TOPIC 1 -Electromagnetic waves are produced when

TOPICS electrically charged particles oscillate or change

energy in some way.
1. Introduction to electromagnetics
2. Electrodynamics -The waves travel perpendicularly (900 )to both
3. Maxwell’s equation electric and magnetic fields.
4. Properties of electromagnetic waves
5. Energy and Momentum in the
electromagnetic field

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
Objectives
1.Explain sources of electromagnetic radiations
i)Long wavelengths
ii)Visible light
iii)Short wavelengths
2.Analyse the detectors used in electromagnetic
radiations
3.Explain the application of electromagnetic
waves

Introduction:
Definition of electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic waves refers to waves that do not
require any material medium for transmission
The electromagnetic spectrum
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM It is divided into seven major regions or bands. A
band consists of a range of frequencies in the
spectrum in terms of frequencies
Electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all
electromagnetic waves arranged according to
Classifications of electromagnetic waves
frequency and wavelength. It includes:
according to wavelengths and frequencies
i) long wavelength
1. Ra –Radio waves
ii) Visible light
2. M – Microwaves
iii) Short wavelength
3. I – Infra red
4. L – Light waves(visible light)
a)LONG WAVELENGTHS
5. UV –Ultra Violet
These have greater wavelength but low frequencies
6. X - X -rays
and low energy.
7. G – Gamma Rays
They are the first three
Friend --- frequency
a)Radio waves
b)Micro waves
The order a above is the arrangement in terms of
c)Infra – red
Increasing frequency I.e Gamma rays has the
highest frequency while Radio waves has the least
B)VISIBLE LIGHT
frequency
This is the middle of electromagnetic spectrum that
NB – The wave with the Highest frequency
human eye can detect. This gives the reason why
(Gamma ) is the one with the least Wavelength,
this part of spectrum is known as Visible light.
while the wave with the least freaquecy(radio
waves), has the highest wavelength
c)SHORT-WAVELENGTH
These have shorter wavelength with high
frequencies and high energy
They represent the last three in the electromagnetic
spectrum.
i)Gamma rays
ii)X-rays
iii)Ultra – violet radiations

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 Properties of electromagnetic waves
Common properties

i) They do not require material medium for 3.Green light has a wavelength of 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
transmission Calculate the energy it emits
ii) They travel at the speed of light i.e. 3 × 108 ms-1 Sln
iii)They are transverse in Nature v=fλ
iv) They carry no charge, hence not affected by 𝑉 3.0 𝑥 108
f= =
electric or magnetic fields λ 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕

v) They undergo reflection, refraction and = 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 Hz

diffraction. But E = hf
vi)Posses energy in different portion according to = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝒙 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟒
the relation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟕𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 J
vii) They obey the wave equation (v = λ f).
3.A radio station is transmitting at a frequency of
Note 15.42 MHz Calculate the wavelength Ans: 19.46m
h- Planks Constant (6.63 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝑯𝒛)
speed of light is given by c = 𝟑. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
4.An X –ray machine produces radio of wavelength
Examples of 1.0 𝑥 10−11 m .Calculate:
1. A VHF radio transmitter broadcasts radio waves a) The frequency of the radiation 𝐴𝑛𝑠 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝑯𝒛
at a frequency of 30 M Hz. What is their b) Its energy content 𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝟏. 𝟗𝟖𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝑱
wavelength?
Solution Sources of electromagnetic Wave interference
v=fλ i)Ignition systems
𝑉 3.0 𝑥 108 ii)Cellular network of mobile phones
then λ = = iii)Motive/air space vehicle
𝑓 300 𝑥106
= 1.00 m. Generally we can say:
2. Calculate the frequency of a radio wave of i)Broadcasting station
wavelength 150 m. ii)Atmospheric discharge eg lighting
Solution : v = f λ iii) Air space and motive device
𝑉 3.0 𝑥 108 iv) Voltage surge etc.
f= =
𝜆 150
v) Ignition systems.
= 2M Hz
SOURCES,PRODUCTION,DECTECTION and APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Type of wave Source/ How it is produced How it is detected Use/application

Radio waves By Oscillators Resonant circuits in radio receivers with 1.Used in radio, TV and cellular mobile
i.e Oscillation of electrical diodes and earphones communications.
circuit 2.Satellite imagery
From Stars, gases in space
Microwaves By Oscillation of charges in By RADAR 1.In microwave Oven to cook or warm
special Aerials mounted on food
dishes
2.In RADAR communication (Locating the
positions of aeroplanes and ships)
3.Communication in telephone and
computer data
Infra red -Sun -Human skin 1.Tv remote control
radiation -Fire -Photo graphic film 1.In cooking, heating and drying.
-TV remote system 2.In green houses to grow crops
3.Ware fare and burglar alarm system
Visible light -Sun -Human eye 1.Enable people and animals to see
-Burning candle -Photographic film 2.Photosynthesis in plants
-Lighting bulb -photocell 3.Used in LASER
UV-light -Sun -Photographic films In medicine- to kill bacteria, skin treatment
-Sparks -Photocell Source of Vitamin D
-Mercury vapour lamps -Fluorescent materials
-Paper lightly smeared with Vaseline
X -Rays -X –Rays tubes as a result in -Fluorescent screen 1.In medicine –To locate bone fracture or
the energy changes of an -Photographic film foreign objects (swallowed pins)
electron 2.Cancer therapy
3.Controlling pests and germs by radiation
4.Crystallogy-to detect flaws in metals
Gamma rays -Emitted by radioactive -Photographic plates 1.Medicine-for sterilising medical
substance -Radiation detectors(Geiger Muller Tube) equipment, killing cancerous growth
As a result of energy changes 2.Industries –to detect flaws in metal
in the nuclei of an atom

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 KEY TERMS and Points
1. ‘RADAR’ – Radio Detection and Ranging.
2. LASER- Light Amplification by the Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
3. Gamma rays have Higher energy, hence high
penetrating powers

MICROWAVE OVEN
Microwaves are also used for Cooking in a
microwave oven

How Microwave oven Works

Microwaves are produced by the Magnetrons at a
frequency of 2500M Hz. The waves are then
directed to a rotating metal stirrer which reflect
them to different parts of the oven.
In the oven, food is placed on a turntable, where it
absorbs the waves evenly. The waves heat up the
water and fat molecules in the food, thereby
cooking it.
The wire mesh on the door reflects the microwaves
back inside. The device is switched off before
opening the door.

Hazards of Some Electromagnetic waves

i. Excessive use of UV rays, X-rays and Gamma
rays, which carry high energy, may cause damage
to the body cells, skin burn, effects
ii. Cancer diseases may also occur

How to minimize dangers Posed by

Electromagnetic spectrum
i.Use of protective device to Shield the rays from
coming in contact with the skin
ii. Reducing the time of exposure
iii. Ensure the X-ray machine is installed in aroom
with cemented thick wall

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TOPIC 2 Its SI unit is Coulomb per squared metre (C/𝒎𝟐 )

ELECTRODYNAMICS H)Magnetic field Strength (H) and Magnetic

flux density (B)
Objectives

a. Explain terms used in electrostatics i)Magnetic field strength H - It is the measure of

i. Electric field intensity E how strong or weak any magnetic field is.
ii. Electric flux 𝜳 Or
iii. Electric flux density D The ability of magnetic field to magnetise a
b. Analyse the electric field intensity about an material medium
infinite long line SI unit is Ampere per metre (A/m)
i. Coulombs Law
ii. Gauss’ Law ii)Magnetic flux density B - is the magnetic flux
c. Explain terms used in magneto statics per unit Area
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
i. Magnetic field strength H B=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
ii. Magnetic flux density, B The SI unit of magnetic flux density is Tesla (T)
iii. Magnetic Flux Ф
d. Analyse the magnetic field intensity about an
infinitely long line NOTE:
Using :
i. Amper’s circuit law Electric intensity E at a point is the force per unit
charge
ii. Biot –Savart law 𝐹
iii. Faraday’s Law E=
𝑄
e. Faradays Law and its significance in time Where :
varying magnetic field. E = Electric field intensity
F = Force
ELECTRODYNAMICS Q = Charge
Objective a(i)
The Electric force on test charge 𝑸𝒕 is given by
Defination of Terms
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝒕
𝑭𝒕 = 𝒂𝟏𝒕
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
a)Electric field – Is the space around an electric
charge in which its influence can be felt And expressing the force per unit charge
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝒕
b)Electric field intensity - Is the force per unit 𝑭𝒕 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝒒𝟏
= = 𝒂
charge 𝒒𝒕 𝒒𝒕 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟏𝒕
So, since, electric field intensity E is force per unit
Or
charge
c)Electric field intensity (E) – is defined as the 𝑭𝒕 𝒒𝟏
force per unit charge that a very small stationary Then E = = 𝒂𝟏𝒕
𝒒𝒕 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
test charge experiences when it is placed in a Or
𝒒
region where an electric field exists E= 𝒂𝟏𝒕
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

Electric intensity E at a point is the force per unit The SI unit is Newton per Coulomb (N/C) or
𝐹 Voltage per metre (V/m)
charge E = . SI units is Force per Unit Charge
𝑄
So E has a single charge component whose effect
(N/C) or V/m
is Radial
d)Electric flux (Ψ) -
It is therefore:
According to Faraday, Electric flux (Ψ) is equal to
the total charge (Q) enclosed by a surface. i) A vector quantity
Ψ=Q
Hence it is measured in Coulomb (C) Directly proportional to the direction of the
force
e)Electric flux Density (D) – Is total flux per unit
ii) It is in the direction of the force F
surface area.
𝑸
Hence, D = C/𝒎𝟐 Its SI unit is Newton per Coulomb which is
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝚿 𝐐 (N/C) the same as Volts per meter (v/m)
D= =
𝑨 𝑨
Where : Ψ = Electric flux
Q =Quantity of charge
A = Area

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NOTE: If 𝑸𝟏 and 𝑸𝟐 have like signs, the vector force 𝑭𝟐
Due to a point charge q, the intensity of the electric on 𝒒𝟐 is in the same direction as vector 𝑹𝟏𝟐
field at appoint d units away from it is given by the Note that:
expression as follows: i. The force acting along the line joining
So q d the two charges is
𝒒 ii. Repulsive if the forces are alike
Electric field intensity (E) = N/C iii. Attractive if the charges are unlike
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒅𝟐
Therefore the force 𝑭𝟐 will be given by:
a. Electric field intensity due to appositive 𝒒 𝒒
F = 𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟐
charge is always directed away from the 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓
charge Where 𝒂𝟏𝟐 is the unit vector in the direction of
b. Electric field intensity due to a negative 𝑹𝟏𝟐
charge is always directed towards the And given by:
𝑹𝟏𝟐
charge. Unit vector 𝒂𝟏𝟐 =
√(𝒙)𝟐 + (𝒚)𝟐 +(𝒛)𝟐
Objective (bi) Example
OCOULOMB LAW Two point charges of 1 coulombs each separated
by 1m apart. Find the magnitude of the
Colonel Charles coulomb, a French Army repulsive force assume 𝜺𝒓 = 1
engineer, performed an elaborate series Sln
experiments using a delicate torsion balance. 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
F= 2 =
He determined the Force exerted between two 4𝜋𝜀𝑟 4𝜋𝜀 𝜀 𝑟 2 0 𝑟
1𝑥1
objects, each having a static charge of F = 10−9
= 9 𝑥109 N
4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥 (1)2
electricity. 36𝜋

The law states that: The force between two point Example
charges is directly proportional to the product of
Charges𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 and inversely proportional to Two point charges of 1 coulomb each are
the square of the distance between them. separated by 1m apart. Find the magnitude of
the repulsive force, assume 𝜺𝒓 = 1.
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
So F∝
𝒓𝟐 Sln
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
F=k N 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝒓𝟐 F =
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2
𝟏 1𝑥1
And the constant k = = = 9 𝑥 10 9 N
𝟒𝝅𝜺 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 (1)2
Where the permittivity of free space:
𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 Example
10−9 a)Calculate the force of attraction between
𝜀0 = 8.854 𝑥 10−12 or Farad /metre (F/m) 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟖 C and 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟓 C and
36𝜋
And 10cm apart in a vacuum.
Sln
𝜺𝒓 = relative permittivity
Since placed in a vacuum
𝑄1 𝑄𝑡 1
Where 𝒒𝟏 and 𝒒𝟐 are the positive or negative F = but = 9 𝑥 10 9 N
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜
charge and r is the distance between them. 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟖 𝒙 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟓
= 9 𝑥 10 9 𝑥
(𝟎.𝟏)𝟐
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
So F = = 2.16 N
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓𝟐 b)What is the force if it is placed in kerosene
DIAGRAMATICAL ILLUSTRATION where 𝜺𝒓 = 𝟐

Sln
Since in a different medium
𝑄1 𝑥𝑄2 1
F= 2 but = 9 𝑥 10 9 N
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 (𝑟) 4𝜋𝜀𝑜
9 4 𝑥 10 −8 𝑥 6 𝑥 10 −5
= 9 𝑥 10 𝑥 = 1.08 N
(2)(0.1)2

Example
A positive charge of magnitude 4𝝁 Coulombs is
situated in air at the origin of a rectangular
coordinate system and a second positive charge
of 10𝝁C is situated on the positive Z – axis at a

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separation 30cm from the origin. Find the force = -0.018N𝑎𝑥 + 0.009𝑎𝑥 + 0.02𝑎𝑦
on the 2nd Charge = -0.009𝑎𝑥 +0.02𝑎𝑦

Sln VECTORIAL FORCES

-If two point charges Q1 and Q 2 are located at the
point having position vectors r1 and r2 as shown in
the figure below:

𝑄1 𝑄𝑡 1
F = 𝑎12 but = 9 𝑥 10 9 N
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜
30
And 𝑎12 = unit vector = =1
√(30)2 The force 𝐹12 on charge 𝑄2 due to 𝑄1 is given by :
𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 𝑞1 𝑞2
= 9 𝑥 10 9 𝑥 x 1 = 4 N 𝒂𝒛 𝐹12 = 2 𝒂𝑹𝟏𝟐
(𝟎.𝟑)𝟐 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑅
𝑹 𝑹𝟏𝟐
Where 𝒂𝑹𝟏𝟐 = unit vector = |𝑹|
=
Example √(𝒙)𝟐 + (𝒚)𝟐 +(𝒛)𝟐
3 point charges are situated in a straight line Hence :
10cm apart. 𝑸𝟏 = 2𝝁C, 𝑸𝟐 = -1𝝁C and 𝑸𝟑 = 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑹 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑅
𝐹12 = 𝒂𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝑥 |𝑹| =
3𝝁C, with 𝑸𝟐 at the centre. Find the force on 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑅 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑅 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑹|3

each due to the other two.

Sln -If there are More than two point charges, the
principle of superposition is used to determine a
force on a particular charge.

Force 𝑞1 𝑜𝑛 𝑞2 Principle of superposition

𝑞1 𝑞2 2 𝑥 10 −6 𝑥 −1 𝑥 10 −6 The principle state that, if there are any charges Q1
𝐹𝑞1𝑞2 = 2 = 10−9
= -1.8N
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑥
36𝜋
𝑥 (0.1)2 Q 2 , Q 3 ……… Q n charges located respectively at
Force 𝑞1 𝑜𝑛 𝑞3 the points with vectors r1 r2 , r3 ……… rn
𝑞1 𝑞3 2𝑥 10 −6 𝑥 2 𝑥 10 −6 respectively, then the resultant force becomes:
𝐹𝑞1𝑞3 = = 10−9
= 0.9N
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 (0.2)2 𝑞𝑞1 (r1 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞2 (r2 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞3 (r2 −𝑟)
36𝜋 F= + + …..
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r1 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r2 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r2 −𝑟|3
Force 𝑞2 𝑜𝑛 𝑞3 𝑞𝑞𝑛 (rn −𝑟)
𝑞2 𝑞3 2𝑥 10 −6 𝑥 −1 𝑥 10 −6 +
𝐹𝑞2𝑞3 = = = -1.8N 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |rn −𝑟|3
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 10−9
4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 (0.1)2 𝑞 𝑞 (r −𝑟)
36𝜋 F = ∑𝑛 𝑖 1
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑖=1 |rn −𝑟|3

Example The resultant force F on charge Q located at the

point r is the vector sum of the forces exerted on Q
3 point charges 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 , 𝑸𝟐 = −𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 and
by each of the charges Q1 Q 2 , Q 3 ……… Q n
𝑸𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 are located in air at the
corners of an equilateral triangle of 50cm sides.
Example:
Determine the magnitude and the direction of
the force on 𝑸𝟑 . A charge of 𝒒𝟏 = 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 C is located at
M(1,2,3) and a second charge 𝒒𝟐 = − 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑪 is
at N (2,0,5) in a vacuum. Determine the force
exerted on 𝒒𝟐 by 𝒒𝟏
Sln-

𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝑞1 𝑞3 10 −6 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 10 −6 [𝟐] [𝟎 ]
𝐹𝑞1𝑞3 = = 10−9
= 0.018N
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 (0.5)2 𝟑 𝟓
36𝜋
Acting between 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
i.e 0.018Sin60 = 0.02𝑎𝑦
0.018Cos 60 = 0.009𝑎𝑥 O

𝑞2 𝑞3 −10 −6 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 10 −6
So 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐
𝐹𝑞2𝑞3 = = 10−9
= -0.018N𝑎𝑥
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 (0.5)2
36𝜋
Total forces

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 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 Electric Field intensity due several point charges
= [𝟎] - [𝟐] =[−𝟐] on the test charge Q
𝟓 𝟑 𝟐
a) Electric field intensity due to two point
And the 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒂𝒙 − 𝟐𝒂𝒚 + 𝟐𝒂𝒛 charges
And Unit vector : Since the Coulomb forces are linear, the electric
𝒂𝒙 −𝟐𝒂𝒚 +𝟐𝒂𝒛 𝒂𝒙 −𝟐𝒂𝒚 +𝟐𝒂𝒛
field intensity due to two point charges will be
𝒂𝟏𝟐 = = given by the sum of forces on 𝑸𝒕 caused by 𝑸𝟏
𝟑
√(𝟏)𝟐 + (−𝟐)𝟐 +(𝟐)𝟐
and 𝑸𝟐 acting alone, so that:
Hence Force 𝑭𝟐 E=
𝒒𝟏
𝒂𝟏 +
𝒒𝟐
𝒂𝟐
𝒒 𝒒 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝐹12 = 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒙 (−𝟏𝟎−𝟒 ) 𝒂𝒙 −𝟐𝒂𝒚 +𝟐𝒂𝒛 b) Electric field intensity due to several
𝐹12 = 𝒙
𝟒𝒙 𝟑.𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝒙𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒙 𝟑𝟐 𝟑 point charges
𝒂𝒙 −𝟐𝒂𝒚 +𝟐𝒂𝒛
𝐹12 = -3 ( ) x 𝟏𝟎𝟗
𝟑 The electric field intensity due to Several point
= (−𝒂𝒙 + 𝟐𝒂𝒚 − 𝟐𝒂𝒛 ) x 𝟏𝟎𝟗 N charges will be given by the sum of forces on 𝑄𝑡
caused by 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 𝑄3 …… 𝑄𝑚 a acting alone, so
that:
NOTE:
The force expressed by Coulomb’s law is a E=
𝒒𝟏
𝒂𝟏 +
𝒒𝟐
𝒂𝟐 + ……+
𝒒𝟑
𝒂𝒎
mutual force, for each of the two charges 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

experience a force the same magnitude, Hence:

although of opposite direction.
𝑞1 (r1 −𝑟) 𝑞2 (r2 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞3 (r2 −𝑟)
𝑭𝟏 = 𝑭𝟐 E= + + …..
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r1 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r2 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |r2 −𝑟|3
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝑞𝑛 (rn −𝑟)
𝒂𝟏𝟐 = − 𝒂𝟏𝟐 +
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓𝟐 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |rn −𝑟|3
In summary, for a system of charges , Electric field
Example 2
intensity E is given by:
1 𝑞𝑖 (r1 −𝑟)
A charge of 𝒒𝑨 = −𝟐𝟎𝝁C is located at A(-6,4,7) E= ∑𝑛𝑖=1
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |rn −𝑟|3
and a second charge 𝒒𝑩 = 𝟓𝟎𝝁𝑪 is at M (5,8,-2)
in a vacuum. Determine Example
a)Vector 𝑹𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝟏𝟏𝒙 + 𝟒𝒂𝒚 − 𝟗𝒂𝒛 m A thunder cloud above the earth sets up an
electric field of 50V/m. In this field, there is a
b)The magnitude of 𝑹𝑨𝑩 Ans: 14.76 m rain drop carrying the charges of 0.3𝝁C. What
is the force on the rain drop.
c)The vector force exerted by 𝒒𝑨 onto 𝒒𝑩 Sln
𝐹
Ans 𝟑𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝒂𝒚 − 𝟐𝟓. 𝟏𝟑𝒂𝒛 m E=
𝑄
F = E x Q = 50 x 0.3 x 10−6 = 1.5 x 10−5 N
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY (E) DUE TO
APOINT CHARGE
Example
If we consider only one charge 𝑸𝟏 to be in one
A point charge 𝑸𝟏 = 300𝝁𝑪 situated /located at
Fixed position and another test charge 𝑸𝒕 to be
(1,-1,-3) is experiencing aforce 𝑭𝟏 = 8𝒂𝒙 - 8𝒂𝒚 +
moving slowly around the fixed charge, it is
8𝒂𝒛 due to a charge 𝑸𝟐 which is at (3,-3,-2)m.
noted that there exist everywhere a force on this
Determine 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐐𝟐
second charge. I.e there is electric field on
Sln
charge 𝑸𝒕 due to charge 𝑸𝟏 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹12 = 2 𝑎12
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟
𝐹1 = 8𝑎𝑥 - 8𝑎𝑦 + 8𝑎𝑧
Electric field intensity E is force per unit charge
Magnitude of Force = |𝐹|
𝑭𝒕 𝒒𝟏
Then E = = 𝒂𝟏𝒕 = √(8)2 + (−8)2 + (4)2 = 12N
𝒒𝒕 𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
Or 3 1
𝒒 |𝑟 − 𝑟1 |= |(−3) − (−1)|= √22 + (−2)2 + 12 =3
E= 𝒂𝟏𝒕
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 −2 −3
Since we are only interested on the value of the
charge
𝑞 𝑞
𝐹12 = 1 2 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
300 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 𝑞2
12 =
4𝜋 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (3)2
And 𝑄2 = 4 x 10−5 Coulombs

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 𝐹 90 𝑥 10 −3 [(−0.072)𝑎𝑥 +(−0.0413)𝑎𝑦 +0.0835𝑎𝑧 ]

Example: E= =
𝑄 10 𝑥 10 −9

Point charges of 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟑 pC are placed at each E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [(−0.072)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0413)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0835𝑎𝑧 ]

corner of a square whose side is 0.2m. Find the E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [(−0.072)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0413)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0835𝑎𝑧 ]
magnitude and the direction of the electric field E = [(−0.648𝑎𝑥 − 0.3717𝑎𝑦 + 0.7515𝑎𝑧 ] MV/m
at the vacant Corner.
Approximately
Sln E = [(−0.65𝑎𝑥 − 0.37𝑎𝑦 + 0.75𝑎𝑧 ] MV/m

Alternatively,
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2
E= 2 𝑎1 + 𝑎 + ………+ 𝑎𝑚
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
E= [ 𝑎 + 2 𝑎2 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 1 𝑟
1 1 𝑥 10−3 (−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
E= [ 2 𝑥 +
4𝜋𝜀0 (√14) √14
−2𝑥 10−3 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧
2 𝑥 ]
(√26) √26
The length from one diagonal to the other :
Factorizing 10−3 outside the bracket
= √0.22 + 0.22 = 0.28m
1 (−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧

but
1
= 9 𝑥 10 9 N 𝐸 = 9 𝑥 10 9 𝑥 10−3 [ 2 𝑥 +
(√14) √14
4𝜋𝜀𝑜
𝑞1 3 𝑥 10 3 −2 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧
𝐸1 = 𝑎1 =9 𝑥 10 9 x =675𝑎𝑥 V/m 2 𝑥 ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝑟 2 (0.2)2 (√26) √26
𝑞2 3 𝑥 10 3 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧
𝐸2 = 𝑎2 =9 𝑥 10 9 x =344𝑎𝑥 V/m E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [1 𝑥
(−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
+ −2𝑥 ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝑟 2 (0.28)2 3
(14)2 (26)2
3

Hence 344 Sin 45 = 243. 24𝑎𝑦 (−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧
E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [1 𝑥 3 + −2𝑥 3 ]
And 344 Cos 45 = 243. 24𝑎𝑥 (14)2 (26)2
(−2)𝑎𝑥 +(−8)𝑎𝑦 +6𝑎𝑧
𝑞2 3 𝑥 10 3 (−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
𝐸3 = 𝑎2 =9 𝑥 10 9 x =675𝑦𝑥 V/m E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [ + ]
52.23 132.57
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝑟 2 (0.2)2
𝐸𝑇 = (675+ 243.24) 𝑎𝑥 + (675+ 243.24) 𝑎𝑦 E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [(−0.057)𝑎𝑥 + (0.019)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0382𝑎𝑧 +

= 918.24𝑎𝑥 + 918.24 𝑎𝑦 (−0.015)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0603)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0453𝑎𝑧 ]

Example. E = 9 𝑥 10 6 [(−0.072)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0413)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0835𝑎𝑧 ]
Apoint charge of 1mC and -2mC are located E = [(−0.648𝑎𝑥 − 0.3717𝑎𝑦 + 0.7515𝑎𝑧 ] MV/m
(3,2,-1) and at (-1,-1,4) respectively. Calculate
the electric force on a 10n coulomb located at Approximately
(0,3,1) E = [(−0.65𝑎𝑥 − 0.37𝑎𝑦 + 0.75𝑎𝑧 ] MV/m
Sln
𝐹
E=
𝑄
𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟)
F = +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟1 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟2 −𝑟|3
𝑞 𝑛 𝑞𝑖 (𝑟1 −𝑟)
F= ∑𝑖=1
4𝜋𝜀 𝜀 0 𝑟 |𝑟 −𝑟|3 𝑛
0 3
|𝑟 − 𝑟1 | = |(3) − ( 2 )|= √−32 + 12 + 22
Example
1 −1
Point charge 5nC and -2nC are located (2,0,4)
=√14
0 −1 and (-3,0,5) respectively .
|𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(3) − (−1)|= √12 + 42 + −32 = a)Determine the force on 1nC point charge at
1 4 (1,-3,7)
√26 Sln
𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟) 𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟)
F= [ + ] F = +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟1 −𝑟|3 |𝑟2 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟1 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟2 −𝑟|3
𝑞 𝑞 (𝑟 −𝑟)
F= 9 𝑥 10 9 x 10 𝑥 10 −9 [
1 𝑥 10−3
𝑥
(−3)𝑎𝑥+(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
+ F= ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖 1

(√14)
2
√14 4𝜋𝜀 𝜀 0 𝑟 |𝑟 −𝑟|3 𝑛
−2𝑥 10−3 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧 1 2
2 𝑥 ] |𝑟 − 𝑟1 |= |(−3) − (0)|=√(−1)2 + (−3)2 + 32 =√19
|√26| √26
Factorizing 10 −3
outside the bracket 7 4
(−3)𝑎𝑥 +(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(4)𝑎𝑦 +−3𝑎𝑧 1 −3
−3
F= 90 𝑥 10 [1 𝑥 3 + −2𝑥 3 ] |𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(−3) − ( 0 )|= √42 + −32 + 22 = √29
(14)2 (26)2
(−3)𝑎𝑥+(1)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧 (−2)𝑎𝑥 +(−8)𝑎𝑦 +6𝑎𝑧 7 5
F= 90 𝑥 10 −3 [ + ] 𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟)
52.23 132.57 F= [ |𝑟1 −𝑟|3
+ |𝑟2 −𝑟|3
]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
−3
F= 90 𝑥 10 [(−0.057)𝑎𝑥 + (0.019)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0382𝑎𝑧 + 5 𝑥 10−9 (−1)𝑎𝑥 +(−3)𝑎𝑦 +3𝑎𝑧
F= 9 𝑥 10 9 x 1 𝑥 10 −9 [ 2 𝑥 +
√19
(−0.015)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0603)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0453𝑎𝑧 ] (√19)
−2𝑥 10−9 (4)𝑎𝑥 +(−3)𝑎𝑦+2𝑎𝑧
F= 90 𝑥 10 −3 [(−0.072)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0413)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0835𝑎𝑧 ] 2 𝑥 ]
|√29| √29

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Factorizing 10−9 outside the bracket 1 −1
F= 9 𝑥 10 9 x 1 𝑥 10 −9 𝑥 10−9 [
5
2𝑥
(−1)𝑎𝑥 +(−3)𝑎𝑦 +3𝑎𝑧
+ |𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(1) − ( 1 )|= √22 + 02 + 12 = √5
(√19) √19
−2 (4)𝑎𝑥 +(−3)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
1 0
2 𝑥
√29
] 1 −1
|√29|
(4)𝑎𝑥+(−3)𝑎𝑦 +2𝑎𝑧
|𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(1) − (−1)|= √22 + 22 + 12 = 3
(−1)𝑎𝑥+(−3)𝑎𝑦 +3𝑎𝑧
F= 9 𝑥 10 −9 [5 𝑥 3 + −2𝑥 3 ] 1 0
(19)2 (29)2
(−5)𝑎𝑥 +(−15)𝑎𝑦 +15𝑎𝑧 (−8)𝑎𝑥 +(6)𝑎𝑦+8𝑎𝑧 1 1
F= 9 𝑥 10 −9 [ + ] |𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(1) − (−1)|= √02 + 22 + 12 = √5
82.82 156.17
−9
F= 9 𝑥 10 [(−0.06)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.181)𝑎𝑦 + 0.181𝑎𝑧 + 1 0
(−0.051)𝑎𝑥 + (0.0384)𝑎𝑦 + 0.051𝑎𝑧 ]
Therefore
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2
F= 9 𝑥 10 −9 [(−0.11)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.1427)𝑎𝑦 + 0.154𝑎𝑧 ]
E=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 𝑎1 + 2 𝑎2 + ………+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑚 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
F = [(−1.088)𝑎𝑥 + (− 1.278)𝑎𝑦 + 1.386𝑎𝑧 ]𝑥 10 −9 N 3𝑥 10−9 (0)𝑎𝑥 +(0)𝑎𝑦 +1𝑎𝑧
E= 𝑥 +
4𝑥 3.142 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 12 1
3𝑥 10−9 (2)𝑎𝑥 +(0)𝑎𝑦 +1𝑎𝑧
b)Find the electric field intensity at (1,-3,7) 2 𝑥 +
4𝑥 3.142 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (√5) √5
Sln
3𝑥 10−9 (2)𝑎𝑥 +(2)𝑎𝑦 +1𝑎𝑧
𝐹 10 −9 [(−1.088)𝑎𝑥 +(− 1.278)𝑎𝑦 +1.386𝑎𝑧 ) ] 𝑥 +
4𝑥 3.142 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (3)2 3
E= =
𝑄 1 𝑥 10 −9 3𝑥 10−9 (0)𝑎𝑥 +(2)𝑎𝑦 +1𝑎𝑧
𝑥 +
E = (−1.088)𝑎𝑥 + (− 1.278)𝑎𝑦 + 1.386𝑎𝑧 V/m 4𝑥 3.142 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (√5)2 √5

Example = 6.82𝑎𝑥 + 6.82𝑎𝑦 + 32.8𝑎𝑧 V/m

Find the Force on a unit charge at P on x-axis (2,0) due to
𝟏 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 −𝟗 C at the origin and −𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 −𝟗 C at (1,0)
Example
Sln
Draw A charge of – 0.3𝝁C is located at A(25,-30,15) (in
F =
𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟)
+
𝑞𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟) cm) and second charge 0.5𝝁C is at B(-10,8,12).
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟1 −𝑟|3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 |𝑟2 −𝑟|3 Find E at :
𝑞 𝑛 𝑞𝑖 (𝑟1 −𝑟)
F= ∑𝑖=1 a)Origin . Ans: 92.3𝑎𝑥 − 77.6𝑎𝑦 − 105𝑎𝑧 kV/m
4𝜋𝜀 𝜀 0 𝑟 |𝑟 −𝑟|3 𝑛

|𝑟 − 𝑟1 |= |(2) − (0)|=√(2)2 + (0)2 =2 b)P(15,20,50) cm

0 0
|𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(2) − (1)|= √(1)2 + (0)2 =1
0 0 Ans 32.9𝑎𝑥 + 5.94𝑎𝑦 + 19.69𝑎𝑧 kV/m
𝑞 𝑞1 (𝑟1 −𝑟) 𝑞2 (𝑟2 −𝑟)
F= [ |𝑟1 −𝑟|3
+ |𝑟2 −𝑟|3
]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
1 𝑥 10−9 (2)𝑎𝑥 +(0)𝑎𝑦 −2 𝑥 10−9 (1)𝑎𝑥 +(0)𝑎𝑦
F= 9 𝑥 10 9 x1 [ 𝑥 + 𝑥 ] GAUSS LAW FOR THE ELECTRIC FIELD
22 2 12 1
Factorizing 10−9 outside the bracket Gauss’ Law -state that the total Electric flux
1 (2)𝑎𝑥 +(0)𝑎𝑦 −2 (1)𝑎𝑥+(0)𝑎𝑦
F= 9 𝑥 10 9 𝑥 1𝑥 10−9 [ 2 𝑥 + 𝑥 ] passing through an enclosed surface is equal to
2 2 12 1
(2)𝑎𝑥 (−2)𝑎𝑥
F= 9 [ + ] the total charge enclosed by that surface.
23 13
F= 9 [(0.25)𝑎𝑥 + (−2)𝑎𝑥 ]
F=9 [(−1.75)𝑎𝑥 ] = -15.75 N Gauss law allows us to determine the electric
field due to the energy of these charge distributions
Example. without the evaluation of any integrals. In addition,
Find electric field intensity E at P(1,1,1) caused the use of Gauss law gives us a great deal of insight
by four identical 3nC charges located at unto the problem that the direct evaluation does not
𝐏𝟏 (1,1,0) , 𝐏𝟐 (-1,1,0), 𝐏𝟑 (-1,-1,0) , and𝐏𝟒 (1,-1,0) provide.
Sln Consider a closed surface Containing some charges
F as shown.
As we know that electric field lines ( E or D)
begins on positive charges and terminate on
negative charges
In order to compute gauss law, we place at the
origin of the given coordinates system the default
coordinates would be rectangular coordinate
systems.

