PHYSICS CONNECTIONS | Introductory Physics Theory Applied to Real-World Problems

Thin Lenses and

Chromatic Aberrations
by Dwight E. Neuenschwander
Professor of Physics, Southern Nazarene University, Bethany, OK

As SPS gears up to participate in the 2015 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Imagine you, a physicist, have been hired as an
Scientific, and Cultural Organization) Year of Light and Light-Related Technologies, optical engineer for a camera manufacturing
we are reminded of the old proverb that says, “The eyes are the window to the company. You have been given the task of
soul.” If through the window to your soul you look closely at a small purple dot on designing a system of lenses that will make red
a white background, it appears blue in the center surrounded by red. Move farther light and blue light come to a focus at the same
out, and the dot appears red in the center surrounded by blue.[1] I do not know spot. Of course, there are other colors in the
what this means for the soul, but for optics it means that the lens in the human eye spectrum besides red and blue. But by building
exhibits chromatic aberration. This effect occurs when the index of refraction of the a compound lens that focuses onto the same spot
lens material varies with the wavelength of light. Such dispersion separates light into light from opposite ends of the visible spectrum,
a rainbow when passing through a prism and causes interesting challenges for the you will have made an important step toward
designers of refractive optical systems. removing most of the chromatic aberration.
When Isaac Newton began making his own
telescopes, he started with a refractor and set
to work grinding his own lenses. However,
YOUR MISSION IS TO DESIGN A Newton was dismayed to see that red and

compound lens.
blue light did not focus at the same place. He
gave up on refractors and proceeded to invent
the telescope that today bears his name, the
Newtonian reflector. It remained for Chester
Moore Hall, a British lawyer and inventor, to
invent in 1733 the first achromatic compound
lens (a two-lens system) that he used in his
own telescope. In 1758 the English optician
John Dolland reinvented and patented the
achromatic compound lens.[2] Today you, dear
reader, are invited to design an achromatic
lens system using nothing but the equations
developed in the theory of thin lenses, which
most physics students meet in introductory
physics class—well, using not quite “nothing
but” thin-lens formulas. As we shall see, we
also need the trick of adding a third wavelength,
which opens to us some tabulated parameters
for glass called Abbe numbers; but these, too,
are defined by expressions that follow from
thin-lens equations. The Abbe numbers provide
constraints that reduce otherwise wild ambiguity
in the parameter space. It’s all introductory
optics, but applied in a clever way.
The simplest model of image formation by
a lens is expressed in the well-known thin-lens
equation coupled with the lens maker’s equation.
A HEAVY CHROMATIC ABERRATION occurs in a virtual reality software demonstration. These working equations for imaging with lenses
Image credit: Filip Hajek/Bill Cummings.

24 Winter 2014–15 / The SPS Observer

are derived by applying Fermat’s principle to
refraction at a spherical surface, then using the
image formed by one spherical surface as the
object for a second spherical surface.[3] The
“thin-lens” approximation comes by neglecting
the thickness of the lens, assumed to be small
compared to other distances in the problem. In
the following discussion I assume the reader
to be familiar with thin-lens optics. (If you are
not, see any general physics or optics textbook,
FIG. 1 The two-lens system and the radii of curvature of the first and second lenses.
or Ref. 3.) The thin-lens equation relates the
distance i of the image from the lens to the object
distance o and the focal length f, according to
second lens before the final image forms. As lens physicists let us work out the simplest
1/o + 1/i = 1/f, (1) correction to chromatic aberration.
Consider a beam of light that contains two wavelengths, λ and λ′. (When it’s time
where f is the focal length of the lens, which to insert numbers, we will take for red the wavelength λ = 6562.816 Å and for blue the
depends on the lens material’s index of wavelength λ′ = 4861.327 Å. But we will leave the equations in terms of symbols as
refraction n and the radii of curvature of the long as possible so that the results derived will apply to any two wavelengths and any
lens surfaces. These define f in the lens maker’s pair of lenses.) Now introduce a second lens coaxial with the first. For illustrative clarity
equation, which emerges as the right-hand side (see Fig. 1), let the two thin lenses be separated by some distance D; in our compound
in the derivation of Eq. (1) according to lens application we will bring the lenses together by setting D = 0. To distinguish
variables belonging to the two lenses, let us use subscripts 1 and 2 for them, and let
1/f = (n − 1)(1/a − 1/b). (2) parameters that depend on the two wavelengths be primed and unprimed. For instance,
when the light passes through lens 1 the index of refraction for the red wavelength will
In Eq. (2) a denotes the radius of curvature be n1(λ) ≡ n1. When the blue wavelength passes through lens 1, the refractive index will
of the first surface encountered by the light be denoted n1 (λ′) ≡ n1′. Similar notations hold for lens 2.
in passing through the lens and b the radius Your mission is to design a compound lens, two lenses back to front (D = 0), such
of curvature of the second surface. Although that after passing through both lenses the rays corresponding to both wavelengths form
distance and radii are normally non-negative final images in the same place. A solution is worked out in an Appendix on p. 31 , but
numbers, in lens physics the image distance and please give it your best shot before looking there. The path toward solving the problem
radii of curvature may be positive or negative, may be separated into four steps. In doing step (1) you will cross the main conceptual
depending on whether the image and the centers threshold for solving the problem. Its result provides the essential relationship between
of curvature lie on the real side or on the virtual the two lens’ refractive indices and their radii of curvature that will get the job done.
side of the lens (the real side is the side where However, this is one equation with many unknowns. To converge on a specific set
the light energy really is after encountering the of numerical values for these parameters without having to make too many arbitrary
lens, and the virtual side is the opposite side). By assumptions, we will consider other constraints. The guided moves for carrying us
Eqs. (1) and (2) the image location is given by farther are outlined in steps (2)–(4). Here we go . . .

