintained. The delivery from one head is
about three tons an hour. This may affect stability in a prolonged fire, but the system
should not be shut off until it is certain that the fire out.

45
The system is grouped into sections, each of no more than 200 heads, each section
having its own isolating and detection valve and no section should (normally) cover
more than two decks nor penetrate a Class A bulkhead.

Visual and audible alarm systems shall be centralised on the bridge or a main fire
control station indicating in which zone the sprinkler head has been activated.

Deluge System

This is a system employing open nozzles attached to a piping

system connected to a water supply through a valve that can
be opened by signals from a fire detection system and by
manual operation. When this valve is opened, water flows into
the piping system and discharges from all the nozzles.

These systems can be found on cargo & car decks and areas
where large and immediate quantities of water are required.

Water Mist Systems

Water mist systems utilise higher pressures to create a fine spray

which has a number of positive effects on the fire. These include a
smaller droplet size which encourages more rapid cooling and the
production of steam around the fire which gives a smothering effect.
Due to these features water mist is suitable for use on Class B and
Class F fires.

These systems can be in a wet pipe (above) or deluge

type (left) configuration dependent on their situation.
There are a number of areas where these systems are
utilised. It can be the only system in the Engine Room
however it must cover the entire area.

46
Engine room

A fixed local application fire extinguishing system is only required for machinery
spaces of category A above 500m3 on ships with keel laid after 1st July 2002, and
for all existing passenger ships of 2000 GT and above built before 1st July 2002.

These systems in the case of periodically unattended spaces should have both
automatic and manual release capability.

The systems are designed to protect certain areas of the engine room without the
need to shut down the engine, evacuate personnel or seal the space for at least 20
minutes. Areas protected include:

• Fire hazard portions on internal combustion machinery

• Boiler fronts
• Incinerators
• Purifiers of heated oil

Water mist systems are typically more complex than standard pressure systems but
when operated correctly can provide excellent protection. It is essential that all crew
are aware of the system, where it is located, areas protected and how to operate it.
The fact that this system can be used with people in the vicinity is one of its key
features and there should be no delay in releasing it.

Foam Fire Extinguishing Systems

Guidance for the following systems can be found in more details in the following
Marine Safety Circulars,

• Fixed Systems MSC/Circ. 1432

• Low ex MSC/Circ. 1312
• Med ex MSC/Circ.798
• Hi ex MSC/Circ.670 – Inside air foam MSC/Circ.1271

47
Fixed Deck Foam Systems

The fixed foam system for tankers (greater than 20000t) must be able to deliver foam
to the entire cargo tank deck area as well as into any ruptured tank. It must be
capable of simple operation with the control station located outside the cargo area,
adjacent to the accommodation spaces and readily accessible and operable in the
event of fire in the areas protected.

In any chemical tanker, the type of foam concentrate should

be appropriate for the chemicals listed on the Certificate of
Fitness, i.e. either a regular foam or an alcohol resistant
foam. In cases where a foam concentrate of each type is
required, an all-purpose foam should be used.

Sufficient foam concentrate shall be supplied for 20 minutes

of foam generation in ships fitted with inert gas or 30
minutes where there is no inert gas.

High Expansion Foam for Engine Room or Pump Room

These systems are an alternative to fixed CO2 systems. Hi-Ex foam is composed of
a mass of bubbles having an expansion ratio of approximately 650 -1000 volumes of
foam for each volume of liquid foam concentrate

This can be produced by hi-ex foam generators using air from outside the space or
by generators using air from inside the engine or pump room.

When foam is poured onto a fire the liquid is flashed to steam. The resulting
expansion rate creates a mixture of some 1700 volumes of steam to reduce the
oxygen content to well below what is required for active burning. Conversion of
water to steam absorbs a great deal of heat, thus cooling the burning material.

48
Principal requirements for the system are;

• The systems source of power supply, foam concentrate supply and means of
controlling the system should be readily accessible and simple to operate
• The finished foam should be adequate to completely fill the largest protected
space in 10 min or less
• The quantity of foam concentrate available should be sufficient to produce a
volume of foam equal to at least five times the volume of the largest protected
space
• All sections of piping should be provided with connections for flushing,
draining and purging with air
• Audible and visual alarms should operate for at least 20 seconds to warn of
imminent release
• If the space is greater than 500m3 it must be capable of being ventilated as
the foam flows in otherwise a back pressure could curtail the formation of
foam
• Personnel entering the protected space after a system discharge must wear
BA to protect them from oxygen deficient air and products of combustion
entrained in the foam blanket.

Hazards of High Expansion Foam

• Loss of vision, hearing and sense of direction

• Penetration of light from torches is severely
affected
• Audibility of speech and the sound of low-
pressure warning whistles are severely restricted
• Thermal imaging cameras are ineffective

49
Low expansion foam systems

Low expansion foam systems are no longer permitted to be installed as the sole
fixed firefighting system for machinery spaces.

The system shall be capable of discharging through fixed discharge outlets in not
more than 5 minutes a quantity of foam sufficient to cover to a depth of 150mm the
largest single area that over which oil fuel is liable to spread. The expansion ratio
shall not exceed 12:1.