Next we decide on the coordinate system and the

surface shape to be used which will help us
compute Gause law easily . This is the critical
aspects of Gauss law.

Since E and D fields lines form point charge

For:
1 1 emanate radially a way from it, we will choose a
|𝑟 − 𝑟1 | = |(1) − (1)|= √02 + 02 + 12 = 1 spherical coordinate system and let the system be
1 0 sphere of radius r

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 Therefore the charge Q = 𝜺𝟎 𝑬 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 eqtn 2

And it should be noted that from the formular

eqtn 3
And 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 = Gaussians’ Surface area of the
sphere (which was chosen)

From the formula: it means that if we can

determine how many flux lines cut a given surface
If we count the number of E or D lines existing in a area, we can determine charge enclosed within
closed surface, This should give us an indication of the given surface area.
the net positive charges enclosed by the surface
This observation is gauss law and stated
By Gause Law: mathematically as :
∮𝑫̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = Q enclosed eqtn 1 ∮𝐷̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = Q enclosed eqtn4
Q enclosed = ∫ 𝑫 ̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅
𝒔
Note that the dot products in the integral Or
requires that we obtain the component of 𝑫 ̅ that
is perpendicular to the surface. For volumes:
̅
Q enclosed = ∫𝒗 𝒑𝒗 𝒅𝒗
Since the E and D fields emanate radially a way
from the point charge, they will be perpendicular to
the chosen spherical surface. Deriving the Maxwells equation fom Gauss law
Hence the dot product is not needed and the Gauss From Gauss divergent :
law reduces to : Ψ=∫ 𝐷 ̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = Q enclosed
𝑠

Q = ∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣̅ = ∫𝑣 (𝛻. 𝐷) 𝑑𝑣
∮𝑫̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ eqtn 2
Further more, The D fields has the same value at
And therefore
affixed distance from the charge, that is over the
surface. Hence the magnitude of D, can be removed ∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣̅ = ∫𝑣 (𝛻. 𝐷) 𝑑𝑣
from the integral and Gauss law simplifies for the From which it can be observed that:
judicious choice of the surface to. 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝑝𝑣 (this is known as Maxswell’s 1st
equation in point or differential form)
𝑫 ∮ 𝒅𝒔 = Q eqtn 3 Q=∫ 𝐷 ̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅, (this is known as Maxswell’s
𝑠
And from this eqtn 4 equation in integral form).
∮ 𝒅𝒔 = 4𝝅𝒓𝟐 (Area of The Gaussian surface
chosen) Gauss’ Law - state that the total Electric flux
And thus D 4𝝅𝒓𝟐 = Q passing through an enclosed surface is equal to
𝑸
Giving : D= 𝒂𝟏𝟐 eqtn 5 the total charge enclosed by that surface
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐

But the relationship between D and E is such

that: Assumptions of Gauss law:
𝜺𝟎 𝑬 = 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 D Calculations of electric Field for charge
D = 𝜺𝟎 𝑬 C/𝑚2 eqtn 6 distribution

And Therefore: The power of Gauss laws lies in the fact that we
𝑸 can choose the surface over which it is evaluated.
𝜀𝐸 = D =
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 In all such problems, we should attempt to chose
the surface such that:
𝑸𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅
So that E = V/m eqn 7 1. The D and E field lines are perpendicular
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
That is the formula for E by Gauss Law to the surface
2. The D and E field lines are constants
Where: over that surface
Q enclosed = Flux density x Area of Gaussian The first condition means that the dot product from
Surface the integral leaving. ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ = Q enclosed
From before: we established that :
𝑸
E= 𝒂𝟏𝟐 V/m eqtn 1
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

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And the second condition means that D is
independent of the position on the surface and
hence can be removed from the integral leaving
𝑫 ∮ 𝒅𝒔 = Q enclosed
The first condition, choosing the surface so that the
D and E are everywhere on the surface
perpendicular to it is a necessary first step. If this
cannot be done, then Gauss law will not provide Example:
Determine the electric field about an infinite line
computational simplifications
charge bearing a uniform line charge
If coulombs law had depended on distance to any distribution 𝑷𝒍 Using Gauss law.
Sln
power other than 2.oo, Gauss law would not have
occurred. For example, redoing Gauss law using An infinite line charge bearing a charge distribution
that is uniformly distributed along it will have, by
Normal integration, we have:
̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ symmetry, an electric field that is directed radially
∮𝑫
𝑸 a way from the line as illustrated below.
=∮ 𝒅𝒔̅
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝟐
But 𝒅𝒔̅ = 𝒓 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅Ф
𝑸
∮ 𝒓𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅Ф
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝑸
=∮ 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅
𝟒𝝅
2𝜋 𝜋 Using symmetry to determine that the electric field
𝑸
= ∫ 𝑑Ф ∫ 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽 intensity vector must be radially directed a way
𝟒𝝅 from the line charge
Ф=0 𝜃=0
𝑸 2𝜋 2𝜋 In order to take advantage of this symmetry,
= ∫ 𝑑Ф [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃] 0
𝟒𝝅 Ф=0 observation we choose the Gaussian surface as a
𝟐𝑸 2𝜋 𝑸
= [Ф]0 = 2𝜋 cylinder of radius r centred on the surface as shown
𝟒𝝅 𝟐𝝅
=Q below.
Therefore if the electric field had not been an
inverse square law, this would not result. So the
inverse square dependence is a fundamental
dependence in electromagnet (and many other
physical law)

CHARGE DISTRIBUTION FOR LINE

CHARGE, SURFACE AND VOLUME The length of the cylinder will be chosen as L over
When there is discrete system of charge, the the ends of the cylinder, the field is parallel to these
electric field intensity is given by: surfaces since the line is infinite in length and
𝑸 contributes nothing to Gauss’ law. Over the sides
E= 𝒂𝟏
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝑹𝟐 of the cylinder, the field is perpendicular to it and
When there is a continuous charge distribution, the hence the dot product in Gauss’ law may be
value of Q has to be replaced by integration removed.
depending on Q configuration Further, Over this constant radius surface, the field
We have the charge distribution for: is constant, so that Gauss’ law reduces
a) Point charge ∮𝑫 ̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ = Q enclosed
b) Line Charge = D 2𝝅𝒓𝑳
c) Surface charge The total charge enclosed by the surface is given
d) Volume charge by:
Q enclosed = 𝑷𝒍 𝑳
a)Point charge – A point charge is an electrical D 2𝝅𝒓𝒍 = 𝑷𝒍 𝒍
charge regarded as Q, concentrated in a 𝑃𝑙 𝑙 𝑃𝑙
D= =
mathematical point, without spatial extent (Q = It) 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 2𝜋𝑟
𝑷𝒍
𝜺𝟎 𝑬 = 𝒂𝒓
𝟐𝝅𝒓
b)Charge distribution for an infinite line charge 𝑷𝒍
𝑬= 𝒂𝒓
Infinite Line charge – This are the charges 𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

superimposed on infinity line. Where we assume that the material surrounding the
The symbol 𝒑𝒍 stands for line charge line charge has permittivity 𝜀

Alternatively,
By integration method

11 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

Line charge is the quantity of charge per unit line 𝟏
But = Cos 𝜽
𝑺𝒆𝒄𝜽
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳
𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟 0
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳
𝑬𝝆 = [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃]𝟐0
𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟
𝑷𝒍 𝑳
𝑬𝝆 =
𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟

Example
Find D and E in the region a bout uniform line
𝜹 𝑬𝝆 = 𝜹ECos∅ charge of 8n C/m lying along the Z plane at 3m
Sln
𝑬𝝆 = ECos∅
𝑸
For a uniform line charge:
But E = 𝑃𝑙 8 𝑥10−9
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝑹𝟐 i) D= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟒𝒂𝒓 C/𝒎𝟐
2𝜋𝑟 2𝑥𝜋𝑥3
For line , Q enclosed = 𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ii) D = 𝜀𝐸
𝐷 0.424
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 And E = = = 47.9𝒂𝒓 V/m
𝑬𝝆 = 𝜀 8.85 𝑥10−12
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 𝑹 𝟐 Cos∅
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ∞ 𝜹𝒛
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝐂𝐨𝐬∅ c)Charge distribution for infinite surface charge
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 −∞ 𝑹𝟐
Now 𝜹𝑳 = 𝜹𝒛
𝟏
R = L = [𝒓𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐
Thus
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ∞ 𝜹𝒛
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝐂𝐨𝐬∅
𝟒𝝅𝜀𝑟 𝜺𝟎 −∞ 𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐
𝒓 𝒓
But : 𝐂𝐨𝐬∅ = = 𝟏
𝑹
[𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐
Hence the equation changes To:
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ∞ 𝜹𝒛 𝒓 Surface distribution – is the quantity of charge
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝐱 𝟏 distributed in the surface.
𝟒𝝅𝜀 −∞ 𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐
[𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ∞ 𝒓𝜹𝒛
It is also the electrical potential difference between
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝟑 the inner and the outer surface of the dispersed
𝟒𝝅𝜀 −∞
[𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐
+𝑎 𝑎
space in a coil.
Note: ∫−𝑎 = 2 ∫0 (𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦) 𝐩𝐬 stands for surface charge
𝟐𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ∞ 𝒓𝜹𝒛
𝑬𝝆 = ∫0 𝟑
𝟒𝝅𝜀
[𝒓𝟐 +𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐 𝛿Q = 𝑝𝑠 ds
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 ∞ 𝒓𝜹𝒛
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝟑 Charge enclosed in asurface Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝟐𝝅𝜀 0
[𝒓 +𝒛𝟐 ]𝟐
𝟐
Q = 𝑷𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝑳
Let z = rtan𝜽
𝒅𝒛
= r𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽
𝒅𝜽
dz = r𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽 Example
tan𝜽 = 0 Determine the electric field outside within an
∞ = rtan𝜽 infinitely long cylinder of radius a that bears a
∞
= 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 surface charge distribution 𝐏𝐬 C/𝐦𝟐 that is
𝒓
uniformly distributed both a long the cylinder
𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝒙 length and a round the cylinder periphery
∞= Sln
𝟐
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝒓.𝐫𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝜀 0
[𝒓𝟐 +(𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽)𝟐 ]𝟐
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝟐
𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝜀 0
[𝒓𝟐 +𝒓𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽]𝟐
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝟐
𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝜀 0 𝟑 𝟐
𝟐𝒙
𝒓 𝟐 [𝟏+𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽]
𝟐 𝟐
Let 𝟏 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝜀 0 𝟑 𝟐
𝒓
𝟐𝒙𝟐
[𝟏+𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽] We observe that because of symmetry, the cylinder
𝑷𝒍 𝑳
𝒙
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽 is infinitely long and the charge is uniformly
𝑬𝝆 = 𝟐 ∫ distributed along its length and around periphery)
𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟 0 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟑 𝜽
𝒙
𝑷𝒍 𝑳 𝟐 𝒅𝜽 the electric field is radially directed.
𝑬𝝆 = ∫
𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟 0 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝜽

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We choose a Gaussian surface to be a cylinder of dy = x𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝒙
length L and radius r and centre it on the axis of the ∞=
𝟐
charged cylinder as illustrated in the figure above. 𝑷𝒔
𝒙
𝒙.𝒙 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
A gain the fields are parallel to the ends of the 𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐
𝝅𝜀 0 𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝒙
cylinder but perpendicular to the surface. Hence 𝑷𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝟐
Gauss law reduces to: 𝝅𝜀 0 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽
𝒙
̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ = Q enclosed 𝑷𝒔
∮𝑫 𝑬𝝆 = ∫𝟐 𝒅𝜽
𝝅𝜀 0
= D 2𝝅𝒓𝑳 𝑷𝒔
𝒙
𝟐
So that the charge enclosed is: 𝑬𝝆 = [𝜃]0
𝝅𝜀
Q enclosed = 𝑷𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝑳 𝑷𝒔
𝑬𝝆 =
𝟐𝝅𝜀
So that:
D 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 = 𝑃𝑠 2𝜋𝑎𝐿
𝑃𝑠 2𝜋𝑎𝐿 𝑃𝑠 𝑎 d)Charge distribution due to Continious volume
D= = 𝑎𝑟 charge
2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝑟
𝑃𝑠 𝑎
𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝑎𝑟
𝑟
𝑷𝒔 𝒂
E= 𝒂𝒓 and r > 𝒂
𝜺𝟎 𝒓
For points interior to the cylinder of charges, there
are electric flux lines on the interior and hence no
charge is enclosed by Gaussian surface, and hence
the field is Zero
E = 0 and r< a Volume charge – is the quantity of unit charge per
unit volume
Alternatively 𝒑𝒗 stands for volume charge
Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑝𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋
= ∫0 ∫0 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 2
= ∫0 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎
= 2𝑝𝑣 ∫0 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 𝑑𝑟
𝑎 2
= 4𝜋𝑝𝑣 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝒂
𝑟3
= 4𝜋𝑝𝑣 [ ]
3 0
4𝜋𝑝𝑣 𝑎3
=
3
By integration
𝑝𝑙 = 𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑦 Charge distribution for Coaxial Cable
𝜹 𝑬𝝆 = 𝜹ECos∅ Example.
𝑬𝝆 = ECos∅ A coaxial transmission line consists of two
+𝑎 𝑎 concentric cylinders shown in the figure below.
Note: ∫−𝑎 = 2 ∫0 (𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦)
∞ 𝑃𝑙 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉𝐝𝐥 This is a common structure used to guide EM
𝑬𝝆 = 2 ∫0 waves from one point to the other. The inner
𝟐𝝅𝜀𝑟
cylinder has radius a and the outer cylinder has
𝑃𝑙 ∞ 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ the radius b. Determine the electric field
𝝅𝜀 0 𝑟
But 𝑝𝑙 = 𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑦 between the cylinder.
𝑃𝑠 ∞ 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉𝑑𝑦
𝑬𝝆 = ∫
𝝅𝜀 0 𝑟
𝟏
R = r = [𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ]𝟐
Thus
z=x
𝒙 𝒙
But : 𝐂𝐨𝐬∅ = =
𝒛 𝒓
Hence the equation changes To:
𝑃𝑠 ∞ 𝐱 𝑑𝑦
𝑬𝝆 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑥𝑟
𝝅𝜀 0
𝑃𝑠 ∞ 𝐱 𝑑𝑦 Determine the electric field for a coaxial cable
𝑬𝝆 = ∫
𝝅𝜀 0 𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 Sln

Let y = xtan𝜽
𝒅𝒚
= x𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽
𝒅𝜽

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 a) Find the charge densities on each
conductor
b) The E and D fields

Sln
a)For coaxial cable:
We begin by finding the charge density on the inner
cylinder.
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙 30 𝑥 10−9
Charge density 𝜌𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 = =
Surface the inner cylinder has a surface charge 2𝜋𝑎𝐿 2𝜋(10−2 )(0.5)
𝟐
distribution of 𝐏𝐬 C/𝐦𝟐 that is uniformly = 𝟗. 𝟓𝟓𝝁𝑪/𝒎
distributed along its length and around its The negative charge on the inner surface of the
periphery. The outer cylinder has the same total outer cylinder (Equal but opposite) is
charge as the inner cylinder distributed over its 𝑄 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙 −30 𝑥 10−9
Charge density 𝜌𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 = =
2𝜋𝑎𝐿 2𝜋(4 𝑥10−3 )(0.5)
inner surface. But is of opposite polarity. (the 𝟐
distribution are different but those are uniform = −𝟐. 𝟑𝟗𝝁𝑪/𝒎
around the inner and outer peripheries)
Both cylinders are considered infinite in length. c) Internal field may be calculated easily:
Because of the uniform charge distribution and For Coaxial cable:
infinite length of the cylinder is the electric fields
𝑃𝑠 𝑎 9.55 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 (0.001) 𝟗.𝟓𝟓
will radially directed from the inner cylinder D = = = n 𝑪/𝒎𝟐
𝑟 𝑟 𝒓
towards the outer cylinder we enclose the inner 𝐷 9.55 𝑥 10−9 𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟗
And E = = = V/m
cylinder with a cylindrical Gaussian surface of 𝜀 8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 𝑟 𝒓
radius r. Where r in this case is the radius of the Gaussian
The electric fields will be perpendicular to the sides surface
of the Gaussian surface and parallel to the ends
surface. Both of the expressions apply to the region
where 1 < r < 4mm and Note that for A coaxial
̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = ∮ 𝑫 𝒅𝒔̅ = 𝑫 ∮ 𝒅𝒔̅ =Q enclosed
∮𝑫 Cable For r < 1mm or r > 4mm, E and D are
Hence Q enclosed = 𝑫 ∮ 𝒅𝒔̅ = D2𝝅𝒓𝒍 Zero
And Q enclosed = D2𝝅𝒓𝒍 = 𝐏𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝒍
D2𝝅𝒓𝒍 = 𝐏𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝒍
𝑷𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒂𝒍 𝑃𝑠 𝑎 Example
D= = 𝑎12 Determine the electric field of an infinite plane
𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒍 𝑟
𝑃𝑠 𝑎
𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝑎12 of charge that is uniformly distributed over its
𝑟
𝑷𝒔 𝒂 surface using Gauss’ law.
E= 𝒂𝟏𝟐 and 𝒂 <r < 𝒃
𝜺𝟎 𝒓
The electric field inside the inner cylinder is zero Sln
since a cylindrical Gaussian surface inside the We place the plane of the charge in the xz plane.
cylinder will contain no charge, since there are no Once again, we observe that because of the infinite
electric flux line within it extent of the plane and the uniform distribution of
charge over it, the electric field will be
𝐸̅ = 0 r< 𝑎 perpendicular to its surface.
Observe also that the electric field outside the cable Suppose that distribution is 𝐏𝐬 C/𝐦𝟐 , since the
is also zero, since the total charge enclosed by fields will be perpendicular to the surface, an
cylindrical Gaussian surface surrounding both appropriate choice of the Gaussian surface is a
cylinders is Zero. rectangular surface extending to the right and to the
This is the reason for using such a cable: The left of the plane.. The electric field will be parallel
exterior is ‘’shielded ‘’ from the fields interior to to the sides of the rectangular Gaussian surfaces
the cable. Coaxial cable is therefore known as the and contribute nothing there but will be
shielded cable. perpendicular to the front and back surface. Hence
Gauss law becomes.
∮𝑫 ̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = 𝑫 ∮ 𝑫
Example = 2DA
A 50cm length coaxial cable has an inner radius Where the front and back surface have area A. The
of 1mm and an outer radius of 4mm. The space total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is
between conductors is assumed to be filled with Q enclosed = 𝐏𝐬 A
air. Q enclosed = 2DA = 𝐏𝐬 A
The total charge on the inner conductor is 30nC. 𝐏𝐬 𝐀
D=
2𝐴

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 𝑃𝑠
𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝑎𝑦
𝑟
𝑃𝑠𝑎
E= 𝑎 and y>0
2𝜀0 𝑟 𝑦
−𝑷 𝒂
E = 𝒔 𝒂𝒚 y< 𝟎
𝟐𝜺 𝒓
𝟎

ELECTRIC FLUX (𝜳) and ELECTRIC FLUX

DENSITY ( D )

a)Electric flux (Ψ) -

According to Faraday, Electric flux (Ψ) is equal to
the total charge (Q) enclosed by a surface.
Ψ=Q
Hence it is measured in Coulomb (C) ∮𝐷̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = 𝐷 ∮ 𝑑𝑠̅
= D 4𝜋𝑟 2
c)Electric flux Density (D) – Is total flux per unit Q enclosed = Ps 4𝜋𝑎2
surface area. D 4𝜋𝑟 2 =Ps 4𝜋𝑎2
𝑸 Ps 4𝜋𝑎2
Hence, D = C/𝒎𝟐 D=
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝚿 𝐐 Ps 𝑎 2
D= = D=
𝑨 𝑨 𝑟2
Where : Ψ = Electric flux 𝜀0 𝐸 =
𝐏𝐬 𝒂𝟐
Q =Quantity of charge 𝒓𝟐
𝐏𝐬 𝒂𝟐
A = Area 𝑬= 𝒂𝒓 r > a
𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
Its SI unit is Coulomb per squared metre (C/𝒎𝟐 )
d)Charge distribution for Volume
NOTE: D is also known as electric displacement
a)For line charge Example
D = 𝜀𝐸 Determine using Gauss’ law, the electric field
𝑃𝑙 𝐿 𝑃𝑙 𝐿
D=𝜀 = due to sphere of charge of radius a where the
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
charge is uniformly distributed throughout the
b)For surface charge sphere with volume charge distribution 𝑷𝒗
D = 𝜀𝐸 C/𝒎𝟑 ,.
𝑃𝑠 𝑃𝑠
D=𝜀 =
2𝜋𝜀 2𝜋

NOTE: When calculated as shown above, It is

known as Charge density 𝝆𝒔 if for area or 𝝆𝑽 if for
Volume
𝑸 𝑸
Hence 𝝆𝒔= or 𝝆𝑽 =
𝑺.𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
Note That Gauss law is useful to obtain the E in
case of complex problems in electrostatics.

Quick review Questions In this case: when r > a

Example ̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = 𝐷 ∮ 𝑑𝑠̅
∮𝐷
Determine, using Gauss’ law, the electric field
= D 4𝜋𝑟 2
due to a sphere of charge of radius a where the 4
charge is uniformly distributed over the sphere Q enclosed = Pv 𝜋𝑎3
3
surface with distribution of 𝑷𝒔 C/𝒎𝟐 ,. Hence,
4
Sln D 4𝜋𝑟 2 = Pv 𝜋𝑎3
3

4
Pv 𝜋𝑎3 Pv 𝑎 3
3
And D = ==
4𝜋𝑟 2 3𝑟 2
𝟒
𝐏𝐯 𝝅𝒂𝟑 𝐏𝐯 𝒂𝟑
𝟑
E= = 𝒂𝒓 r > a
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝟑𝜺𝒓𝟐

ii) When r < 𝒂

̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = 𝐷 ∮ 𝑑𝑠̅
∮𝐷
= D 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝑟 3
Q enclosed = 𝑝𝑣
3

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Hence, 𝑑
2 4𝜋𝑟 3 𝑑𝑥 𝟔𝐱𝐲𝐢
D 4𝜋𝑟 = 𝑝𝑣 𝑑
4
3 = 𝑑𝑦 . ( 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝐣 )
Pv 𝜋𝑎3 Pv 𝑎 3
And D = 3
4𝜋𝑟 2
=
3𝑟 2
𝑑 0
𝟒 [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
𝐏𝐯 𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝐏𝐯 𝒓
𝟑 = 6y + 0 + 0
E= = 𝒂𝒓 r < a
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓𝟐 𝟑𝜺
𝑝𝑣 = 6y
GAUSS’S LAW DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME
ii) rSin∅𝒂𝒓 + rCos∅𝒂∅ + 𝟑𝒛𝟐 𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟐
sln
p=r
Cylindrical or spherical
1 𝑑 1 𝑑𝐴∅ 𝑑𝐴𝑍
∇ . A = ( ) 𝑝𝑑𝑝 + ( )+ in cylindrical
𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑑 1 1
∇.A= (𝑟 2 𝐴𝑟) + (𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝐴∅)
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑟𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1 ∅
+ (𝐴∅) in spherical
𝑟𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃

Example
Find the approximate value for the total charge
in an incremental volume of 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟑 located at
A differential –sized Gaussian surface about the the origin given that:
point p is used to investigate the space rate of D =𝒆−𝒙 siny𝒂𝒙 - 𝒆−𝒙 Cosy𝒂𝒚 +2z𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟐
change of D in the neighbourhood of p Sln
𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑑 = ( ∇ . D) x 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆v
In differential form, the integral of Electric flux 𝑑
density D gives the total charge enclosed in an 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
𝑑
incremental volume: = 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 ) 𝑥 ∆v
∮ 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑸𝒆𝒄𝒍𝒅 = ( 𝛁 . D) x 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 ∆v 𝑑
𝑎𝑧
Where ∆v = incremental volume [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
𝑑
So: 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 siny
𝑑
∇. 𝐷 = 𝑝𝑣 (this is known as Maxswell’s 1st = 𝑑𝑦 . (− 𝑒 −𝑥 Cosy) 𝑥10−9
equation in point or differential form) 𝑑 2z
[( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
𝒅 = [− 𝑒 −𝑥 siny + (−𝑒 −𝑥 (−siny )) + 2]𝑥10−9
𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒙 = [− 𝑒 −𝑥 siny + 𝑒 −𝑥 siny + 2]𝑥10−9
𝒅 At the origin, the first two expressions are Zero
Div D = . D = . (𝒂 𝒚 )
𝒅𝒚 [ 2]𝑥10−9 = 2nC
𝒅
𝒂𝒛
( 𝒅𝒛) Example
𝒅 𝒅 𝒅 The electric flux density in an electric field is
= 𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛 𝒂𝒛 given by
𝒅𝒚
D = (2𝒚𝟐 +)𝒂𝒛 + 4xy𝒂𝒚 + x𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟐 . Determine
Where F is a vector function F(x,y,z) the volume charge density at a point (-1,0,3)
(4mks)
Example Sln
Determine the charge density due to each of the Volume charge density 𝑝𝑣 = ( . D)
following electric flux density 𝑑
i)D = 6xyi + 𝟒𝒙𝟐 j C/𝒎𝟐 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
𝑑
ii) rSin∅𝒂𝒓 + rCos∅𝒂∅ + 𝟑𝒛𝟐 𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟐 = 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 )
𝑑
𝑎𝑧
sln [(𝑑𝑧 ) ]
𝑑
i)D = 6xyi + 𝟒𝒙𝟐 j C/𝒎𝟐
𝑑𝑥 𝟐𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛
𝑝𝑣 = ( ∇ . D) 𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑦 . ( 4𝑥𝑦 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥 𝑑 𝑥
𝑑 [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
= 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 )
𝑎𝑧 = 0 + 4x + 0
𝑑
[( 𝑑𝑧 ) ] And at point (-1,0,3)
𝑝𝑣 = 0 (-1) + 4(0) + 3(0) = 0

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 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
𝑑
Example = 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 )
Given the electric flux density 𝑑
𝑎𝑧
D = 2xy𝒂𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒂𝒚 + 𝟔𝒛𝟑 𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟑 . Use Gauss’ [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
𝑑
law to evaluate the total charge enclosed in the
𝑑𝑥 𝟖𝐱𝐲𝒛𝟒
volume 0< x,y,z<a . Find the derivative at 𝑑
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
p( , , ) = 𝑑𝑦 . ( 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝒛𝟒 )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑑 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒛𝟑
[( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
Sln = [8𝑦𝑧 4 + 48𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 ]
𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑑 = ( ∇ . D) x 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆v 0+2 1+3
𝑑 Point p ( , , 2) = p (1,2,2)
2 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥 = [8(2)(2)4 + 48(1)2 (2)(2)2 ]
𝑑
= 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 ) 𝑥 ∆v = [256 + 384 ] = 1024
𝑑
𝑎𝑧
[( 𝑑𝑧 ) ] 𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑑 = ( ∇ . D) x 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆v
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝟐𝐱𝐲 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑦 . ( 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝑥 𝑎3 = 𝑑𝑦 . (𝑎𝑦 ) 𝑥 10−9
𝑑 𝟔𝒛𝟑 𝑑
𝑎𝑧
[( 𝑑𝑧 ) ] [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
= [2𝑦 + 18𝑧 2 ]𝑥 𝑎3 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝟖𝐱𝐲𝒛𝟒
At the center P, Find the Coordinates as follows 𝑑
P(
0+𝑎
,
0+𝑎 0+𝑎
, ) = 𝑑𝑦 . ( 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝒛𝟒 ) 𝑥 10−9
2 2 2
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 𝑑 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒛𝟑
And at p( , , ) [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒂
Q = [𝟐( ) + 𝟏𝟖( )𝟐 ] 𝑥 𝑎3
𝒂
= [8𝑦𝑧 4 + 48𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 ]
𝟐 𝟐
At Point p (2,-1,3)
Q = [𝐚 + 𝟒. 𝟓(𝒂) ]𝑥 𝑎3 𝟐
= [8(−1)(3)4 + 48(2)2 (−1)(3)2 ]
= [−648 − 1728 ] = 2376 𝑥 10−9 x 10−12
Q = 𝒂𝟑 + 𝟒. 𝟓𝒂𝟓 closed
= 2.38 𝑥 10−21 C

NOTE:
Gauss law is means of analysing E and D in
asymmetrical charge distribution. For such
conditions, we construct mathematical closed
surface (model) known as Gaussian surface

a)For appoint charge

∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Example Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝐷𝑑𝑠
Given that: But 𝒅𝒔̅ = 𝒓𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅Фdr
D = 8xy𝒛𝟒 𝒂𝒙 + 4𝒙𝟐 𝒛𝟒 𝒂𝒚 + 16𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒛𝟑 𝒂𝒚 pC/𝒎𝟐 . And we consider r as constant
∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Find; Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝐷𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅
a)Find the total electric flux passing through the ∅=2𝜋
Q = 𝐷𝑟 2 ∫0 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 𝑑∅
rectangular surface 0<x<2, 1<y<3, and z = 2 in
∅=2𝜋
the 𝒂𝒛 direction. Q = 𝐷𝑟 2 𝑥 2 ∫0 𝑑∅
b)Find E at p(2,-1,3) ∅=2𝜋
Q= 𝐷𝑟 2 𝑥 2 ∫0 𝑑∅
c)Find an approximate value for the total charge 2 [∅]𝟐𝝅
Q= 2𝐷𝑟 0
contained in an incremental sphere located at 2
Q = 4𝐷𝜋𝑟
p(2,-1,3) and having a volume of 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝟑 𝑸
Hence D = 𝒂𝒓
4𝜋𝑟 2
Sln
Note: Divergence merely tells us how much flux is b)For infinite line charge
leaving a small volume on a per-unit volume. Q = ∫ 𝐷 ds
𝑄𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑑 = ( ∇ . D) x 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∆v Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑙 𝐿 dl
Refer to the figure below

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 4𝜋𝑝𝑣 𝑎3
D4𝜋𝑟 2 =
3
Dvividing by 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝑝𝑣 𝑎3 𝑝𝑣 𝑎3
D= =
3 𝑥4𝜋𝑟 2 3 𝑟2
Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3
when r<a when r =a When r>a
𝑝𝑣 𝑟 𝑎𝑝𝑣 𝑟
𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑣 𝑎3
3 3 𝑎
3 𝑟2 𝑟

Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑝 𝑑𝑠 dl
𝐿 𝜃=2𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝐷𝑝 𝑑𝑠𝑝
But 𝒅𝒔̅ = 𝒅∅𝒅𝒛
𝐿 𝜃=2𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝐷𝑝 𝑃𝑑𝑠
𝐿 ∅=2𝜋
Q= 𝐷𝑝 𝑃 ∫0 ∫0 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
𝐿 𝟐𝝅 Example
Q= 𝐷𝑝 𝑃 ∫0 [∅]0 𝑑𝑧
Aspherical volume of radius R has avolume
Q= 𝐷𝑝 𝑃2𝜋[𝑧]𝑳0
charge density 𝒑𝒗 = kr where r is the radial
Q= 𝐷𝑝 𝑃2𝜋[𝑧]𝑳0
distance and k is the constant. Find the
Q = 𝐷𝑝 2𝜋𝑝𝐿 expression for E in the region
But Q = 𝑝𝑙 𝐿 0≤ 𝒓 ≤ ∞
𝐷𝑝 2𝜋𝑝𝐿 = 𝑝𝑙 𝐿
𝑝𝑙
Hence 𝐷𝑝 = Sln
2𝜋𝑝
c)For infinite sheet of charge Charge enclosed Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Q = ∫ 𝐷 ds And
Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑠 ds 𝒑𝒗 = kr
dv = 𝒓𝟐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑝𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 (𝑘𝑟)𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋𝑘
D4𝜋𝑟 2 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑘𝑟 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟

𝑎 ∅=2𝜋
= 𝑘 ∫0 ∫0 𝑟 3 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 3
= 2𝑘 ∫0 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑎
ds = A = 2𝑘 ∫0 𝑟 3 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 𝑑𝑟
Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑠 A =
𝑎 3
4𝜋𝑘 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑝𝑠 𝐴 = 𝐷𝑠 [2𝐴] 𝒂
𝑟4
So that = 4𝜋𝑘 [ ]
4 0
𝐷𝑠 [2𝐴] = 𝑝𝑠 𝐴 4𝜋𝑘𝑎4
𝑝 =
𝐷𝑠 = 𝑠 4
2
D4𝜋𝑟 2 = 4𝜋𝑘𝑎4
𝑘𝑎4
D=
4𝑟 2

e)Flux density for uniformly charged sphere Condition 1

Q = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣 r <a
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋 𝑘𝑟 4 𝑘𝑟 2
Q = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑝𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 D= =
4𝑟 2 4
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋
= ∫0 ∫0 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 But D = 𝜀 E
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 2 𝑘𝑟 2
= ∫0 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 𝜀E=
4
𝑎 𝑘𝑟 2
= 2𝑝𝑣 ∫0 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 𝑑𝑟 E=
4𝜀
𝑎 2
= 4𝜋𝑝𝑣 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝒂 Condition 2
𝑟3
= 4𝜋𝑝𝑣 [ ]
3 0 r=a
4𝜋𝑝𝑣 𝑎3 𝑘𝑟 4 𝑘𝑎4 𝑘𝑎2
= D= = =
3 4𝑟 2 4𝑎2 4
Conditions But D = 𝜀 E

