Compiled by Mr. C.

Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

MULTI-STOREY CONCEPTS

Overview
The concept of multi-storey construction is pivotal in modern architectural and
structural engineering practices, addressing the challenges of urbanisation, space
optimisation, and functional efficiency. Multi-storey buildings are characterised by
their vertical expansion, which allows for increased occupancy and usage within a
limited ground area. This approach not only maximises the utility of land in densely
populated urban areas but also incorporates innovative design solutions to meet
diverse functional requirements, such as those of residential, commercial, institutional,
and industrial buildings. Understanding the types and components of framed buildings
is essential for students studying multi-storey structures. Multi-storey buildings,
characterised by their small ground area relative to their overall volume, are designed
to optimise space and functionality, especially in sites with limited area. For instance,
hospitals benefit from vertical movement via elevators rather than lengthy horizontal
corridors.

Significance of Multi-Storey Buildings

Multi-storey buildings play a critical role in urban development, enabling the efficient
use of space in crowded cities where horizontal expansion is often impractical or
impossible. By building vertically, these structures accommodate more occupants or
functions per unit area, making them a practical solution for growing populations and
limited land resources. Additionally, multi-storey buildings facilitate the creation of
mixed-use developments, integrating residential, commercial, and recreational
spaces within a single structure, thus fostering vibrant and self-sustaining urban
communities.

Structural Considerations
The design and construction of multi-storey buildings require meticulous planning and
advanced engineering techniques. Key considerations include the structural integrity,
load distribution, and foundation stability to ensure the building can withstand various

1
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

stresses and forces. Structural systems used in multi-storey construction typically involve
a combination of load-bearing elements and framing systems. Load-bearing
elements, such as walls and columns, support vertical loads, while framing systems,
including beams and slabs, provide horizontal stability and support for floors and roofs.

Materials and Methods

The selection of materials is crucial in multi-storey construction, with common choices
including concrete, steel, and timber. Each material offers distinct advantages in
terms of strength, flexibility, and construction speed. Concrete is favoured for its
durability and fire resistance, steel for its high strength-to-weight ratio and flexibility in
design, and timber for its sustainability and aesthetic appeal. The construction
methods employed, such as cast-in-place concrete, prefabrication, and modular
construction, further influence the efficiency, cost, and environmental impact of multi-
storey projects.

Functional Design
Functionality is a core aspect of multi-storey building design, ensuring that the
structure meets the specific needs of its users. This involves careful consideration of
floor plans, vertical transportation systems (elevators and staircases), mechanical and
electrical services, and fire safety measures. The design must also account for
accessibility, natural lighting, ventilation, and energy efficiency, contributing to the
overall sustainability and user comfort of the building.

Challenges and Innovations

Constructing multi-storey buildings presents several challenges, including structural
complexity, construction logistics, and compliance with building codes and
regulations. Innovations in construction technology and materials science are
continually evolving to address these challenges. For example, advancements in
high-strength materials, digital design tools (such as Building Information Modelling -
BIM), and construction automation are revolutionising the way multi-storey buildings
are designed and built, enhancing precision, efficiency, and safety.

2
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Design of Multi-Floor Buildings

The design of multi-floor buildings must be considered at an early stage, particularly
after soil tests determine the soil bearing capacity. If the soil cannot support a heavy
structure, a lightweight structure must be designed. This necessitates a comparison
between various structural types.

Objective 1: Understanding Load-Bearing Brickwork and Framed Structures

Load-Bearing Brickwork
Load-bearing brickwork consists of clay or concrete units bonded to form large
vertical surfaces resting on suitable foundations. These structures are typically heavy
and may require expensive and uneconomical foundation systems. Additionally,
constructing brickwork high above ground level is time-consuming and affects the
overall economy.

Framed Structures
Framed structures are built with interlinked columns and beams that transmit live and
dead loads to the ground through the foundation. The framework can be enclosed
with lightweight, waterproof, and insulated cladding, such as precast panels,
insulated aluminium panels, or coated steel panels. This results in a comparatively
lightweight, quickly, and economically erected structure.