There must be effective distribution and for means to direct the foam by fixed
sprayers onto other main hazards in the protected space.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Systems

CO2 systems can be used in engine room or cargo spaces on-board ship, key
features of these systems are,

• When protecting more than one space the required amount on-board need
only be enough for the largest space
• Pipe work should be arranged for even distribution throughout the space
• Instructions for operating the installation must be displayed near the remote
operating controls, distribution control valves and also near the gas cylinders.
• Means shall be provided of giving an audible alarm in the space protected if
personnel have access, this is often accompanied by a visual signal
• Engineers must recognise this warning when it sounds and evacuate
immediately
• Notices should be posted on the entrances to every space protected by CO 2,
indicating that the space is so protected and that personnel should evacuate
the space immediately on hearing the alarm.
• Two separate controls should be provided for releasing CO2 into a protected
space.

50
CO2 release in Engine Rooms

• In the event of a fire in the engine room the CO2 system should be activated
ideally within 20 minutes
• All should be fully competent with the remote and local operation of the fixed
CO2 fire extinguishing system
• Before discharge ensure that all personnel are out of the engine room and all
doors and openings are closed
• Before a space is filled with CO2 ensure ventilation fan emergency stops and
all fuel and hydraulic oil remote quick closing valves are operated
• Immediately after activation checks should be carried out to ensure that the
gas has been correctly released. This can be achieved by feeling the CO 2
cylinders which should be cold to the touch and visually checking the
individual cylinder release valves to ensure they are in the open position
• CO2 has no cooling effect and re-ignition will occur if the ER is opened before
the steelwork has cooled below the AIT/ SIT of any vapours or liquids
remaining
• Applying controlled amounts of water to the boundaries, by whatever means,
will continue to cool and protect
• Expert advice should be obtained from ashore before ventilation of the space
or any attempt at re-entry is made
• Even when the fire is extinguished a fire team must inspect the ER before the
gas can be ventilated and auxiliary machinery can be started

CO2 release in Cargo Spaces

• For a ship using a smoke sampling system the same pipe work can be utilised
to introduce the CO2 into the space
• In the CO2 room or in the detector cabinet there will be a manifold with each
space labelled on each lever.
• The appropriate three-way valve is operated which closes the line to the
detector cabinet but allows delivery of CO2 to the space on fire

51
 • In the control room, there will be instructions as to how many cylinders should
be released initially and how many at set intervals until arrival in port or all
CO2 is used up
• The number of cylinders initially released will depend on the amount of cargo
in the hatch

Liquid Level Indicator

• A Liquid Level Indicator enables the extinguishing

content to be checked without dismantling the
manifold
• It consists of a small low power radioactive source
and receiver displaced on a yoke by the width of
the container being measured
• Simply moving the sensor assembly over the
height of the container and observing the indicator
on the control box, quickly identifies the liquid
levelCO2 rooms can contain any number of
cylinders for the required spaces dependent on
the size

Deep Fat Fryer

Deep fat cooking equipment must be fitted with a fixed

system. This can be a variety of systems including CO2,
water mist or wet chemical.

52
Spaces containing flammable liquids

Paint lockers shall be protected by one of the following,

• CO2 System
• Dry Powder system
• Water spraying/sprinkler system
• In all cases operable outside the space.

Galley Exhausts

On passenger ships and where passing through accommodation exhaust systems

shall be fitted with a grease trap and a fixed means of extinguishing a fire within the
duct.

Gas carriers

Ships intending to carry flammable products are to be fitted with a fixed dry chemical
powder type extinguishing system for fighting fire on the deck in the cargo area and
bow or stern cargo handling areas if applicable.

Equivalent fixed gas fire-extinguishing systems for engine rooms and pump
rooms

Halocarbon clean agents:

FM 200

This extinguishes fires quickly through a combination of chemical interaction and

physical heat removal. It does not smother. Stored as a liquid in pressurised
cylinders, FM 200 flows to a discharge nozzle where it is deployed as a gas. In most
systems about 7% of gas is required.

53
Novec 1230

It has a low toxicity and has a boiling point of 48oc and therefore exists as a liquid at
room temperature. It is super-pressurised with nitrogen to 25 bar and it rapidly
extinguishes fire through a combination of heat absorption (its main action) and an
element of chemical interference with the flame.

Halotron

It is discharged as a liquid which rapidly evaporates. The primary extinguishing is the

absorption and removal of heat and to a lesser extent by the displacement of
oxygen. Approximately 6% to 7% by volume needs to be discharged into the space.
Pyrogen

When activated, the solid generating chemical undergoes a combustion reaction

producing potassium carbonates, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour. It
chemically inhibits the flame and lowers the fire temperature.

Inert gases:

• Argonite – Nitrogen (50%) + Argon (50%)

• Inergen - Nitrogen (52%) + Argon (40%) + Carbon dioxide (8%)

Note: these gases have been engineered to allow personnel to survive in

atmospheres at design concentrations

Aerosols systems:

Comprise of a fine potassium powder, which is held inside a container or 'generator'

until activation causes the powder to be dispersed as an aerosol around the
protected space. The potassium molecules attack the fire physically and chemically,
inhibiting the chain reaction present in combustion.