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 𝑘𝑎2 𝒑𝒗 = -𝒑𝟎 0≤ 𝒓 ≤ 𝒂
𝜀E=
4 =0 r>0
𝑘𝑎2
E= Sln
4𝜀
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Condition 3 D4𝜋𝑟 2 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 −𝒑𝒐 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
r>a
𝑘𝑟 4 𝑘𝑎4 𝑎 ∅=2𝜋
D= = = −𝒑𝒐 ∫0 ∫0 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 𝑟 2 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
4𝑟 2 4𝑟 2
But D = 𝜀 E =−2𝒑𝒐 ∫0 ∫0
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 2
𝑟 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝑘𝑎4
𝜀E= 𝑎
𝑟 2 [∅]𝟐𝝅
−2𝒑𝒐 ∫0
4𝑟 2 = 0 𝑑𝑟
𝑘𝑎4 𝑎 2
E= = −4𝜋𝒑𝒐 ∫0 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
4𝜀𝑟 2
𝒂
Example 𝑟3
D4𝜋𝑟 2 = −4𝜋𝒑𝒐 [ ]
In a spherical co-ordinates system, the volume 3 0
𝟑 𝑎3
𝐫 𝟐 D4𝜋𝑟 2 = −4𝜋𝒑𝒐
charge density 𝐩𝐯 = 𝐩𝐨 ( ) C/𝐜𝐦𝟑 . 3
𝐚 −𝒑𝒐 𝑎3
a)How much charge lies in the sphere of radius D=
3𝑟 2
r=a
sln At r > a (eg remains)
Charge enclosed Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣 −𝒑𝒐 𝑎3
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
3𝜀𝑟 2
And
𝟑 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝒓 𝟐 At r < a
𝒑𝒗 = 𝒑𝒐 ( ) −𝑝 𝑟
𝒂
𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 0
dv = 𝒓𝟐 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 3𝜀
𝟑
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋 𝒓 𝟐
D4𝜋𝑟 2 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝒑𝒐 ( ) 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 Example
𝒂
Using Gauss law in integral form, obtain the
𝟑 electric field at all points due to the following
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝒓
= 𝒑𝒐 ∫0 ∫0 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝝅0 ( )𝟐 𝑟 2 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟 charge distribution in cylindrical coordinates
𝒂
𝐫
𝑎 ∅=2𝜋
𝟑
𝒓 𝟐
𝒑𝒐 (𝒓, ∅, 𝒛) = 𝐩𝐨 0≤ 𝒓 ≤ ∞
𝐚
=2𝒑𝒐 ∫0 ∫0 ( ) 𝑟 2 𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
𝒂 a≤ 𝒓 ≤ ∞
=0
𝟕
𝑎 𝑟𝟐 Sln
= 2𝒑𝒐 ∫0 𝟑 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 𝑑𝑟
𝑎𝟐
Charge enclosed Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 𝑟𝟐
𝟕 ds = 𝒓𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
= 4𝜋𝒑𝒐 ∫0 𝟑 𝑑𝑟 ℎ ∅=2𝜋
𝑎𝟐
Q = ∫0 ∫0 𝑫𝒓𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
𝟗 𝒂 ℎ
𝑟𝟐 = 𝐷𝑟 ∫0 [∅]𝟐𝝅
0 𝑑𝑧
= 4𝜋𝒑𝒐 [ 𝟑 ] 𝑎
𝑎𝟐 0 = 2𝜋𝐷𝑟 ∫0 𝑑𝑧
9
𝑎2 𝑎3 = 2𝜋𝐷𝑟[𝑧]𝒉0
= 4𝜋𝑝𝑜 9 3 = 8𝜋𝑝𝑜
𝑎2
9 = 2𝜋𝐷𝑟ℎ
2
𝑎3 But D = 𝜀 E
D4𝜋𝑟 2 = 8𝜋𝑝𝑜 = 2𝜋 𝜀 𝐸𝑟ℎ
9
𝑎3 = 2𝜋 𝜀 𝐸𝑟ℎ
D = 2𝑝𝑜
9𝑟 2
2𝑝𝑜 𝑎3
D= Again
9𝑟 2
Charge enclosed Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣
ds = 𝒓𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
b)Find the electric flux density at r = a ℎ ∅=2𝜋 𝒂 𝐫
Q = ∫0 ∫0 ∫𝟎 𝐩𝐨 𝐚 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
Sln
ℎ ∅=2𝜋 𝒂 𝐩𝐨 𝒓𝟐
But r = a = ∫0 ∫0 ∫𝟎 𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
𝐚
2𝑝𝑜 𝑎3 2𝑝𝑜 𝑎3 2𝑝𝑜 𝑎 ℎ ∅=2𝜋 𝑝𝑜 𝑟 3
𝒂
D= = = = ∫0 ∫0 [ ] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
9𝑟 2 9(𝑎)2 9 3𝑎 0
D = 𝜺𝑬 ℎ 𝑝𝑜 𝑎3 𝟐𝝅
2𝑝𝑜 𝑎 = ∫0 3𝑎 [∅]0 dz
E=
9𝜀 𝑝 𝑎3 𝑎
= 2𝜋 𝑜 ∫0 𝑑𝑧
3𝑎
𝑝𝑜 𝑟 2
= 2𝜋 [𝑧]𝒉0
3
2𝜋𝑝𝑜 𝑎2 ℎ
Example =
3
Determine the electric field to aspherical cloud So that:
giving the volume charge density 2𝜋𝑝𝑜 𝑎2 ℎ
2𝜋 𝜀 𝐸𝑟ℎ =
3

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 𝑝𝑜 𝑎2 𝑄
𝐸= V=
3𝜀𝑟 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟−𝑟 1 |

Condition 1 -For discard system of charges:

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄𝑛
r <a V = 1 | + 2 | + 3 |……...+
4𝜋𝜀|𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟3 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟𝑛 |
𝑝𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑝𝑜 𝑟
𝐸= = In summary
3𝜀𝑟 3𝜀
1 𝑄𝑖
V= ∑𝑛𝑖=1
4𝜋𝜀 |𝑟𝑖 |
Condition 2
r=a
𝑝𝑜 𝑎2 𝑝𝑜 𝑎
- For continuity of charge distribution.
𝐸= = a)for line charge
3𝜀𝑎 3𝜀
𝑃𝐿
V = ∫𝐿 𝑑𝐿
4𝜋𝜀𝑟
Condition 1
b)for surface charge
r >a 𝑃𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑝𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑝𝑜 𝑎2 V = ∫𝑠 𝑑𝐿
𝐸= = 4𝜋𝜀𝑟
3𝜀𝑟 3𝜀𝑟 c)For volume charge distribution
𝑃𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Exercise V = ∫𝑠 𝑑𝐿
4𝜋𝜀𝑟
Find electric field intensity at all points using
Gauss law in integral form: NOW REMEMBER
𝑄𝑄1
𝐩𝐨 (r,∅, 𝐳) = 0 0≤𝐫≤∞ i) F= 𝑎𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2
= 𝐩𝐨 r a≤ 𝐫 ≤ 𝐛 𝑄1
ii) E= 𝑎𝑟
=0 b≤𝐫≤∞ 4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2
𝑄1
iii) V=
4𝜋𝜀𝑅
Electric Potential
This is the work done when moving a point charge Example
from one point to another. A negative charge of magnitude 2𝝁𝑪 is situated
Work done = Force x distance in the air at the origin and two positive charges
But F = QE of 1𝝁𝑪 each are at the point y = ± 2m. find:
Where Q = charge a)E
E = electric field strength. b)Voltage at the point 4m from the origin of the
Hence, work done = QE xL x –axis.
Work done = − ∫ 𝑸𝑬 𝒅𝑳 Sln

NOTE: The negative sign indicates that the

workdone is by an external agent against the field.

Dividing both sides by Q

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
= − ∫ 𝑬 𝒅𝑳
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒(𝑄)
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
But = Voltage
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒(𝑄)
So:
𝑟
Voltage = − ∫∞ 𝐸𝑑𝐿
a) E
𝑄 𝑄1
But E = 𝑎𝑟 𝐸1 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2
So: 1 𝑄1 −2 𝑥 10−6
𝑟 𝑄 𝐸1 = 𝑥 = 9 𝑥 109 x = -1125 V/m
Voltage (V) = − ∫∞ 𝑎 𝑑𝐿 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 (16)2
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝑟 𝑄2 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 9 𝑥 109 𝑥 2
But dL = 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝐸2 = 𝐸3 = 𝑥2 = 2 𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 [√20]
𝑟 𝑄
V= − ∫∞ 𝑎 . 𝑎 𝑑𝑟 9 𝑥 103 𝑥 2 4
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝑟 𝑟 𝐸2 = 𝐸3 = 2 𝑥 = 804.98 V/m
𝑟 𝑄 [√20] √20
V= − ∫∞ 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 Total 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 = - 1125 + 804 .98 = -
𝑄 𝑟 1
V= − ∫ 𝑑𝑟 320 V/m
4𝜋𝜀 ∞ 𝑅 2
𝑄 𝑟 −2 b)Voltage at the point 4m from thr origin of the
V= − ∫ 𝑅 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀 ∞
𝑄 1 𝒓
x –axis.
V=− [ ] Sln
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 ∞
𝑄 1 1 𝑄1 −2 𝑥 10−6
V=− [ − ] 𝑉1 = = 9 𝑥 109 x = - 4500 V/m
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 ∞ 4𝜋𝜀𝑅 4
1 𝑄1 1 𝑥 10−6
But =0 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = = 9 𝑥 109 x x 2 = 4024.92
∞ 4𝜋𝜀𝑅 √20
𝑄
V= (which is a scalar quantity) 𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = -4500 + 4024.92 =-475.08
4𝜋𝜀𝑟
V/m

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Example
A positive charge point is suited at (0,2) of Exercise
magnitude 4𝝁𝑪 . Another charge of -2𝝁C is 𝒓𝟐
𝒑𝒗 = 𝒑𝟎 (1 - ) r≥ 𝒂
located at (0,-2). Find E and V at the point (0,1) 𝒂𝟐
𝒑𝒗 = 0 r≤𝒂
Find
(i) 𝑬𝒊𝒏
(ii) 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕
(iii) Show that 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 is at r = 0.745

POTENTIAL DUE TO UNIFORMLY

CHARGED LINE
In case of along uniformly charged line with
charge line density of 𝑝𝐿 we have:
𝑝
E = 𝐿 𝑎𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑟
Sln The potential difference between two points A and
For electric field intensity B is given by:
𝑎
V = − ∫𝑏 𝐸𝑑𝐿 . 𝑎𝑟
0 0 0
𝑅1 = [ − ] = [ ] = √02 + (−1)2 = 1
1 2 −1
𝑄 But dL = 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝐸1 = 1 2 𝑎 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝑅
1 𝑄1 4 𝑥 10−6
V = − ∫𝑏 𝐿 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑟
𝐸1 = 𝑥 = 9 𝑥 109 x = 36000 V/m 𝑎 𝑝𝐿
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 (1)2 V = − ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑟
And 𝑎1
𝑝𝐿
0 0 0 V= − ∫ 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀 𝑏 𝑟
𝑅2 = [ − ] = [ ] = √02 + (3)2 = 3 𝑝
1 −2 3 V= − 𝐿 [ln 𝑟]𝒂𝑏
1 𝑄1 −2 𝑥 10−6 2𝜋𝜀
𝐸2 = 𝑥 2 = 9 𝑥 109 x 2 = -2000 V/m Or
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 (3)
𝑝𝐿 𝑏
Total 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 36000 + (-2000) = 3400V/m V= 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝑎
Where : a = inner radius
For voltage V B = outer radius
𝑄1 4 𝑥 10−6
𝑉1 = = 9 𝑥 109 x = 36000 V/m
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 1
𝑄1 −2 𝑥 10−6 POTENTIAL BETWEEN TWO COAXIAL
𝑉2 = = 9 𝑥 109 x = -6000 CYLINDERS (CABLES)
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 3
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 =36000 + (-6000) = 30000 V/m From 𝑽𝑨𝑩 =
𝑝𝐿
𝑙𝑛
𝑏
………. (i)
2𝜋𝜀 𝑎
Potential between any two points specified by b and
r will be given by:
𝑝𝐿 𝑏
𝑽𝑨𝒓 = 𝑙𝑛 ………. (ii)
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟
𝑝𝐿 𝑏
From equation (i) , 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝑎
Making 𝑝𝐿 the subject, we get:
2𝜋𝜀𝑽𝑨𝑩
𝑝𝐿 = 𝑏 …….. eqtn (iii)
𝑙𝑛
𝑎
And substituting equation (iii) into (ii)
Example 2𝜋𝜀𝑽𝑨𝑩
𝑏
Two point charges of magnitude -4𝝁𝑪 and 5𝝁𝑪 𝑝𝐿 𝑏 𝑙𝑛𝑎 𝑏
𝑽𝑨𝒓 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
are located at (2,-1,3) and (0,4,-2) respectively. 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟
𝑏
𝑝𝐿 𝑏 2𝜋𝜀𝑽𝑨𝑩 𝒙 𝑙𝑛 𝑟
Find the electrical potential at (1,0,1) assuming 0 𝑽𝑨𝒓 = 𝑙𝑛 =
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑏
potential at infinity. 2𝜋𝜀 𝑥 𝑙𝑛
𝑎
𝑏
Sln 𝑝𝐿 𝑏 𝑽𝑨𝑩 𝑙𝑛 𝑟
1 2 𝑽𝑨𝒓 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑏 ….Eqtn(iv)
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑙𝑛
𝑎
|𝑟 − 𝑟1 |= |(0) − (−1)|= √12 + 12 + (−2)2 =√6
1 3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E and V
1 0
|𝑟 − 𝑟2 |=|(0) − ( 4 )|= √12 + (−4)2 + 32 UNDER MAGNETOSTATICS
1 −2 The potential difference between A and B is given
=√26 by
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = - 𝑉𝐵𝐴
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = +
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑅 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = 0
−6 −4 5
= 9 𝑥 109 x 10 [ + ]= - 5.872kV But
√6 √6

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𝑉𝐴𝐵 = - ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 At point p(14,16)
Differentiating the voltage side
𝑑𝑉 E = - ∇. 𝑉
= -E
𝑑𝐿
E= -(4x + 30y)
But
𝑑 E = - (4 x 14) – (30x16) = - 7736𝑎𝑦 V/m
=∇
𝑑𝐿
Hence ∇𝑉 = - E POISON EQUATION AND LAPLACE
E = −𝛁𝑽 EQUATION
Note: From Gauss law or Maxwell’s first equation in
The –ve sign indicate that the direction of E is point form
opposite that of V ∇. 𝐷 = 𝑝𝑣 ……….. (i)
As ∇ x 𝐸 = 0 But D = 𝜀E .……….(ii)
Replacing equation (ii) into (i)
Alternatively 𝑝
∇. 𝜀𝐸 = 𝑣 ………(iii)
𝜀
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = - 𝑉𝐵𝐴
But E = - ∇. 𝑉
𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = 0 𝑝𝑣
But ∇. (− ∇. 𝑉) =
𝜀
𝒑𝒗
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = - ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 𝛁𝟐𝑽 = (This is known as Poisson’s Equation)
𝜺

Using stokes theorem Where : 𝛁 𝟐 = is known as Laplace operator

- ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 = ∫(∇x E)ds 𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒗
𝒂)𝛁 𝟐 𝑽 = + + = 0 (in Cartesian )
- ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 =0 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒛𝟐
𝟏 𝒅 𝒑𝒅𝒗 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒗
Buf if : - ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 =0 𝒃)𝛁 𝟐 𝑽 = ( )+ ( )+ = 0 (in
𝒑 𝒅𝒑 𝒅𝒑 𝒑𝟐 𝒅∅ 𝒅𝒛𝟐
Then
Cylindrical)
∫(∇x E)ds = 0 𝟏 𝒅 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒗 𝟏 𝒅 𝒅𝒗 𝟏
But ds cant be equal to zero (0), ds≠ 0 c) 𝛁 𝟐 𝑽 = ( )+ (𝒔𝒊𝒏 )+
𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒑𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
So: 𝒅𝟐 𝒗
= 0 (in spherical)
∇ x E = 0 (Maxswell’s 2nd equation in point form 𝒅∅𝟐

And
∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 =0 (Maxswell’s 2nd equation in integral Example
form) Find an expression for a potential difference in
From the definition of potential difference terms of applied voltage given that :
𝐕 = 𝑽𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐫 = 𝐚
Differentiating the voltage side {
𝑑𝑉 𝐕 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐫 = 𝐛 (𝐟𝐨𝐫
= -E Cylindrical capacitor)
𝑑𝐿
But Sln
𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
=∇ 𝛻 2𝑉 = ( )=0
𝑑𝐿 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2
Multiplying by 𝑟 all through
Hence ∇𝑉 = - E 1 𝑑 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
𝑟2 𝑥 ( ) = 0 x 𝑟2
E = −𝛁𝑽 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
Note: ( )=0
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
∇xE=0 Integrating both side
Then 𝑑 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
∇ x (−∇ V) = 0 by vector identity ∫ 𝑑𝑟 ( 𝑑𝑟
) = ∫0
Example 1 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
=A
𝑑𝑟
The potential distribution is in the form
Dividing all through by 𝑟 2
V = 𝟏𝟎𝐲 𝟑 + 2𝐱 𝟐 . Find E at (10,0) and (14,16) 𝑑𝑣 𝐴
Sln =
𝑑𝑟 𝑟2
𝐴
E = - ∇𝑉 So that : v=∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑟2
∇𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 𝐴
……… (i)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 V=− +B
𝑟
𝑑2𝑥 2 𝑑10𝑦 3
∇𝑉 = + From the condition given:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝐴
= 4x + 30y 𝑽𝟎 = − + B …… eqtn (ii)
𝑎
At point p(10,0) 𝐴
0=− +B …… eqtn (iii)
𝑏
𝐴
E = - ∇𝑉 From equation (iii), B= ……. (iv)
𝑏
E= -(4x + 30y) And replacing eqtn (iv) into (ii)
𝐴 𝐴
E = - (4 x 10) – (30x0) = - 40𝑎𝑥 V/m 𝑽𝟎 = − +
𝑎 𝑏

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 𝐴 𝐴 A = 2𝜋𝑎ℎ
𝑽𝟎 = -
𝑏 𝑎 𝑄 −𝜀𝑉𝑜 𝐴 −𝜀𝑉𝑜 𝐴
𝐴𝑎−𝐴𝑏 𝐴(𝑎−𝑏) C= = 𝑎 = 𝑎 F
𝑽𝟎 = = 𝑉 𝑟𝑉𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏
𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏
𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏
A= ……. Eqtn (v)
𝑎−𝑏
Replacing equation (v) into
𝐴 𝐴 𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏
Example
V=− +B Note : B= = In a cylindrical coordinate, two ∅ constants are
𝑟 𝑏 (𝑎−𝑏)𝑏
𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏 located along the z-axis. Negleting fridging,
V=− +
(𝑎−𝑏)𝑟 (𝑎−𝑏)𝑏 calculate the expressions for between planes
𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑜 𝑎
V=−
(𝑎−𝑏)𝑟 (𝑎−𝑏)
+ assuming V = 100Volts for Ф = ∝
𝑉𝑜 𝑎 𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑏 V = 0 for Ф = 0
V= −
(𝑎−𝑏) (𝑎−𝑏)𝑟 Sln
𝑉𝑜 𝑎 𝑏
V= [1 − ]
(𝑎−𝑏) 𝑟

Example
Find the electric field intensity (E ) in a coaxial
capacitor given that :
𝐕 = 𝑽𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐫 = 𝐚
{
𝐕 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐫 = 𝐛 (𝐟𝐨𝐫
Cylindrical capacitor)
Find D and hence the capacitance
Sln 1 𝑑2𝑉
Coexial capacitor = cylinder 𝛻 2𝑉 = ( )=0
𝑟2 𝑑Ф2
Sln Multiplying by 𝑟 2 all through
1 𝑑 𝜌𝑑𝑣 𝑑2𝑉
𝛻 2𝑉 = ( )=0 𝑟2 𝑥
1
( ) = 0 x 𝑟2
𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑟2 𝑑Ф2
Multiplying by 𝜌 all through 𝑑2𝑉
=0
1 𝑑 𝑟𝑑𝑣 𝑑Ф2
𝜌𝑥 ( )= 0 x 𝜌 𝑑𝑣
𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 A=
𝑑 𝑟𝑑𝑣 𝑑Ф
( )=0 v = ∫ 𝐴 𝑑Ф
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
Integrating both side V = 0 and Ф= 0
𝑑 𝑟𝑑𝑣 0=0+B
∫ 𝑑𝑟 ( 𝑑𝑟 ) = ∫ 0
𝑟𝑑𝑣 B=0
=A When v = 100, Ф = ∝ [𝐵 = 0]
𝑑𝑟
Dividing all through by r A∝ = 100
𝑑𝑣 𝐴 100
= A=
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 ∝
𝐴 100
So that : v=∫ 𝑑𝑟 V= Ф
𝑟 ∝
1
Note: ∫ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r E = −∇𝑉
𝑟 1 𝑑𝑣
V = 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r + B ……. (i) E =−
𝑟 𝑑Ф
0 = 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r + B E=
−100
V/m
𝑟∝
B = - 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r
𝑎 Example
𝑉𝑜 = A𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏 In aspherical co-rdinates V = 0 at 𝒓𝟏 = 0.2m and
𝑉𝑜
A= 𝑎 v = 200V at 𝒓𝟐 = 4m. Calculate D and E assume
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏
a force space between these concentric spherical
𝑉0 = 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 a - 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 b… (ii)
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
shells.
V= 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r - 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 b Sln
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏 𝑏
1 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
V=
𝑉𝑜
(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 )
𝑟 𝛻 2𝑉 = ( )=0
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑎
𝑏 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑏 2
Multiplying by 𝑟 all through
E = −∇𝑉 1 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
𝑑𝑣 −𝑉𝑜 1 −𝑉𝑜 𝑟2 𝑥 ( ) = 0 x 𝑟2
E=- = 𝑎 ( )= 𝑎 V/m 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟 𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏 𝑏 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
Electric flux density D = 𝜀𝐸 ( )=0
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
−𝜀𝑉𝑜 Integrating both side
D = 𝑎 V/m
𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑏 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
𝑄 ∫ 𝑑𝑟 ( 𝑑𝑟 ) = ∫ 0
D= 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
𝐴
Q=DxA =A
𝑑𝑟

Q =
−𝜀𝑉𝑜
𝑎 xA Dividing all through by 𝑟 2
𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑣 𝐴
𝑏 =
𝑑𝑟 𝑟2

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 𝐴 𝒅𝒗 2𝜌𝑣𝑧
So that : v=∫ 𝑑𝑟 = +A
𝑟2 𝒅𝒛 2𝜀
𝐴 𝜌𝑣𝑧
V=− +B ……… (i) E=
𝜀
-A
𝑟
V = 0 when r = 0.2 At z = 0
From the condition given: E = 100
𝐴 100 = 0 - A
0=− +B …… eqtn (ii)
0.2
A = -100
A = 0.2B
At z = 1.5, v = 25v/cm
And 𝜌𝑣(1.5)
𝐴 25 = + 100
B= …… eqtn (iii) 𝜀
0.2
25𝜺 = 1.5 𝜌𝑣 + 100𝜀
And replacing eqtn (iv) into (ii)
𝐴 𝐴 -75𝜺 = 1.5 𝜌𝑣
200 = − + 𝜌𝑣 = - 50𝜀
4 0.2
𝐴 𝐴
200 = -
0.2 4
20𝐴 −𝐴 19𝐴 ii)∫ 𝑫𝒅𝒔 = Q
200 = =
4 4 ∫ 𝜺𝑬𝒅𝒔 = Q
800 = 19A
𝐴 Q = ∫ 𝒑𝒔 ds
B= ∫ 𝜺𝑬𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝒑𝒔 ds
0.2
800
Replacing B = = 210.53 𝒑𝒔 = 𝜺𝑬
19 𝑥 0.2
Replacing equation into
𝐴 TERMS USED IN MAGNETO STATICS
V=− +B
𝑟
800 800
V=−
19𝑟
+
3.8
a)Magnetic Flux(Ф)
E = −∇𝑉 Magnetic flux refers to the total number of
𝑑𝑣
=
800
𝑎𝑟 V/m magnetic field lines penetrating any surface placed
𝑑𝑟 19𝑟 2 perpendicular to the magnetic field.
D = 𝜀𝐸
800
D= 𝜀 𝑎𝑟 V/𝑚2 b)Magnetic Flux Density (B)
19𝑟 2

Example
Measurement made in the atmosphere shows
that there is an electric field which varies widely
with time to time . Its average values on the
earth surface and at an height of 15km was
found to be 100v/cm and 25V/cm directed
towards the earth respectively. Calculate :
i)The mean space charge in the atmosphere
between 0 and 1.5km
ii)Surface charge density on the earth Magnetic field density B is given by
Sln 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 Ф (𝑊𝑏)
1. B= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )
From Maxwells equation
∇ . 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 B = 𝜇0 𝑯 (free space only)
D = 𝜀𝐸 Where 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 H/m
∇ . 𝜀𝐸 = 𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣 Where Ф is the magnetic flux
∇ .𝐸 =
𝜀 The SI unit of magnetic flux density is Tesla (T)
E = −∇𝑉
𝜌𝑣
𝛻 2𝑉 = Example
𝜀
𝒅𝟐 𝒗 −𝜌𝑣 A motor field pole has an area of 60𝒄𝒎𝟐 . If the
∫ 𝒅𝒛𝟐 = ∫ 𝜀
𝒅𝒗 −𝜌𝑣
pole carries a flux of 0.3Wb. Calculate the
=∫ magnetic flux density.
𝒅𝒛 𝜀
𝒅𝒗 −𝜌𝑣𝑧 Sln:
∫ 𝒅𝒛 = ∫ +𝑨
𝜀 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 Ф (𝑊𝑏)
−𝜌𝑣𝑧 2 B= =
v= + Az + B 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )
2𝜀 0.3 (𝑊𝑏)
V = 0 and z = 0 B = = 50 T
0.006 (𝑚2 )
V = 0 and z = 1.5 c)Magnetic Field intensity (H)
0=0+B It is the measure of how strong or weak any
B=0 magnetic field is.
−𝜌𝑣𝑧 2 Or
v= + Az + B
2𝜀
E = −∇𝑉

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The ability of magnetic field to magnetise a a) H due to infinitely long straight
material medium conductor
SI unit is Ampere /metre (A/m)
The relationship between B and H is that
B = 𝜇H

AMPERE CIRCUIT LAW

In electrostatics, the Gauss law is useful to obtain
The E in case of complex problem.
In magneto statics, the complex problems can be
solved by Ampere’s circuital law.

Ampere’s circuital law states that: For an infinite long conductor.

The line integral of magnetic field intensity H a H.dL = H.r dФ
round a closed path is exactly equal to the direct And According to amperes Circuital law:
current enclosed by the path. ̅ . 𝒅𝑳 = 𝑰
∮𝑯
Mathematical expression: 2𝜋
∫Ф=0 𝑯. 𝒓 𝐝Ф = I
∮𝑯̅ . 𝒅𝑳 = 𝑰 2𝜋
H.r ∫Ф=0 𝐝Ф = 𝐈
The law is helpful to determine H when the current
distribution is symmetrical. Hr (2𝜋) = I
𝑰
H= A/m
𝟐𝝅𝒓
Proof of Ampere’s circuital Law Or
Consider a long straight conductor carrying direct 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑯 = I
current I placed along z axis as shown below.
b) H due to infinite sheet of Current

By considering a closed circular path of radius r

which encloses the straight conductor carrying
current I. The point P is at perpendicular distance r The current flowing across the distance b is given
from the conductor. Consider dL at appoint P by: 𝑲𝒚 b
which is in 𝑎̅∅ direction, tangential to the circular Where : 𝑲𝒚 = current density
path at point P As current is flowing in y direction, H cannot have
component in y direction since they are parallel
dL= r dФ𝒂 ̅∅ and their curl is zero.
while H is obtained at point P, from Biot-savart For an infinite sheet of current density K, H is
Law due to infinitely long conductor is : given by
𝑰 𝑰
H= 𝑎̅∅ H= K×𝒂 ̅𝑵
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝟐
𝑰
H.dL = 𝑎̅∅ . r dФ𝒂
̅∅ Where :
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑰 ̅𝑵 = Unit Vector normal from the current sheet to
𝒂
= . r dФ (i.e 𝒂
̅∅ . 𝒂
̅∅ = 𝟏)
𝟐𝝅𝒓 the point at which H is to be obtained
𝑰
= dФ
𝟐𝝅
And integrating H.dL over the entire closed path Examples
2𝜋 𝑰 A current filament on the z- axis carries a
H.dL = ∫Ф=0 𝐝Ф
𝟐𝝅 current of 7mA in the 𝒂𝒛 direction and current
𝐼 2𝜋 𝟐𝝅𝑰
= [Ф] 0 = =I sheet of 0.5𝒂𝒛 A/m and -0.2𝒂𝒛 A/m are located at
2𝜋 𝟐𝝅
Where I is the current carried by the conductor r = 1 cm and r = 0.5cm respectively.
This proves that the integral H.dL along the closed Calculat H at;
path gives the direct current enclosed by that a) r = 0.5cm
closed path. b) r = 1.5 cm
c) r = 4cm
Applications of Ampere’s circuital Law d) What current sheet should be located at
r = 4cm so that H = 0 for all r > 4cm?

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Sln We require that the total enclosed current be zero.
Therefore the net current in the proposed cylinder
at 4 cm must be negative. This must be – 3.2 x10−2
A
So the surface current density at 4cm must be
−3.214 x 10−2 A
K= = - 1.3 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝒂
̅𝒛 A/m
2𝜋𝑥(0.04)

Application of Ampere’s circuital law to the

Perimeter of a deferential surface element

a) at r = 0.5cm CURL
In this case, we are either just inside or just
outside the first current sheet.
Note that Just inside means before the first sheet
And Just outside means after the first sheet
So we shall compute for both just inside and for
just outside
𝑰
𝑯Ф = A/m
𝟐𝝅𝒓
Or
𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑯Ф = I
𝐼 7 𝑥 10−3
and 𝐻Ф (𝑱𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆) = = 𝑎̅ An incremental closed path in Cartesian
2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 0.005 ∅
−𝟏 coordinates is selected for the application of
= 2.2 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒂 ̅∅ 𝑨/𝒎
Ampere’s circuital law to determine the spatial
Again just outside the current sheet at 0,5cm will
rate of change of H
be given by:
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = I + I (just outside the first sheet at (0.5))
∮ 𝑯.𝒅𝑳
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋𝑟0.5 𝐻) Curl H =
∆𝑺𝑵
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋(0.005 𝑥 − 0.2)) Where ∆𝑺𝑵 = is the planar area enclosed by
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 7 x 10−3 - (2𝜋(0.005 𝑥0.2)) line integral.
= 0.007 -0.006284 = 0.00072 =𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 A In Cartesian coordinates the definition
𝐼 7 𝑥 10−4 ∮ 𝑯.𝒅𝑳
𝐻Ф (𝑱𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆) = = 𝑎̅ Curl H =
2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 0.005 ∅ ∆𝑺𝑵
−𝟐
= 2.3 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒂 ̅∅ 𝑨/𝒎 May be written in the terms of the vector
operator
b) At r = 1.5 cm Curl H = ∇ × H
Here, all three currents are enclosed, so Ampere’s 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
law become 𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯
𝛁 × H = | 𝝏𝒙 |
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋𝑟0.5𝑐𝑚 𝐻) + (2𝜋𝑟1𝑐𝑚 𝐻) 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
= 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋(0.005)𝑥 − 0.2) +
(2𝜋(0.01)(0.5)
𝒅𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝒅𝑯
= 7 x 10−3 – 6.28 x 10−3 + 3.14 x 10−2 =(
𝒅𝒚
-
𝒅𝒛
)𝒂𝒙 - (
𝒅𝒙
-
𝒅𝒛
)𝒂𝒚 +(
𝒅𝒙
-
𝒅𝒚
)𝒂𝒛
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 3.214 x 10−2 A Example
3.214 𝑥 10−2 −𝟏
𝐻Ф = ̅∅ A/m
= 3.4 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒂 The magnetic field intensity is given in the square
2𝜋𝑥(0.015)
region x = 0, 0.5 < y < 1, 1 < z < 1.5 by
H = 𝑧 2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑦 4 𝑎𝑧 A/m
c) At r = 4cm Find 𝛁 × H
Here, all three currents are enclosed, so Ampere’s Sln
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
law become
𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋𝑟0.5𝑐𝑚 𝐻) + (2𝜋𝑟1𝑐𝑚 𝐻) 𝛁 × H = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
|
= 7 x 10−3 + (2𝜋(0.005)𝑥 − 0.2) + 𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
(2𝜋(0.01)(0.5)
= 7 x 10−3 – 6.28 x 10−3 + 3.14 x 10−2 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
2𝜋𝑟𝐻Ф = 3.214 x 10−2 A 𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯
3.214 𝑥 10−2 𝛁×H=| 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
𝐻Ф = = 1.3 x 10−1 𝑎̅∅ A/m
2𝜋𝑥(0.04) 𝑧2𝒙 𝑥 3𝒚 𝑦 4
𝒛
𝒅 𝑦4 𝒛 𝒅 𝑥3𝒚 𝒅 𝑦4𝒛 𝒅 𝑧 2𝒙 𝒅 𝑥3𝒚
d)What current sheet should be located at =( - )𝒂𝒙 - ( - )𝒂𝒚 +( -
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙
r = 4cm so that H = 0 for all r > 4cm? 𝒅 𝑧2 𝒙
)𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒚

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= 4𝑦 3 𝒂𝒙 + 2𝑧𝒂𝒚 + 3𝑥 2 𝒂𝒛 In acapacitor, the current flow when applied
voltage is changing. The current via the
AMPERE LAW IN POINT FORM capacitor is called displacement current.
From the above formula, diving by area:
Ampere’s circuital law in point form is given by
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝑑𝑉
In point form, the Ampere’s law is given by: 𝑰𝒄 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑑𝑉
𝒅𝑫 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 current 𝐽𝑑 = = =
𝛁 ×H=J + 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝑉
𝐴 𝐴 𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒕
Where : 𝐽𝑑 = 0 𝑟
𝑑 𝑑𝑡
H = magnetic field strength From original formulae of electric field intensity E
J = Current density 𝑉
E=
𝒅𝑫 𝑑
= time rate of change of D And V = dE
𝒅𝒕
Replacing into the above equation,
The point form implies that, The curl of H would 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝑉 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝐸 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝐸 𝜀𝑑𝐸
𝐽𝑑 = 0 𝑟 = 0 𝑟 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑟 =
produce the current density J and the time rate of 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜺𝒅𝑬
change of D , producing a circulation of H around 𝑱𝒅 =
𝒅𝒕
the point Or