Types of Framed Structures

Framed structures can be categorised into three main types:

1. Plane Frames
These form a flat plane spanning one direction and can be interlinked to form
a structure. They are commonly used in truss or girder systems in roof structures.

2. Space Frames
Similar to plane frames but span in two directions to cover larger areas. They
consist of pyramid-shaped frameworks linked together to form a 'spacedeck,'
used for roofs or supporting floor boarding.

3
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

3. Skeleton Frames
Consisting of rectangles fixed at right angles, these frames transmit loads
through horizontal and vertical members to the foundation. They can be made
of concrete, steel, or a combination and, less commonly, timber.

Objective 2: Classification and Identification of Beams

Various members of a skeleton frame and their functions are as follows:

1. Main Beams
Span between columns, transferring live and dead loads to the columns.

2. Secondary Beams
Span between main beams to reduce floor spans.

3. Tie Beams
Internal beams at right angles to main beams and columns, functioning
similarly to main beams.

4. Edge Beams
Span between external columns, functioning like tie beams. They may also be
known as down stand or upstand beams when cast monolithically with
suspended floor slabs.

5. Columns
Vertical members transferring loads to the foundation.

6. Foundations
The base upon which columns rest, transferring loads to the subsoil.

4
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Additional components necessary for building completion, though not part of the
skeleton framework, include:

1. Surface Beds, Suspended Floor Slabs, Cantilever Slabs

Necessary for transferring equipment and human loads to beams, often
required to have sound and fire-resistant qualities.

2. Roof
Provides a weatherproof covering for the upper floor.

3. Walls
Form a weatherproof, insulated envelope on all sides of the building and
internally, with sound and fire-resistant qualities.

Objective 3: Drawing and Labelling Framed Components

Students should be able to draw scaled vertical sectional details of various integrated
beams or components of a framed structure, accurately labelling each part.

Conclusion
The construction of multi-storey buildings is a dynamic and complex process that
combines architectural creativity with engineering precision. By understanding the
fundamental concepts, structural considerations, materials, and methods involved,
professionals in the field can design and construct buildings that not only meet
functional requirements but also contribute to sustainable and resilient urban
environments. As urbanisation continues to drive demand for efficient space
utilisation, the principles and practices of multi-storey construction will remain integral
to the future of architectural and structural engineering.

5
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

This note should be reviewed alongside the recommended handbook. Details

pertinent to this chapter will be provided.

Advanced Construction Technology

5th edition
Roger Greeno, R. Chudley, Mike Hurst, Simon Topliss

Refer to the following in the handbook:

9.5 Roof Structures p562

6
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Understanding Load-Bearing Brickwork and Framed Structures

 Classification and Identification of Beams

 Drawing and Labelling Framed Components

 FAR and Coverage

7
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

UNDERSTANDING LOAD-BEARING BRICKWORK AND FRAMED STRUCTURES

Load-Bearing Brickwork

Composition and Construction

Load-bearing brickwork is a traditional method of construction involving the use of
clay or concrete units, commonly known as bricks or blocks. These units are bonded
together with mortar to form large, vertical surfaces that support the weight of the
building. The construction of load-bearing walls typically involves laying bricks or
blocks in a specific pattern, such as running bond or Flemish bond, to ensure stability
and strength. The walls rest on a suitable foundation, which is essential for distributing
the loads safely into the ground.

Structural Characteristics
Load-bearing brickwork is characterised by its substantial weight, resulting from the
dense and heavy materials used. The walls must be sufficiently thick to bear the loads
from the floors and roof above. As the height of the building increases, the thickness
of the walls generally needs to increase to maintain stability and strength. This
requirement can lead to very thick walls at the base of tall buildings, which is both
space-consuming and expensive.

Economic and Practical Considerations

One of the main drawbacks of load-bearing brickwork is the cost and complexity of
the foundation system. Because the walls are so heavy, they exert significant pressure
on the soil, necessitating robust and often costly foundations to prevent settlement or
failure. Additionally, constructing brickwork, especially at great heights, is labour-
intensive and time-consuming. The need for scaffolding, manual bricklaying, and
curing of mortar adds to the overall construction time and labour costs, affecting the
project's economy.