• Pyrogen - Aerosol (inert solid producing gas like extinguishant)

• FirePro Aerosol Potassium compounds KOH reacts & forms K2CO3

54
Chapter 3 Organise and train fire parties

3.1 Organise a fire party to implement emergency plans

SOLAS Ch 3/Reg 19 and MGN 71 gives guidance on Musters, drills, on-board

training and instructions to be carried out on board:

It is recommended that a fire or other emergency drill should be held simultaneously

with the first stage of the abandon ship drill.

A mock attack in varying spaces such as:

• Cargo holds
• Engine & boiler rooms
• Accommodation
• Galleys
• Pump rooms
• Enclosed spaces, etc.

Fire and emergency pumps should be started, hoses should be laid out and where
practicable water should be run through them first with the machinery space pump
and secondly with the emergency pump with the isolation valve closed.

• Instruction and discharge of extinguishers

• Closing of openings and operation of remote controls
• Operation of fixed installations
• Exercises in BA and other emergency appliances
• Examination of appliances not used at that drill
• Sprinkler installations tested monthly
• At least one extinguisher let off by a different member of crew
• Instruction in fire prevention and other emergency subjects

55
Once the alarm has sounded the crew muster at their emergency station. Provision
must be made for alternative muster points where fire or smoke makes it impossible
to assemble. The regular ritual of mechanically performing these duties will contain
little training benefit therefore drills must be as realistic as possible.

It is good practice in drills to occasionally take the leader out of the emergency
situation so the second in command can have an opportunity in taking on this
challenging task.

The drill must be followed by a full debrief as there will always be mistakes and
misunderstandings. Never surprise your crew with a drill, always give some
forewarning even if it is not too precise. Where a public-address system is installed,
a message must be prefaced “This is a drill”.

Most fires and enclosed space incidents will require the efficient and confident use of
BA, therefore trained crew members to don and perform search and rescue (SAR),
in accommodations with full visibility especially if they are not confident. SAR can be
developed by partially reducing the lighting or using cosmetic smoke

Specific breathing apparatus (BA) teams can be exercised whilst the rest of the ship
is working normally.

Cargo ships and passenger ships carrying not more than 36 passengers will require
either an on-board means of recharging breathing apparatus cylinder used during
drills or a suitable number of spare cylinders to replace those used during drills.

It is possible that, on smaller vessels the BA Controller may also be the officer in
charge.

They are responsible for:

• Assistance in donning BA
• Briefing teams
• Initial gauge checks (minimum 80%-cylinder contents)
• Providing two relief BA wearers ready to enter and relieve or rescue five
minutes before the whistle time of the first entry team
• Debrief and undress (doff) first entry team

56
3.2 Shipboard firefighting organisation and composition of fire teams

Organisation

Command and control can be broken down into three areas on-board alongside
relevant levels of responsibility in the incident.

• Strategy: An overall plan for incident attack and control.

• Tactics: Specific tasks and duties to be completed to meet overall strategy.
• Operational: Implementation of the strategy and tactics as decided utilising
safe operational procedures.

Bridge

Strategy is the undetailed plan of action to achieve a (complicated) goal.

The Captain of the vessel during a fire incident or other emergency has overall
command and responsibility for any fire or emergency, the safe navigation and the
operation of the vessel, the safety of those on board and the protection of the
environment.

57
Resources and factors affecting strategy will include but are not limited to:

• Alarms / Resources / Location

• Missing persons/Incomplete Muster/Verbal reports/Information
• Fire Spread / Fire screen doors/ W/T doors
• Ventilation / Isolations / Fire plans
• Internal Communications /External Communication / GMDSS

The bridge team will use this information along any contingency plans and any other
decision support systems to come up with a suitable strategy for the situation,
prioritising safety of life.

The Captain should give the On-Scene Commander (OSC) freedom to act locally but
should monitor actions and be prepared to prompt him/her using information from his
resources as required. It is not intended that the Captain will direct or take charge of
operations at the incident location.

Fire Teams

Operations can best be described as tasks that are carried out near an incident to
achieve desired objectives. This will be achieved using Company procedures in

58
accordance with the tactical plan to achieve the strategic aims. This is the level at
which direction of immediate "hands-on" or task level work is undertaken at the
scene of an incident.

The team leaders are responsible for carrying out the tasks as detailed in the tactical
plan set by the OSC.

The responsibilities of those undertaking this level of work should be kept to a

minimum to due to the increased risk of operations in these areas. Their focus
should be on:

• Standard Operating Procedures

• Team Safety
• Communications
• Debrief OSC

Standard operating procedures should be practiced on-board during training,

recommended procedures for firefighting on-board can be found in the further on in
these notes.

Radio communications are essential. There is now a requirement for new ships to
carry radios for this purpose, their use is essential and can be very effective. The
officer in charge can monitor their progress and assist as required. The confidence
of a BA wearer will increase where there is communication to the outside.