In non conducting medium or free space in which From D = 𝜀𝐸

no volume charge density is present, J = 0 𝒅𝑫
𝑱𝒅 =
And Hence the above point form equation 𝒅𝒕
becomes:
𝒅𝑫
𝛁 ×H=
𝒅𝒕 Remember the following from mathematics
Y or f(x) 𝒅𝒚
NOTE:This can be used to show the relationship
𝒅𝒙
between H and E a𝒙𝒏 an𝒙𝒏−𝟏
sinax Acos ax
Equation of Continuity for steady current Cos ax -a sin ax
NOTE: 𝒆𝒂𝒙 a𝒆𝒂𝒙
From eqtn 3 of Maxswell’s in point form 𝟏
ln ax
∇𝑥𝐻=J 𝒙
And diverging this equation on both sides
∇(∇ 𝑥 𝐻) = ∇.J
Both the divergent of a curl is zero(0) and
Hence Some standard integrals
∇(∇ 𝑥 𝐻) = 0 𝟏
∫ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒄
𝒂
Summary of Ampere law 𝟏
∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 =- 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝒂𝒙 + c
The law can be summarized as the electromotive 𝒂
force (MMF) around aclosed path is equal to the 𝟏 = ln x + c
total current enclosed in it. The total current is the ∫− 𝒅𝒙
𝒙
sum of the conducting and displacement current.
𝒅𝑫
∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ 𝒅𝒕 . 𝒅𝑺
J = 𝐽𝑐 + 𝐽𝑑
I = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑑
Where 𝑱𝒄 = Conduction current density which Example:
refers to the amount of current (charge) flowing on The magnetic field in free space is given by
the surface of the conductor. ̅ = 𝑯𝒎 Cos (𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚 in free space.
𝑯
- It can also be referred to us the current in
Determine the corresponding electric field from
the conductors due to the flow of electrons
𝐽𝑑 = Displacement current i.e the current between Ampere law
two plates of a capacitor due to electric field Sln
Note in free space , J = 0
Displacement current Hence :
𝒅𝑫
In a parallel plate capacitor, the charging current 𝛁 ×H=
𝐶𝑑𝑉 𝒅𝒕
can be obtained by 𝐼𝑐 =
𝑑𝑡
Where : C = capacitor 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
V = voltage 𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯
̅ =|
𝛁×𝑯 |
𝐼𝑐 = conduction current 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
But C = 𝑑
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝑑𝑉
𝐼𝑐 =
𝑑 𝑑𝑡

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 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 𝒅Ф
emf = − V
𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝒕
̅ =|
𝛁×𝑯 |
𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
A time –varying magnetic field produces an
𝟎 𝑯𝒎 𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛) 𝟎
𝒅𝟎 𝒅𝑯𝒎 𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝝎𝒕−𝜷𝒛) 𝒅𝟎
electromagnetic field (emf) which may establish a
=( - )𝒂𝒙 - ( - suitable current in a suitable closed circuit.
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙
𝒅0 𝒅𝑯𝒎 𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝝎𝒕−𝜷𝒛) 𝒅0
)𝒂𝒚 +( - )𝒂𝒛 An electromagnetic force is merely a voltage that
𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
arises from conductors moving in amagnetic field
Hence applying the chain rule: or from changing magnetic fields.
Let U = 𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛 𝒅Ф
̅ = 𝑯𝒎 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝐮)
So: 𝑯 emf = − V
𝒅𝒕
̅
𝑑𝑯 ̅
𝑑𝑯 𝑑𝑈
Using Chain Rule: = 𝑥 The magnet magnetic flux is that flux which
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡
̅
𝑑𝑯 𝑑𝑈
But = 𝑯𝒎 sin 𝑈 and = −β passess through any and every surface whose
𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑡 𝑑Ф
̅
𝑑𝑯 ̅
𝑑𝑯 𝑑𝑈 perimeter is the closed path and = is the time
Therefore: =( 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑡
rate of change of this flux.
= −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin 𝑈 𝑑Ф
And replacing u The value of = may results from any of the
𝑑𝑡
= −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛) following situations:
1)A time –changing flux linking astationary closed
Hence path
𝒅𝑫 2)Relative motion between a steady flux and closed
−𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛) =
𝒅𝒕 path
Or
𝒅𝑫
3)A combination of the two
= −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)
𝒅𝒕
NOTE: The minus sign is an indication that the
Hence D = ∫ −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)dt emf is in such a direction as to produce a current
whose flux,if added to the original flux, would
Again integrating by substitution method: reduce the magnitude of the emf. ( Lenz Law).
Let:
U = (𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛) If the closed path is that taken by an N-turn
So: V = −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝒖) filamentary conductor, it is often sufficiently
𝒅𝒖
= 𝝎 so that dt =
𝒅𝒖 accurate to consider the turns as coincidental and
𝒅𝒕 𝝎 let
𝒅𝒖 𝜷𝑯𝒎 Cos(𝒖)
D = ∫ −𝜷𝑯𝒎 sin(𝒖) = 𝒅Ф
𝝎 𝝎 emf = −𝑵 V
𝒅𝒕
And substituting U back
D=
𝜷𝑯𝒎 Cos(𝒖) where Ф is now interpreted as the flux passing
𝝎
through any one of N coincident paths.
But D = 𝜺𝒐 𝑬
𝑫 𝜷𝑯𝒎 Cos(𝒖)
So E = = V/m Defination of E.M.F
𝜺𝒐 𝝎𝜺𝒐

Emf is defined by :
Emf = ∮ 𝑬 dL
It is a voltage in an closed path
𝑑Ф
Replacing Ф in − by the surface integral of
𝑑𝑡
EXERCISE magnetic flux density B in the direction of dS and
1.Amagnetic field intensity vector in free space is increasing with time thus produces an average
given in rectangular coordinate as value of E which is opposite to the positive
𝐻̅ = 0.5Cos (𝛽𝑧)𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)𝑎𝑦 . determine the electric direction about the closed path.
field intensity vector that satisfy the ampere law The equation becomes:
𝒅
2.Determine whether the following satisfy ampere Emf = ∮ 𝑬 dL = - ∫ 𝑩 𝒅𝑺
𝒅𝒕
law in free space
𝐻̅ = 𝐷𝑚 Cosx cos t 𝑎𝑧
And by using the Right-Hnd rule, the fingers shows
̅ = 𝐷𝑚 Sinxt 𝑎𝑦
𝐷 the direction of the closed path and the thumb
shows the direction of ds.
FARADAY’S LAW
FARADAY’S LAW IN POINT FORM
The emf induced in a conductor is directly In point form of Faraday’s law is Given by:
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux

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𝛁 ×E= −
𝒅𝑩 Let U = 6 x 108 𝜋𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑧
𝒅𝒕 2𝜇
And forms one of the maxwell’s four equations. So: B = 0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑢
𝜌
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝑈
Using Chain Rule: = 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡
Example: 𝑑𝐵 2𝜇0 𝑑𝑈
Show that the following equations satisfy the But = − sin 𝑈 and = 6 x 108 𝜋
𝑑𝑈 𝜌 𝑑𝑡
Faraday’s law Therefore: −
𝑑𝐵
= −(
𝑑𝐵
𝑥
𝑑𝑈
)
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑡
E= Cos (6 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)𝒂𝒙 V/m 2𝜇0 2𝜇0
𝝆 = Sin U (6 x 108 𝜋) = (6 x 108 𝜋)𝑆𝑖𝑛U
𝟐 𝜌 𝜌
𝟖
H= Cos (6 x 𝟏𝟎 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)𝒂𝒙 A/m But 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 𝑥10−7
𝝆
Sln So ;
Note: 2𝑥 ( 4𝜋 𝑥10−7 )
= (6 x 108 𝜋)𝑆𝑖𝑛(6 x 108 𝜋𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑧)
B = 𝜇H 𝜌
( 8𝜋 𝑥10−7 )((6 x 108𝜋)
Faraday’s law in point form is given by: = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(6 x 108 𝜋𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑧)
𝑑𝐵 𝜌
∇ ×E= − 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝝅𝟐
𝑑𝑡 =( )Sin(𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)
First find the L.H.S, the Curl of E 𝝆
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂 𝒛
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬 And substituting U back into the equation above:
∇ × E = = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
| 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝜇0 𝐇 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝝅𝟐
− =− =( )Sin(𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝝆
By comparison of the L.H.S and R.H.S
𝛁×E= The two equations are the same therefore,
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 Faraday’s laws is satisfied.
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
|| 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 || Example
240𝜋 8
Cos (6 x 10 𝜋𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑧) 𝟎 𝟎 In the figure below B = 0.2Cos 120𝝅𝒕 and
𝜌
𝒅𝟎 𝒅0 𝒅𝟎 assume that the conductor joining the two ends
=( - )𝒂𝒙 - ( - of the resistor is perfect. Assuming tha magnetic
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙
240𝜋
𝒅 Cos (6 x 108 𝜋𝑡−2𝜋𝑧) 𝒅𝟎 field produced by the I(t) is negligible.
𝜌
)𝒂𝒚 +( -
𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙
240𝜋
𝒅 Cos (6 x 108 𝜋𝑡−2𝜋𝑧)
𝜌
)𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒚
240𝜋
𝒅𝟎 𝒅 Cos (6 x 108 𝜋𝑡−2𝜋𝑧)
𝜌
=0-( - )𝒂𝒚 + 0
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛
Note
Let U = 6 x 108 𝜋𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑧
240𝜋
So: E = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑢
𝜌
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑈
Using Chain Rule: = 𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝐸 240𝜋 𝑑𝑈
But = − 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑈 and = −2𝜋
𝑑𝑈 𝜌 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑈 Find:
Therefore: = 𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑧 a)𝑽𝒂𝒃 (t)
240𝜋
=− 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑈 (-2𝜋) b)I(t)
𝜌
240𝜋
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑈 (2𝜋)𝑆𝑖𝑛U
𝜌
And substituting back u into the above equation we Sln
have: 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 Ф (𝑊𝑏)
B= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )

𝒅
240𝜋
Cos (6 x 108 𝜋𝑡−2𝜋𝑧) Ф = Area x B
𝜌
𝒅𝒛
= = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥 0.2Cos 120𝜋𝑡 Wb
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅 = 3.142 x 0.15 x 0.15 x0.2Cos 120𝜋𝑡
2𝝅( )Sin𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛)
𝝆
= 1.41 x 10−2 Cos 120𝜋𝑡 Wb
Meaning:
𝒅𝑬 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝝅𝟐
𝛁×E= =( )Sin(𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝝅𝒕 − 𝟐𝝅𝒛) And
𝒅𝒛 𝝆
𝑑Ф
emf =𝑉𝑎𝑏 (t) = −
𝑑𝑡
Second step: Find the R.H.S 𝑑Ф 𝑑(0.2𝜋𝑟 2 Cos 120𝜋𝑡)
emf = − =−
Note: that B = 𝜇H 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
U = 120𝜋𝑡
2
𝑑(𝜇( Cos (6 x 108 𝜋𝑡−2𝜋𝑧) So: Ф = 0.2𝜋𝑟 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑢
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝜇0 𝐇 𝜌
− =− = Using Chain Rule:
𝑑𝐵
=
𝑑𝐵
𝑥
𝑑𝑈
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡

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 𝑑Ф 𝑑𝑈 2𝜋 10 (60𝑥 10−6 )(6𝑥 10−6 )(10𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
But = − 0.2𝜋𝑟 2 sin 𝑈 and = 120𝜋 F = ∫0 ∫0 3 𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑡 10−6
𝑑Ф 𝑑Ф 𝑑𝑈 4𝜋( )(𝑟 2 +100)2
36𝜋
Therefore: − = −( 𝑥 ) 2𝜋 10 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑡
𝑑Ф F = 32.4 ∫0 ∫0 3 𝑎𝑧
2
Emf = − =(120𝜋) 0.2𝜋𝑟 sin 120𝜋𝑡 (𝑟+100)2
𝑑𝑡 2𝜋
Emf = 5.33Sin120𝜋𝑡 V F = 10.28 ∫0 𝑑∅ 𝑎𝑧
= 10.28 Nm I opposite direction
𝑉 5.33Sin120𝜋𝑡 V
b)I(t) = =
𝑅 250
= 21.3Sin120𝜋𝑡 mA

6a)Distinguish between electric and magnetic

dipoles with reference to electromagnetic field
(2mks)
Sln
Electric dipoles-Deals with the separation of
positive and negative charges found in any
electromagnetic system eg a pair of electric
charges
Magnetic dipoles –deals with a closed circulation
of electric current system eg aclosed single loop of
a wire of constant through it.

b)Figure 3 shows a point charge of 60𝝁𝑪 at point

(0.0.10)m. Determine the

i)Charge density (3mks)

Sln
𝑄 60 𝑥10−6
Charge density 𝜌𝑠 = =
𝐴 𝜋(𝑟 2 )
60 𝑥10−6
=
𝜋(102 )
= 1.9 𝑥10−7 C/𝑚2

ii)Force on the charge due to a circle plate of BIOT-SAVART LAW

charge 600𝝅𝝁𝑪 at aradius 𝒓 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝒎, z = 0m The Biot-Savart Law states that:
(5mks) The magnetic field intensity d𝑯 ̅ produced at
Sln appoint p due to differential current IdL is
In cylindrical form R = -𝑟𝑎𝑦 +10𝑟𝑎𝑧 1)Directly Proportional to the product of the
𝑄1 𝑄2
F= current I and differential length dL.
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
2)The sine of the Angle between the element and
In differential form
2𝜋 10 (60𝑥 10−6 )𝜌𝑠 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
the line joining point P to the element
F = ∫0 ∫0 10−6
3 3)And inversely proportional to the square of the
4𝜋( )(𝑟 2 +100)2
36𝜋 distance R between point P and the element

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Consider a differential length dL, hence the
differential current is IdL. This is very small part The closed line integral is required to ensure that
of the current carrying conductor. The point P is at all the current are considered. This is because
distance R from the differential current element current can flow only in closed path provided by
and the line joining point p to the differential the closed circuit. If the current element is
current element. considered at point 1 and point p at point 2, as
shown in the figure above, then
̅𝑹𝟏𝟐
𝑰𝟏 𝒅𝑳 𝒂
Mathematically, the Biot-Savart law can be 𝑯𝟐 = ∮ A/m
𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟏𝟐 𝟑
stated as: This is known as integral form Biot- Servat law
𝐼𝑑𝐿𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 Where:
𝒅𝑯̅ ∝
𝑅2 𝑰𝟏 = Current flowing through 𝒅𝑳𝟏 = at point 1
𝐾𝐼𝑑𝐿𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝒅𝑯̅= 𝒅𝑳𝟏 = Differential vector length at point 1
𝑅2 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = unit vector in the direction from element at
1
Where k = = Constant of proportionality poit 1 to point p at point 2
4𝜋
Hence:
̅ = 𝐼𝑑𝐿𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝒅𝑯 2 eqtn 3 BIOT-SERVANT LAW INTERMS OF
4𝜋𝑅
Expressing the a bove equation in Vector form: DISTRIBUTED SURFACE:
̅ Consider a surface carrying a uniform current over
Let: dL = Magnitude of vector length of 𝒅𝑯
its surface as shown below. Then the surface
𝒂𝑹 =unit vector in the direction from
current density is denoted by K and measured in
differential current element to point P
ampere metre (A/m). Thus for a uniform current
Then from the rule of cross products:
̅ × ̅̅̅̅ density, the current I in any width b is given by:
𝒅𝑯 𝒂𝑹 = 𝒅𝑳|𝒂 ̅̅̅̅|𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒆𝜽
𝑹 = dL𝒂̅̅̅̅sin0
𝑹
I =kb, where width b is perpendicular to the
And replacing into eqtn 3
direction of current flow.
𝒅𝑯̅ = 𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝒂̅2𝑹 A/m eqn 4
4𝜋𝑅 Hence;
̅
𝑹 ̅
𝑹
̅𝑹 = |𝑹| =
But 𝒂 1:If ds is the differential surface area considered of
𝑹
a surface having current density K then :
̅ = 𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝒂̅3𝑹 A/m
Therefore : 𝒅𝑯 eqtn 5 IdL = Kds
4𝜋𝑅
Both equations 4 and 5 forms the Biot–Servart law ii)If Current density is a volume of a given
Note: that according to direction of the cross conductor is J measured in A /𝑚2 then for
product, the direction of dH is normal to the plane adifferntial volume dv, we can write IdL = Jdv
The entire conductor is made up of all such Hence the Biot-Servat law can be expressed for
differential elements, hence to obtain total surface current considering Kds while for Volume
magnetic field intensity, H the a bove equation (4) Current considering Jdv
takes the integral form. ̅ = ∫ 𝐾 × 𝒂̅3𝑹 A/m (For surface)
𝑯
4𝜋𝑅
𝒅𝑯̅ = ∮ 𝐼𝑑𝐿 𝒂̅3𝑹 ̅𝑹
4𝜋𝑅 ̅ = ∫𝐽×
𝑯
𝒂
A/m (For Volume)
4𝜋𝑅 3

Where K = Curent surface density

J =Current volume density
× = cross-product
H = Magnetic field intensity
̅𝟏𝟐 = Unit vector
𝒂

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ALWAYS REMEMBER FROM CROSS
PRODUCT(page 726 4th edition strauds
1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑧(𝟐𝒂𝒚 −𝟑𝒂𝒙 )
engineer mathematics) = ∫
4𝜋 −∞ 3
[(𝟐)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐 ]2
Remember that in Cross products, when the
Cartesian coordinates are as follows 𝐼 ∞ (𝟐𝒂𝒚 −𝟑𝒂𝒙 )
= ∫
4𝜋 −∞ 3
[(𝒁𝟐 −𝟖𝒁 +𝟐𝟗]2

And using integral tables:

∞
𝐼 2(2𝑧−8)(𝟐𝒂𝒚 −𝟑𝒂𝒙 𝐼
H= [ 1 ] = (𝟐𝒂𝒚 − 𝟑𝒂𝒙 )
4𝜋 26𝜋
52[(𝒁𝟐 −𝟖𝒁 +𝟐𝟗]2
−∞

And substituting I = 8mA

Direction of angles are measured such that:
i)When angles are measured anticlockwise 𝑯𝟏 = (𝟏𝟗𝟔𝒂𝒚 − 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝒂𝒙 )𝜇A/m
between two axes, the angle is +90
c)When x = -1, y = 2:
i.e i x j = (1)(1)sin90 = k But 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏
Similarly: j x k = i
kxi=j 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑
ii)When angles are measured clockwise between = [𝟑] - [ 𝟐 ] =[ 𝟏 ]
𝟒 𝒛 (𝟒 − 𝒛)
two axes , the angle – 90
1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑧 𝒂𝒛 × (𝟑𝒂𝒙 +𝒂𝒚 +(𝟒−𝒛𝒂𝒛 )
= ∫ x
i.e j x i = -(1)(1)sin90 = - k 4𝜋 −∞ [(𝟑)𝟐 + (𝟏)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐 ]2 √(𝟑)𝟐 + (𝟏)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐
Similarly: k x j = -i
i x k = -j ̅ 𝟏𝟐
And cross product in the direction of 𝒂𝒛 and 𝑹

𝒂𝒛 𝟑𝒂𝒙 𝟑𝒂𝒚
iii)When parallel, angle in between axes, is Zero:
i x i = (1)(1)sin0 = 0 𝒂
[ 𝒛 ] × [ 𝒂𝒚 ] =[−𝟑𝒂𝒙 ]
𝒂𝒛 (𝟒 − 𝒛𝒂𝒛 ) 𝟎
Similarly: j x j = 0
kxk=0

1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑧(𝟑𝒂𝒚 −𝒂𝒙 )
= ∫
4𝜋 −∞ 3
Examples [(𝟑)𝟐 + (𝟏)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐 ]2
Find H in the Cartesian Components P(2,3,4) if
𝐼 ∞ (𝟑𝒂𝒚 −𝒂𝒙 )
there is a current filament on the Z axis = ∫ 3
4𝜋 −∞
carrying 8mA: [(𝒛𝟐 −𝟖𝒁 +𝟐𝟔]2

a) In the 𝒂𝒛 Direction.
And using integral tables:
b) If the filament is located at x = -1, y = 2.
c) If both filaments are present ∞
𝐼 2(2𝑧−8)(𝟑𝒂𝒚 −𝒂𝒙 ) 𝐼
Sln H= [ 1 ] = (𝟑𝒂𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙 )
4𝜋 20𝜋
Since no limits/Boundaries are given, and applying 40[(𝒁𝟐 −𝟖𝒁 +𝟐𝟔]2
−∞
Biot–Savart law, we integrate from infinity to
infinity (−∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞) And substituting I = 8mA
̅ = ∫∞ 𝐾 × 𝒂̅3𝟏𝟐 = ∫∞ 𝐼𝑑𝐿× 𝒂̅3𝟏𝟐
𝑯 𝑯𝟐 = (−𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒂𝒙 + 𝟑𝟖𝟐𝒂𝒚 )𝜇A/m
−∞ 4𝜋𝑅 −∞ 4𝜋𝑅
But 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏
c)Finding H when both filaments are present
𝟐 𝟎 𝟐
= [𝟑] - [𝟎] =[ 𝟑 ] 𝑯𝑻 = 𝑯𝟏 + 𝑯𝟐
𝟒 𝒛 (𝟒 − 𝒛)
= (𝟏𝟗𝟔𝒂𝒚 − 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝒂𝒙 ) + (−𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒂𝒙 + 𝟑𝟖𝟐𝒂𝒚 )
∞ 𝐾 1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝐿×
̅
𝑯 = ∫−∞ ̅ = ∫−∞ 2 𝑹
𝒂 ̅ 𝟏𝟐
4𝜋𝑅 3 𝟏𝟐 4𝜋 𝑅 = (−𝟒𝟐𝟏𝒂𝒙 + 𝟓𝟕𝟖𝒂𝒚 )𝜇A/m
1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑧 𝒂𝒛 × (𝟐𝒂𝒙 +𝟑𝒂𝒚 +(𝟒−𝒛𝒂𝒛 )
= ∫ x
4𝜋 −∞ [(𝟐)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐 ]2 √(𝟐)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 +(𝟒−𝒛)𝟐

̅ 𝟏𝟐
And cross product in the direction of 𝒂𝒛 and 𝑹

𝒂𝒛 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝟐𝒂𝒚
[𝒂𝒛 ] × [ 𝟑𝒂𝒚 ] =[−𝟑𝒂𝒙 ]
𝒂𝒛 (𝟒 − 𝒛𝒂𝒛 ) 𝟎

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Example
A current filament of 𝟑𝒂𝒙 A lies along the x – axis.
Find H in cartesian components at p (-1,3,2).
Sln
By Biot –Savart Law.
̅ = ∫∞ 𝐼𝑑𝐿× 𝒂̅3𝟏𝟐
𝑯 −∞ 4𝜋𝑅

And IdL = 3𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑥

But 𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏

−𝟏 𝒙 −𝟏 − 𝒙
= [ 𝟑 ] - [𝟎] =[ 𝟑 ]
𝟐 𝟎 (𝟐)

1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑧 𝒂𝒙 × (−𝟏−𝒙)𝒂𝒙 +𝟑𝒂𝒚 +𝟐𝒂𝒛 )

= ∫ x
4𝜋 −∞ [(−𝟏−𝒙)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 +(𝟐)𝟐 ]2 √(−𝟏−𝒙)𝟐 + (𝟑)𝟐 +(𝟐)𝟐

̅ 𝟏𝟐 Applications of Biot Servat Law

And cross product in the direction of 𝒂𝒛 and 𝑹

𝒂𝒙 (−𝟏 − 𝒙)𝒂𝒙 𝟎
𝒂
[ 𝒙] × [ 𝟑𝒂 𝒚 ] =[ 𝟑𝒂 𝒛 ]
𝒂𝒙 (𝟐𝒂𝒛 ) (−𝟐𝒂𝒚

1 ∞ 𝐼𝑑𝑥(𝟑𝒂𝒛 −𝟐𝒂𝒚 )
= ∫
4𝜋 −∞ 3
[(𝒙)𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙+𝟏𝟒]2

But IdL = 3A
𝐼 ∞ (𝟗𝒂𝒛 −𝟔𝒂𝒚 )
= ∫
4𝜋 −∞ 3
[(𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙 𝟏𝟒]2

And using integral tables:

∞
𝐼 (𝟗𝒂𝒛 −𝟔𝒂𝒚 )(𝒙+𝟏) 2(𝟗𝒂𝒛 −𝟔𝒂𝒚 )
H= [ 1 ] =
4𝜋 4𝜋(13)
13[(𝒙𝟐 +𝟐𝒙 +𝟏𝟒]2
−∞

= (𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝒂𝒛 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟑𝒂𝒚 ) A/m

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34 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775
 TOPIC 3:
MAXWELL EQUATIONS
Objectives:
1)Describe Maxwell’s equations in differential
and integral forms
i)Gauss Law for the electric fields
ii) Gauss law for the Magnetic fields
iii)Ampere law
iv)Faraday’s law
2)Analiyse the Maxwll’s equations to derive the
instantaneous vector field theorem
i)Instantaneous vector equation
ii)Poyting’s Vector
3.Explain the properties of electromagnetic waves
i)Propagation constant Ӷ
ii)Attenuation constant 𝜶
4)Describe the displacement current density of
parallel plate capacitor.

MAXWELL EQUATIONS IN
DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL FORMS

a)DIFFERENTIAL OR POINT FORM

A time varying magnetic field produces an

electromotive force (emf) which may establish a
current in a suitable closed circuit.
An electromotive force is merely a voltage that
arise from conductors moving in a magnetic field
or from changing magnetic fields and there is
defined as:
𝒅Ф
Emf = - V
𝒅𝒕

Where Ф is interpreted as the flux passing through

any one of N coincident paths.
A magnetic flux is that flux which passes through
any and every surface whose perimeter is the
closed path.
𝑑Ф
The rate of change - may result from any of the
𝑑𝑡
following situations:
a) A time-changing flux linking a stationary
closed paths
b) Relative motion between a steady flux and
a closed path
c) A combination of the two
NOTE: The minus sign is an indication that the emf
is in such a direction as to produce a current whose
flux, if added to the original flux, would reduce the
magnitude of the emf i.e The statement that the
induced voltage acts top produce an opposing flux
(lenz’ law)

The Maxwell’s equations for time- varying fields

in point form are:
𝒅𝑩
1) 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − (Faradays law)
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑫
2) 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + (Amperes circuital law
𝒅𝒕
in point form)
The remaining two equations are unchanged from
their non- Varying form.
3) 𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Maxwel’s First Equation)
4) 𝛁 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law )

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Where : So therefore:
E = Electric field intensity ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = 𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 + 𝑰𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒕
D =Electric flux density NOTE:
B= magnetic field strength i) ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = J = 𝜎 E
J= Displacement current density
H =Magnetic flux density 𝒅𝑫 𝒅𝑬
ii) ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 = 𝜺𝟎 = 𝜺𝟎 𝝎𝑬 = 𝑰𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅
NOTE: Magnetic flux is always found in closed NOTE: That mathematically =𝝎
𝒅𝒕
loops and never diverge from a point source. WORD STATEMENTS FOR MAXWELL’S
EQUATIONS in time varying fields
Relationship between D and E as well as B and 𝒅𝑩
1. 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − (Faradays law)
H 𝒅𝒕
The auxiliary equations connecting D and E as The electromotive force around a closed path is
well as B and H are. equal to the time divergence of magnetic
i) D = 𝜖𝑬 where 𝝐 = 𝝐𝑹 𝜺𝟎 displacement through any surface bounded by the
ii) B = 𝜇H where 𝝁 = 𝝁𝑹 𝝁𝟎 path.
𝒅𝑫
Defining current density is: 2. 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + (Amperes circuital
𝒅𝒕
iii) J=𝜎E law in point form)
Defining current density in terms of the Volume The magneto motive force around a closed path is
charge density 𝜌𝑣 is: equal to the conduction current plus the time
iv) J = 𝜌𝑣 V derivative of electric displacement through any
closed surface bounded by the path
b)MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN INTEGRAL
FORM (time varying field in integral form) 𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Maxwel’s First
3.
Equation)
The Maxwells’ equations in integral forms are : The total electric displacement through any surface
𝒅𝑩
1) ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 (Faraday’s law) enclosing a value is equal to the total charge within
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑫 the volume.
2) ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱𝒅𝒔 + . 𝒅𝑺 (Ampere’s law) 4. 𝛁 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law )
𝒅𝒕
3) ∮ 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝝆𝒗 𝐝𝐯 = Q (Gauss law for The net magnetic flux in a closed loop is zero
electric)
4) ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 0 (Gauss law for Magnetic) MAXWELL’S EQUATION FOR STATIC EM
These equations can be used to find the boundary FIELD
conditions on B,D,H and E which are necessary in
evaluating the constants obtained in solving Differential Integral Remarks
Maxwell’s equations in partial differential form. (Point) form
form
For Retarded potentials (Varying electric field): ∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 Gauss law
∫𝑠 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 =
E = - 𝛁𝑽 where V is a scalar electric pottential
∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 dv
Boundary condition ∇ .𝐵 = 0 Non existence of
∫𝑠 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 =
It is often desirable to idealize a physical problem magnetic
by assuming a perfect conductor for which 𝜎 is 0
monopole
infinite but J is infinite. ∇𝑥𝐸 =0 Conservativeness
∫𝐿 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿 =
Then, from ohm’s law: of electrostatic
In a perfect conductor E = 0 0
field
And From Faraday’s Law , H = 0 ∇𝑥𝐻=J ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝐿 = Ampere’s law
And from Ampere’s law, J = 0 ∫ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠 +
𝑑𝐷
From Ampere’s law: ∫ 𝑑𝑡 . 𝑑𝑆
𝒅𝑫
∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ 𝒅𝒕 . 𝒅𝑺 (Ampere’s law ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝐿 = I
integral form)
The various Laws in Electric and Magnetic
The meaning of these symbols are:
forms
𝒂) ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = Magneto motive force which
TERMS ELECTRIC MAGNETIC
corresponding to electromotive force or e.m.f 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝐿
Basic Law F= 𝑎 dB = 0 2 𝑎𝑅
b) ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑱 = 𝜎 E = 𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝑅 4𝜋𝑅
Where: ∮ 𝐷ds = Qencl ∮ 𝐻dL = Iencl
J=𝜎E Force Law F = QE F=QxB
𝜑 𝜑
Where : 𝜎 = is the conductivity Flux density D = C/𝑚2 B = (wb/𝑚2 )
𝒅𝑫 𝑠 𝑠
𝒄) ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑰𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒕 Ralationship D = 𝜺𝑬 B =𝛈𝑯
𝒅𝒕
between
̅ can
The equation implies that magnetic Field 𝐻 fields
produce 𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 and 𝑰𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒕

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 𝑉
Potentials E= −𝛁𝑽 H= E=
𝝆𝒍𝒅𝑳 𝑑
V=∫ −𝛁𝒗 𝒎 (𝑱 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝑹 And V = dE
𝟎)
𝝁𝑰𝒅𝑳 Replacing into the above equation,
V=∫ 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝑉 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝐸 𝜀 𝜀 𝑑𝐸 𝜀𝑑𝐸
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝑹 𝐽𝑑 = 0 𝑟 = 0 𝑟 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑟 =
Flux 𝝋 = ∮ 𝐷ds 𝝋 = ∮ 𝐵ds 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜺𝒅𝑬
𝝋 = Q = CV 𝝋 = LI 𝑱𝒅 =
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝑳 Or
I=C I=C
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

From D = 𝜀𝐸
𝒅𝑫
TIME VARYING FIELD 𝑱𝒅 =
𝒅𝒕
Equations dealing with static electric field due to
electric charges at steady state currents by:

Remember the following points learnt from the 2nd Maxswell’s equations in Maxswell’s equation
topic of Electrodynamic on Ampere law. integral form in point or differential
form
Equation of Continuity for steady current ∮ 𝐷ds = Q enclosed ∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣 =
NOTE:
From eqtn 3 of Maxswell’s in point form ∫𝑣 (∇. 𝐷) 𝑑𝑣
∇𝑥𝐻=J 𝑝𝑣 = ∇. 𝐷
And diverging this equation on both sides
∇(∇ 𝑥 𝐻) = ∇.J ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐿 = 0 ∫(∇. 𝐸) 𝑑𝑠
Both the divergent of acurl is zero(0) ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐿 = 0 ∇. 𝐸 = 0
Hence ∫ 𝐻 𝑑𝐿 = I ∫ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠
∇(∇ 𝑥 𝐻) = 0 ∫ 𝐻 𝑑𝐿 = I ∫(∇ 𝑥𝐻)𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠

Summary of Ampere law ∇𝑥𝐻 = 0

The law can be summarized as the electromotive ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = 0 ∫(∇. 𝐵)𝑑𝑠
force (MMF) around aclosed path is equal to the ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = 0 ∇ .𝐵 = 0
total current enclosed in it. The total current is the Example
sum of the conducting and displacement current. In a free space D = 𝑫𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙 . Using
𝒅𝑫
∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ 𝒅𝒕 . 𝒅𝑺 Maxwell’s equations , prove that
−𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚
J = 𝐽𝑐 + 𝐽𝑑 B=
𝜀𝜔
I = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑑
Where 𝑱𝒄 = Conduction current density which Sln
refers to the amount of current (charge) flowing on 𝑑𝐵
the surface of the conductor. ∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝑡
- It can also be referred to us the current in 𝐷 𝑫𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
E= =
𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒐
the conductors due to the flow of electrons
𝐽𝑑 = Displacement current i.e the current between i)B
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
two plates of a capacitor due to electric field
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
Displacement current 𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛
In a parallel plate capacitor, the charging current
𝐶𝑑𝑉
can be obtained by 𝐼𝑐 = 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝑑𝑡
Where : C = capacitor 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
V = voltage 𝛁 × E = || 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 ||
𝐼𝑐 = conduction current 𝑫𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)
𝟎 𝟎
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝜺𝒐
But C = 𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)
𝑑 𝒎
𝑑 𝑑0 𝑑0 𝑑0 𝜀 𝑑0
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝑑𝑉 =( - )𝑎𝑥 - ( - )𝑎𝑦 +( -
𝐼𝑐 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)
𝑑 𝒎
In acapacitor, the current flow when applied 𝜀
)𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑦
voltage is changing. The current via the 𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)
𝑑 𝒎 𝜺
capacitor is called displacement current. = ( 0) + 𝒐
)𝑎𝑦 – 0 + 0
𝑑𝑧
From the above formula, diving by area: 𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
=
𝜺𝒐
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐵
𝑰𝒄 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑑𝑉 Since : ∇ × E = −
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 current 𝐽𝑑 = = = 𝑑𝑡
𝐴 𝐴 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝐵 𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑑𝑉 − =∇ ×E=
𝐽𝑑 = 𝑑𝑡 𝜀
𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝒅𝑩 𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
From original formulae of electric field intensity E − =
𝒅𝒕 𝜺𝒐