8
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Limitations in Modern Construction

In contemporary construction, the use of load-bearing brickwork is often limited to
low-rise buildings due to the economic and structural challenges associated with
greater heights. For high-rise structures, alternative methods, such as framed
structures, are typically preferred due to their efficiency and flexibility.

Framed Structures

Composition and Construction

Framed structures are modern construction systems that rely on a skeleton of
interlinked columns and beams to support the building loads. The columns (vertical
members) and beams (horizontal members) create a rigid framework that transfers
live loads (such as people, furniture, and equipment) and dead loads (the weight of
the structure itself) to the ground through the foundation. This skeletal system allows
for greater flexibility in design and use of interior space.

Advantages of Framed Structures

Framed structures offer several advantages over load-bearing brickwork:

1. Lightweight Construction: The use of materials like steel or reinforced concrete

in framed structures results in a significantly lighter overall building weight
compared to brickwork. This reduces the load on foundations, allowing for
more economical foundation designs.

2. Speed of Construction: Prefabricated components can be manufactured off-

site and quickly assembled on-site, reducing construction time and labour
costs. This method also minimises the impact of weather on construction
schedules.

3. Design Flexibility: Framed structures allow for large open spaces without
internal load-bearing walls, providing greater flexibility in interior design and use
of space. This is particularly advantageous for commercial and industrial
buildings.

9
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

4. Enclosure Options: The framework can be enclosed with various cladding

materials, such as precast concrete panels, insulated aluminium panels, or
coated steel panels. These materials are lightweight, waterproof, and provide
good thermal insulation, contributing to the building's energy efficiency.

Types of Framed Structures

1. Plane Frames
Plane frames consist of a flat plane spanning in one direction. These frames are
typically used in systems where loads are predominantly applied in one
direction, such as roof trusses or girder systems. The primary components of
plane frames are beams and columns, which are connected to form a rigid
structure. Plane frames are ideal for applications requiring long spans with
minimal support, such as in warehouses or large open halls.

Large-span timber roof designs can be adapted for structural steel sections,
with similar span ranges and frame spacing’s. Connections can be made using
traditional gusset plates with bolted or welded struts and ties, or through all-
welded construction, especially when steel tubes are used. Steel roofs can also
be designed as space decks or space frames.

Space Decks
A space deck is a structural roofing system designed for large clear spans and
wide column spacing’s, using a repeated unit of inverted pyramid frames.
These units can span up to 22 meters in one direction and up to 33 meters in
two-way spanning designs. The frames are bolted together at the upper
surface, and threaded tie bars are fixed between apex couplers. Cladding
materials are then laid over the angled framing to create a weatherproof roof.

Roof Covering and Insulation

The most common and economical roof covering for space decks includes a
high-density mineral-wool-insulated roofing board covered with three layers of

10
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

built-up roofing felt and reflective chippings. Improved felt technologies now
offer long-term durability with up to 30-year warranties. Alternatively,
composite double-skin decking with a rigid urethane core and coated-steel or
aluminium facings can be used.

Services and Finishes

The void within the space deck structure can house various services, and the
underside can be exposed or covered with a ceiling. The units typically come
with a protective paint coating applied after degreasing, shot-blasting, and
phosphate treatment.

Transportation and Assembly

The simple design of space deck units allows for efficient handling and
transportation. Pyramid units can be nested and transported economically on
one lorry. Site assembly is typically carried out by a specialist subcontractor and
is rapid, with a small labour force. Two assembly methods are used:

1. Assembling the deck on the completed floor below its final position and
then lifting it.

2. Assembling the deck outside the building perimeter and lifting it in small
sections for final assembly, though this is generally more expensive.

Main Contractor Responsibilities

Before assembly, the main contractor must provide a clear, level, and hard
surface around the building perimeter and the entire floor area for the roof,
capable of supporting a 25-tonne mobile crane. The main contractor is also
responsible for unloading, checking, storing, and protecting the units, and for
providing necessary temporary works and equipment such as scaffolds and
hoists.