3.3 Control firefighting operations

On Scene Commander (OSC)

Tactics can be summarised as the deployment of personnel and equipment at an

incident within set objectives and priorities to achieve the overall aims. Factors
affecting may include:

• Missing Persons
• Safety of life
• Search and rescue

59
 • Hazards
• Chemicals
• Boundary cooling
• Boundary Starvation
• Fire Location / Type / Fire Fighting Media
• Fire Teams Entry / Exit / BA entry control
• Team briefings
• Communication

The OSC directs and coordinates operational activities based on approved Company
procedures to meet the strategic aims as set by the Captain (Bridge). The OSC
determines the disposition and resources required locally to resolve the incident. The
OSC should be supported by the Captain whilst being allowed to act independently
to achieve these aims.

Tactical decisions made at this level should as a priority avoid

• Fighting a fire from opposite directions

• Changing conditions inside the fire area without the fire fighter’s knowledge
• Changing the cylinder and sending a fire fighter back in

The OSC position should be at or near to the scene of operations which should be a
suitable safe position and a short travel distance from the incident, with the intention
to control the incident response by briefing and debriefing team leaders.

It is imperative that the OSC does not become engaged in operational activities
during the event, this can cause a lack of focus and appreciation of the overall
situation.

60
3.4 Train fire parties in realistic on-board scenarios

There is an amount of planning that should go into each training exercise, they
should be:

-Regular but not routine

-Varied & realistic

-Sequenced with likely events and complications

Each drill should include:

-Reporting to muster and preparing for designated duties

-Starting a fire pump and checking operation with two jets

-Checking fireman's outfits and other equipment

-Checking operation of fire doors, dampers, ventilation systems in the area

-Necessary arrangements for subsequent abandonment should situation deteriorate

Instruction should cover fire prevention, particularly in;

-galleys,

-machinery spaces,

-cargo compartments,

-Pump rooms and accommodation spaces

On-board instruction in fire-fighting is supplementary to training available at

firefighting courses. If a drill is not held, then a record of the relevant circumstances
and the extent of any muster, drill or training session held must be made.

61
Chapter 4 Inspect and service fire detection and
extinguishing systems and equipment

4.1 Inspection and testing of fire detection and fire alarms

Fire detection systems are designed to detect the fire in the space of origin and to
provide alarm for safe escape or firefighting activity. They shall be suitable for the
nature of the space, fire growth potential and potential generation of smoke and
gasses.

Audible and visible warning of a fire must be given in some central control point
usually the bridge and engine control room. If not acknowledged after 2 minutes this
will then sound throughout the ship.

Heat Detectors

These come in two common types;

Fixed temperature

Operate when the sensing mechanism reaches its specific temperature threshold.
Usually there is a fusible metal element which melts and causes a short on the
initiating circuit.

Rate of Rise

Identify an abnormally fast temperature climb over a short time period. Rate of rise
detectors also have a fixed temperature backstop to ensure that even very slow
increases in temperature will eventually raise an alarm, if the increase continues for
a sufficiently long period.

62
Smoke Detectors

These also come in two common types;

Ionisation

In a chamber a radioactive source, usually an alpha particle, which ionizes the air
passing through the chamber where a current flows between two electrodes. When
even invisible smoke enters the chamber and it disrupts the flow of current and
generates an alarm

Photoelectric

Light is projected into a smoke sensing chamber inside the detector assembly. The
light hits a black background of the chamber and is absorbed. When enough smoke
enters the chamber, it reflects the light on to a sensor inside the chamber.

Flame detector

The Optical detector "sees" the fire by detecting the electromagnetic

radiation emitted by the combustion products. They are line of sight
devices that operate on either an infrared, ultraviolet (UV) or
combination principle.

I.R. responds to the flicker in a flame and may give false alarms from sunlight, faulty
fluorescent lights, etc. Many modern detectors have now reduced these false alarms
considerably by further comparing the flame with the light spectrum.

UV is not affected by sunlight or artificial light but is sensitive to electrical arcs.

Radiation detectors have a quick response as they do not rely on combustion
products and can therefore be used outside.

Hold Sampling

The most usual type of fire-detection equipment to be found in cargo holds is a

smoke-detector system where a sample of air is taken from each protected space

63
and passed through a smoke detector. This system has the advantage that the
same sampling pipes may be used to deliver the fire extinguishing medium to the
space.

The sampling pipes terminate at a cabinet in which the labelled ends of the pipes
can be seen. A propeller or other device indicates that a stream of air is in fact being
drawn through the pipe. Indirect lighting will illuminate any smoke particles entering
the cabinet. One disadvantage of this type of detection system is that one detector is
sampling air from a very large volume. To overcome this disadvantage more recent
types have a miniaturised detector on each sampling pipe.

The air then passes through a photo-electric detector that will set off an audible and
visible alarm. Air may be discharged into the wheelhouse to give the officer of the
watch an opportunity of nasal detection if all else fails.

Every vessel shall develop a regular routine for testing detectors. They must be
tested to the phenomena in which they are designed to respond.