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 Examples
Therefore Show that the ratio of amplitudes of conduction
𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚 current density and the displacement current
B = −∫ 𝑑𝑡 𝝈
𝜺𝒐 density is for the E = 𝑬𝒎 Cos𝝎𝒕 .Assume
−𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚 𝝎𝝐
B= 𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎 .
𝜺𝒐 𝜔
Sln
Example: First D = 𝜖𝑬
A perfectly conducting filament containing 𝑫 = 𝜖𝑬 = 𝜖𝑬𝒎 Cos𝝎𝒕
small 500 Ω resistor is formed into a square as The displacement current density
𝒅𝑫
shown below. Differentiating D, 𝐽𝑑 = = -𝝎𝝐𝑬𝒎 Cos𝝎t
𝒅𝒕
Again, secondly, from conduction current density
𝑱𝒄 = 𝝈 E = 𝝈 𝑬𝒎 Cos𝝎t

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

Ratio =
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚
|𝑱𝒄 | |𝝈 | 𝜎
= |𝑱 | = |−𝝎𝝐| =
𝒅 𝜔𝜀

Example:
Find I(t) if: Given that the internal dimensions of a coaxial
a) B = 0.3 Cos (120𝝅𝒕 − 𝟑𝟎)𝒂𝒛 T capacitor is a = 1.2cm, b = 4cm, and l = 40cm.
b) B = 0.3 Cos[𝝅(𝒄𝒕 − 𝒚)]𝒂𝒚 𝝁T where The homogeneous material inside the capacitor
c = 3 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s has the parameters 𝝐 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 F/m, 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
H/m and 𝝈 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑺/𝒎
Sln If the electric field intensity is
a)First we find/Evaluate the total flux (Ф) 𝟏𝟎𝟔
E=( )Cos𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒂𝝆 V/m. Find
through the loop where unit Normal to the loop 𝝆

is 𝒂𝒛 a) J
Ф = ∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 b) The total conduction current 𝑰𝒄 through
= Area x B the capacitor
= 𝑙 2 (B) = 0.52 (0.3 Cos (120𝜋𝑡 − 30) c) The displacement current 𝑰𝒅 through
= 0.075 Cos (120𝝅𝒕 − 𝟑𝟎) Wb the capacitor
𝐸𝑚𝑓 d) The ratio of the amplitude 𝑰𝒅 to that of
Hence Current I = 𝑰𝒄 the quality factor of the capacitor
𝑅
𝑑Ф
but emf =𝑉𝑎𝑏 (t) = − Sln
𝑑𝑡
𝐸𝑚𝑓 𝑑Ф 𝑑(0.075 Cos (120𝜋𝑡−30) a) 𝑱𝒄 = 𝜎 E but 𝝈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓
So: I = = − = − 106
𝐸𝑚𝑓
𝑅
𝑑Ф
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑(0.075 Cos (120𝜋𝑡−30) 𝑱𝒄 = 𝜎 E = 105 ( )Cos105 𝑎𝜌 V/m
𝜌
I= = − = − 10
𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 500 𝑥 𝑑𝑡
= ( )Cos105 𝑎𝜌 V/m
I = 57Sin (𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 − 𝟑𝟎) mA 𝜌

b)B = 0.3 Cos[𝝅(𝒄𝒕 − 𝒚)]𝒂𝒚 𝝁T b) Total conduction current 𝑰𝒄 through the

Since the field varies with y, the flux therefore is capacitor.
given by: NOTE That the conductor is not We Have:
integrated for the whole area with ds, From
𝒅𝑫
Ф = ∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠 ∫ 𝐵 ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱. 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ 𝒅𝒕 . 𝒅𝑺 (Ampere’s law
0.5
= 0.5 x ∫0 0.3 Cos[𝜋(𝑐𝑡 − 𝑦)]𝑑𝑦 integral form)
0.5
= 0.5 x 0.3 ∫0 Cos[𝜋𝑐𝑡 − 𝜋𝑦]𝑑𝑦
0.2 𝜋
= [Sin [𝜋𝑐𝑡 − ] − 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜋𝑐𝑡)] 𝜇Wb
𝜋 2
0.2 𝜋
𝑬𝒎𝒇 𝑑Ф 𝑑 𝜋 [Sin[𝜋𝑐𝑡− 2 ]−𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜋𝑐𝑡)]
I= = − = − 𝜇
𝑹 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 500 𝑥 𝑑𝑡
0.2 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 𝑐 𝜋
I=− [Cos [𝜋𝑐𝑡 − ] − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜋𝑐𝑡)] 𝜇
𝜋 2
0.2 𝑥 3.0 𝑥 108 𝜋
I=− [Cos [𝜋𝑐𝑡 − ] − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜋𝑐𝑡)] 𝜇A
500 2

Using Double angles for cos(A –B)

We shall have: 𝟐𝝅
I =120 [𝐂𝐨𝐬[𝝅𝒄𝒕] − 𝑺𝒊𝒏 (𝝅𝒄𝒕)] 𝒎𝑨 𝑰𝒄 =∫𝟎 𝑱𝒅𝒔 = 𝟐𝝅𝝆𝒍 𝑱
10
= 𝟐𝝅𝝆𝒍( )Cos105 𝑎𝜌
𝜌
= 𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒍Cos105 𝑎𝜌
𝟒𝟎
= 𝟐𝟎𝝅 × ×Cos105 𝑎𝜌
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝟖𝝅𝒍Cos105 𝑎𝜌 A

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 𝑑𝐷
b)Displacement current , 𝐽𝑑 =
𝑑𝑡
c)The total displacement current 𝑰𝒅 200
𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝑑𝜖0 ( )Cos(109 𝑡−3.336𝑧)
Again from Ampere circuital law, 𝜌
= =
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
We first find 𝐽𝑑 = 200𝑥 109 𝑥 𝜖0
𝑑𝑡 = −( )Sin(109 𝑡 − 3.336𝑧)
106 𝜌
𝑑(10−11 )( )Cos105 𝑎𝜌
𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝜌 200𝑥 109 𝑥 8.854𝑥10−12
= = = −( )Sin(109 𝑡 − 3.336𝑧)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜌
106 𝟏.𝟕𝟕
= - (10−11 )( )(105 )Sin105 𝑎𝜌 𝑱𝒅 = −( )𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒕 − 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒛)
𝜌 𝝆
𝟏
𝐽𝑑 = - ( )𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒂𝝆
𝝆
Example:
We then find
1 Consider a region defined by |𝒙|, |𝒚| and |𝒛|< 1.
𝐼𝑑 = 2𝜋𝜌𝑙 × 𝐽𝑑 = 2𝜋𝜌𝑙 𝑥 [− ( )Sin105 𝑎𝜌 ] If 𝝐𝑹 = 5 , 𝝁𝑹 = 4 and 𝝈 = 0. If
𝜌
= −𝟎. 𝟖𝝅𝒍 Sin105 𝑎𝜌 A 𝑱𝒅 = 20Cos (1.5 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒚 𝝁𝑨/𝒎𝟐 . Find :
a)D and E
c)The ratio of the amplitudes of 𝑰𝒅 to that of 𝑰𝒄 , b)B and H
The quality factor of the capacitor. This will be: c)Use 𝛁 x H = 𝑱𝒅 + J to find 𝑱𝒅
|𝑰 | |𝟎.𝟖| d)What is the numerical value of b
= |𝑰𝒅| = = 𝟎. 𝟏
𝒄 𝟖 sln
a) D and E
Example 𝑑𝐷
Since: 𝐽𝑑 =
The electric field intensity E in a free space is 𝑑𝑡
given by E(z,t) = 𝑬𝒎 Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 V/m Then:
Determine the expression for i) D = ∫ 𝐽𝑑 𝑑𝑡
a)magnetic field intensity H D = ∫ 𝟐𝟎𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒅𝒕
20 𝑥 10−6
b)magnetic field density B D= 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (1.5 𝑥 108 − 𝑏𝑥)𝑎𝑦 + C
1.5 𝑥 108
c)magnetic field intensity D If the integration constant is set to Zero (Assuming
sln no dc fields are present)
i)Magnetic field intensity H D = 1.33 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐒𝐢𝐧 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 − 𝐛𝐱)𝐚𝐲 𝐕/𝒎𝟐
E = 𝜂H
𝐸 𝑬
Hence H = = 𝒎 Sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑧)𝒂𝒙 ii) From D = 𝝐𝑬
𝜂 𝜂
𝐷 1.33 x 10−3 Sin (1.5 x 108 −bx)ay
E= =
ii)magnetic field density B 𝜖 𝝐𝑹 𝜀0
𝐷 1.33 x 10−3 Sin (1.5 x 108 −bx)ay
Sln E= =
𝜖 5 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12
B=𝜇H
𝜇𝑬
Hence B= 𝒎 Sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑧)𝒂𝒙 = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐒𝐢𝐧 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 − 𝐛𝐱)𝐚𝐲 V/m
𝜂
𝜇𝑬𝒎 b) B and H
B= Sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑧)𝒂𝒙
120𝜋 Use the point form of Faraday’s law and integration
with respect to time to Find B and H
iii) Electric field density D 𝑑𝐵
Sln ∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝑡
D=𝜀E i)B
D = 𝜀 𝑬𝒎 Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 V/𝒎𝟐 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
Example
𝒃 𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
Given a coaxial transmission line with = 𝒆𝟐.𝟓 ,
𝒂
𝝁𝑹 =𝝐𝑹 = 1 and electric field intensity is 𝛁×E=
𝟐𝟎𝟎
E = ( )Cos(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒕 − 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒛)𝒂𝝆 V/m . Find: 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝆
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
a) 𝑽𝒂𝒃 , the voltage between the | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
conductors given that the relationship E −𝟑 𝟖
= - ∇𝑉 is valid. 𝟎 𝟑. 𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 − 𝐛𝐱)𝐚𝐲 𝟎
𝑑0 𝑑(3.0 x 10−3 Sin (1.5 x 108−bx)ay 𝑑0
b) The displacement current density =( - )𝑎𝑥 - ( -
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑑0 𝑑(3.0 x 10−3 Sin (1.5 x 108 −bx)ay 𝑑(0)
Sln )𝑎𝑦 +( - )𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
a)If it is known that the relationship E = - 𝛁𝑽 we 𝑑(3.0 x 10−3 Sin (1.5 x 108−bx)ay
use: =(0- )𝑎𝑥 – 0 + 0
𝑑𝑧
𝒃 𝒃 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒂𝒃 = - ∫𝒂 𝑬 = - ∫𝒂 ( )𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒕 − 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒛)𝒅𝝆 −𝟑
= -b (𝟑. 𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 ) Cos (1.5 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙) 𝟖
𝝆
9 𝑑𝐵
= 200 ln(𝜌)Cos(10 𝑡 − 3.336𝑧) Since : ∇ × E = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑏
= 200 ln( )Cos(109 𝑡 − 3.336𝑧) −
𝑑𝐵
=∇ ×E
𝑎 𝑑𝑡
= 200 ln(𝑒 2.5 )Cos(109 𝑡 − 3.336𝑧) 𝒅𝑩
− = -b (𝟑. 𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 ) Cos (1.5 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛
= 500𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒕 − 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝒛) 𝑽 𝒅𝒕

39 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

Therefore 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
B = ∫ −b (3.0 x 10−3 ) Cos (1.5 x 108 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥) ∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 |
𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
−𝑏 (3.0 𝑥 10−3 ) 8
B= Sin (1.5 x 10 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥) 𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛
1.5 𝑥 108
−𝟏𝟏 𝟖
B = 2.0 b x 𝟏𝟎 Sin (1.5 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 T
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
ii)H 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
𝛁×E=| 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
|
From B = 𝜇H
𝐵 𝐵 2.0 b x 10−11 Sin (1.5 x 108 𝑡−𝑏𝑥) 𝐄𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝟎 𝟎
H= = = 𝒅
𝜇 𝜇𝑅 𝜇0 4 𝑥 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7
= (0) – (0) – (0- 𝑬𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 + (0-
= (4.0 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )b sin (1.5 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 A/m 𝒅
𝒅𝒛
𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛)
𝒅𝒚
c) Use 𝛁 x H = 𝑱𝒅 + J to find 𝑱𝒅 = k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚
Since 𝝈 = 𝟎, There is no conduction current 𝑑𝐵
since J = 0 − =∇ ×E
𝑑𝑡
So in this case: 𝒅𝑩
− = k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚
𝛁 x H = 𝑱𝒅 + J 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑫
𝛁 ×H= 𝒅𝑩
𝒅𝒕
= - k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚
𝒅𝒕
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
̅ =|
𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯 B = ∫ − 𝐤 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒕
𝛁×𝑯 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
| 𝑘
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛 B= 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛)
𝜔

𝛁×𝑯̅= Therefor H
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 From B = 𝜇H
𝐵 𝑘
𝝏𝑯 𝒅𝑯 𝝏𝑯 H = = 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛)
| 𝝏𝒙 | 𝜇 𝜇𝜔
𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝟎 𝟎 (𝟒. 𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏. 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕 − 𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 ii)An expression for current density J
𝒅(𝟒.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕−𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 𝒅𝟎
=( - )𝒂𝒙 - Sln
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛
𝒅(𝟒.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕−𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 𝒅0 𝒅𝟎 𝒅0
( - )𝒂𝒚 +( - )𝒂𝒛 Again from Ampere circuital law,
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝑑𝐷
𝒅(𝟒.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕−𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛 We find 𝐽𝑑 =
𝑑𝑡
=0- +0 𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝑑( 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕−𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚
𝒅𝒙
𝒅(𝟒.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 )𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏.𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒕−𝒃𝒙)𝒂𝒛
= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
̅ = 𝑱𝒅 =
𝛁×𝑯
𝒅𝒙 = −𝒌𝛚 𝛆𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚
𝑱𝒅 = 𝟒. 0 𝑥 10−6 𝒃𝟐 𝐶𝑜𝑠(1.5 𝑥108 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥)𝑎𝑦 A/𝒎𝟐
d)What is the numerical value of b Example
sln In free space , E= 20Cos(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚 V/m
from the question itself: Find the
20Cos (1.5 x 108 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥)𝑎𝑦 𝜇𝐴/𝑚2 𝒂) 𝑫isplacement current density ( 𝑱𝒅 )
This can be re-written as: b)Magnetic field intensity (H)
20x 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Cos (1.5 x 108 𝑡 − 𝑏𝑥)𝑎𝑦 𝐴/𝑚2 c)𝝎
Sln
Hence, To find the value of b, we equate the
Again from Ampere circuital law,
constant part of 𝐽𝑑 with that of the question 𝑑𝐷
We first find 𝐽𝑑 =
20x 10−6 = 4 . 0 𝑥 10−6 𝑏 2 𝑑𝑡
20 𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝑑(𝟐𝟎 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕−𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚
𝒃𝟐 = =5, so b =√𝟓 = =
4 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= −𝟐𝟎𝛚 𝛆𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚
Example
A perfectly dielectric medium has an electric b)Magnetic field intensity (H)
field intensity given by E = E cos (𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛)𝒂𝒙 Sln
V/m Alternative 1
Determine: (6mks) E = 𝜂H
𝐸 20 Cos (𝜔𝑡−50𝑥) 𝑎𝑥
i)The magnetic field intensity 𝑯𝒚 H= =
𝜂 𝜂
Use the point form of Faraday’s law and integration
with respect to time to Find B and H 𝐸 20 Cos(𝜔𝑡−50𝑥) 𝑎𝑥
Hence H = =
𝑑𝐵 𝜂 120𝜋
∇ ×E= − Or
𝑑𝑡
i)B 120
H= cos (𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥)𝑎𝑥
120𝜋

Alternative 2

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Use the point form of Faraday’s law and integration Example
with respect to time to Find B and H In the figure below, Given B = 0.2cos 120𝝅𝒕 T,
𝑑𝐵
∇ ×E= − and assume that the conductor joining the two
𝑑𝑡
ends of the resistor is perfect and assuming that
i)B
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 the magnetic field produced by I(t) is negligible.
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
|
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛

𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
𝛁 × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚 𝟎
𝒅
= (0) – (0) + 𝟐𝟎 Cos(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚
𝒅𝒙
= - x(-1000 Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒛
𝑑𝐵
− =∇ ×E
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑩
− = 1000 Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑩 Find:
= -1000 Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒕
a) 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (𝑡)
B = ∫ −𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒛 b) I(t)
1000
B= 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) Sln
𝜔
Since B is constant over the loop area,
Therefor H The flux Ф = Area x B
From B = 𝜇H And since the area is circular, A= 𝜋𝑟 2
𝐵 1000 The flux Ф = Area x B
H= = 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙)
𝜇 𝜇𝜔 Ф = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐵
15
= 𝜋( )2 x 0.2cos 120𝜋𝑡
c)𝝎 100
Sln Ф = 0.0141cos 120𝜋𝑡
𝜔 𝑑Ф
Phase velocity 𝑉𝑝 = So the emf = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (𝑡) = - V
𝛽 𝑑𝑡
𝑑( 0.0141cos 120𝜋𝑡)
𝜔 = 𝛽𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (𝑡) = - V
𝑑𝑡
But 𝑉𝑝 = speed of light = 3.0 𝑥108 m/s 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (𝑡) = - 5.33Sin 120𝜋𝑡 V
𝜔 = 𝛽𝑉𝑝 = 50 x 3.0 𝑥108 = 150 𝑥108 Hz b)I(t)
𝑉 5.33Sin 120𝜋𝑡 V
I(t) = 𝑎𝑏 = = 21.3Sin 120𝜋𝑡 mA
𝑅 250
Example
In a free space, B = 𝑩𝒎 𝒆𝒋(𝝎𝒕+ 𝜷𝒛) 𝒂𝒚. Show that POYTING VECTOR
𝝎𝑩𝒎
E=− 𝒆𝒋(𝝎𝒕+ 𝜷𝒛) 𝒂𝒙 .
𝝁𝝎
Poynting theorem
Sln
𝑑𝐵
∇ ×E= − By the means of electromagnetic (EM) waves,
𝑑𝑡
Starting with R.H.S energy can be stored in an electric field and
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝑎𝑦 magnetic field is transmitted at acertain rate of
− =− = -j𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒚 energy flow which can be calculated with the help
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
∇ × E = -j𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝒂𝒚 of Poynting Theorem.
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬 Definition of Poynting theorem
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 | It states that: The net power flowing out of a given
𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛 volume V is equal to the time rate of decrease in
the energy stored within volume V minus the
𝒅𝑬𝒛 𝒅𝑬𝒚 𝒅𝑬𝒛 𝒅𝑬𝒙 𝒅𝑬𝒚 𝒅𝑬𝒙 Ohmic power dissipated.
[𝒂𝒙 ( − ) − 𝒂𝒚 ( − ) + 𝒂𝒛 ( − )]
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝑬𝒛 𝒅𝑬𝒙
Required = [𝒂𝒚 (− + )]
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛
𝒅𝑬𝒛
But − =0
𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝐵
𝒅𝑬𝒙
=− = −𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒚
𝒅𝒛 𝑑𝑡
𝑬𝒙 = ∫ −𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒙 dz
𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚
B=− 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
𝑗𝛽
𝝎𝐵𝑚
B=− 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
𝛽

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It was named after an English physicist John N.
Poynting. In case of a lossy dielectic
In case of lossy dielectric, 𝑬𝒙 and 𝑯𝒚 are not in
Power density time phase, we have
By taking cross product of electric field 𝐸̅ and 𝑬𝒙 =𝑬𝒙𝟎 𝒆−∝𝒛 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)
magnetic field 𝐻̅ , we get a unit V.A/𝑚2 called If we let 𝜂 = |𝜂| < 𝜃𝜂
power density, given by
̅=𝑬
𝑷 ̅x𝑯 ̅ Then we may write the magnetic field intensity as
̅
Where 𝑷 = Poynting vector and it is the 𝑬𝒙𝟎 −∝𝒛
𝑯𝒚 = |𝜂| 𝒆 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 )
instantaneous power density vector associated with
the electromagnetic EM field at a given point . And the power ,𝑃𝑧 = E x H
𝟐
𝑬 𝒙𝟎 −2∝𝑧
𝑃𝑧 = 𝐸𝑥 𝐻𝑦 = |𝜂|
𝑒 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)cos (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 )
In a perfect dielectric, these E and H fields are And using the Identity:
given By 1 1
CosACosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A - B)
2 2
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥0 Cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) This improves the above equation to
𝐸 𝟐
𝑬 𝒙𝟎 −2∝𝑧
𝐻𝑦 = 𝑥0 Cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝑃𝑧 = 𝑒 cos [(2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑧 − 2𝜃𝜂 ) + 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝜂 ]
𝜂 2|𝜂|

Thus power density P = E x H This find that power density has only a second –harmonic
component and a dc component .Since the first term has a zero
𝑬𝟐
𝑷𝒛 = 𝒙𝟎
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛) average value of the Poynting vector is an integral number of
𝜼 periods, the time varying field
𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
Time – average power density 𝑃𝑧 = 𝑒 −2∝𝑧 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝜂
2|𝜂|

To find the time-average power density, we Note that the power density attenuates as 𝑒 −2𝑎𝑧 where
integrate over one circle and divide by the periodic as 𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑦 fall off as 𝑒 −∝𝑧
1
time T = We can observe that the above expression for 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣
𝑓
1 𝑇 𝐸 2 𝑥0 can be obtained very easily by using the phasor
𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = ∫0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)𝑑𝑡 form of the electric and magnetic fields.
𝑇 𝜂
1 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑇 [1+𝐶𝑜𝑠2(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧]
= ∫0 𝑑𝑡 𝟏
𝑇 𝜂 2
2
1 𝐸 𝑥0 𝑇
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝑹𝒆(𝑬𝒔 × 𝑯𝒔 ) W/𝒎𝟐
𝟐
=
2𝑇 𝜂
∫0 [1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠2(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)] 𝑑𝑡 Where 𝑬𝒔 = 𝐸𝑥0 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒙
And
𝐸𝑥0
1 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑇 𝑯𝒔 = |𝜂|
𝑒𝑗𝜃 𝑒 +𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒚
= [𝑡 + ]
2𝑇 𝜂 2𝜔 0
𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑇 𝟏 𝐸
= [𝑡 + ] 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝑹𝒆(𝐸𝑥0 𝑒−𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒙 × | 𝑥0| 𝑒𝑗𝜃 𝑒+𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒚 ) W/𝒎𝟐
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 0 𝟐 𝜂
𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑇−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔(0)−2𝛽𝑧)
= [𝑇 + − ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2(2𝜋𝑓)𝑇−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔(0)−2𝛽𝑧)
= [𝑇 + − ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
1
But f = , so the equation becomes, Example
𝑇
=
𝐸 2 𝑥0
[𝑇 +
𝑆𝑖𝑛(4𝜋−2𝛽𝑧)
−
𝑆𝑖𝑛(−2𝛽𝑧)
] Let η = 250 + j30Ω and jk = 0.2 +j2 𝒎−𝟏 for a
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔 uniform plane wave propagating in the 𝒂𝒛
𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝛽𝑧) direction in a dielectric having some finite conductivity.
= [𝑇 − + ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔 If 𝑬𝒔 = 400V/m at z = 0.Find
𝐸 2 𝑥0 a) 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 at z = 0
= [𝑇]
2𝑇𝜂
b) 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 at z = 60 cm
c) The average Ohmic power disipated in watts per
And Hence average power is given by: cubic meter at z = 60 cm
𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎 Sln
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = W/𝑚2
𝟐 𝜼 a) 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 at z = 0
𝟏
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝑹𝒆(𝑬𝒔 × 𝑯𝒔 ) W/𝒎𝟐
If we were using root –mean-square value instead 𝟐
𝟏 𝐸𝑥0
1
of peak amplitudes, Then the factor would not be 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝑹𝒆(𝐸𝑥0 𝑒−𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒙 × 𝑒𝑗𝜃 𝑒+𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒚 ) W/𝒎𝟐
2 𝟐 |𝜂|
𝟏 400
present. 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝑹𝒆(400𝑒−∝𝑧 𝑒−𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒙 × 𝑒−∝𝑧 𝑒𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝒂𝒚 ) W/𝒎𝟐
𝟐 |𝜂|
𝟏 1
The average power flowing through any area S = (400)𝟐 (𝑒−2∝𝑧 )𝑹𝒆( ) 𝒂𝒛 )
𝟐 | | 𝜂
1
normal to the Z-axis gives the Total power as : = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎(𝑒−2(0.2)𝑧 )𝑹𝒆( ) 𝒂𝒛 )
|√(250)2 +(30)2 |
𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎 = 315 𝑒 −2(0.2)𝑧 W/𝒎𝟐
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = SW
𝟐𝜼 Hence at z = 0, 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = 𝟑𝟏𝟓 W/𝒎𝟐

b) at z = 60 cm or z = 0.6m
𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = 315 𝑒 −2(0.2)𝑧 𝑎𝑧 W/𝑚2

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𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = 315 𝑒 −2(0.2)(0.6) = 248 𝒂𝒛 W/𝒎𝟐
Hence:
̅𝟐 ̅𝟐
c)In this case , we can use Poyting theorem in -𝛁.(𝑬 ̅ ) = 𝜎𝑬𝟐 +1 𝒅𝜺𝑬 + 1 𝒅µ𝑯
̅×𝑯
point form. 2 𝒅𝒕 2 𝒅𝒕

J . E = −∇. 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣
𝑑
̅=𝑬
But Poynting vector 𝑷 ̅×𝑯 ̅
𝑑𝑥 Hence the equation becomes:
𝑑
0 ̅𝟐 ̅𝟐
−∇. 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = - . ( 0 ) -𝛁.𝑷 ̅ = 𝝈𝑬𝟐 +𝟏 𝒅𝜺𝑬 + 𝟏 𝒅µ𝑯 (Which is
𝑑𝑦 𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝟐 𝒅𝒕
−2(0.2)𝑧
𝑑 315 𝑒 Poynting theorem in point form)
[(𝑑𝑧 ) ]
𝑑 −2(0.2)𝑧
=- (315 𝑒 ) = (0.4) 315 𝑒 −(0.4)𝑧
𝑑𝑧 Poynting equation in integral form
If we integrate the power above in point form, over
At z = 60 cm = 0.6m a volume, we get energy distributes as:
It becomes ̅ 𝐝𝐯 = − ∮ 𝝈𝑬𝟐 + 𝒅 ∮ 𝟏 [𝜺𝑬 ̅ 𝟐 + µ𝑯
̅ 𝟐]
− ∮𝑉 𝛁 . 𝑷
−∇. 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = (0.4) 315 𝑒−(0.4)(0.6) = 99.1 W/𝒎𝟑 𝑉 𝑉 𝒅𝒕 𝟐

POYNTING VECTOR AND POWER And applying divergence theorem to the left of the
CONSIDERATION above equation, we get:
− ∮𝑽 𝛁 . 𝑷 ̅ = − ∮ 𝝈𝑬𝟐 + 𝒅 ∮ 𝟏 [𝜺𝑬
̅ 𝐝𝑺 ̅ 𝟐 + µ𝑯̅ 𝟐]
𝑽 𝒅𝒕 𝑽 𝟐
Integral and Point form of poyting theorem (Which is the Poynting theorem in integral form)
Poynting equation in Point form Where :
NOTE: From Maxwell’s equations B = 𝜇H and
𝑱𝒄 = 𝜎 E − ∮𝑽 𝝈𝑬𝟐 𝐝𝐯 = Power dissipated in volume
𝒅 𝟏
Consider Maxswl’s equations given as ∮ [𝜺𝑬̅ 𝟐 ] 𝒅𝒗 = rate of change of stored energy
̅ ̅ 𝒅𝒕 𝑽 𝟐
𝛁 ×𝑬 ̅ = − 𝒅𝑩 = − 𝒅𝜇𝑯 …eqn 1 in electric field
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
̅ ̅ 𝒅 𝟏
̅ = J + 𝒅𝑫 = 𝜎𝑬
𝛁 ×𝑯 ̅ + 𝜀 𝒅𝑬 …eqn 2 ∮ [µ𝑯 ̅ 𝟐 ] 𝒅𝒗 = rate of change of stored energy
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑽 𝟐
in electric field
̅ we get
Dotting (2) by 𝑬 In this case, 𝐸̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻̅ are assumed to be in real
̅ form.
̅ .(𝛁 × 𝑯
𝑬 ̅ ) =𝑬
̅ . ( 𝜎𝑬 ̅ (𝜀 𝒅𝑬)
̅ ) +𝑬. eqtn 3
𝒅𝒕 However, when 𝐸̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 ̅ in phasor form, then the
Making use of the vector identity as shown below’ average power will be given as:
̅×𝑩
𝛁 .( 𝑨 ̅) = 𝑩
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑨̅) - 𝑨
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑩̅)
And applying above vector identity to equation 3 𝐏𝐳𝐚𝐯 =
𝟏
𝐑𝐞(𝐸̅𝐬 × 𝐻
̅𝐬 ) W/𝐦𝟐
Where 𝑨 ̅= 𝑬 ̅ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 ̅=𝑯̅ 𝟐
The Identity becomes:
̅×𝑯
𝛁 .( 𝑬 ̅) = 𝑯̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑬
̅) - 𝑬
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑯̅)
Example
And re-arranging it becomes
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑯
̅) = 𝑯̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑬̅) - 𝛁 . ( 𝑬
̅×𝑯 ̅ ) eqtn 4 The radiated fields at sufficient large distance
𝑬
from a dipole antenna are at the form
Hence, comparing the right hand-sides of eqt 4 and
3 ̅ = 𝑬𝒐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎(𝒕 − 𝜸 )
𝑬
𝑹 𝒗𝒐
̅
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑬
𝑯 ̅) - 𝛁 . ( 𝑬
̅×𝑯̅ )= 𝑬̅ . ( 𝜎𝑬 ̅ (𝜀 𝒅𝑬)
̅ ) +𝑬. ̅ =√ 𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝒐 𝜸
𝒅𝒕 𝑯 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎(𝒕 − )
̅ 𝝁𝟎 𝑹 𝒗𝒐
𝒅𝑬
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑬
𝑯 ̅) - 𝛁 . ( 𝑬
̅×𝑯
̅ )= 𝜎𝑬𝟐 +𝑬.
̅ (𝜀 ) ..eqn 5
𝒅𝒕
Now from equation 1 above Which are specified in spherical coordinates
̅
𝛁 ×𝑬 ̅ = − 𝒅𝜇𝑯 system. 𝒗𝒐 = 3 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s is the velocity in free
𝒅𝒕
̅ space. Determine the power radiated by the
̅ with − 𝒅𝜇𝑯 ,
Lets substitute into eqtn 5, 𝛁 × 𝑬 antenna.
𝒅𝒕
and it gives:
̅ ̅𝟐 Sln
̅ . (𝛁 × 𝑬
𝑯 ̅) = 𝑯 ̅ . (− 𝒅𝜇𝑯 ) = − 𝒅𝜇𝑯
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 In order to determine the radiated power, we select
̅𝟐
𝒅𝑯 ̅
𝒅𝑯
But we know that, ̅.
= 2𝑯 surface and compute the flux of S that:
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
So that : 𝑆̅ = 𝐸
̅ ×𝐻
𝐬
̅
𝐬
̅𝟐 ̅ 𝐸𝑜 2 𝜀 𝛾
1 𝒅𝑯
̅ . 𝒅𝑯
=𝑯 …… eqtn (i) 𝑆̅ = √𝜇 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜔 (𝑡 −
𝑜
)
2 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑅2 0 𝑣𝑜
𝑆̅ = power density vector …. Indicating that the
Similarly, we can write, flow of power is in the direction a way from the
̅𝟐
1 𝒅𝑬 ̅
̅ . 𝒅𝑬
=𝑬 ………eqtn (ii) antenna.
2 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Now substituting the eqtn (i) and (ii) into eqtn 5 S - has a unit W/𝒎𝟐 and when multiplied by the
above, we get: differential surface , gives the radiated power.
̅𝟐
1 𝒅µ𝑯 ̅𝟐
− -𝛁.(𝑬 ̅×𝑯̅ ) = 𝜎𝑬𝟐 +1 𝒅𝜺𝑬 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ∫ 𝑆̅ ds
2 𝒅𝒕 2 𝒅𝒕

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𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫∅ ∫0
2𝜋 𝜋 𝐸𝑜 2 𝜀
√𝜇 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜔 (𝑡 −
𝑜 𝛾
) 𝑅 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅ But 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑅2 0 𝑣𝑜
Let u = Cos𝜃 so that du = sin𝜃d𝜃
2𝜋 𝜋 𝜀 𝛾 𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫∅ ∫0 √ 𝑜 𝐸𝑜 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 𝜃𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜔 (𝑡 − ) 𝑑𝜃𝑑∅ 𝜋
𝐶𝑜𝑠3 𝜃 3
𝜇 𝑣𝑜
0
15 ∫03(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ]
3 0
𝜋
2 2 2 2 𝜋 𝐶𝑜𝑠3 ( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠3 (0)
But 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 1 and 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =15 [−𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 3
] - [𝐶𝑜𝑠 (0) +
3
]
𝑆𝑖𝑛3 𝜃= 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 3 3 3
𝜋 1 1 1 1
= 15 [− + ( )( )] - [−1 + ]
∫ (1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 2 3 8 3
0 1 1 2
= 15 [− + ( )] - [− ]
2 24 3
5
Let u = Cos𝜃 so that du = sin𝜃d𝜃 = 15 x = 3.125 W
𝜋 24
∫0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝜋0 + [𝐶𝑜𝑠3 𝜃]𝜋0
[−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃]𝜋0 + [𝐶𝑜𝑠3 𝜃]𝜋0 = [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 − (𝑐𝑜𝑠0)] + Example
1 1 4 In anon- magnetic medium,
[− − ] =
3 3 3 E = 4Sin (2𝝅 x 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝝎𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝜷𝒙) 𝒂𝒛 V/m. Find
2𝜋 2 𝜀 4 𝛾
∫∅=0 √𝜇 𝐸𝑜 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜔 (𝑡 −
𝑜
) 𝑑∅ a)The above average power carried by the wave
0 𝑣𝑜
if η = 9.87 x 𝟏𝟎𝟑 Ω
8𝜋 𝜀𝑜
2
𝛾
b)The total power crossing 100𝒄𝒎𝟐 at the plane
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐸 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜔 (𝑡 − )W
3 √𝜇0 𝑜 𝑣𝑜 (2x + y) = 5
Sln
But as in electric circuit, considering time average In free space,
over a cycle, the average power 𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
a)Average power 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 =
1 𝑇 𝟐𝜼
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫0 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 dt
𝑇 (𝟒)𝟐
4𝜋 𝜀𝑜
2 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = = 8.10 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Watts
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐸 W 𝟐 𝒙 (𝟗.𝟖𝟕 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )
3 √𝜇0 𝑜