11
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Conclusion
Space decks offer an efficient and sustainable solution for large-span roofs,
with simplified transportation, rapid assembly, and flexible service integration.
The responsibilities and procedures for main contractors outlined for space
decks are generally applicable to all specialist roofing contractors.

12
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

2. Space Frames
Space frames extend the concept of plane frames by spanning in two
directions, forming a three-dimensional structure. They are composed of
interconnected pyramid-shaped units, creating a lattice-like framework known
as a 'space deck.' This configuration allows space frames to cover large areas
with minimal support, making them suitable for roofs, large-span buildings, and
exhibition halls. The inherent geometric stability of space frames provides
excellent resistance to loads from various directions, including wind and seismic
forces.

Space frames, similar to space decks, are advanced structural systems known
for their flexibility in design and layout. Their primary component is the
connector, or node point, which joins chords and braces. Space frames
typically feature a double-layer grid, in contrast to the single-layer grid used in
simpler geometric shapes like domes.

Structural Characteristics

 Double-Layer Grid: Space frames are usually designed as a double-layer grid,

providing a relatively shallow structure compared to other roof systems with
similar loadings and spans. The span-to-depth ratio for a fully edge-supported
space frame is about 1:20, while for corner-supported frames, it is about 1:15.

13
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

 Node Point Connectors: Modern space frames use cast nodes machined to
accept screw-threaded tubes at precise angles, allowing for accurate
assembly and flexibility in design.

Design and Construction

 Prefabricated Units: Space frames are constructed from standard

prefabricated units, which can be mass-produced, facilitating rapid on-site
assembly.

 Lightweight Cladding: Lightweight profiled decking is typically used for

cladding, ensuring that the roof structure remains manageable in terms of
weight.

 Ease of Transportation: The small size of components simplifies storage and

transportation.

Assembly Process

1. Ground Assembly: The space frame grid is assembled at ground level on blocks
to counteract ground irregularities. The frame automatically forms the correct
shape and camber during assembly.

2. Lifting and Fixing: The completed space frame is lifted and fixed to its supports
using mobile cranes. It can also be assembled around columns, then lifted and
moved onto support seating.

Advantages

 Simple Prefabrication: The use of simple, standard prefabricated units.

 Mass Production: Components can be mass-produced.
 Rapid Assembly: Quick assembly and erection on-site using semi-skilled labour.

14
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

 Easy Storage and Transport: Small component sizes facilitate easy storage and
transportation.

Conclusion
Space frames offer significant design flexibility and efficiency in large-span roof
construction. Their advanced node point connectors and double-layer grid
design make them suitable for a wide range of architectural applications,
providing both structural integrity and aesthetic appeal. The advantages of
prefabrication, mass production, and ease of assembly and transport further
enhance their practicality and popularity in modern construction.

3. Skeleton Frames
Skeleton frames are composed of a series of rectangles formed by horizontal
and vertical members, arranged at right angles to one another. These frames
are the most common type used in multi-storey buildings. The primary materials
for skeleton frames are reinforced concrete and steel, although timber can
also be used in certain applications. Skeleton frames effectively distribute loads
through their interconnected members, ensuring stability and strength. The
frames can be clad with various materials to create the building envelope,
providing both structural and aesthetic benefits.

15
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Conclusion
Understanding the differences between load-bearing brickwork and framed
structures is crucial for modern construction practices. While load-bearing brickwork
offers robustness and tradition, it is limited by its weight, cost, and construction time. In
contrast, framed structures provide flexibility, speed, and economic advantages,
making them the preferred choice for contemporary multi-storey buildings. By
mastering these concepts, students and professionals can make informed decisions
to optimise design, construction, and functionality in their projects.

16
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

17
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF BEAMS

Skeleton frames are fundamental to modern multi-storey construction, comprising

various interconnected members that provide structural stability and support.
Understanding the classification and identification of beams within these frames is
crucial for ensuring the integrity and functionality of the building. The main
components of a skeleton frame include main beams, secondary beams, tie beams,
edge beams, columns, and foundations, each serving specific functions.