1/i = (n − 1)W − 1/o,

where the lens surface curvatures have been

(3)
01 Derive an equation that relates the radii of curvature and indices of refraction of
the two lenses so that light of wavelengths λ and λ′ form their final images at the
same location (with D = 0). Recall that in any multiple lens system the image produced
lumped into the term by the first lens becomes the object for the second lens. If the image produced by the
first lens lands behind the second lens, that means the first image never actually forms;
W ≡ 1/a − 1/b . (4) the rays are redirected by the second lens. But one solves the problem by finding where
the first lens would have formed the image, then making that site the object location for
Chromatic aberration occurs when the the second lens.
refractive index is a function of the wavelength
λ of light, n = n(λ). If red and blue are present
together in the light ray, then the focal length
for red will differ from the focal length for
02 Show that for the two-lens system, the effective focal length feff which relates
the original object to the final image (again with D = 0) is given by

blue. This is the problem that you, the camera 1/ feff = 1/ f1 + 1/f2. (5)
lens designer, are to address. The aberration
produced by one lens for incoming light of
two wavelengths can be compensated for by
having the light pass through a suitably designed
03 Write the result of exercise (1) as an expression for W2/W1. Set that aside
temporarily and consider light of a third wavelength λ′′ passing through the
compound lens system. Derive another expression for W2/W1 in terms of f1′′, f2′′, n1′′, and

The SPS Observer / Winter 2014–15 25

 PHYSICS CONNECTIONS | Introductory Physics Theory Applied to Real-World Problems

n2′′. Set the two expressions for W2/W1 equal to choose one radius of curvature for one of the lenses and apply Eq. (2) to each lens, which
show that tells us the remaining radii of curvature needed to grind both lenses.

f1′′ V1 + f2′′ V2 = 0,

where
(6)
04 Now we are ready to design (with numbers) a specific achromatic compound
lens. The two wavelengths we require to arrive at a common image we take to be
the red Fraunhofer C line λ = 6562.816 Å and the blue F line, λ′ = 4861.327 Å.
Next we select an effective focal length for our compound lens. Suppose the lens you
V1 = (n1′′– 1)/( n1′ − n1 ), (7) are designing will be a telephoto lens. Telephoto lenses offer a narrow field of view but
bring a faraway subject in close. Their focal lengths range from 100 to about 800 mm. Let
and similarly for V2. These V parameters or Abbe us choose our telephoto compound lens system to have an effective focal length of feff =
numbers for various glasses are well cataloged 300 mm.
by glass manufacturers. If a glass existed for Next we must choose the lens materials. Let us choose crown glass for lens 1, for
which the refractive index was the same for which the glass catalogs say V1 = 59.6. For lens 2 we choose extra dense flint (EDF), for
all wavelengths, there would be no dispersion which V2 = 30.9.[5]
and the Abbe number for that hypothetical From these choices show from Eqs. (5) and (6) that f1′′ = 14.45 cm and f2′′ = −27.86
glass would be infinite. Thus low dispersion cm. Then from Eq. (2) the radii of curvature of each lens can be determined. Let lens 1 be
corresponds to large Abbe numbers, and highly an equiconvex lens (i.e., a1 = |b1|). Show that a1 = 14.97 cm, and for lens 2 (which fits snug
dispersive glasses have low Abbe numbers. against lens 1) show that b2 = −66.67 cm.
Glass physicists use three of a standard set of Now you have the specifications you need to grind the two lenses out of crown and
spectral lines, the so-called Fraunhofer lines, EDF glass. They can then be glued together to make the achromatic compound lens. (We
to measure and catalog the Abbe numbers.[4] neglect any optical properties of the glue.) For solution details see the Appendix on p. 31.
Once the types of glass are selected from which //
the two lenses will be made, their Abbe numbers
are known from the tabulated data. Then Eqs.
(5) and (6) (both applied to light of wavelength
λ′′) give a pair of simultaneous equations that ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
can be solved for the values of f1′′ and f2′′. After
these individual focal lengths are known, we can I thank Steve Feller for his inspiration as a glass physicist and for his suggestions,
Devin Powell for valuable discussions, and Sean Bentley for reviewing a draft of the
manuscript.