4.2 Inspection and testing of fixed fire extinguishing systems

Monthly testing and inspection

• all fixed firefighting installation valves are set in the correct operational
position;
• dry pipe sprinkler systems are pressurised, where appropriate, and gauges
indicate correctly;
• sprinkler system pressure tank water levels are correct as indicated by glass
gauges;
• all sprinkler system pumps operate automatically on pressure loss in the
systems;
• all fire pumps are operational; and
• all fixed gas fire extinguishing installations are free from leakage.

64
The coloured liquid in the bulb of the sprinkler or hi fog nozzle has been known to
leak. If there is no liquid in the glass bulb there is nothing to expand, break the glass
and hence release the water from the pressurised system. Establishing a routine to
visually check that no leakage has occurred is important.

Quarterly testing and inspection

• all fire extinguishers are at correct pressure and are not due for servicing;
• all automatic alarms for sprinkler systems activate using the section test
valves;
• the international shore connection is serviceable;
• firefighting equipment lockers contain their full inventory and the equipment
they contain is in serviceable condition; and
• all fire doors, fire dampers and closing devices can be operated locally.

Annual testing and inspection

• all fire doors, and ventilation dampers where appropriate, operate remotely;
• where practicable all aqueous foam and water spray fixed firefighting
installations operate correctly;
• all accessible components of fixed firefighting systems, typically nozzles, are
free from damage or obstruction on visual inspection;
• all fire pumps, including sprinkler system pumps, develop correct pressures
and flow rates;
• all hydrants operate;
• all antifreeze solutions are correctly maintained and cross connection
between fire main and sprinkler system operates correctly; and
• fixed fire detection systems operate correctly, according to manufacturer’s test
instructions.

65
4.3 Inspection and maintenance of portable firefighting equipment

Extinguisher Construction

Stored Pressure – These extinguishers are filled and then pressurised. They will
have a gauge on them indicating the pressure and limits above and below.

Gas Cartridge – These extinguishers are not under pressure until the extinguisher
lever is operated for the first time. This introduces pressure into the extinguisher to
operate as before.

The fire extinguisher is operated by A. Cylinder made from

releasing the pin, breaking the anti- mild steel

tamper seal and squeezing together B. Activation Lever

& Safety Pin/tamper tag
the fire extinguisher handles. This
C. PVC reinforced hose
will either pierce the co² cartridge
and pressurise the D. Extinguishing Medium
with siphon tube.
extinguisher/open the valve or with
E. Labelling and colour
stored pressure simply open the coding

hose valve. The media is then

forced up the syphon tube within the fire extinguisher, through the head cap and
hose onto the fire.

Extinguishers (except CO2) can be recharged on-board if facilities are available.

When empty and all pressure released, the units can be washed and dried and then
refilled with the appropriate medium. Stored pressure extinguishers are then
pressurised to the required pressure by a pump. Cartridge type extinguishers have
the spent cartridge replaced for a new fresh cartridge. Extinguishers should be
inspected once a year by a competent person (see below) and be provided with
signed label indicating that it has been examined.

66
Maintenance requirements

At each fire drill, at least one fire extinguisher should be discharged by a different
crew member2 . At least one fire extinguisher of each type manufactured in the same
year should be discharged at 5 yearly intervals as part of a fire drill3.

Always test the extinguisher at the stowage position before use. Keep clear of the
head cap as the extinguisher is pressurised.

Instructions for recharging should be kept on board. Records must be maintained

and should show the date of inspection, the type of maintenance carried out and
whether a pressure test was performed.

When opening any extinguisher for maintenance, first ensure that all pressure has
been released by depressing the handle. Next unscrew the head or valve assembly
several turns carefully to allow any residual pressure to escape via the venting
arrangement and do not unscrew it further until all pressure has escaped.

Propellant cartridges are supplied in varying sizes and types for different
extinguishers. Always use the correct size/type.

Only competent persons can carry out extinguisher maintenance. For merchant
vessels, this is a person with the necessary training and experience, with access to
the relevant tools, equipment and information, manuals and knowledge of any
procedures recommended by the manufacturer of the portable extinguisher, to carry
out the necessary procedures, they must also hold a Merchant Shipping STCW 2/2
or 3/2 unlimited certificate of competency and an Advanced Fire Fighting Certificate
must be held4.

2
MGN 71 M
3
IMO A23/Res.951
4
MGN 276 (M+F)

67
Table from Resolution.951 (23)

(a) Primary sealed portable fire extinguishers should be returned to the

manufacturer/supplier for recharge

(b) This service is only necessary for cylinders which have been previously
hydraulically tested

(c) IMO Resolution A.951 (23)

68
 ANNUAL INSPECTION
Safety clip and indicating devices Check to see if the extinguisher may have been operated
Pressure indicating device Where fitted, check to see the pressure is within limits. Check
that dust covers on pressure indicating devices and relief valves
are in place. Check that dust covers on pressure indicating
devices and relief valves are in place.
External examination Inspect for corrosion, dents or damage which may affect the safe
operation of the extinguisher.

Weight Weigh the extinguisher and check the mass compared to the fully
charged extinguisher.
Hose and nozzle Check that hoses and nozzles are clear and undamaged.
Operating instructions Check that they are in place and legible.