1. Main Beams

Function and Placement

Main beams, also known as primary beams, span between columns and are critical
in transferring both live loads (e.g., occupants, furniture, and equipment) and dead
loads (e.g., the weight of the structure itself) to the columns. These beams are essential
for distributing the loads evenly and maintaining the structural integrity of the building.

Characteristics
Main beams are typically designed to carry substantial loads and are often larger and
stronger than secondary beams. They are positioned horizontally and can be made
of various materials, including steel, reinforced concrete, or timber, depending on the
structural requirements and design specifications.

Design Considerations
When designing main beams, engineers must consider factors such as load-bearing
capacity, deflection limits, and material properties. The span length, cross-sectional
shape, and connection details with columns are also critical aspects that influence
the overall performance of the main beams.

18
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

2. Secondary Beams

Function and Placement

Secondary beams, or joists, span between main beams and serve to reduce the floor
spans, thereby distributing loads more efficiently and providing additional support for
the floor structure. These beams help in maintaining the structural stability of floors and
ceilings.

Characteristics
Secondary beams are generally smaller and lighter than main beams, as they carry
reduced loads. They are placed perpendicular to the main beams and are
commonly used in floor and ceiling systems. Like main beams, secondary beams can
be constructed from steel, reinforced concrete, or timber.

Design Considerations
The design of secondary beams involves calculating the load distribution between
main beams and ensuring adequate support for floor slabs or decking. Engineers must
also consider factors such as spacing, deflection limits, and connection details with
main beams to optimise the performance of secondary beams.

3. Tie Beams

Function and Placement

Tie beams are internal beams positioned at right angles to both main beams and
columns. Their primary function is to provide additional support and stability by tying
the structure together, thereby preventing excessive lateral movement and ensuring
the overall rigidity of the frame.

Characteristics
Tie beams are typically placed at various levels within the structure, often at floor or
roof levels. They can be made of the same materials as main and secondary beams
and are designed to withstand tension forces.

19
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Design Considerations
The design of tie beams involves considering the horizontal forces acting on the
structure, such as wind or seismic loads. Engineers must ensure that tie beams are
adequately anchored and connected to main beams and columns to effectively
distribute these forces.

4. Edge Beams

Function and Placement

Edge beams, also known as perimeter beams, span between external columns and
function similarly to tie beams by providing additional lateral stability to the structure.
These beams form the outer edge of the floor slab and help in distributing loads to the
external columns.

Characteristics
Edge beams can be designed as down stand beams (extending below the floor slab)
or upstand beams (extending above the floor slab) when cast monolithically with
suspended floor slabs. They can also be classified as eaves beams or ring beams in
specific applications.

Design Considerations
Designing edge beams requires consideration of the loads transferred from floor slabs
and external walls. Engineers must ensure that edge beams are adequately sized and
reinforced to handle these loads and provide effective connections to external
columns and the floor slab.

5. Columns

Function and Placement

Columns are vertical members that transfer all loads from the beams and slabs to the
foundation. They are crucial in maintaining the vertical stability of the structure and
ensuring that loads are safely transmitted to the ground.

20
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Characteristics
Columns can be made of steel, reinforced concrete, or timber and are typically
placed at regular intervals throughout the structure. They are designed to carry axial
loads and may also resist bending and shear forces depending on the structural
design.

Design Considerations
The design of columns involves determining the load-bearing capacity, cross-
sectional dimensions, and reinforcement requirements. Engineers must also consider
factors such as buckling, slenderness ratio, and connection details with beams and
foundations.

6. Foundations

Function and Placement

Foundations form the base upon which columns rest, transferring all loads from the
structure to the subsoil. They are essential for providing stability and preventing
settlement or failure of the building.

Characteristics
Foundations can be shallow (e.g., strip, pad, or raft foundations) or deep (e.g., pile
foundations), depending on the soil conditions and load requirements. They are
typically constructed from reinforced concrete and are designed to distribute loads
evenly to the ground.