2015 International Year of Light

and Light-based Technologies REFERENCES
(IYL 2015) www.light2015.org [1] Eugene Hecht, Optics, 4th ed. (Pearson/Addison-Wesley, San Francisco, CA, 2002),
In proclaiming p. 269, suggests this exercise, which has been verified by the author. Hecht’s book is
an International referenced throughout this article. However, this topic is an old one, well covered in
Year focusing on many optics books, for example, Francis A. Jenkins and Harvey E. White, Fundamentals
the topic of light of Optics (McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1950), pp. 145–153; Bruno Rossi, Optics
science and its (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1965), pp. 87–90.
applications, the [2] Hecht, Ref. 1, p. 271.
United Nations [3] “Elegant Connections in Physics, Foundations of Geometrical Optics:
has recognized the importance of rais- Phenomenology and Principles,” The SPS Observer (Summer 2010),
ing global awareness about how light- http://www.spsobserver.org.
based technologies promote sustainable [4] The V numbers take on the proper noun designation Abbe numbers when λ′′ =
development and provide solutions to 5892.9 Å (the Fraunhofer D line halfway between the yellow sodium doublet); when
global challenges in energy, education, λ′ = 4861.327 Å, the Fraunhofer F line from helium; and when λ = 6562.816 Å, the
agriculture and health. Light plays a vital Fraunhofer C line emitted by hydrogen. The Abbe number is named after its originator,
role in our daily lives and is an imperative the German physicist Ernst Abbe (1840–1905). See Hecht, Ref. 1, pp. 269–270.
cross-cutting discipline of science in the [5] Ibid., p. 270.
21st century. It has revolutionized medi-
cine, opened up international communica-
tion via the Internet, and continues to be
central to linking cultural, economic and
political aspects of the global society.

26 Winter 2014–15 / The SPS Observer

 PHYSICS CONNECTIONS | Appendix

Solution to the Achromatic Compound Lens Problem

Here is a solution to parts (1)–(4) of the be systematically reduced by introducing a of lenses placed back to front presents us
achromatic compound lens design problem third wavelength. with two indices of refraction and three
from p. 24–26. radii of curvature. After choosing the glass

01 According to the thin-lens equation,

monochromatic light impinging on
02 Whether or not two coaxial
thin lenses are designed to be
achromatic, together they are equivalent
materials, the radii of curvature remain
unspecified. To help us select specific shapes
for lenses 1 and 2, we bring in a third color
lens 1 forms an image at i1 given by to a single lens of focal length feff. To whose wavelength “splits the difference”
find this effective focal length, return to between red and blue. After we’re finished,
1/i1 = 1/f1 − 1/o1. (S1)
the derivation of Eq. (S2) and note the the red and blue wavelengths selected for
The image of lens 1 becomes the object for intermediate step achromatic treatment will be brought to
lens 2. Therefore o2 = D − i1 so that o2 = − i1 a common focus, but other wavelengths
1/o1 + 1/i2 = 1/f2 + 1/f1. (S6)
when we set D = 0. (Recall that the second will not. The residual chromatic aberration
object is located where the first image would This can be written as a thin-lens equation is called the secondary spectrum. Upon
have formed.) The final image lands at i2 for light from object 1, winding up as image looking at a distant white object through a
given by 2 if we identify set of binoculars, the secondary spectrum
can be faintly seen as a border in green
1/i2 = 1/f2 + 1/i1 1/f2 + 1/f1 = 1/feff . (S7) and magenta around the image edges.
[2] Compound systems of three or more