INSPECTION AT RECHARGE
Water and foam charges Remove the charge to a clean container if to be reused and
check if it is still suitable for further use. Check any charge
container.
Powder charges Examine the powder for reuse. Ensure that it is free flowing and
that there is no evidence of caking lumps or foreign bodies.
Gas cartridge Examine for damage and corrosion.

INSPECTION AT FIVE AND TEN-YEAR INTERVALS

INSPECTION AFTER DISCHARGE TEST
Air passages and operating Prove clear passage by blowing through vent holes and vent
mechanism devices in the cap. Check hose, nozzle strainer, discharge tube
and breather valve, as applicable. Check the operating and
discharge control. Clean and lubricate as required.
Operating mechanism Check that the safety pin is removable and that the lever is
undamaged.
Gas cartridge Examine for damage and corrosion. Weigh the cartridge to
ascertain that it is within prescribed limits.
O-rings washers and hose Check O-rings and replace hose diaphragms if fitted.
diaphragms
Water and foam bodies Inspect the interior. Check for corrosion and lining deterioration.
Check separate containers for leakage or damage.

Powder body Examine the body and check internally for corrosion and lining
deterioration.
INSPECTION AFTER RECHARGE
Water and foam Replace the charge in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions.
Reassemble Reassemble the extinguisher in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.
Maintenance label Fill in entry on maintenance label, including full weight.
Mounting of extinguishers Check the mounting bracket or stand.
Report Complete a report on the state of maintenance of the
extinguisher.

Table 9.1.3 Inspection guide

69
Annual testing and inspections of Foam Concentrate used in Portable
Applicators

Verify all portable containers remain factory sealed, and the manufacturer’s service
life has not been exceeded. Foam concentrates, excluding protein foam, less than
10 years’ old that remain factory sealed can normally be accepted without the
periodical foam control tests required by MSC.1/Circ.1312.

Protein based concentrates, if more than 5 years’ old, should be subjected to the
tests required in MSC.1/Circ.1312 or renewed. Take samples of all foam
concentrates carried on board for testing. The first test shall be carried out 3 years
after being supplied to the ship then every year.

4.4 Inspection of equipment available to fire teams

Maintenance, testing and inspections shall be carried out based on the guidelines
developed by the Organization and in a manner having due regard to ensuring the
reliability of fire-fighting systems and appliances.

The maintenance plan shall be kept on board the ship and shall be available for
inspection whenever required by the Administration.

Personal Protective Equipment

Each team member will be equipped with a firefighter’s outfit which will consist of the
following as a minimum:

• Protective clothing (Fire suit) to protect from heat and steam it must also be
water resistant.
• Non-conducting boots (usually rubber).
• Rigid helmet.
• Electric lamp.
• Axe with insulated handle.

70
 • Self-contained breathing apparatus capable of functioning for at least 30
minutes.

As a minimum, all SOLAS applicable ships should carry two fire fighter’s outfits
(typically ships will have more) and there are further requirements for ships carrying
passengers or dangerous cargo.

All kit should be stored in the lockers ready to go in the event of an emergency. This
includes trousers and boots together, tunics hanging up, all other equipment, lamps,
SCBA sets etc. tested regularly so they are ready to use.

Rescue and Life Support Equipment

Rescue Lines

To move a casualty to a place of safety may require moving from deck to deck via
vertical openings where no stair is available. For this purpose, rescue lines will be
provided to raise or lower casualties.

Thermal Image Cameras

Thermal imaging cameras (TIC) enable a breathing apparatus

crew to locate casualties in areas of extremely poor visibility.
They work by detecting infra-red radiation, therefore the hotter
an object the more visible they are. The limitations of TIC’s are
that they cannot ‘see’ through solid objects or glass and can be
confused by reflections from mirrors or other reflective surfaces.

Stretchers

71
There are numerous designs of stretchers that can enable a BA team to safely and
effectively carry an unconscious or injured casualty to safety. When purchasing a
stretcher careful consideration should be made of the construction and design in
relation to the spaces on board individual vessels. Vertical and raking ladders and
narrow hatches will provide severe obstructions which some designs of stretchers
would not be able to accommodate.

Oxygen Resuscitators

For unconscious casualties, those with breathing

difficulties or those who have stopped breathing
altogether an O2 resuscitator will prove invaluable.

Emergency Escape Breathing Devices (EEBDs)

An EEBD is a supplied air or oxygen device only used for escape from a
compartment that has a hazardous atmosphere and shall not be used for fighting
fires, entering oxygen deficient voids or used by fire fighters. It shall have a service
duration of at least 10 minutes and when inactivated shall be capable of being
carried hands free. Brief instructions or diagrams clearly illustrating their use shall
be clearly printed on each EEBD. The donning procedures shall be quick and easy
to allow for situations where there is little time to seek safety from a hazardous
atmosphere.

Spare EEBDs shall be kept on board. All ships shall carry at least two EEBDs within
the accommodation spaces. In all passenger ships, at least two EEBDs shall be
carried in each main vertical zone. In all passenger ships carrying more than 36
passengers, two EEBDs, shall be carried in addition i.e. four per main vertical zone.

EEBDs should be placed in the Fire Lockers for BA wearers to take in if a passenger
or crew member were trapped in their cabins. On vessels carrying dangerous
cargoes all crew members will have a personal EEBD.