Example b)Total power crossing the 100𝒄𝒎𝟐 at the plane

For the dipole antenna of above example, the constant 𝑬𝟎 = (2x + y) = 5
10. Determine the total average power radiated. Total power 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 x Area
𝟐
𝑷𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝟒𝝅 𝜺𝒐
𝑬 W 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 8.10 x 10−4 x A
𝟑 √𝝁𝟎 𝒐 2x + y 2x y
1 But the unit vector 𝑎𝑧 = = +
4𝜋 √36𝜋 × 10−9 √5 √5 √5
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐸𝑜 2 W = 1.11 W Hence,
3 4𝜋 𝑥 10−9

Hence picking in the direction of x

Example 2
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 −𝒋𝟐𝒓
𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 8.10 x 10−4 x x 1.0−2
√5
If 𝑬𝒔 = 60 𝒆 𝒂𝜽 𝑽/𝒎 and
𝒓 = 7.24 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Watts
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 −𝒋𝟐𝒓
𝑬𝒔 = 𝒆 𝒂∅
𝑽/𝒎 A/m in free space, find
𝟒𝝅𝒓
the average power passing outward through the Example
𝝅
surface r = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 , 0 < 𝜽< and 0 < ∅ < 2𝝅 A plane wave 500 Hz and electric field of 150
𝟑 V/m ,travels in the positive direction in an
Sln infinite lossless medium having 𝜺𝒓 = 9, 𝝁𝒓 = 1,
𝟏
𝐏𝐳𝐚𝐯 = 𝐑𝐞(𝐸̅𝐬 × 𝐻 ̅𝐬 ) W/𝐦𝟐 and 𝝈 = 𝟎. Determine the average power.
𝟐
Sln
𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 1
𝐏𝐳𝐚𝐯 = 𝐑𝐞(𝟔𝟎 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 × 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 ) W/𝐦𝟐 The intrinsic impedance η = 120𝜋 x
𝟐 𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝒓 √𝝁𝒓 𝜀𝑟
15𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 1
= η = 120𝜋 x = 40𝜋
2𝜋𝑟 2 √1𝑥 9
NOTE: 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 = Cos(2r) –jsin(2r) and 𝐸0 = 150 V/m.
Hence 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 x 𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝒓 =
𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
(Cos(2r) –jsin(2r))(cos (2r) – jSin(2r)) Average power 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 =
𝟐𝜼
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (2r) + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (2𝑟) = 1
(𝟏𝟓𝟎)𝟐
Hence the power will be 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = = 89.52 Watts
𝟐 𝒙 (40𝜋)
2𝜋
𝜋
15𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∫∅=0 ∫𝜃=0
3 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅
2𝜋𝑟2
NOTE: Change the integral as shown below so that Example
you start integrating with respect to 𝑑∅ first The electric field intensity of the wave is given
𝜋
2𝜋 15𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 by
= ∫𝜃=0
3
∫∅=0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝜃
E(z,t) = 120Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒛) 𝒂𝒙 V/m
2𝜋
𝜋
2𝜋 15𝑆𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 Determine the total power passing Via
= ∫𝜃=0
3
∫∅=0 𝑑∅𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
rectangular area of side 45mm by 10mm in the
𝜋
15∅𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
3 2𝜋 z = o plane.
= ∫𝜃=0
3 [ ] 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
∅=0
𝜋
15(2𝜋)𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 15(0)𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
3 3 Sln
= ∫𝜃=0
3 [( 2𝜋
)− ( 2𝜋
)] 𝑑𝜃 𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
Average power 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 =
𝜋
3 𝟐𝜼
= ∫𝜃=0
3 15𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 In free space ,the intrinsic impedence η = 1

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 𝜇0 conductors are identical. Infinite parallel planes
i.e η = √ = 120𝜋
𝜀0 with separation d .Choosing the lower conductor
(𝟏𝟐𝟎)𝟐 plane at z = 0 and the upper one z = d. a uniform
𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = = 19.09 Watts
𝟐 𝒙 (120𝜋) sheet of surface ± 𝜌𝑠 on each conductor leads to
Total power 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 x Area the uniform field.
𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 19.09 x 45 x 10−6
𝜌𝑠
= 8.59 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Watts E=
𝜖
Where 𝜖 = homogeneous dielectric
D=𝜖E
Objective 5 𝜌𝑠
Hence D = 𝜖 ( ) = 𝜌𝑠
4)Describe the displacement current density of 𝜖
parallel plate capacitor.

CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITOR

Capacitor – Is a devise that stores charges.
It consist of 2 conductors separated by afree space
called dielectrics
Capacitance (C) is defined as the amount of
charge stored per unit voltage.
𝑸
C= The charge on the lower plane must be positive,
𝑽
since D is directed upward, and normal value of D.
Or
The potential difference between lower and upper
plane is:
Capacitance is the ratio of the magnitude of the
total charge on either conductor to the magnitude of 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
the potential difference between conductors. 𝑉0 = − ∫𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
The SI unit is Farads. 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠
𝑉0 = − ∫𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 ( ) dz = d
Consider two conductors embedded in a 𝜖 𝜖

homogeneous dielectric in which conductor 𝑀2 Since the total charge on either plane is infinite, the
carries a total positive charge Q , and 𝑀1 carries an capacitance is infinite.
equal negative charge. There are no other charges Hence a more practical example is obtained by
present and the total charge of the system is Zero considering planes each of area S, whose linear
dimensions are much greater than their separation
d. The charge distribution are then almost uniform
at all points not adjacent to the edges and this latter
region contributes only a small percentage of the
total capacitance allowing us to write the familiar
result.

The charge Q = 𝜌𝑠 S
And
𝜌𝑠𝑑
𝑉0 =
𝜖
𝑸 𝝆𝒔 𝐒 𝝐𝑺
Therefore : C = = 𝝆𝒔𝒅 =
𝑽 𝒅
𝝐
The opposite charged conductors 𝑀1 and 𝑀2
Where
surrounded by a uniform dielectric. The ratio of the
S = Surface area (A) of the parallel plates
magnitude of the charge on either conductor to the
D = Distance of separation
magnitude of the potential difference between them
𝜀 = Dielecric of material
is the capacitance.
Now some books will mean surface area S as A
So
When a dc voltage is applied between the 2 𝑸 𝝐𝑺
conductors, a charge transfer occurs resulting into : C= =
𝑽 𝒅
positive (+ve) charge Q on one conductor and Or
negative (-ve) charge Q on the other conductor. An 𝑸 𝝐𝑨
C= =
𝑽 𝒅
electric field will be formed from +ve Q to –ve Q
which are perpendicular to conductor surface
Steps in calculating capacitance
(equipotential Surface)

𝑸 1)Choose an appropriate co-ordinate system for a

C= given geometry
𝑽𝟏𝟐
Where C = Capacitance 2)Assume +Q and –Q on the conductors
𝑄
Q = Charge 3)Find E from Q by Gauss law i.e E = 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑅
V = Voltage 1
3)Find 𝑽𝟏𝟐 = − ∫2 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑸
We can apply the definition of capacitance to a Then Find C =
𝑽𝟏𝟐
simple two-conductor system in which the

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 Where C = Capacitance 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐸0 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1𝐸1
Q = Charge 𝐸0 = 𝜀𝑟1 𝐸1 (this has solved part b of the
V = Voltage question)

Example 𝑉
E = and if V = Ф
𝑑
From the parallel plate capacitor shown below. Ф
Find the capacitance E=
𝑑
Ф1
Now 𝐸1 = and Ф1 = a𝐸1 ….. eqtn (i)
𝑎
Ф0
𝐸𝑜 = and Ф0 = 𝐸0 (𝑑 − 𝑎) … eqtn (ii)
𝑑−𝑎
Ф 𝑇 = Ф1 + Ф0
Ф 𝑇 = a𝐸1 + 𝐸0 (𝑑 − 𝑎)
Ф = a𝐸1 +𝜀𝑟1 𝐸1 (𝑑 − 𝑎)
Sln Ф = 𝐸1 (𝑎 + 𝜀𝑟 (𝑑 − 𝑎)
From Gauss Law Ф = 𝐸1 (𝜀𝑟 𝑑 + 𝑎 − 𝜀𝑟 𝑎)
Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 Ф = 𝐸1 (𝜀𝑟 𝑑−𝜀𝑟 𝑎 + 𝑎)
Q = DA
DA = Q Making 𝐸1 the subject
𝜀𝐸𝐴 = Q 𝐄𝟏 =
Ф
𝑄 𝜀𝑟 𝑑−𝜀𝑟 𝑎+𝑎
E = - 𝑎𝑦 Ф
𝜀𝐴 𝐄𝟏 = (and the answer follows)
The negative sign shows that the fields lines are in 𝛆𝐫 𝐝−𝐚(𝛆𝐫 −𝟏)
–ve A of y direction
Potential difference (V) c)capacitance of the capacitor
1 𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝛆𝐫
V = − ∫2 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿 𝐂𝐓 = [ 𝐚 𝐚 ]
𝐝 (𝟏− )𝛆𝐫 +
And DL in Gauss point form dL = 𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝐝 𝐝
1
V = − ∫2 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
Sln
𝑑 𝑄 𝜺𝑨 𝜀 𝜀 𝐴
V = − ∫0 (− ) 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦 C = = 0𝑟
𝜀𝐴 𝒅 𝒅
𝑄 𝑑 𝑄
V= ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜀𝐴 [𝑦]𝑑0
𝜀𝐴 0 𝐂𝟎 =
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴
but 𝜀𝑟0 = 1
𝒅−𝒂
𝑄𝑑 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴
V= 𝐂𝟏 =
𝜀𝐴 𝒂
𝑸 𝐶𝑜 𝑥𝐶1
But capacitance (C) is C = Capacitance in series
𝑽 𝐶𝑜 +𝐶1
Hence: 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴 𝑥 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴
𝑸 𝜺𝑨 𝒂(𝒅−𝒂)
C = 𝑄𝑑 = 𝐂𝐓 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴
𝒅 +
𝜀𝐴 𝒅−𝒂 𝒂
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴 𝑥 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴
𝒂(𝒅−𝒂)
Example 𝐂𝐓 = 𝑎(𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴)+(𝑑−𝑎)(𝜀0𝜀𝑟1 𝐴)
𝒂(𝒅−𝒂)
A parallel plate capacitor has internal 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴 𝑥 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴
separation ‘d’ between plates. A dielectric slab 𝐂𝐓 =
𝑎(𝜀0 𝜀𝑟0 𝐴)+(𝑑−𝑎)(𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴)
with 𝛆𝐫 of thickness ‘a’ is placed on the lower Expanding the denominator and then simplifying
plate of the capacitor. Show that the electric 𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀𝑟1
𝐶𝑇 =
𝑎 +(𝑑−𝑎)𝜀𝑟1
field intensity in the dielectric is:
Ф And introducing d
a)𝐄𝟏 =
𝛆𝐫 𝐝−𝐚(𝛆𝐫 −𝟏) 𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝛆𝐫
where Ф = potential difference between plates 𝐂𝐓 = [ 𝐚 𝐚 ]
𝐝 (𝟏− )𝛆𝐫 +
𝐝 𝐝
b) Electric field intensity in the air space is
𝐄𝐨 = 𝛆𝐫 𝐄𝟏 Example
c)capacitance of the capacitor Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate
𝐂𝐓 =
𝛆𝟎 𝐀
[
𝛆𝐫
] capacitor having a mica dielectric, ∈𝒓 = 6, a
𝐚 𝐚
𝐝 (𝟏− )𝛆𝐫 +
𝐝 𝐝 plate area of 10 𝒊𝒏𝟐 , and separation of 0.01in.
Sln Sln
The value of in = 0.0254
Hence S = 10 x 0.02542 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟐
d = 0.01 x 0.0254 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 m
𝝐 = 𝝐𝑹 𝜺𝟎
and therefore
Ф 𝑸 𝝐𝑺 𝟔 𝒙 𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝟔.𝟒𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
a)𝐄𝟏 = C = = =
𝛆𝐫 𝐝−𝐚(𝛆𝐫 −𝟏) 𝑽 𝒅 𝟐.𝟓𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
where Ф = potential difference between
plates = 1.349 nF

The normal of flux density 𝐷𝑚 across the boundary

are equal
𝜀𝐸0 = 𝜀1 𝐸1

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 Example
Energy Stored in a capacitor A 50 voltage generator at 20MHz is connected to
Work done = Energy stored the plate of air dielectric parallel plate capacitor
Work done 𝑊𝐸 = ∫𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝜖𝐸 2 dv
1 with plate area 𝟐. 𝟖𝒄𝒎𝟐 and the distance of
2 separation 0.2mm. Find the maximum:
1 𝑠 𝑑 𝜖𝜌2 1 𝜖𝜌2
= ∫0 ∫0 2 𝑠 dz dS = 𝑠
Sd a)the displacement current 𝑱𝒅
2 𝜖 2 𝜖2
This can be manipulated and re-written as; b)the conduction current 𝑰𝒄 .
1 𝜖𝜌2
𝑠 1 𝜖𝑆 𝜌2 𝑠 𝑑 2
𝑊𝐸 = Sd = . Sln
2 𝜖2 2 𝑑 𝜖2
But a) the displacement current 𝑱𝒅
𝝐𝑺 𝜌𝑠𝑑 𝑉 50𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
C= and 𝑽𝟎 = E= =
𝒅 𝜖 𝑑 −3
0.2 𝑥 10
𝜌2 𝑠 𝑑 2
So: 𝑽𝟎 2 =
𝜖2 𝜖𝑑𝐸
Thus , But 𝐽𝑑 =
𝑑𝑡
1 𝜖𝑆 𝜌2 𝑑 2 1 𝜖 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
𝑊𝐸 = . 𝑠2 = 𝐶𝑽𝟎 2
2 𝑑 𝜖 2 But 𝜀𝑟 = 1 and 𝜖 = 𝜀0
This can also be 𝑑 50𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
1 1 𝑄 2 1 𝐽𝑑 = 𝜀0 ( )𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 0.2 𝑥 10−3
𝑊𝐸 = 𝐶𝑽𝟎 2 = ( )𝑽𝟎 = 𝑄𝑉 3
2 2 𝑉 2 𝐽𝑑 = 250𝑥 10 𝜀0 𝜔𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
And b)the conduction current 𝑰𝒄 .
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑦
Energy density = 𝑰
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐽𝑑 = 𝒄
𝐴
𝑰𝒄 = 𝐽𝑑 x A
Example 𝐼𝐶 = 250𝑥 103 𝜀0 𝜔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 x A
A parallel capacitor with plate area 𝟓𝟎𝒎𝟐 and
plate separation 0f 3mm has a voltage But 𝝎 = 2𝝅f and f = 20MHz
𝟓𝟎𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟑 t is applied to the plate assuming 𝐼𝑐 = 250𝑥 103 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 20 𝑥 106 𝝅𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 x A
𝝐 = 𝟐𝜺𝟎 . Calculate 𝐼𝑐 = 88.854 𝑥 10−12 𝝅𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 x (2.8 𝑥 10−4 )
a)the displacement current 𝑱𝒅 𝐼𝑐 = 24.4 𝑥 10−12 𝝅 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
b)the conduction current 𝑰𝒄 if the area is
𝟓. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟐 . Example
Sln Maximum potential difference between the
a)The displacement current 𝑱𝒅 inner and outer conductor sheet of a coaxial
𝑉 50𝑆𝑖𝑛 103 𝑡 cable is 200kV as shown in the figure below.
E= =
𝑑 3 𝑥 10−3
𝜖𝑑𝐸
But 𝐽𝑑 =
𝑑𝑡
𝜖 = 2𝜀0
2𝜀0 𝑑 50𝑆𝑖𝑛 103 𝑡
𝐽𝑑 = ( )𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑥 10−3
2𝜀0 𝑥 50 𝑑 (𝑆𝑖𝑛 103 𝑡
𝐽𝑑 = ( )
3 𝑥 10−3 𝑑𝑡
𝐽𝑑 = 33.33𝑥 10 𝜀0 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 103 t) I/𝒎𝟐
3

Find for E = 25 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔

𝑹
a)𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 if 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐
b)the conduction current 𝑰𝒄 . 𝟐
Sln b)capacitance of 10km length cable
𝑰 c)What is the energy stored in the 10km cable
𝐽𝑑 = 𝒄
𝐴 Sln
𝑰𝒄 = 𝐽𝑑 x A E = - ∇. 𝑉
𝑰𝒄 = 𝐽𝑑 x A 𝑝
E = 𝐿 𝑎𝑟
= 33.33𝑥 100 𝜀0 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 103 t) x 𝟓. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 2𝜋𝜀𝑟
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑝𝐿
= 33.33𝑥 100 𝑥 8.854𝑥 10−12 𝑐𝑜𝑠 103 t x V = − ∫𝑅2 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿 V = − ∫𝑅2 𝑎
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑟
𝑑𝐿
5.0 x 10−4 dL = 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= 1.476 𝑥 10−7 𝑐𝑜𝑠 103 t A 𝑅1 𝑝
V = − ∫𝑅2 𝐿 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑟
𝑅1 𝑝𝐿
V = − ∫𝑅2 𝑑
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑟
𝑝𝐿 𝑅1 1
V= − ∫ 𝑑
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅2 𝑟 𝑟
𝑝𝐿 𝑅1
V= − [ln 𝑟]𝑅2
2𝜋𝜀
𝑝𝐿 𝑅2
V=− 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅1
2𝜋𝜀𝑉
Making 𝑝𝐿 the subject : 𝑝𝐿 = 𝑅2
𝑙𝑛
𝑅1
E in terms of V
2𝜋𝜀𝑉
𝑅2
𝑝𝐿 𝑙𝑛𝑅1
E= = and
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 2𝜋𝜀𝑟

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 Let r = R1
𝑉 𝑉
E = 𝑅2 = 𝑅2
Example
𝑟𝑙𝑛 𝑅1 𝑙𝑛 Find the energy stored in a system of 4 identical
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑉 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔 capacitor Q = 2nC placed at the corners of a
25 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑙𝑛 𝑅1 𝑙𝑛 square side 1m.
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑹𝟐
But : 𝑹𝟏 = Sln
𝟐
𝑹𝟐 = 2𝑹𝟏
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔
25 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 = 2𝑅1 =
𝑅1 𝑙𝑛 𝑅1 𝑥 0.69
𝑅1
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝟔
𝑹𝟏 = = 0.0116
𝟐𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑥 0.69
𝑹𝟐 = 2𝑹𝟏 = 2 x 0.0116 = 0.0232

b)capacitance of 10km length cable

Sln 𝑄1
Q = 𝑝𝐿 V=
4𝜋𝜀|𝑟|
𝑸
C= 𝑄2 is taken as reference point
𝑽 𝑄 𝑄2 𝑄3
C=
𝑝𝐿
permetre V1= 1 + +
𝑝𝐿 𝑅2 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟| 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟| 4𝜋𝜀|𝑟|
𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅1 1 1 1
−9
And L = 10km = 10000m V1 = 2𝑥10 [ + + ]
4𝜋𝜀|1| 4𝜋𝜀|√2| 4𝜋𝜀|1|
Now for 10000m 2𝑥10−9 1 1 1
𝑝
C = 𝑝𝐿 𝐿 𝑅2 𝒙 𝑳 V1 = [|1| + + |1|
]
4𝜋𝜀 |√2|
𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅1 1 1 1
2𝜋𝜀 2𝜋 𝑥 8.85 𝑥 10−12 V1 = 2𝑥10−9 𝑥 9𝑥109 [|1| + + ]
C= 𝑅2 𝒙𝑳= 0.0232 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 |√2| |1|
𝑙𝑛 ln( )
𝑅1 0.0116 1
5.5606 𝑥 10−7 −7
V1 = 18 [2 + ] = 48.73
C= = 8.058 𝑥 10 𝐹 |√2|
ln(2) 1
Energy Stored = 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑉
2
c)What is the energy stored in the 10km cable Or
1 1
Sln Energy stored = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝑥2𝑥10−9 𝑥 48.73
2 2 2
1 1 𝑄 1
𝑊𝐸 = 𝐶𝑽𝟎 2 = ( )𝑽𝟎 = 𝑄𝑉 = 48.73𝑥10−9 J
2 2 𝑉 2
1 1
Energy = 𝐶𝑽𝟎 2 = 𝑥 8.058 𝑥 10−7 (𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 )2
2 2
= 16116J
Example
Example The electric field between 2 concentric
Determine the energy stored in an electric field cylindrical conductors of radius r1 = 0.01m and
of a concentric spherical shell 𝟏𝟎𝟔
r2 = 0.05m is E = ( )𝐚𝐫 . Find the energy stored
𝐫
in 1m length.
Sln
1
Energy Stored = 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑉
2

𝑎 ∅=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Q = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑝𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
dv =𝜌𝑑𝑝𝑑∅𝑑𝑟
Sln =𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
𝑅1
V = − ∫𝑅2 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿 1 1 ∅=2𝜋 0.05
1
= ∫0 ∫0
2
∫0.01 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
2
Energy stored or work done = 𝜀𝐸 𝑉 1 1 0.05 𝟏𝟎𝟔 2
∅=2𝜋
2
𝑄 = 𝜀 ∫0 ∫0 ∫0.01 (
) 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
E= 𝑎 2 𝐫
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝑅 1 1 ∅=2𝜋 0.05 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐
1 𝑅1 = 𝜀 ∫0 ∫0 ∫0.01 𝒓𝟐 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
= − ∫𝑅2 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑑𝑣 2
2
1 𝑅1 𝑄 1 1 ∅=2𝜋 0.05 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐
= − ∫𝑅2 𝜀( )2 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜀 ∫0 ∫0 ∫0.01 𝐫 𝑑𝑟𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
2 4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 2
2 1 1 ∅=2𝜋
dv = 4𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑥 1012 𝜀 ∫0 ∫0 [𝑙𝑛𝑟]𝟎.𝟎𝟓
0.01 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
1 𝑅1 𝑄2 2
= − ∫𝑅2 𝜀 𝑥 4𝜋𝑅2 𝑑𝑟 1 0.05 1
2 (4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 )2 = 𝑥 1012 𝜀𝑙𝑛 ∫ 2𝜋 dz
2 0.01 0
1 𝑅1 𝑄2
= − ∫𝑅2 𝜀 𝑥 4𝜋𝑅2 𝑑𝑟 1
= 𝑥 1012 𝜀𝑙𝑛5 [2𝜋] [𝑧]𝟏0
2 4 2 𝜋2 𝜀 2 𝑅 4 2
R=r = 𝜀𝜋 𝑥 𝑙𝑛5𝑥 10 12
1 𝑄2 𝑅1 1
=− ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑟
2 4𝜋𝜀 𝑅2 𝑟2
1 𝑄2 1
=−
2 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑅]𝑅1
𝑅2
1 𝑄2 1
=−
2 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑅1−𝑅2]

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Example
Find the energy stored in a parallel plate SPHERICAL CAPACITOR
capacitor It consists of an inner conducting sphere of radius
Sln r = Ri and outer radius of r = R 0
𝑅1
V = − ∫𝑅0 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿
𝑄
E= 𝑎𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2

𝑅1 𝑄
V = − ∫𝑅2 𝑑𝑅
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2
2 1
NOTE 𝑅 when differentiated gives -
𝑅
𝑄 𝑅1
V=[ ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 𝑅9

𝑉
E=
𝑑
1 Example
W = ∫ 𝜀𝐸 2 𝑑𝑣
2 What is the capacitance of the capacitor
1 𝑉
W =
2
∫ 𝜀(𝑑 )2 𝑑𝑣 consisting of two parallel plates 0.30 by 0.3m
1 𝑣2 separated by 0.005m in air as shown in the
W = 𝜀 2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
2 𝑑 figure below .
But Volume V = A x d
1 𝑣2
W = 𝜀 𝑥𝐴𝑥𝑑
2 𝑑2
1 𝑣2 1 𝜀𝐴
W = 𝜀 𝑥 𝐴 = 𝑉2
2 𝑑 2 𝑑
But the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is
𝜀𝐴
C=
𝑑
Hence
1 𝜀𝐴 1
W = 𝑉 2 = 𝑉 2𝐶
2 𝑑 2
But Q = CV a)What is the energy stored by the capacitor if it
1 is charged to potential of 500V
Hence we can have also W = 𝑄𝑉
2 b)What is its energy density
Sln
CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR (CO-AXIAL
a)What is the energy stored by the capacitor if it
CABLE)
is charged to potential of 500V
Sln
It consist of an inner radius ‘a’ and an outer radius 𝜺𝑨 𝜀 𝜀 𝐴
‘b’. the space between conductor is filled with C = = 0𝑟
𝒅 𝒅
electric field intensity (E ) and let L be the length 8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 0.3
C = = 1.593 𝑥 10−10 𝐹
of the cable 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓
1 1
By applying Gauss law: Energy = 𝐶𝑽𝟎 2
= 𝑥 1.593 𝑥 10−10 (𝟓𝟎𝟎)2 =
22
Charge enclosed Q = ∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 −5
1.99125 𝑥 10 J
Q = DA
DA = Q
But D = 𝜀𝐸 b)What is its energy density
𝜀𝐸(2𝜋𝑟)𝐿 = Q Sln
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑦
2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝜀𝐸 = Q Energy density =
𝑄 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
E= 𝑎𝑟 1.99125 𝑥 10−5 J
2𝜋𝜀𝑟𝐿 Energy density =
𝑏 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
V = − ∫𝑏 𝐸. 𝑑𝐿 1.99125 𝑥 10−5 J
Energy density =
dL = 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟 (0.30 𝑥0.3) 𝑥(0.005)
𝑎 𝑄 1.99125 𝑥 10−5 J
V = − ∫𝑏 𝑎 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑟𝐿 𝑟
Energy density = = 0.04425 J/𝑚3
4.5 𝑥 10−4
𝑎 𝑄
V = − ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑟𝐿

𝑄 𝑎 1
V=− ∫ 𝑑
2𝜋𝜀𝐿 𝑏 𝑟 𝑟
𝑄
V= − [ln 𝑟]𝑎𝑏 Example
2𝜋𝜀𝑟𝐿
𝑄 𝑎 Let 𝝁 = 3 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 H/m, 𝝐 = 1.2 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 F/m , and
V=− 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀𝐿 𝑏 𝝈 = 0 everywhere. If H = 2Cos (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙)𝒂𝒛
To make it positive A/m, use Maxwell’s equation to obtain
𝑄 𝑏
V= 𝑙𝑛 expression for
2𝜋𝜀𝐿 𝑐
C=
𝑸
=
𝑸 a)D
𝑽 𝑄 𝑏
𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀𝐿 𝑐
b)E
2𝜋𝜀𝐿 c) B
C= 𝑏
𝑙𝑛
𝑐 d) 𝜷

49 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

 Example
Sln A 60 MHz uniform plane wave propagates in a
a) D medium with 𝝐𝒓𝟏 = 20, 𝝁𝒓𝟏 = 1 and 𝝈𝟏 = 0.05
𝑑𝐷
From ∇ × H = S/m. The amplitude of electric field intensity is
𝑑𝑡
20 V/m. Determine: (9mks)
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 i) Angular frequency 𝝎
̅ =|
𝜕𝐻 𝑑𝐻 𝜕𝐻 Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 x 6 x 106 =
∇×𝐻 |
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑧 3.77 x 108 Rad/s
𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧
ii)Complex Permittivity 𝜺̅
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 𝜎1 𝜎1 0.05 𝑥 ×36𝜋
= = = 0.75
𝜕𝐻 𝑑𝐻 𝜕𝐻 𝜔𝜖 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0 3.77 𝑥 108 𝑥 20𝑥 10−9
̅=|
∇×𝐻 | 𝜖𝑟1 𝜎1
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜀̅ = (1 − 𝑗 )
10 𝜇𝑟1 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0
0 0 2Cos (10 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥) 20 𝑥 10−9
= (1 − 𝑗0.75)
36𝜋
∇×𝐻 ̅ =- 𝑑𝐻
𝑎 = 2𝛽Sin (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥) =
𝑑𝐷 = (17.68 – j1.33 ) x 10−11
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑡
D = ∫ 2𝛽𝑆𝑖𝑛(10)10 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥) ̅
2𝛽 iii)Propagation Constant 𝒀
10
=-
10 10 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (10 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)𝑎𝑦 V/m
Sln
b)E 𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺̅
From D = 𝜖𝐸
𝐷 2𝛽
E= =- 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)𝑎𝑦 V/m = j3.77 𝑥 108 √4𝜋𝑥10−7 (17.68 − 𝑗1.33)10−11
𝜖 (1.2 𝑥 10−10 )1010
10
𝐸 = −1.67 𝛽𝐶𝑜𝑠 (10 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)𝑎𝑦 V/m = j 5.62 + 1.54
= 1.54 + j5.62

iv)Intrinsic Impedance Ω
c)B
𝑑𝐵
∇ ×E= − Sln
𝑑𝑡
𝜇
Intrinsic Impedance Ω = √ ̅0
i)B 𝜺
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
=√
𝟏𝟕.𝟔𝟖 – 𝒋𝟏.𝟑𝟑
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 | = 84 + j23.1
𝑯𝒙 𝑯𝒚 𝑯𝒛
Example
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 A 5GHz wave propagates in a medium
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
𝛁 × E = | 𝝏𝒙 | characterized by :
𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
10 Permeability, 𝝁𝒓 = 2,
𝟎 𝟎 2Cos (10 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐵
permittivity, 𝜺𝒓 = 20
∇×𝐸 =̅ 𝑎 =1.67 𝛽 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥) = -
𝑑𝑥 𝑧 𝑑𝑡 Conductivity 𝝈 = 4.0 S/m.
B = - ∫ 1.67 𝛽 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥)𝑑𝑡 The electric field intensity E in the region is
B = 1.67𝑥 10−10 𝛽 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥) given by the expression
E = 0.2𝒆−𝒂𝒛 Cos (2𝝅𝒇𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒛
d) 𝜷 Determine the: (7mks)
From i)Complex permittivity 𝜺 ⃖
B = 𝜇𝐻
ω = 2πx 5x 109 = 31.41 x 109 rad/s
Then 31.41 x 109 x 31.41 x 30−9
B = 𝜇(𝟐𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙) ω∈= = 8.33
36π
B = 3 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 (𝟐𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙) The complex permittivity 𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 −
𝑗𝜔𝜀
]
𝜎
B = 6 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙)𝒂𝒛 𝑗8.33
𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ] = ∈ (1 − 𝑗2.1)
4
Comparing the two equations of B = ∈ (2.32 < −64.50
We have
6 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙)= 1.67𝑥 10−10 𝛽 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (1010 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑥) ii)Propagation constant 𝜸
1.67𝑥 10−10 𝛽 2 = 6 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
Sln
6 𝑥 10 −5
𝛽2 = Y = j𝜔 √𝜇𝜀
1.67 𝑥 10−10
6 𝑥 10 −5 = j𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑥 𝜇𝑟 𝑥𝜀𝑟 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
𝛽=√ = ± 600 rad/m 𝑗31.41 x 109
1.67 𝑥 10−10
= x √2 𝑥 30 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
3 x 108
= j811√1 − 𝑗2.1
=(811<90)(1.76<55)
= 1427 < 145

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= -1169 + j818

iii)Attenuation constant ∝
Sln
1169 lagging

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TOPIC 4 Transverse waves are waves in which the medium
particles are displaced perpendicular to the
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC direction of wave-flow.
WAVES
Objectives 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 (𝑽) 𝑽
Note, units of E = =
1)Explain terms used in electromagnetic waves 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒅 (𝒎) 𝒎
𝑽
i)Plane waves 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑰 𝒎
And that of H = = 𝑨
ii)Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒎
𝒎
iii)Skin depth 𝑽
𝑽
𝒎
2)Describe properties of an electromagnetic Hence intrinsic impedance 𝛈 = 𝑨 = Ω
𝑨
𝒎
waves
𝝁𝟎
i)Velocity of propagation In free space 𝜼𝟎 = √ = 120𝝅 = 377 Ω
𝜺𝟎
ii)Intrinsic wave impedance
iii)Frequency
WAVE PROPAGATION
iv)Wavelength
Propagation – refers to any ways in which the
v)Attenuation
travels with respect to the direction
3)Analyse the properties of electromagnetic
With relation to propagation, we can distinguish
waves in various media
between:
i)Velocity of propagation
1)Transverse
ii)intrinsic wave impedance
ii)Longitudinal
iii)Frequency
1)Transverse waves – In which the direction of
iv)Wavelength
propagation of medium particle is perpendicular
v)Attenuation
to the direction of the generated wave
Wave characteristics in various media
i)Lossy media
ii)Lossless Media
iii)Free space
iv)Good conductors
4)Explain the principle of electromagnetic
shielding
5)Describe the skin effects in electromagnetic
waves Terms used in waves
a)The wavelength (λ)– is the distance covered by
Definition of wave the wave in one complete circle.
A wave is a source of energy which comes as a The symbol is a Greek letter known as Lambda (λ)
result of disturbance. b) Amplitude – The maximum distance from the
mean position
Plane waves c)Frequency (f) – The number of complete
Uniform plane waves are those, which the Electric oscillations in one second.
field E and Magnetic field H lie on the same plane. d)Periodic time (T) – Time taken for one complete
wave
Properties of plane waves
i)At each point , in the space, E and H are 2)Longitudinal: - Wave in which the direction of
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation of medium particle is parallel to the
propagation. direction of the generated wave e.g sound wave.
ii) They travel with the velocity of light, i.e The
velocity of propagation in free space is
𝑣0 = 3.0 x 108 m/s
iii) E and H oscillates in phase and the ration of E
𝑬 𝝁
to H gives intrinsic impedance η= =√ In longitudinal, wavelength is the distance
𝑯 𝝐
Where: between two consecutive regions of rarefaction(R)
𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 or compression (C)
𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝝐 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓

The symbol η is known as the characteristic

impedance of the medium.
iv)A plane wave is a transverse wave.