Design Considerations
The design of foundations involves soil testing and analysis to determine the bearing
capacity and suitability of the site. Engineers must ensure that foundations are
adequately sized and reinforced to handle the loads from the structure and prevent
excessive settlement.

21
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Additional Components
While not part of the skeleton framework, additional components are necessary for
the completion of the building:

1. Surface Beds, Suspended Floor Slabs, Cantilever Slabs

These elements transfer equipment and human loads to the beams and
provide structural support for floors. They often have sound and fire-resistant
qualities and are crucial for the functionality of the building.

2. Roof
The roof provides a weatherproof covering for the upper floor, protecting the
building from environmental elements. It can be designed with various
materials and configurations to meet aesthetic and functional requirements.

3. Walls
Walls form a weatherproof, insulated envelope on all sides of the building and
internally. They are essential for maintaining thermal comfort, sound insulation,
and fire resistance. Walls can be constructed from various materials, including
brick, concrete, or lightweight cladding systems.

Conclusion
Understanding the classification and identification of beams in skeleton frames is
essential for modern construction practices. Each type of beam—main beams,
secondary beams, tie beams, and edge beams—plays a specific role in ensuring the
stability and functionality of the structure. Additionally, columns and foundations are
crucial components that support and transfer loads to the ground. By mastering these
concepts, students and professionals can design and construct buildings that are
safe, efficient, and durable.

22
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

DRAWING AND LABELLING FRAMED COMPONENTS

Importance of Accurate Drawing and Labelling

Accurate drawing and labelling of framed components are essential skills for students
and professionals in the field of architecture and structural engineering. Detailed
drawings serve as a visual guide for the construction process, ensuring that all
components are correctly placed and interconnected. Proper labelling helps in
identifying each element, understanding its function, and ensuring that all parts work
together to maintain the structural integrity and stability of the building.

Key Components to be Drawn and Labelled

When drawing and labelling framed components, it is crucial to include all the primary
structural elements that make up the skeleton frame. These include:

1. Main Beams
2. Secondary Beams
3. Tie Beams
4. Edge Beams
5. Columns
6. Foundations
7. Additional Structural Elements (e.g., surface beds, suspended floor slabs,
cantilever slabs)
8. Roof Structure
9. Walls

23
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Drawing Techniques

1. Orthographic Projection
Orthographic projection is a common technique used in architectural and
engineering drawings. It involves creating multiple views of the object, such as
the front, side, and plan (top) views. Each view provides a different
perspective, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of the component's
dimensions and relationships.

2. Isometric Drawing
Isometric drawing represents three-dimensional objects in two dimensions,
where the three principal axes are equally inclined to the plane of projection.
This technique helps in visualising how different components fit together in the
frame.

3. Sectional Views
Sectional views involve cutting through the object to show its internal features.
This technique is particularly useful for understanding how different
components are interconnected and how loads are transferred through the
structure.

Labelling Techniques

1. Consistent Notation
Using a consistent notation system for labelling each component is crucial.
Standardised symbols and abbreviations help in maintaining clarity and
avoiding confusion. For example, "C" for columns, "MB" for main beams, "SB" for
secondary beams, and so on.

2. Descriptive Labels
Each component should be labelled with a descriptive tag that indicates its
type and function. For example, "Main Beam (MB1)" or "Column (C1)".

24
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Additional information, such as material type and dimensions, can also be

included for more detailed understanding.

3. Leader Lines and Arrows

Leader lines and arrows should be used to connect labels to their respective
components. These lines should be straight and clear, avoiding any overlap or
confusion with other parts of the drawing.

Detailed Components and Their Labelling

1. Main Beams
 Drawing: Depict main beams spanning between columns in plan and
elevation views.
 Labelling: Use tags like "MB1", "MB2", etc., with additional information about the
material and cross-sectional dimensions.

2. Secondary Beams
 Drawing: Show secondary beams spanning between main beams, reducing
floor spans.
 Labelling: Use tags like "SB1", "SB2", etc., and indicate the material and
dimensions.