72
Salvage Equipment

Salvage equipment may be provided to mitigate the damage caused by a fire or

firefighting operations. This may include brushes, mops, buckets, containers (for fire
debris), sheets and submersible pumps.

Communication Equipment

For ships constructed on or after 1 July 2014, a minimum of 2 two - way portable
radiotelephone apparatus for each fire party for fire- fighter's communication shall be
carried on board. Those two-way portable radiotelephone apparatuses shall be of an
explosion-proof type or intrinsically safe. Ships constructed before 1 July 2014 shall
comply with the requirements of this paragraph not later than the first survey after 1
July 2018.

The purpose of these specific radios is to provide a dedicated means of

communication between a team of fire fighters entering the space, and the crew
member located outside the space who is assigned to control this team, i.e. one Fire
Party.

Therefore, the total number of these radios to be carried on board will depend upon
the number of fire parties detailed on the Muster List, as each fire party must have at
least two of these dedicated radios.

To date, IMO has not set performance standards for the above portable radio
telephone apparatus but, for such equipment to meet the explosion-proof or
intrinsically safe requirements, the UK would expect the radio telephone apparatus to
be certified in accordance with relevant standards for equipment and protective
systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres, and maintained as
such.

73
4.5 Inspection and testing of Breathing Apparatus (BA)

During any fire, toxic products and poisonous gases are produced as a result of
combustion. To protect fire-fighters, breathing apparatus (BA) is required. The self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) set, which is carried like a rucksack and
provides the wearer with fresh air, has been developed. In addition, atmospheric BA,
which requires the wearer to drag hose line from an outside bellows set, is still found
in use.

There are a variety of sets available and most are positive pressure type of which will
be described here.

Mask
ADSU
Torch
1st breath and
lung demand
valve

Whistle & High

Low Gauge Pressure
Pressure

1st Stage Reducer

Component parts of a SCBA.

74
Cylinder

All cylinders are grey in colour, with black and white quartered
shoulders denoting the contents as medical air (i.e. dried and filtered
air). It has minimum contents of 30 minutes of air, which for an
average person is a charged capacity of 1200 litres (This assumes
that an average person breathes 40 litres of air per minute.)

Reducer

Passes un-restricted air from the cylinder to the Pressure Gauge and Low Air
Warning Whistle, and supplies low pressure air, to the Demand Valve.

Pressure gauge & Whistle

A gauge gives the wearer a constant indication of the cylinder pressure. The gauge
face is calibrated in 10 bar intervals and may be numbered every 30, 50 or 100 BAR.
The whistle is designed to operate automatically when the cylinder pressure falls to
50-55 bar, allowing a safety margin for emergency purposes. The team should plan
ahead and aim to be clear of the danger area before the whistle sounds.

WARNING - Hard work may reduce duration.

Demand valve

The air delivered by the demand valve depends upon the requirements of the
wearer. Demand valves can deliver up to 5 times the average consumed volume of
air. The demand valve is attached to the facemask.

75
Face Mask

The mask is constructed of non-dermatitic rubber and has a

high-density polycarbonate shatterproof visor, providing
maximum vision to the wearer. The mask is fitted with the
following:

a) Speech Diaphragm – This is a thin mica disc situated

opposite the mouth, allowing the wearer to converse normally.

b) Ori-Nasal Mask – This inner mask avoids the build-up of exhaled carbon dioxide
(CO2) within the face mask using one-way mushroom valves. These valves open on
inhalation and allow air into the ori-nasal mask. On exhalation, these valves close
which means that the air is directed out through the one-way exhalation valve to
atmosphere.

Donning (Putting On)

• Press demand valve reset button and check bypass valve is in the off position
• Open main cylinder valve fully – check that the warning whistle momentarily
operates
• Check gauge reading – ensuring sufficient cylinder contents
• A minimum of 80% of the cylinders maximum capacity is required (e.g. for a
cylinder with a maximum charging capacity of 200 bar, the minimum pressure
reading before entry will be 160 BAR i.e. 80% of 200 bar)
• Stand BA set upright, making sure the back plate is facing you and the
facemask is released from the top of the cylinder
• Grasp the right-hand shoulder strap and face mask harness in the left hand
and swing the set onto the right shoulder
• Next slip the left arm through the left shoulder strap
• Place the face mask neck strap over the head.
• Adjust the shoulder straps so that the set is comfortable and tighten the waist
strap. (Do not over tighten as this can restrict deep breathing)

76
 • Inspect the face mask ensuring that the head harness straps are fully
extended.
• Check that the gauge is in a readable position.

Starting Up/Pre-Entry Checks

This must be carried out in “safe” air (an environment where the air is breathable and
will not be harmful without the use of respiratory equipment).