03
= 1/f2 + 1/f1 − 1/o1 Now let us turn to the role of the lenses have been built for specialized tasks
auxiliary wavelength λ′′. With this that require the secondary spectrum to be
= (n2 − 1)W2 + (n1 − 1)W1 − 1/o1. (S2)
color the two lenses have focal lengths given further minimized. (Real lenses in high-
Now let two wavelengths, λ and λ′, be by Eq. (2), so that 1/f1′′ = (n1′′ − 1)W1 and dollar cameras are not perfectly spherical
present in the light beam. Write Eq. (S2) similarly for lens 2. Taking the ratio W2/ W1 either, but thanks to computer ray tracing
twice, once for λ and once for λ′. To remove in this instance and setting this ratio equal to that finesses the details for different
their chromatic aberration we require i2 = i2′, that obtained from Eq. (S4) gives, after some wavelengths, their surfaces can be described
which gives algebra, Eq. (6), with the V numbers, or by eighth-order polynomials!)
Abbe coefficients, defined by Eq. (7). To celebrate your successful design
(n2′ − n2)W2 = (n1 − n1′)W1. (S3)
of an achromatic lens system, I suggest
When writing out explicitly the radii of
curvature of the lens surfaces, Eq. (S3)
04 Equations (5) and (6) can be solved
simultaneously for f1′′ and f2′′. In
terms of symbols we obtain
brewing yourself a cup of fine coffee and
going outside to watch the sunset. Take your
becomes [1] camera, too. It probably has an achromatic
f1′′ = feff′′ (V1 − V2)/V1 (S8) compound lens. As you sip your coffee and
(n2′ − n2)(1/a2 − 1/b2) watch the sky, Alexander Pope offers for
and
your meditations a poetic background for
= (n1 − n1′)(1/a1 − 1/b1). (S4) f2′′ = −feff′′ (V1 − V2)/V2. (S9)
the challenges in bringing diverse colors to a
Since the two lenses are glued together The value of V1 − V2 is typically chosen to common focus:[3]
back to front, b1 = a2. Suppose lens 1 to be be large to avoid a tight radii of curvature for
given (i.e., its refractive indices for both the lenses. For crown glass the tabulated data Dipt in the richest tincture of the skies,
wavelengths and its radii of curvature are says V1 = 59.6 and V2 = 30.9 for EDF (see Where light disports in ever-mingling dyes,
known). Then the right-hand side of Eq. (S4) footnote 5, p. 26). Upon choosing feff = 30 While ev’ry beam new transient colors flings,
is a known constant. On the left-hand side cm, Eqs. (S8) and (S9) give f1′′ = 14.45 cm Colors that change whene’er they wave their
of Eq. (S4) we can play around with various and f2′′ = −27.86 cm. Choosing lens 1 to be wings. //
values of b2 and the type of glass for lens 2, an equiconvex lens means that b1 = −a1, and
giving many scenarios that would satisfy Eq. Eq. (2) gives a1 = 14.97 cm. Since the two
(S4). For a simple illustration of using Eq. lenses are glued together, the first surface of REFERENCES
(S4) as it stands, suppose lens 1 is plano- lens 2 has the same radius of curvature as [1] For another derivation see Hecht, Ref. 1,
p. 269. Our Eq. (S3) is his Eq. (6.47).
convex, so that b1 = ∞. Because the lenses the second surface of lens 1 so that b1 = a2.
[2] Hecht, Ref. 1, p. 273.
are back to front, we must also write a2 = ∞. Equation (2) then tells us that b2 = −66.67
[3] Lines from Canto II of “The Rape of the
Equation (S4) then reduces to cm. Now you have all the specifications you Lock” (1712, expanded 1714), by Alexander
need to grind your lenses! Pope (1688–1744). Pope was a contemporary
(n2′ − n2)/b2 = (n1′ − n1)/a1. (S5) Let us reflect on the strategy here: We of Newton. This poem is a social satire, told
require the red and blue wavelengths to with the pomposity of a Greek epic, about a
Steps (3) and (4) will show how the form their images at the same spot. But trivial incident of a lock of hair being snipped
multiplicity of possible lens parameters can there are too many free parameters. A pair off without permission.

The SPS Observer / Winter 2014–15 31