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WAVE EQUATION Solutions of wave Equation
The solution of any electromagnetic wave problem This area covers wave propagation in:
and the fundamental relationship that are to be i)In free space
certified have to be obtained from the four ii Conducting Media
Maxwell’s equation time varying field iii)Perfect dielectric
iv)Lossy dielectric
The following symbols are used :
1) 𝝐 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 I)IN FREE SPACE
Where: a free space is a perfect dielectric containing no
𝜺𝟎 = Permittivity of free space (vacuum) charges and no conduction current
𝜺𝒓 = Permittivity of material In free space, 𝛔 = 0, and therefore no conduction
2) 𝝁 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 current i.e Ic = Jc = 0
The field winding therefore becomes:
Where :
𝝁𝟎 = Permeability of free space 𝟏)𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝟎
𝒅𝑩
𝝁𝒓 = Permeability of material 𝟐) 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − ….(ii)
𝒅𝒕
3) 𝝈 = conductivity 𝝐𝒅𝑬
𝟑) 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝟎 + …. (iii)
4) 𝜷 = Phase constant 𝒅𝒕
𝟒)𝛁 . 𝑩 = 𝟎
5) η = Intrinsic impedance
The equation in free space (vacuum) i.e there is no
6) 𝜹 = Skin depth
conduction current 𝐼𝑐 or 𝐽𝑐 since 𝜎 = 0
The auxiliary equations connecting D and E as
well as B and H are. Wave Equation for magnetic fields H
And flux density 𝛽 = 𝜇H …. (iii)
Note the following:
v) D = 𝜖𝑬 where 𝝐 = 𝝐𝑹 𝜺𝟎 Replacing equation iii into equation (ii)
vi) B = 𝜇H where 𝝁 = 𝝁𝑹 𝝁𝟎
𝒅𝜇H
vii) E = 𝜂𝑯 𝛁 ×𝑬= −
𝒅𝒕
Defining current density is: From equation (iii)
viii) J=𝜎E 𝝐𝒅𝑬
Defining current density in terms of the Volume 𝛁 ×𝑯= and curling both sides of the
𝒅𝒕
charge density 𝜌𝑣 is: equation
ix) J = 𝜌𝑣 V 𝝐𝒅 (𝛁 𝐱 𝑬)
𝛁 𝐱 (𝛁 × 𝑯) = ….. (iv)
𝒅𝒕
From vector equation, the curl of
The Maxwell’s equations for time- varying fields 𝛁 𝐱 (𝛁 × 𝑨) = 𝛁 . (𝛁𝑨) − 𝛁 𝟐 𝑨
are: 𝛁 𝐱 (𝛁 × 𝑨) = −𝛁 𝟐 𝑨
𝒅𝑩
𝟏) 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − (Faradays law)
𝒅𝒕 Similarly,
The curl of electric field (E) in a closed path is
∇ x ∇ × H = −∇ 2 H
equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux. ϵd (∇ x E)
𝟐) 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 +
𝒅𝑫
(Amperes circuital law in −∇ 2 H =
dt
𝒅𝒕 ϵd (∇ x E)
2
point form) ∇ H=- ….eqtn v
dt
The curl of magnetic field H , results into the dμH
From equation ∇ × E = −
conduction current 𝐽𝑐 and the displacement current dt

𝐽𝑑 =
𝒅𝑫 Replacing in equation (v)
𝒅𝒕
The remaining two equations are unchanged from 𝝐𝝁𝒅𝟐 𝑯
their non- Varying form. 𝛁𝟐𝑯=- (This is the equation for H field
𝒅𝒕𝟐
in free space)
𝟑)𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Gauss Law)
The divergence of electric flux D is a measure of its For Electric field E
distribution
Similarly:
𝒅𝜇H
𝟒)𝛁 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law ) 𝛁 ×𝑬= − eqtn (i)
𝒅𝒕
The divergence of magnetic flux is zero. i.e the
magnetic flux line do not diverge but would always And curling both sides
form a loop 𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻)
∇ x (∇ × 𝐸) = ….. (ii)
𝑑𝑡
Similarly,
∇ x ∇ × E = −∇ 2 E
𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻)
−∇ 2 E =
𝑑𝑡

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∇2E=−
𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻)
….eqtn (iii) λ = cT
𝑑𝑡
Therefore:
And
𝝐𝝁𝒅𝟐 𝑬
From phase velocity,
𝛁𝟐𝑬=- (this the wave equation for E λ = cT
𝒅𝒕𝟐
field in free space) 2𝜋𝑓
λ = 𝑉𝑝 T = 𝑇
𝛽
1
Phase velocity or Velocity of propagation(𝑽𝒑 ) but T =
𝑓
Is the velocity at which a constant wave travel. Wavelength λ =
𝟐𝝅𝒇
𝒙
𝟏
=
𝟐𝝅
𝝎 𝜷 𝒇 𝜷
Phase velocity (𝑽𝒑 ) = …..eqtn 1
𝜷
Where 𝝎 = angular velocity 𝒄𝟐
e) Group velocity 𝑽𝒈 =
𝜷 = phase constant 𝑽𝒑
But 𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 …… eqtn 2 Example
Substituting equation 2 into equation 1 Given that: 𝛍𝟎 = 𝟒𝛑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
𝝎 𝝎
𝑽𝒑 = = 𝛆𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 , f = 50Hz
𝜷 𝝎√𝝁𝝐
𝝎 𝟏 Find the following :
𝑽𝒑 = = eqtn 3 a)Phase shift (𝜷)
𝝎√𝝁𝝐 √𝝁𝝐
b)Phase velocity (𝑉𝑝 )
But c)Group velocity(𝑉𝑔 )
𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 c)Intrinsic impedance (η)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 eqtn 4 c)wavelength (λ)
𝝐 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓
Substituting the equation 4 into 3, we have Sln
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 = = × a)Phase shift (𝜷)
√𝝁𝝐 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
𝟏 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0
But 𝒄 = = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s
√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
= 2𝜋𝑓√ 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12
Hence phase velocity or velocity of propagation = 3.313 x 10−8
𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 = = ×𝒄 b)Phase velocity (𝑉𝑝 )
√𝝁𝝐 √𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓
𝟏 𝒄 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 = = or Phase velocity 𝑽𝒑 =
√𝝁𝝐 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
𝝎 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 = = =
𝜷 √𝝁𝝐 √4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12
Phase velocity( 𝑽𝒑 ), Wavelength λ and Phase =
𝟏
= 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s
𝟑.𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟗
constants ( 𝜷), Intrinsic impedance (η), in free
c)Group velocity(𝑉𝑔 )
space 𝑐2 (3.0 𝑥 108 )2
𝑉𝑔 = = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
𝑉𝑝 3.0 𝑥 108
Condition in free space:
𝝐 = 𝜺𝟎 c)Intrinsic impedance (η)
𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎
𝝁𝟎 𝟒𝛑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
η=√ =√ = 377 Ω
𝜺𝟎 𝟖.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
So in free space
c)wavelength (λ)
a)Phase shift/ phase constant 𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎 𝑐 3.0 x 108
𝝎 𝝎 𝟏 Wavelength (λ) = = = 6.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 m
b) Phase velocity 𝑽𝒑 = = = 𝑓 50
𝜷 𝝎√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
i.e in free space II) CONDUCTING MEDIA
𝟏 𝟖
𝑽𝒑 = c = = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎 m/s
√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
Wave equation in conducting media
𝝁𝟎
c)Intrinsic impedance η = √ = 120𝝅Ω A conducting media is one in which 𝜎 ≠ 0 and
𝜺𝟎
hence, conduction current exist as well as charge.
d)Wavelength λ
Consider the following equations
from the equation of velocity c = f λ 𝑑𝜇H
where c = velocity of light ∇ ×𝐸 = − eqtn (i)
𝑑𝑡
𝜖𝑑𝐸
λ = wavelength ∇ × 𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 + eqtn (ii)
𝑑𝑡
f = frequency
1
and f = Wave Equation for E - fields in Conducting media
𝑇
𝑐
c = f λ or λ = or or λ = cT
𝑓
From equation (i), curling both sides
Therefore: 𝑑𝜇H
From phase velocity, ∇ ×𝐸 = − …. eqtn (i)
𝑑𝑡
𝜔 2𝜋𝑓
𝑉𝑝 = c = =
𝛽 𝛽 And curling both sides

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 𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻)
∇ x (∇ × 𝐸) = ….. (ii)
𝑑𝑡
Attenuation constant ∝
Similarly,
When any wave propagates in the medium, it gets
∇ x ∇ × E = −∇ 2 E
𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻) attenuated. The amplitude of the signal reduces.
−∇ 2 E = This is represented by an attenuation constant 𝜶
𝑑𝑡
𝜇𝑑(∇ x 𝐻)
∇2E=− ….eqtn (iii) Attenuation is measured in Neper per meter
𝑑𝑡
But from eqtn (ii) (Np/m)
𝜖𝑑𝐸 1 Np = 8.686 dB
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 +
𝑑𝑡
2 𝜇𝑑 𝜖𝑑𝐸
∇ E=− [𝜎𝐸 + ] Derivation of equation of attenuation constant (
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
And ∝) in conducting media
𝜇𝜎𝑑𝐸 𝜖𝜇𝑑 2 𝐸
∇2E=− + (This is the equation wave
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 By considering the real part of equation (ix) above
equation for E fields in conducting media)
𝜶𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 = −𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 ……… eqtn (ix)
Wave equations for H fields in conducting media
And re-arranging and equating to zero (0)
𝜶𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 = 0
Similarly, from equation (ii) 𝛚𝛍𝛔
𝜖𝑑𝐸 But the phase constant = , and hence replacing
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 + eqtn (ii) 𝟐𝛂
𝑑𝑡 into the above equation
And curling both sides 𝛚𝛍𝛔
𝜖𝑑𝐸 𝜶𝟐 − ( )𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 = 0
𝟐𝛂
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝟐 𝝈𝟐
𝑑𝑡 𝟐
𝜶 − + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 = 0
𝟒𝜶𝟐

∇ x (∇ × 𝐻) = 𝜎(∇ × 𝐸) +
𝜖𝑑 (∇ x 𝐸)
….. (iii) And multiplying all through by the denominator
𝜖𝑑 (∇ x 𝐸)
𝑑𝑡 𝟒𝜶𝟐 we have
−∇ 2 H = 𝜎(∇ × 𝐸) + 4𝛼 4 − 𝜔2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2 + 4𝛼 2 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝜖𝑑 And re-arranging the equation to form quadratic,
−∇ 2 H = (∇ × 𝐸) [𝜎 + ] eqtn (iv)
𝑑𝑡
becomes
But
𝑑𝜇H 4𝛼 4 + 4𝛼 2 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 − 𝜔2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2 = 0
∇ ×𝐸 = −
𝑑𝑡
And replacing into eqtn ( iv) And using the quadratic formula
2 𝑑𝜇H 𝜖𝑑
−∇ H = − [𝜎 + ] −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝝁𝐇𝝈 𝝐𝝁𝒅𝟐 𝑯 2𝑎
𝛁𝟐𝐇= + (this is the wave −4𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ±√(4𝜔2 𝜇𝜖)2 + 4(4)(𝜔2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2 )
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝛼2 =
equation for H fields in conducting media) 2𝑥4
2 −4𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ±√16𝜔4 𝜇 2 𝜖 2 + 16𝜔2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2
𝛼 =
8
Derivation of equation of Phase constant (𝜷) in −4𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ±√16𝜔2 𝜇 2 (𝜔2 𝜖 2 + 𝜎 2 )
2
Conducting media 𝛼 =
8
−4𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 4𝜔𝜇√(𝜔2 𝜖 2 + 𝜎 2 )
𝛼2 =
The a bove equations can be re-written as : 8
4(−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔𝜇)√(𝜔2 𝜖 2 + 𝜎 2 )
𝛁 𝟐 𝐄 = 𝜸𝟐 E 2
𝛼 =
8
𝛁 𝟐 𝐇 = 𝜸𝟐 H −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔𝜇√(𝜔2 𝜖 2 + 𝜎 2 )
2
Where 𝜸𝟐 = j𝝎𝝁(𝝈 + 𝒋𝝎𝝐) 𝛼 =
2
𝜸 = propagation constant By factorizing and dividing the root part by 𝜔2 𝜖 2 ,
𝜸 = ∝ + 𝜷𝒋 this can be re- written as
Where ∝ = attenuation constant in Nepas 𝜎2
−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔𝜇 √𝜔2 𝜖 2 (1 + 2 2 )
2 𝜔 𝜖
𝜷 = Phase constant in rad/seconds 𝛼 =
2
For uniform wave travelling in the direction 2 2
And finding the root of 𝜔 𝜖
𝜸𝟐 = j𝝎𝝁(𝝈 + 𝒋𝝎𝝐) −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔𝜇 𝑥 √𝜔2 𝜖 2 𝑥√(1 + 2 2 )
𝜎2
2 𝜔 𝜖
( ∝ + 𝜷𝒋)𝟐 = j𝝎𝝁(𝝈 + 𝒋𝝎𝝐) 𝛼 =
2
𝜶𝟐 + 2∝ 𝜷𝒋 − 𝜷𝟐 = j𝝎𝝁𝝈 − 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 This becomes
By equating the real part 𝜎2
−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + 2 2 )
𝜶𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 = −𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 ..….eqtn (ix) 2
𝛼 = 𝜔 𝜖
2
By equating the imaginary Part Re – arranging
2∝ 𝜷𝒋 = j𝝎𝝁𝝈 𝜎2
𝜔2 𝜇𝜖√(1 + 2 2 )−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖
And making the phase constant the subject 2
𝛼 = 𝜔 𝜖
𝑗𝜇𝜔𝜎 𝜔𝜇𝜎 2
Phase constant 𝛽 = =
2𝛼𝑗 2𝛼 𝜎2
𝜔 2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + )−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖
𝝎𝝁𝝈
𝛼=√ 𝜔 2 𝜖2
2
Phase constant 𝜷 =
𝟐𝜶

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 iii) DIELECTRICS
2 𝜇𝜖[√(1 + 𝜎2
√𝜔 𝜔 2 𝜖2
)−1 ]
Loss-less or perfect dielectric media
𝛼=
2 A loss-less media is a medium in which
electromagnetic propagate without the loss of
Or power. A loss-less media is also known as perfect
dielectrics
𝝈𝟐
√(𝟏 + Condition for loss –less media
√𝝁𝝐[ 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
)−𝟏 ]

Attenuation constant 𝜶 = 𝝎 𝜎=0

𝟐
∈ = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜
Or ∝ = 0 (no losses)
Attenuation constant Phase constant and Phase velocity in a loss less
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
media
∝= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) − 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
a)Phase constant
From conducting media, the phase constant is
given by:
Phase constant 𝜷 or phase shift
Again the phase constant 𝜷 can be obtain in the 𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) + 𝟏]
similar manner as follows 𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐

By considering the real part of equation (ix) above But in loss-less media 𝜎 = 0

𝜶𝟐 − 𝜷𝟐 = −𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 ……… eqtn (ix) 𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 +

𝝁𝝐 𝟎
) + 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
And making the phase constant the subject
𝝁𝝐
And re-arranging and equating to zero (0) 𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏) + 𝟏]
𝟐
𝜷𝟐 = 𝜶𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 eqtn (xi) 𝝁𝝐 𝝁𝝐
𝜷= 𝝎√ [𝟏 + 𝟏] = 𝝎√ [𝟐]
𝟐 𝟐
𝜎2
−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + ) 𝝁𝝐 𝝁𝝐
But 𝛼 2 = 𝜔 2 𝜖2 𝜷= 𝝎√ [𝟏 + 𝟏] = 𝝎√ [𝟐]
2 𝟐 𝟐

𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐
Hence substituting into the eqtn (xi)
𝜎2
−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + 2 2 )
𝟐
𝜷 = + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐
𝜔 𝜖
b) Phase velocity or Velocity of propagation(𝑽𝒑 )
2
Having common denominator Is the velocity at which a constant wave travel?
𝝎
𝜎2
−𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ± 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + 2 2 )+𝟐𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 Phase velocity (𝑽𝒑 ) = ….. eqtn 1
𝟐 𝜔 𝜖 𝜷
𝜷 =
𝟐 Where 𝝎 = angular velocity
𝜎2
𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + 2 2 ) + 𝝎𝟐 𝝁𝝐 𝜷 = phase constant
𝜷𝟐 = 𝜔 𝜖
But 𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 … eqtn 2
𝟐
And finding the square-root Substituting equation 2 into equation 1
𝝎 𝝎
2 𝜇𝜖 √(1 + 𝜎2 𝑽𝒑 = =
𝜔 )+𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜷 𝝎√𝝁𝝐
𝛽=√ 𝜔 2 𝜖2
𝑽𝒑 =
𝝎 𝟏
= …..eqtn 3
2
𝝎√𝝁𝝐 √𝝁𝝐

2 𝜇𝜖[√(1 + 𝜎2 But
√𝜔 𝜔 2 𝜖2
)+1 ]
𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎
𝛽=
2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 …..eqtn 4
Or 𝝐 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓
𝟐
Substituting the equation 4 into 3, we have
√(𝟏 + 𝝈
√𝝁𝝐[ 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
)+𝟏 ]
𝑽𝒑 =
𝟏
=
𝟏
×
𝟏

Phase constant 𝜷 = 𝝎 √𝝁𝝐 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎

𝟐 𝟏
But 𝒄 = = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/s
√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐 Hence phase velocity or velocity of propagation
𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) + 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐 𝝎 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒑 = = = ×𝒄
𝜷 √𝝁𝝐 √𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓
Phase constant 𝜷 – is measured in radian per 𝟏 𝒄
metre (rad/m) 𝑽𝒑 = = or
√𝝁𝝐 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓
𝟏
𝑽𝒑 =
√𝝁𝝐

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Intrinsic impedance η
𝜇 In good conductor, the propagation constant is
𝜂= √
𝜖 given by:
Where 𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 Re-arranging the terms
𝝐 = 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑗𝜔𝜖
𝜇 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎
𝛾 =√𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎(1 + )
𝜎
𝜂 = √ =√
𝜖 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 Since 𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜖 (so much greater than..)
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝑗𝜔𝜖
=√ x√ We can ignore the imaginary part
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝜎

𝝁𝟎
𝛾 =√𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎(1)
But √ = 120𝜋
𝜺𝟎 𝜸 =√𝒋𝝎𝝁𝝈
𝜂 = 120𝜋√
𝝁𝒓 𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 x √𝒋
𝜺𝒓
But j = 1< 900
𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 x √ 1 < 900
Example
𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 x< 450
For plane wave travelling at 1MHz ,
propagating in fresh water and given that 𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 x< 450
𝜺𝒓 = 81, 𝝁𝒓 = 1, and 𝝈 = 𝟎. Determine: 𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 [𝒄𝒐𝒔450 + 𝒋𝑺𝒊𝒏450 ]
𝟏 𝟏
a) Wave number (phase shift) 𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 [ + 𝒋 ]
√𝟐 √𝟐
b) Wavelength 𝟏
c) Phase velocity 𝜸 =√𝝎𝝁𝝈 [ (𝟏 + 𝒋)]
√𝟐
d) Intrinsic impedance But 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇
Sln 𝟏
𝜸 =√𝟐𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 [ (𝟏 + 𝒋)]
a)Wave number (phase shift) √𝟐
𝟏
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 𝜸 =√𝟐 (√𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈) ( )[(𝟏 + 𝒋)]
√𝟐
𝛽 = 2𝜋𝑓√81 𝑥 8.854 𝑥10−12 𝑥 1𝑥4π x 10−7 𝜸 = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 [(𝟏 + 𝒋)]
= 2𝜋 x106 √ 8.854 𝑥10−12 𝑥 4π x 10−7 x √𝟖𝟏
𝜸 = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 + 𝒋√𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
=2𝜋 x106 𝑥 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 x 9
Rem
= 0.19 rads/s
𝜸 = ∝ + 𝒋𝜷 = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 + 𝒋√𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
b)Wavelength From here we can conclude that:
sln ∝ = 𝜷 = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
2𝜋𝑓 1 2𝜋
Wavelength λ = 𝑥 =
𝛽 𝑓 𝛽
2𝜋 Attenuation constant ∝ = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 Np/m
= = 33m
0.19
Phase constant 𝜷 = √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 Rad/m
c)Phase velocity
𝜔 2𝜋𝑓
𝑉𝑝 = =
𝛽 𝛽 In terms of angular velocity 𝝎
2𝜋 𝑥 1000000 7
𝑉𝑝 = = 3.3 𝑥 10 m/s The two can proven to be :
0.19
𝝎𝝁𝝈
∝=𝜷=√
𝟐
d)Intrinsic impedance

𝝁𝒓 Phase velocity or velocity of propagation in

𝜂 = 120𝜋√
𝜺𝒓 good conductor
𝝎 𝝎
𝟏 (𝑽𝒑 ) = = 𝝎𝝁𝝈
𝜂 = 120𝜋√ = 42Ω 𝜷
√
𝟖𝟏 𝟐

And squaring both sides:

Wave propagation in a good conductor 𝜔2 2𝜔2 2𝜔
(𝑽𝒑 )2 = 𝝎𝝁𝝈 = =
𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝜇𝜎
A practical or Good conductor is the material 𝟐

which has very high conductivity. Ie Copper , And finding the square – root
Aluminium etc 2𝜔
𝑽𝒑 = √
A good conductor is a medium in which 𝜇𝜎

electromagnetic waves propagate

Intrinsic impedance in good conductor
Condition Intrinsic impedance is given by in good conductor
𝜎 is given by:
≫1
𝜔𝜖
𝑗𝜔𝜇
Or 𝜂= √
𝜎+𝑗𝜔𝜖
𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜖
But in good conductor
Rem: 𝜸 = ∝ + 𝜷𝒋

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𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜖 From the expression of the skin depth, it is clear
Hence that skin depth ( 𝜹) is inversely proportiona to
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜔𝜇 square –root of frequency f.
𝜂= √ =√
𝜎+𝑗𝜔𝜖 𝜎

𝜔𝜇 The fields and currents may be considered as

=√ √𝒋 confined to a very thin layer near of the surface of a
𝜎
But conductor. This thin layer is nothing but the skin of
√𝒋 = √ 1 < 900 = < 450 the conductor, hence the effect is called the skin
effects.
𝜔𝜇
𝜂=√ [𝒄𝒐𝒔450 + 𝒋𝑺𝒊𝒏450 ] Exponential decay in the amplitudes of E and H
𝜎
fields entering in a good conductor
𝜔𝜇 𝟏
𝜂=√ [ (𝟏 + 𝒋)]
𝜎 √𝟐

𝜔𝜇
𝜂=√ [(𝟏 + 𝒋)]
2𝜎
Or
𝜋𝑓𝜇
𝜂=√ [(𝟏 + 𝒋)]
2𝜎
The interpretation here is that, in perfect dielectric,
i.e Zero conductivity, the intrinsic impedance angle
is zero.
For good conductors, the angle is 𝟒𝟓𝟎 . This
indicates that the H fields may lag E fields by at the
most 𝟒𝟓𝟎

Effects of Attenuation 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝜶 )on the

Amplitude of E fields
From the figure above, it is clear that 1𝛿 distance,
Consider only the components of the electric field
amplitude reduces to 37% of its original value. For
Ex travelling in the z-direction. When it travels in
a good conductor, amplitude reduces to almost zero
agood conductor, the conductivity is very high
with 2𝛿 and 3𝛿 distance. Thus , uniform plane
and attenuation constant (𝛂) is also high. This can
waves cannot travel large distance through good
be written in phasor form as :
conductor.
𝐄𝐱 = 𝐄𝐦 𝐞−𝛂𝐳 𝐞−𝐣𝛃𝐳
This concept is used in shielding of conductors
In a co –axial cables, the inner conductor carries
When such a wave propagates in good conductor,
the signal while the outer is shielded which is made
there is a large attenuation of the amplitude as
up of a material having properties of good
shown below
conductor. So even if there is external interference,
its amplitude reduces to zero within a very short
distance due to the outer conductor. Hence the
signal carried by inner conductor is not
interfered by an external interference.

At z = 0, amplitude of the component Ex is Em .

At z = d, amplitude is Eme−αd . In distance z = d, the
amplitude gets reduced by factor e−αd .
1
-If we select d = , then the factor becomes e−1 =
α
0.368.
1
-Therefore over a distance d = , the amplitude of
α
the wave decreases to approximately 37% of the
original value. And this distance is known as skin
depth

Skin Depth ( 𝜹)
Skin depth – Refers to the distance through which Intrinsic impedance (η), Phase velocity( 𝑽𝒑 ),
the amplitude the travelling wave decreases to 37% Wavelength λ and Phase constants ( 𝜷)interms
of the original amplitude of Skin depth(𝜹)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 1 1 √2
Skin Depth ( 𝜹) = = = 𝒎 1)Intrinsic impedance 𝜂 = [ +𝑗 ]= < 450 Ω
∝ 𝜷 √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 𝜎𝛿 𝜎𝛿 𝜎𝛿
66

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 𝟐 𝟐 −1
𝝎 𝝎 √𝟐(√𝝎) √𝟐(√𝝎) 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟐
2) Phase velocity𝑉𝑝 = = = = [ + 𝟏] = [1 − ]
𝜷 √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 √𝟐√𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 √𝝎𝝁𝝈 𝟖𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐 𝟖𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
√𝟐𝝎 Hence
𝑉𝑝 = = 𝝎𝜹 m/s 𝝈𝟐
√𝝁𝝈
𝑉𝑃 = c[1 − ]
𝟖𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝟐𝝅 Which implies that the velocity of wave is less that
3)Wavelength (λ) = = 2𝝅𝜹 σ2
𝜷
that of velocity of light by a factor [1 − ]
8ω2 ϵ2
1
4)Phase constant 𝛽 =
𝛿 Intrinsic impedance 𝜼

Wave propagation in good dielectric(Practical 𝜇

dielectric) 𝜂= √
𝜖
Conditions:
Depth of penetration (Skin depth)
𝜎 ≪ 𝜔𝜖 The depth of penetration decreases with time in the
From conductor
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐 It is also called skin depth.
𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) + 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Applying Binomial expression for the above Skin Depth ( 𝜹) = = =
∝ 𝜷 √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
equation and neglecting higher orders
𝝈𝟐 Lossy Dielectric
𝟏 +
𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐 Is a medium in which an electromagnetic wave
And replacing above equation in ∝
losses power as it propagate due to poor condition
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
∝= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) − 𝟏] 𝜸 = propagation constant
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝜸 = ∝ + 𝜷𝒋
𝝎 𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
∝= √ 𝒙
𝝎 𝟐 𝟐𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Attenuation constant
𝝈 𝝁
∝= √
𝟐 𝝐 𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
∝= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) − 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Phase constant and phase velocity And phase constant
𝝈𝟐
Replacing 𝟏 + into the equation of 𝜷
𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐 𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√ [𝟏 + + 𝟏] 𝜷= 𝝎√ [√(𝟏 + ) + 𝟏]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐 𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√ [ + 𝟐]
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
The conditions for Lossy medium is such that
𝝁𝝐 𝝈𝟐 + 𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√ [ ] Conduction is not zero 𝛔 ≠ 𝟎
𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Attenuation also is not Zero
𝝈𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 [ + 𝟏] This implies that in a lossy medium, the amplitude
𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
of the signal decays exponentially
𝝈𝟐
𝜷= 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 x √ +𝟏
𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Finding the direction
𝝎 For any given function
Phase velocity 𝑉𝑃 =
𝜷 look for the section (𝜔𝑡 ± 𝛽𝑧)
𝝎
= if for the section 𝛽𝑧)
𝝈𝟐
𝝎√𝝁𝝐 𝐱 √ +𝟏 if : we have –z, then direction is taken as + z
𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
𝟏 If we have z, then direction is taken as -z
But speed of light c =
√𝝁𝝐
𝝎 𝟏 𝒄
𝑉𝑃 = = = …
𝜷 𝝈𝟐 𝟐
√𝝁𝝐 𝐱 √ 𝟐 𝟐 +𝟏 √ 𝝈 +𝟏
𝟒𝝎 𝝐 𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Applying Binomial theorem to the denominator
1
𝝈𝟐 2 𝝈𝟐
[ + 𝟏] = [ + 𝟏]
𝟒𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐 𝟖𝝎𝟐 𝝐𝟐
Hence
𝒄
𝑉𝑃 = 𝝈𝟐
[ 𝟐 𝟐 +𝟏]
𝟖𝝎 𝝐
Applying Binomial theorem,

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Example 𝝁𝒓
60𝛑= 120𝜋√
A plane wave is in anon-magnetic media has 𝜺𝒓

E = 50Sin(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭 + 2Z)𝐚𝐲 . Find 𝟏

0.5= √
a)Direction 𝜺𝒓

b)Wavelength λ 𝜀𝑟 = 4
c)frequency f
d) Permitivity 𝛆𝐫 c) 𝛚
e)H From 𝛽 = 𝜔 √𝜇𝜖 and But 𝜇𝑟 = 1
sln
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 x √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
Note 𝜇𝑟 = 1 (for non-magnetic media) Hence:
a)direction = -z 𝜔
1= x √4
𝟐𝝅 3.0 x 108
b) Wavelength λ = 2𝜔
𝜷 1=
3.0 x 108
but 𝛽 = 2
𝟐𝝅
𝜔 = 1.5 x 108 m/s
hence Wavelength λ = =𝝅
𝟐
d)E
c)frequency f
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 but 𝜔 = 108 from 𝜂 =
𝐸
𝐻
𝜔 108
f= = = 15 x 106 Hz E = −𝜂𝐻
2𝜋 2𝜋
E = −𝜂[0.1 Cos (ωt − z)a x + 0.5Sin(ωt − z)a y ]
d)Permitivity 𝛆𝐫 E = -60π [0.1 Cos (ωt − z)a x + 0.5Sin(ωt −
But 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 z)a y ]
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 x √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 E = - 6𝛑𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝐳)𝐚𝐲 − 𝟑𝟎𝛑𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐳)𝐚𝐳
1
But 𝑐 = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
√𝜇0 𝜀0
Hence: Example
𝜔 A uniform plane wave is propagating in a
2= x √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
3.0 x 108 medium
108
2= x √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 But 𝜇𝑟 = 1 E = 2𝐞−∝𝐳 Sin(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭 -𝜷𝒛)𝐚𝐲 . If the medium is
3.0 x 108
2=
1
x √𝜀𝑟 characteristic by 𝛆𝐫 = 1 𝛍𝐫 = 20 and 𝛔 = 3. Find :
3 a)attenuation 𝜶
6 =√𝜀𝑟
b)Phase constant 𝜷
𝜀𝑟 = 62 = 36
c)H
Sln
e)H Inspection
𝐸
from 𝜂 = 𝜎
≫1
𝐻
𝜔𝜖
𝝁𝒓 3
𝜂 = 120𝜋√ = 3389.8
𝜺𝒓 108 𝑥 8.554 𝑥 10−12
3389.8 ≫ 1 (which is a good conductor)
𝟏
𝜂 = 120𝜋√ = 20𝜋 Ω For a good conductors
𝟑𝟔
𝐸 𝟓𝟎𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭 + 𝟐𝐙)𝐚 𝐱 . 𝝎𝝁𝝈
H= = ∝=𝜷=√
𝜂 20𝜋 𝟐
−𝟐.𝟓𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭 + 𝟐𝐙)𝐚 𝐱 .
H= 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒙 𝟒 𝝅 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒙 𝟐𝟎 𝒙 𝟑
𝝅 ∝=𝜷=√ = 61.4
𝟐
∝ = 61.4 Nepas
Example
In a loss -less media for which 𝛈 = 60𝛑
𝜷 = 61.4 rad/sec
𝛍𝐫 = 1
c)H
H = 0.1 Cos (𝛚𝐭 − 𝐳)𝐚𝐱 + 0.5Sin(𝛚𝐭 − 𝐳)𝐚𝐲 A/m.
Intrinsic impedance
Find:
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜔𝜇
a)direction 𝜂= √ =√
𝜎+𝑗𝜔𝜖 𝜎
b) 𝛆𝐫
𝜔𝜇
c) 𝛚 =√ √𝒋
𝜎
d)E
𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒙 𝟒 𝝅 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
sln =√ < 450
𝟑
a)direction = z
= (28.94) < 450
b) 𝛆𝐫 𝐸 −𝟐𝐞−∝𝐳 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭−𝛃𝐙)𝐚 𝐱 .
H= =
−𝜂 28.94

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 2𝜋
Example hence Wavelength λ = = 0.314m
20
An H fields in free space is given as H(x,t) =
10𝐂𝐨𝐬 (𝟏𝟎𝟖 t – 𝛃𝐱)𝐚𝐲 A/m. Find e)H
a)𝛃 𝐸 (𝟒𝟎 – 𝐣𝟑𝟎)𝐞−𝐣𝟐𝟎𝐳
c)𝛌 𝐇𝐬 = = = (0.11 – j0.08)𝐞−𝐣𝟐𝟎𝐳 𝐚𝐲
𝜂 377
c)E(x,t) at P(0.1,0.2,0.3) at t= 1ns
sln f) H(z,t) at P(6,-1,0.07) at t = 71 ps
Since uniform plane wave H(z,t) = Re [𝐄𝐬 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 ]
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 = [0.11𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) + 0.08𝑆𝑖𝑛((𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)]
But 𝜔 = 108 and since free space = [0.11𝐶𝑜𝑠(6.0 x 109 𝑥 71𝑥 10−12 − 20(0.7)) +
𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 0.08𝑆𝑖𝑛(6.0 x 109 𝑥 71𝑥 10−12 − 20(0.7)]
Hence: = [0.11(0.562) − 0.08(0.827)]
108 = - 6.2 x 10−3 𝐚𝐲
𝛽= = 0.33 rad/m
3.0 x 108