• Don the facemask, adjust to ensure good fit and tighten the straps (bottom to
top, two at a time)
• Breathe in sharply to operate the first breath mechanism, and then breathe in
and out 2 or 3 times to ensure the air is flowing in through the demand valve
and out through the exhalation valve
• Carry out the following safety checks
• Check that positive pressure is functioning by inserting a finger between the
face mask and the face, this should cause an audible flow of air
• Operate the bypass valve – This will cause a free flow of air into the mask
(bypassing the demand valve) so proving air can be supplied to the wearer in
event of a demand valve failure
• Take a breath and hold it, move your head vigorously from side to side, stop
and listen for leaks. If there are any leaks, adjust the head harness

N.B. Facial hair may affect the ability of the wearer to get a face seal so causing an
air leak.

Doffing (Taking Off)

• Remove helmet, gloves, pull back flash hood

• Helmet must be removed with gloves on to prevent any burn injuries to the
hands
• Take a deep breath, press the reset button, loosen straps and remove mask.
• Switch off cylinder

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 • Drain BA set and ensure whistle activates
• Ensure all straps are fully extended (loosened off)
• Hang mask from neck

It is recommended that the manufacturer’s guidelines are followed in all instances as

SCBA sets will vary from vessel to vessel.

The Department for Communities & Local Government (UK) publication ‘Operational
Guidance for Breathing Apparatus” also provides guidance on best practice for start-
up procedures.

4.6 Practical requirements for classification surveys

Surveys of passenger ships

A passenger ship shall be subject to:

(i) an initial survey before the ship is put in service;

(ii) a renewal survey once every 12 months, except where regulation 14(b), (e), (f)

and (g) is applicable;

(iii) additional surveys, as occasion arises

(b) The surveys shall be carried out as follows:

The initial and renewal surveys shall include a complete inspection of ‘… radio
installations including those used in life-saving appliances, fire protection, fire safety
systems and appliances, life-saving appliances and arrangements….’

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Surveys of life-saving appliances and other equipment of cargo ships

The life-saving appliances and other equipment of cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage
and upwards as referred to in paragraph (b)(i) shall be subject to
:
(i) an initial survey before the ship is put in service;
(ii) a renewal survey at intervals specified by the Administration but not exceeding 5
years, except where regulation 14(b), (e), (f) and (g) is applicable;
(iii) a periodical survey within three months before or after the second anniversary
date or within three months before or after the third anniversary date of the Cargo
Ship
Safety Equipment Certificate which shall take the place of one of the annual surveys
specified in paragraph (a)(iv);
(iv) an annual survey within 3 months before or after each anniversary date of the
Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate;
(v) an additional survey as prescribed for passenger ships in regulation 7(b)(iii).

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Chapter 5 Investigate and compile reports on incidents involving
fire

5.1 How to assess causes of fire

Procedures are governed mainly by the Merchant Shipping Act 1995, and by the
Merchant Shipping (Accident Reporting and Investigation) Regulations 2012 SI No.
1743. They define the accidents to which they apply, set out the purpose of
investigation and make provisions for the ordering and conduct of investigations.

An accident is defined as any marine casualty (including very serious marine

casualties and serious marine casualties) or any marine incident. An accident also
includes serious injuries as defined by the Regulations. A full list of descriptions can
be found in the annex of MGN 1743.

A marine incident incorporates the 2005 Regulation’s definition of hazardous

incidents. Marine incidents include ‘near misses’, stemming from failure of
procedures in shipboard operations, material defects, fatigue and human failures.
Marine incidents are now required to be reported to the Marine Accident
Investigation Board (MAIB). Many incidents occur which do not cause injury or
damage, but have the potential to be hazardous or to have serious consequences.

Reporting marine incidents can lead to important safety lessons being learned.

A fire is categorised as a serious marine casualty or higher depending on the extent

of the incident.

After the initial report the master or senior surviving officer, the ship’s owner and
where appropriate harbour authorities and inland waterway authorities must, so far
as is reasonably practical, ensure that the circumstances of every accident are
examined. A single report giving the findings of such an examination, stating any
measures taken or proposed to prevent a recurrence, must be provided to the Chief
Inspector as soon as is practicable, irrespective of any investigation that may be
conducted by the MAIB.

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The Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant Seamen, Chapter 3 gives
information on how to investigate accidents. The Code must be made available to all
on board and the number of copies held will be determined by the crew complement.

As much evidence as possible must be recorded so the accident can be investigated

thoroughly. This will be especially important should there be injury or loss of life.

5.2 A typical fire investigation report

This report should include the following factors:

Synopsis of the incident Date, Time, Place

Reasons Faulty storage, carelessness or neglect

Poor maintenance

Malicious

On Board Organisation Command

Coordination

Control

Assistance from outside organisations

Effects of this assistance

Additional elements will include

• The extent and spread of the fire:

• Statements from participants or witnesses
• First indications of fire
• Actions taken by those first at the scene
• History of previous failures
• Housekeeping standards
• Ability and knowledge of those involved

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 • Repair work undertaken
• Conclusion
• Recommendations

References

SOLAS 1974 as amended

IMDG Code 2016 Edition

International Code for Fire Safety Systems 2015 Edition

MSC Circulars

Fire and Rescue Manual Volume 2, Fire Service Operations;

• Incident Command 3rd Edition

• Compartment Fire & Tactical Ventilation
• Marine Incidents

Crown Copyright Fire Safe Training (IW) Ltd © 2017

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