3. Tie Beams
 Drawing: Illustrate tie beams running at right angles to main beams and
columns.
 Labelling: Tags like "TB1", "TB2", etc., with notes on their position and role in
stabilising the structure.

4. Edge Beams
 Drawing: Display edge beams spanning between external columns, forming
the perimeter of the floor slab.
 Labelling: Use tags like "EB1", "EB2", etc., and specify whether they are down
stand or upstand beams.

25
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

5. Columns
 Drawing: Draw columns in both plan and elevation views, showing their vertical
extent and placement.
 Labelling: Use tags like "C1", "C2", etc., and include details about the material,
cross-sectional size, and load-bearing capacity.

6. Foundations
 Drawing: Illustrate foundation types in sectional views, showing their depth and
connection to columns.
 Labelling: Tags like "F1", "F2", etc., with information on the type (e.g., strip
foundation, pad foundation) and material.

7. Additional Structural Elements

 Surface Beds, Suspended Floor Slabs, and Cantilever Slabs: Depict these
elements in plan and sectional views.
 Labelling: Use descriptive tags and indicate their role in transferring loads and
providing structural support.

8. Roof Structure
 Drawing: Show the roof structure in plan and elevation views, highlighting the
framework and covering material.
 Labelling: Tags like "RS1", "RS2", etc., with notes on the type of roof (e.g., flat,
pitched) and materials used.

9. Walls
 Drawing: Display walls in plan and sectional views, showing their connection to
the frame.
 Labelling: Use tags like "W1", "W2", etc., and specify the materials and insulation
properties.

26
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Practical Application

1. Construction Documentation
Accurate drawings and labels form the basis of construction documentation,
guiding builders and contractors during the construction process. They ensure
that each component is correctly fabricated, positioned, and connected.

2. Structural Analysis
Detailed drawings and labels help engineers perform structural analysis,
assessing the loads and stresses on each component. This analysis is essential
for verifying the structural integrity and safety of the building.

3. Maintenance and Inspection

Well-labelled drawings are invaluable for maintenance and inspection
purposes. They help in identifying specific components that may need repair
or replacement and provide a clear reference for any modifications or
upgrades.

Conclusion
Drawing and labelling framed components are critical skills in architecture and
structural engineering, ensuring accurate construction, efficient communication, and
effective maintenance. By mastering these techniques, professionals can contribute
to the successful design and implementation of safe, functional, and aesthetically
pleasing structures.

27
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

FLOOR AREA COVERAGE (FAR) & COVERAGE

Floor Area Ratio (FAR)

Floor Area Ratio (FAR), also known as Floor Area Coverage, is a crucial metric in urban
planning and zoning regulations, including those in South Africa. It is used to control
the density of development on a given parcel of land. FAR is the ratio of a building's
total floor area to the size of the piece of land upon which it is built. Here is an
explanation of how FAR works in South Africa:

Definition and Calculation

Floor Area Ratio (FAR) is calculated using the following formula:

FAR = Total Floor Area

Plot Area

Where:
 Total Floor Area is the sum of the gross floor area of all the floors in a building.
 Plot Area is the total area of the land parcel.

For example, if a plot of land has an area of 1,000 square metres and the total floor
area of the building is 2,000 square metres, the FAR would be 2.0.

Application in South Africa

1. Zoning Regulations: Local municipalities in South Africa have specific zoning

regulations that dictate the permissible FAR for different types of land use
(residential, commercial, industrial, etc.). These regulations are designed to
control urban density, ensure adequate light and air, and manage
infrastructure demands.

28
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

2. Development Control: The FAR limits ensure that buildings do not exceed a
certain density, which helps in maintaining the character of a neighbourhood
and managing traffic and utility loads. For instance, a high FAR might be
allowed in central business districts to encourage vertical growth, while lower
FARs are typical in suburban residential areas to maintain a lower density.

3. Impact on Design: FAR influences architectural design and planning. Architects

and developers must design buildings that conform to the allowable FAR. This
can impact the height, number of floors, and overall layout of the building.

4. Exceptions and Bonuses: Sometimes, municipalities may offer FAR bonuses or

exceptions for developments that include public amenities, affordable
housing, or green building practices. These incentives are used to promote
sustainable and community-beneficial development.

Example Scenario
Imagine a plot in a central business district with a permissible FAR of 5.0. On a 1,000
square metre plot, a developer can build a total of 5,000 square metres of floor area.
This could be a single building with five floors, each covering the entire plot, or a taller
building with a smaller footprint per floor.

Implications
 Urban Planning: Proper FAR regulation helps in balanced urban development,
avoiding overcrowding and overloading of infrastructure.
 Property Value: Higher FAR values can increase the value of a property due to
the potential for more development.
 Environmental Impact: Regulations on FAR can help in controlling
environmental impacts by limiting the built-up area and preserving open
spaces.

Conclusion
In summary, the FAR is a fundamental tool in urban planning in South Africa, used to
regulate the density and scale of buildings. Understanding and adhering to FAR

29
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

regulations is essential for architects, developers, and planners to ensure sustainable

and compliant development.

Consider the following information and work out the total maximum allowable size for
the building.

Site size: 5000m²

Allowable coverage: 30%
Max height: 2 storeys

5000m² x 30% = 1500m² Ground

1500m² x 1 = 1500m² First
1500m² + 1500m² = 3000m² Total

30
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

Coverage

Coverage, also known as building coverage or site coverage, is an important

concept in construction planning and urban development in South Africa. It pertains
to the proportion of a plot of land that can be covered by buildings or structures.
Coverage regulations are implemented to ensure adequate open space, manage
stormwater runoff, and maintain the aesthetic and functional quality of urban areas.

Definition and Calculation

Coverage is calculated as the percentage of a plot of land that is covered by
buildings and structures. The formula for calculating coverage is:

Coverage (%) = (Building Footprint Area) × 100

Plot Area

Where:
 Building Footprint Area is the total ground floor area of all buildings on the plot.
 Plot Area is the total area of the land parcel.

For example, if a plot of land has an area of 1,000 square metres and the building
footprint is 400 square metres, the coverage would be 40%.

Application in South Africa

1. Zoning Regulations: Local municipalities in South Africa set maximum allowable

coverage percentages for different zoning categories (e.g., residential,
commercial, industrial). These regulations are intended to balance built-up
areas with open spaces.

2. Development Control: Coverage limits ensure that there is sufficient open

space on each plot for landscaping, parking, and other uses. This helps in
managing urban density and maintaining the quality of living environments.

31
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

3. Impact on Design: Architects and developers must design buildings that do not
exceed the allowable coverage. This affects the layout, size, and placement
of buildings on a plot. For instance, a plot with a maximum coverage of 50%
means that only half of the plot area can be covered by the building, leaving
the rest for open space.

4. Environmental and Functional Considerations: Coverage regulations help in

managing stormwater runoff by preserving permeable surfaces, reducing heat
island effects, and ensuring adequate ventilation and sunlight for buildings.

Example Scenario
Consider a residential plot with a permissible coverage of 40%. On a 1,000 square
metre plot, the maximum allowable building footprint would be 400 square metres.
This means that the building(s) on the plot must not cover more than 40% of the total
land area, leaving 60% as open space for gardens, driveways, and other uses.

Implications
 Urban Planning: Proper coverage regulation ensures a balanced urban
environment with sufficient open spaces, reducing the risk of overcrowding
and ensuring better living conditions.
 Design Flexibility: While coverage limits restrict the size of the building footprint,
they provide flexibility in design by allowing for creative use of open spaces.
 Property Value: Adequate open space can enhance the aesthetic appeal
and value of a property, making it more desirable for residents and businesses.

Conclusion
Coverage regulations are a key component of construction planning in South Africa,
designed to control the extent of land that can be built upon. By adhering to these
regulations, developers and planners contribute to creating sustainable, functional,
and aesthetically pleasing urban environments. Understanding and applying
coverage limits is essential for successful and compliant construction projects.

32
 Compiled by Mr. C. Meyer
CTY306D (CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III) – CHAPTER 9A – MULTI‐STOREY CONCEPTS

33