Example
b)Wavelength Most microwave oven operate at 2.45 GHz.
2𝜋
Wavelength λ = Assume that 𝛔 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔 S/m and 𝛍𝐫 = 500 for
𝛽
but 𝛽 = 0.33 the stainless steel interior, fin the depth of
hence Wavelength λ =
2𝜋
= 18.9 m penetration
0.33
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
c) E(x,t) = - 𝜼H(x,t) Skin Depth ( 𝜹) = = =
∝ 𝜷 √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
E(x,t) = - 𝜂(10𝐶𝑜𝑠 (108 t – 𝛽𝑥) Skin Depth ( 𝜹) =
𝟏

E(x,t) = - 377x 10𝐶𝑜𝑠 (108 t – 𝛽𝑥) √𝝅(𝟐.𝟒𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗 )𝒙 (𝟒𝝅𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 ) 𝒙1.2 𝑥 106

The direction of E will be −𝒂𝒛 since S= E x H, = 9.28 𝑥 10−6 m

where S is x-directed. Example
A good conductor is planar in form and carries
Ap P (0.1,0.2,0.3), x = 0.1, and t = 1ns a uniform plane wave that has a wavelength of
Then we have 0.3 mm and a velocity of 𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟓m/s. Assuming
E(x,t) = - 377x 10𝐶𝑜𝑠 (108 x 10−9 – (0.33)𝑥(0.1)) the conductor is non- magnetic, determine:
= - 3770𝐶𝑜𝑠 (10−1 – (0.033)) 𝒂𝒛 a)The frequency
= - 3770(cos 0.067) 𝒂𝒛 V/m b)Conductivity
sln
Example 𝑣 3.0 𝑥 105
a) Frequency f = = = 1GHz
In phasor form, the electric field intensity of a 𝜆 3 𝑥 10−4
uniform plane wave in free space is expressed as b) Conductivity
𝐄𝐬 = (40 – j30)𝐞−𝐣𝟐𝟎𝐳 𝐚𝐱 V/m . Find For agood conductor
𝟐𝝅
a) 𝛚 Wavelength (λ) = = 2𝝅𝜹
𝜷
b) 𝛃 𝝀 𝟏
𝜹= =
c) f 𝟐𝝅 √𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈
4𝜋 4𝜋
d) λ 𝜎= = = 1.1 𝑥 105 S/m
𝜆2 𝑓𝜇 (9 𝑥 10−8 )(109 )(4𝜋 𝑥10−7 )
e) H
f) H(z,t) at P(6,-1,0.07) at t = 71 ps
Example
A certain material has 𝛔 = 0 and 𝛜𝐑 = 1. If H = 4
Sln
sin(𝟏𝟎𝟔 t – 0.01z)𝐚𝐲 A/m, make use of Maxwell’s
a)𝝎
𝜔 equation to find 𝛍𝐑 .
From the equation, in free space 𝛽 = 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 =
𝐶
𝜔 = 𝛽𝑐 = 3.0 x 108 x 20 = 6.0 x 109 rads/s Sln
dD
∇ ×H=
b)𝜷 dt

from the equation 𝛽 = 20 rads/m ax ay az

∂H dH ∂H
̅ =|
∇×H
c)f ∂x dy ∂z |
𝜔 6.0 x 109 Hx Hy Hz
f= = = 956 MHz
2𝜋 2𝜋

ax ay az
d)λ ∂H dH ∂H
Wavelength λ =
2𝜋 ̅ = | ∂x
∇×H dy ∂z |
𝛽
6
but 𝛽 = 20 0 4 sin(10 t – 0.01z)a y 0

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 ̅ = − 𝑑𝑯𝒚 ax ay az
∇×𝐻 𝑎𝑥 = 0.04 𝐶𝑜𝑠(106 𝑡 – 0.01𝑧)𝑎𝑥 =
𝑑𝑧 ∂H dH ∂H
̅ =|
∇×H ∂z |
𝑑𝑬
𝜖0 ∂x dy
𝑑𝑡
Hx Hy Hz
So
0.04 ax ay az
E=∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(106 𝑡 − 0.01𝑧)dt =
𝜖0 106 ∂H dH ∂H
̅=|
∇×H
0.04
𝑆𝑖𝑛(106 𝑡 – 0.01𝑧)𝑎𝑦 ∂x dy ∂z |
𝜖0 106 𝟗
0 𝟓𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝟏𝟎 𝐭 – 𝛃𝐳 0
Where the integration constant is Zero, since we 𝑑𝑯𝒚
assume no. dc fields present. Next ̅
∇×𝐻 = − 𝑎𝑥 = −5𝛽𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐭 – 𝛃𝐳)𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑧
From 𝑑𝑬
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐻
=20 𝜖0
𝑑𝑡
∇ × E = − = - 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 So
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 −5𝛽
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
E=∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛(109 𝑡−– 𝛃𝑧)dt =
20𝜖0
𝛁 × E = || 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 || 𝛽
𝐶𝑜𝑠(109 𝑡 – 𝛽𝑧)𝑎𝑦
0.04 6 𝜖0 (4 𝑥 109 )
𝟎 𝑆𝑖𝑛(10 𝑡 – 0.01𝑧) 𝟎 Where the integration constant is Zero, since we
𝜖0 106
𝑑𝑬𝒙 0.04(0.01) 6 assume no. dc fields present. Next
∇ ×E= 𝑎𝑦 = − 𝐶𝑜𝑠(10 𝑡 – 0.01𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 𝜖0 106 From
𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐻
∇ × E = − = - 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
So that 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0.04 (0.01)
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
H=∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(106 𝑡 − 0.01𝑧)𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑡= 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟𝜖0 106
0.04 (0.01) 𝛁 × E = || 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 ||
𝑆𝑖𝑛(106 𝑡 – 0.01𝑧)𝑎𝑦 𝛽
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟𝜖0 1012 𝟎 9
𝐶𝑜𝑠(10 𝑡 – 𝛽𝑧) 𝟎
𝜖0 (4 𝑥 109 )
𝑑𝑬𝒙 𝛽2
The last quantity is required to maintain ∇ ×E= 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(109 𝑡 – 𝛽𝑧) =
𝑑𝑧 𝜖0 (4 𝑥 109 )
consistentcy. 𝑑𝐻
By comparison of the two values of H - 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
𝑑𝑡
0.04 (0.01) So that
=4
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟𝜖0 1012 𝛽2
(0.01)2 (9 𝑥 1016 ) H=∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛(109 𝑡 – 𝛽𝑧)𝑑𝑡=
𝜇𝑟 = =9 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟𝜖0 (4 𝑥 109 )
1012 2
𝛽
𝑐𝑜𝑠(109 𝑡 – 𝛽𝑧)
Example 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝜖0 (4 𝑥 1018 )
The parallel plate transmission shown below has The last quantity is required to maintain
consistentcy.
dimensions b= 4 cm and d = 8mm, while the
By comparison of the two values of H
medium between plates is characterized by 𝛍𝐑 = 𝛽2
1 and 𝛜𝐑 = 20 and 𝛔 = 0 . =5
𝜇0 𝜖0 (4 𝑥 1018 )
𝛽= 14.9 rad/m

b)The displacement current 𝑱𝒅

sln
at z = 0 and 𝜎 = 0 we have
∇×𝐻 ̅ = 𝐽𝑑 = −5𝛽𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐭 – 𝛃𝐳)𝑎𝑥
= −74.5 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐭 )𝑎𝑥 A/m

Example
A 150 MHz uniform plane wave in free space is
described as 𝐇𝐬 = (4 +j10)(2𝐚𝐱 + j𝐚𝐲 )𝐞−𝐣𝛃𝐳 A/m.
Neglect fields outside the dielectric. Given the Find numerical value for :
field a)𝛚
H = 5Cos(𝟏𝟎𝟗 t – 𝛃z)𝐚𝐲 A/m, use Maxwell’s b)𝛌
equations to help find: c)𝛃
d) Find H(z,t) at t= 1.5ns and z = 20cm
a)𝛃 Sln
b)the displacement current density a)𝝎
For plane wave 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 𝑥 150 𝑥 106 =
dD 𝑑𝑬 3𝜋 𝑥 108 𝑠 −1
∇ ×H= =𝛜𝐑 𝜖0
dt 𝑑𝑡 b)λ
2𝜋𝑐 𝑐 3 𝑥 108
Wavelength λ = = = = 2m
𝜔 𝑓 1.5 𝑥 108

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c)𝜷
2𝜋 2𝜋 ii)Propagation constant 𝜸
From the equation, in free space 𝛽 = = =𝜋
𝜆 2
Sln
Y = j𝜔 √𝜇𝜀
d) Find H(z,t) at t= 1.5ns and z = 20cm
= j𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑥 𝜇𝑟 𝑥𝜀𝑟 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
𝑗31.41 x 109
(Ref Page 183 of interactive electromagnetic = x √2 𝑥 30 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
3 x 108
solution) = j811√1 − 𝑗2.1
=(811<90)(1.76<55)
A 60 MHz uniform plane wave propagates in a = 1427 < 145
medium with 𝝐𝒓𝟏 = 20, 𝝁𝒓𝟏 = 1 and 𝝈𝟏 = 0.05 = -1169 + j818
S/m. The amplitude of electric field intensity is
20 V/m. Determine: (9mks) iii)Attenuation constant ∝
i) Angular frequency 𝝎 Sln
Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 x 6 x 106 1169 lagging
= 3.77 x 108 Rad/s

RALATIONSHIP BETWEEN E and V

ii)Complex Permittivity 𝜺̅ The potenstial between A and B is given by

𝜎1 𝜎1 0.05 𝑥 ×36𝜋 VAB = -VBA
= = = 0.75
𝜔𝜖 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0 3.77 𝑥 108 𝑥 20𝑥 10−9
𝜖𝑟1 𝜎1
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜀̅ = (1 − 𝑗 ) VAB + VBA = 0
𝜇𝑟1 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0
20 𝑥 10−9 But VAB = - ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿
= (1 − 𝑗0.75)
36𝜋
= (17.68 – j1.33 ) x 10−11
- ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 = 0
̅
iii)Propagation Constant 𝒀 Applying Stoke’s Theorem

Sln ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 =∫(𝐷 𝑥 𝐸)𝑑𝑠

𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺̅
∫(∇ 𝑥 𝐸)𝑑𝑠 = 0
= j3.77 𝑥 108 √4𝜋𝑥10−7 (17.68 − 𝑗1.33)10−11
= j 5.62 + 1.54 ds = 0
= 1.54 + j5.62 (∇ 𝑥 𝐸)𝑑𝑠 = 0
ds ≠ 0
iv)Intrinsic Impedance Ω ∇ 𝑥 𝐸 = 0 (Maxwell’s 2nd equation in point form)
Sln ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 = 0 (Maxwell’s 2nd equation in integral
𝜇
equation)
Intrinsic Impedance Ω = √ ̅0
𝜺

4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏
From the definition of potential different
=√ V = - ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿------ (i)
𝟏𝟕.𝟔𝟖 – 𝒋𝟏.𝟑𝟑
= 84 + j23.1
Differentiating the voltage from (i)
Example
𝑑𝑣
b) A 5GHz wave propagates in a medium = −𝐸
𝑑𝐿
characterized by : 𝑑
Permeability, 𝝁𝒓 = 2, But =∇
𝑑𝐿
permittivity, 𝜺𝒓 = 20
Conductivity 𝝈 = 4.0 S/m. But ∇𝑉 = −𝐸
The electric field intensity E in the region is
given by the expression E = - 𝛁𝑽
E = 0.2𝒆−𝒂𝒛 Cos (2𝝅𝒇𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒛
Determine the: (7mks) NB the –ve sign indicates that the direction of E is
i)Complex permittivity 𝜺 ⃖ opposite that of V
ω = 2πx 5x 109 = 31.41 x 109 rad/s
31.41 x 109 x 31.41 x 30−9 As ∇ 𝑥 𝐸 = 0
ω∈= = 8.33
36π 𝛁 𝒙 (− 𝛁𝑽) = 0 By vector identity
𝑗𝜔𝜀
The complex permittivity 𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ]
𝜎
𝑗8.33
𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ] = ∈ (1 − 𝑗2.1)
4
= ∈ (2.32 < −64.50

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 It consists of a hollow metal case enclosed in a thin
Example glass tube, which acts as cathode. The Tungsten
The potential is in the form V = 𝟏𝟎𝒚𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 . wire is stretched along the axis which acts as an
Find E at (10,0) and (14,16) anode insulated by ebonite plugs
sln -The tube is filled 90% argon and 10% pressure
-A fine tungsten is connected to battery positive via
E = - 𝛻𝑉 a resistor and other terminal to metallic tube.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 7a)Describe electromagnetic shielding (2mks)

𝛻𝑉 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑣
-Electromagnetic shielding is a conductive barrier
= 30𝑦 2 that completely envelopes a device to protect it
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑣 from environmental interference.
= 4x
𝑑𝑥 -It blocks electromagnetic and electrostatics fields
𝛻𝑉 = 4x𝑎𝑥 + 30𝑦 2 𝑎𝑦 from interfering with other electronics devices and
E = -4x𝑎𝑥 − 30𝑦 2 𝑎𝑦 systems

At (10,0) b)A uniform wave propagating in free space

E = -4x𝑎𝑥 − 30𝑦 2 𝑎𝑦 strikes a lossy medium with a dielectric
E = -4(10)𝑎𝑥 − 30(0)2 𝑎𝑦 = -= -40𝑎𝑥 constants of 20 and conductivity of 0.8mS/m.
The frequency of the wave polarized in the x-
At (14,16) E direction is 200kHz. Determine the:
E= -4(14) − 30(16)2 = -= -7726 V/m i)Angular frequency, 𝝎 (2mks)
Sln
Example Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 x 200 x 103
𝟒 = 1.257 x 106 Rad/s
Let 𝜺 = 𝜺𝟎 and V = 𝟗𝟎𝒛𝟑 in the direction z = 0.
Obtain the exprsions for : ii)Propagating constant , Y (2mks)
a)E Sln
b)D
𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺̅
c)𝝆𝒗
sln 𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺𝟎
𝜔 1.257 𝑥 106
=j = j = j4.19 x 10−3
𝑐 3 𝑥 108
𝟏 𝟏
𝑑𝑉 4
a)E = - 𝛻𝑉= 𝑎𝑧 = − 𝟗𝟎𝒛 𝑎𝑧 = -120𝒛 𝑎𝑧 V/m
𝟑 𝟑
𝑑𝑧 3
𝟏 iii)Intrinsic impedence 𝜼 (2mks)
b)D =𝜺𝟎 E = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 x 120𝒛𝟑 𝑎𝑧 Sln
𝟏
=1.06𝒛𝟑 𝑎𝑧 𝑛𝐶/𝑚2 𝜇 4𝜋𝑥10−7
Intrinsic Impedance Ω = √̅̅̅̅0 = √
𝜺𝟎 8.85𝑥10−12

𝑑𝐷 1 𝟐 =120𝜋Ω
c) 𝝆𝒗 = 𝜵. 𝑫 = =− (𝟏𝟐𝟎)𝜺𝟎 𝒛−𝟑 𝑎𝑧 iv)Phase velocity 𝑽𝒑 (2mks)
𝑑𝑧 3
−𝟐 𝜔 𝜔 1 1 𝑐
3 𝑉𝑝 = = = × =
= -354𝒛 𝑎𝑧 𝑃𝐶/𝑚
𝟑
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 √𝜇0 𝜀0 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
𝛽 = is the real part of propagation constant 4.19 x
KNEC O/N 2022 10−3
𝜔 1.257 𝑥 106
di)Outline three types of radiations detected by 𝑉𝑝 = = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
𝛽 4.19 𝑥 10−3
electromagnetic detectors (3mks) Or
-Alpha radiations ∝ 𝜔 𝜔 1
𝑉𝑝 = = =
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇0 𝜀0
-beta radiations 𝛽 1 1
-Gamma radiations 𝛾 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑐 = =
√𝜇0 𝜀0 √4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 8.85𝑥10−12
8
= 3.0 x 10 m/s
ii)With aid of adiagram, explain the
construction of Geiger-muller counter detector c)Outline three sources of electromagnetic fields
in electromagneticics (5mks) (3mks)
Sln Sln
 Solar radiations – this is natural radiations
which originates from the sun
 Terrestial radiations – natural radiations
emmited from the earth surface
 Artificial radiations –Originating from remote
sensing devices

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ii)A conductor of length 10cm carries current of BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
2A in a vertical direction.A point P is placed 1m Conductors in static Electric field
away from the conductor in the x-direction. According to electrical properties, materials are
i)Sketch the arrangement (2mks) divided into three types:
Sln i)Conductors
ii)Semi-Conductors
iii)Insulators
if aconductor has positive (+ve) and negative (-ve)
charges, an eelcectric field will be set in
aconductor. The field exerts a force on the chargdes
and makes them move away from each other. There
movement will continue until all charges reaches
the conductor surface and redistribute themselves
in such amaneer that both charges of the field
iii)determine the angle between vertical axis and inside is Zero. i.e 𝜌 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 0
point P (2mks) Since the charge distribution on the surface of the
𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟒𝟎 conductor depends on the state of equilibrium only,
𝟎.𝟏
iii)Magnetic field at point P using Biot –Savart if there is no tangential component of electric field
law. (3mks) intensity (E). Under static condition.
Sln i)The field on a conductor surface is an
𝐵 equipotential surface since E = 0 inside the
H=
𝜇 conductor, the whole conductor are same
𝜇0 𝐼∆𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
B= electromotive potential.
4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 2(0.1)𝑆𝑖𝑛84,29 ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 = 𝐸𝑡 ∆𝜔 = 0
B= = 1.99 x 𝑥10−8
4𝜋(1)2 𝐸𝑡 = 0
H = 0.0155834 A/m Tangential component of E fields on conductor
surface is zero.
To find the normal components, construct a
Gaussioan surface with torque face in the space and
both face surfaces on the conductor where E = 0

∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = Q enclosed
𝜀𝐸∆𝑠 = Q enclosed
𝜀𝐸∆𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑠
𝜌𝑠
𝐸𝑛 =
𝜀
Therefore the boundary conditions for a conductor
are:
i)𝜌𝑣 = 0
ii)E = 0
iii) 𝐸𝑡 = 0
𝜌𝑠
iv) 𝐸𝑛 =
𝜀

NOTE: The charge will re-sight only on the

conductor surface and in the inside it will be zero.

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BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR 2)Boundary conditions at interface between 2
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS dielectrics
Two di-electrics media with permittivity 𝜀1 and 𝜀2
1) Interface between two media are separated by a charge phase boundary . The
electric field intensity E in media 1 at 𝑝1 has
magnitude of 𝐸1 and makes an angle ∝1 with the
normal.

Consider a small path abcd such that the ab is in

media 2 and cd is in media 1 both being parallel to To obtain the tangential components we use E
the interface having a width ∆𝑤 𝑬𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐 ………… eqtn 1
∫𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 𝐸𝑑𝐿 = 𝐸1 ∆𝑤 − 𝐸2 (−∆𝑤) = 0 To obtain the Normal components we use D
𝐸1 𝑡 = 𝐸2 𝑡 (Boundary condition is continuous) 𝑫𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟏 = 𝑫𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟐 ……….eqtn 2
i.e The tangential components of E fields is But D = 𝜺𝑬 ……. (iii)
continuous across the boundary /interface. Replacing eqtn (iii) into eqtn (ii)
We obtain
As D = 𝜺𝑬 then the tangential components of D 𝜺𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟏 = 𝜺𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟐 ….(iv)
will be given as: Dividing equation (i) by (iv)
𝑬𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐
𝐷1 t
=
𝐷2 𝑡
which can be said to be discontinuous =
𝜺𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟏 𝜺𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟐
𝜀1 𝜀2
across the boundary.
𝑻𝒂𝒏𝜽𝟏 𝑻𝒂𝒏𝜽𝟐
To find the relation of normal components of a = (this is the equation of refraction of
𝜺𝟏 𝜺𝟐
field at the boundary interface a Gaussian surface is electrostatic fields)
chosen in such away that the torqueface in media 1 From the diagram
and bottom face in media 2
𝐸2 = √𝐸2 2 𝑡 + 𝐸2 2 𝑛
-the face has an area ∆𝑠 and height ∆ℎ. Applying
Gauss theorem 𝐸2 = √(𝑬𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐 )2 + (𝑬𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟐 )2
𝜺
∫𝑠 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = (𝐷1 𝑎𝑛1 + 𝐷2 𝑎𝑛2)∆𝑠 𝐸2 = √(𝑬𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 )2 + ( 𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟏 )2
𝜺𝟐
Since : 𝑎𝑛1 = 𝑎𝑛2 𝜺𝟏
𝑎𝑛(𝐷1 − 𝐷2 )∆𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑠 𝐸2 = 𝑬𝟏 √𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1
𝜺𝟐
-and they are outward unit normal to media 2 and
1respectively. 3)Boundary conditions at the interface between
𝑎𝑛(𝐷1 − 𝐷2 ) = 𝜌𝑠 conductor and dielectric
The normal components of D is discontinuous We know that D and E are zero within the
across the surface where the surface charge exists. conductor. This implies that the tangential
The amount of discontinuity being equal to the components of E and D fields components must be
surface zero
𝐷𝑛 = 𝜀𝐸𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠 ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝐿 and D = 𝜺𝑬
When there is no surface :
∫ 𝐷𝑑𝑠 = Q enclosed
𝐷𝑛1 =𝐷𝑛2 therefore the boundary conditions are:
1: 𝐸1 𝑡 =𝐸2 𝑡 By Gauss law, it shows that D is normal to
2: 𝐷1𝑛 =𝐷2𝑛 𝜌𝑠
conductor surface and 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠 and 𝐸𝑛 =
𝜀
-Boundary conditions for conductor free space is
valid for conductor dielectric i.e
i) 𝐸𝑡 = 0
ii) 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠

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Example Example
A linear homogeneous isotopic dielectric A boundary exists at z= 0 between 2 dielectric
material has permittivity 𝜺𝒓 =1.8𝜺𝟎 and is 𝜺𝒓𝟏 = 2.5 region z = 0 and 𝜺𝒓𝟐 = 4 region z> 0.
covering a space between z =0 and z = 1.4. The field in region of 𝑬𝟏 = -30i + 50j + 70k V/m.
𝑽𝒆 = -4000z Volts in the material, Find : Find:
i)Electric field intensity E i)Normal components of 𝑬𝟏
ii)Electric flux density D ii)tangential component of 𝑬𝟏
iii)Polarization in the material iii)The angle ∝𝟏 ≤ 𝟗𝟎𝟎 between 𝑬𝟏 and the
iv)Bound charge density in the material Normal to the surface
Sln iv)Normal component of 𝑫𝟐
v)Tangential component of 𝑫𝟐
vi) The angle ∝𝟐 between 𝑬𝟐 and the Normal to
the surface
Sln

i)E = −∆𝑽
𝑑𝑉
E=−
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
− = - 4000
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
E=− = -4000
𝑑𝑡
E = 4000
i)𝐸1 = -30i + 50j + 70k
ii) D = 𝜺𝑬 𝐸𝑛1 = 70 V/m
= 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 E
= 1.8 x 8.85 𝑥 10−12 x 4000 ii)E𝒕𝟏 = √302 + 502 = 58.31 V/m
= 6.372 𝑥 10−8 V/m
iii) ∝𝟏 ≤ 𝟗𝟎𝟎
iii) p = 𝒙𝒆𝜺𝟎 E 𝐸1 = √302 + 302 + 702 = 91.1
𝜀𝑟 = 1+𝑥𝑒
𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
1.8 = 1 + xe
xe = 0.8
10−9
P = 0.8 x x 4000
36𝜋
Or 𝐸1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∝1 = 𝐸𝑛1 (Normal tangent)
P = 0.8 𝑥 8.85 𝑥 10−12 x 4000 = 28.29 𝑥 10−9 C/m 91.1𝐶𝑜𝑠∝1 70
=
91.1 91.1
−1 70
iv)𝝆𝒗 = ∆𝑫 ∝1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 = 39.790
91.1
𝑑
= 𝐷
𝑑𝑧
𝑑 iv) 𝑫𝒏𝟏 = 𝑫𝒏𝟐
= 𝜺𝑬
𝑑𝑧 𝜺𝟏 𝜺𝒓 𝐸𝑛1 = 𝜺𝟐 𝜺𝒓 𝐸𝑛2
𝑑
= 𝒙 6.372 𝑥 10−8 𝑉/𝑚 = 0 2.5 x 70 = 4𝐸𝑛2
𝑑𝑧
𝐸𝑛2 = 43.75
And 𝐷𝑛2 = 1.55 𝑥10−9 V/m

Or
𝐷𝑛2 = 𝜀𝐸𝑛2 = 2.5 x 8.85 𝑥10−12 x 70
= 1.55 𝑥10−9 V/m
v)D𝒕𝟏 = DE𝒕𝟏
E𝒕𝟐 =E𝒕𝟏
= 4 x 8.85 𝑥10−12 𝑥 E𝒕𝟏
= 4 x 8.85 𝑥10−12 𝑥 58.31
= 2.064 𝑥1015

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𝑫𝟏 𝒕 𝑫𝟐 𝒕 boundary and the value of discontinuous is equal to
=
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝟎
𝑫𝟐 𝒕
the surface current gain.
E𝒕𝟏 =
𝜺𝟎
𝑫𝟐 𝒕
58.31 =
𝜺𝟎
𝑫𝟐 𝒕 = 58.31 x 8.85 𝑥10−12
= 5.16 𝑥10−10 V/m

vi) 𝐸2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∝1 = 𝐸𝑛2

𝐸2 = √(58.31)2 + (43.75)2 = 72.9

72.9𝐶𝑜𝑠∝2 70
=
72.9 72.9
−1 70
∝2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 = 16.2150
72.9

DRAW
From Maxwells’ equations
∫ 𝑩𝑑𝑠 = 0
∫(𝑩𝒏𝟏 − 𝐵𝑛2 )𝑑𝑠 = 0
ds ≠ 0
𝑩𝒏𝟏 − 𝐵𝑛2 = 0
𝑩𝒏𝟏 = 𝐵𝑛2
𝑫𝒏𝟏 = 𝐷𝑛2
𝑬𝒕𝟏 = 𝐸𝑡2

Normal components of magnetic flux density is

continuous across the boundary interface between
the two different media.
From B = ηH
𝜂1 𝐻𝑛1 = 𝜂2 𝐻𝑛2
And
𝐻𝑛1 𝜂2
=
𝐻𝑛2 𝜂1
Which implies that the normal component of
magnetic field intensity is discontinuous across the
boundary and the value of discontinuity across the
𝜂
boundary = 2
𝜂1
Refernece to the figure below

At the boundary, there exist a sheet current of

density K .
Applying Ampere law
∫ 𝐻𝑑𝑙 = I = k ∆𝐼

Considering closed path, abcda

(𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡1 )∆𝐼 = k ∆𝐼
(𝐻𝑡1 − 𝐻𝑡1 = 𝑘

𝐵𝑡1 𝐵𝑡2
=
𝜂1 𝜂1

Which means that tangential components of a

magnetic field intensity is discontinuous across the

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ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELD THEORY (EMFT)

AND

KNEC PAST PAPERS

Revision Questions
&
Answer

69 | P a g e BY: ODIPO 0729692775

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY Similarly,
𝛻 𝑥 𝛻 × 𝐻 = −𝛻 2 𝐻
SECTION B −𝛻 2 𝐻 =
𝜖𝑑 (𝛻 𝑥 𝐸)
1:PROPERTIES OF UNIFORM PLANE 𝑑𝑡
𝜖𝑑 (𝛻 𝑥 𝐸)
WAVES 𝛻2𝐻=- ….eqtn v
𝑑𝑡
1a)State two properties of a uniform plane 𝑑𝜇𝐻
waves (2mks) From equation 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −
𝑑𝑡
i) They do not require material medium for Replacing in equation (v)
transmission
ii) They travel at the speed of light i.e. 3 × 108 ms-1 𝝐𝝁𝒅𝟐 𝑯
𝜵𝟐𝑯=- (This is the equation for H field
iii)They are transverse in Nature 𝒅𝒕𝟐
in free space)
iv) They carry no charge, hence not affected by
electric or magnetic fields
v) They undergo reflection, refraction and
ci)Derive a relationship for E and H
diffraction. Components for a uniform plane wave travelling
vi)Posses energy in different portion according to in x –direction (4mks)
the relation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
vii) They obey the wave equation (v = λ f).

b)Using Maxwell’s equation, derive the wave

equation in free space for:
i)E (5mks)

sln
FromMmaxwell’s equation
𝑑𝜇𝐻
𝛻 ×𝐸 = − …. eqtn (i)
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝜇𝐻
𝜵 ×𝑬= − eqtn (i)
𝒅𝒕

And curling both sides

𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻)
𝛻 𝑥 (𝛻 × 𝐸) = ….. (ii)
𝑑𝑡
Similarly,
𝛻 𝑥 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝛻 2 𝐸
𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻)
−𝛻 2 𝐸 =
𝑑𝑡
𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻) ii)ATEM wave has an electrical field intensity of
𝛻2𝐸=− ….eqtn (iii) 1𝝁𝑽/𝒎 and travels in a lossless media of relative
𝑑𝑡
And permittivity of 5. Determine the magnetic field
𝝐𝝁𝒅𝟐 𝑬 intensity (4mks)
𝜵𝟐𝑬=- (this the wave equation for E
𝒅𝒕𝟐
field in free space) Sln
𝑬
H=
𝜼
𝐸
ii)H (5mks) from 𝜂 =
𝐻
And flux density 𝛽 = 𝜇H …. (iii)
𝟏
𝜂 = 120𝜋√
𝜺𝒓
Replacing equation iii into equation (ii)
𝟏
𝜂 = 120𝜋√
𝟓
𝑑𝜇𝐻
𝛻 ×𝐸 = −
𝑑𝑡
From equation (iii) 2a)Distinguish between wave propagation and
𝜖𝑑𝐸 wave Polarization in electromagnetic field
𝛻 ×𝐻= and curling both sides of the
𝑑𝑡 (4mks)
equation Propagation – refers to any ways in which the
𝜖𝑑 (𝛻 𝑥 𝐸)
𝛻 𝑥 (𝛻 × 𝐻) = ….. (iv) travels with respect to the direction
𝑑𝑡
From vector equation, the curl of Polarization – Refers to the orientation of
𝛻 𝑥 (𝛻 × 𝐴) = 𝛻 . (𝛻𝐴) − 𝛻 2 𝐴 electromagnetic waves
𝛻 𝑥 (𝛻 × 𝐴) = −𝛻 2 𝐴

70 | P a g e
 b)For a wave propagating in a conducting ii) Phase Constant (1mk)
𝝎𝝁𝝈
media, show that: Phase constant 𝜷 = It is a factor through which a particular wave lags
𝟐𝜶
(7mks) or leads another wave
Sln
From wave equation b)Derive an expression for the phase velocity for
𝛻 2 𝐸 = 𝛾 2E a TEM in free space where 𝜺 ≠ 𝜺𝟎 and 𝝁 ≠ 𝝁𝟎
(4mks)
𝛻 2 𝐻 = 𝛾 2H
Where 𝛾 2 = j𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖) Is the velocity at which a constant wave travel?
𝛾 = propagation constant 𝜔
Phase velocity (𝑉𝑝 ) = ….. eqtn 1
𝛾 = ∝ + 𝛽𝑗 𝛽

Where ∝ = attenuation constant in Nepas Where 𝜔 = angular velocity

𝛽 = Phase constant in rad/seconds 𝛽 = phase constant
For uniform wave travelling in the direction But 𝛽 = 𝜔 √𝜇𝜖 … eqtn 2
𝛾 2 = j𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖) Substituting equation 2 into equation 1
𝜔 𝜔
( ∝ + 𝛽𝑗)2 = j𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖) 𝑉𝑝 = =
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜖
𝛼 2+ 2∝ 𝛽𝑗 − 𝛽 2 = j𝜔𝜇𝜎 − 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜔 1
𝑉𝑝 = = …..eqtn 3
By equating the real part 𝜔 √𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝜖
𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 ..….eqtn (ix)
By equating the imaginary Part But
2∝ 𝛽𝑗 = j𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0
And making the phase constant the subject 𝑎𝑛𝑑 …..eqtn 4
𝑗𝜇𝜔𝜎 𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝜖 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
Phase constant 𝛽 = =
2𝛼𝑗 2𝛼 Substituting the equation 4 into 3, we have
1 1 1
𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝑉𝑝 = = ×
Phase constant 𝛽 = √𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟𝜀𝑟 √𝜇0 𝜀0
2𝛼 1
But 𝑐 = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
√𝜇0 𝜀0
c)State: Hence phase velocity or velocity of propagation
i)two sources of Electromagnetic radiation (EM) 𝜔 1 1
𝑉𝑝 = = = ×𝑐
(2mks) 𝛽 √𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
1 𝑐
Sln 𝑉𝑝 = = or
√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟𝜀𝑟
i. Oscillation of electrical circuit – Radio waves 1
ii. Sun/Fire/Tv remote – Infra red radiation 𝑉𝑝 =
√𝜇𝜖
iii. Sun/mercury vapour lamp- UV light
iv. X-ray tube … X-rays c)State one application for each of the following
v. Radioactive substance – Gamma rays electromagnetic waves (4mks)
i)Visible light
ii)one application for each of the following EM 1..Enable people and animals to see
radiations 2.Photosynthesis in plants
I)X-rays (1mk) 3.Used in LASER
1.In medicine –To locate bone fracture or foreign objects
(swallowed pins)
2.Cancer therapy ii)Micro waves
3.Controlling pests and germs by radiation 1.In microwave Oven to cook or warm food
4.Crystallogy-to detect flaws in metals
2.In RADAR communication (Locating the
II) Gamma –rays (1mk) positions of aeroplanes and ships)
1.Medicine-for sterilising medical equipment,
3.Communication in telephone and computer data
killing cancerous growth
2.Industries –to detect flaws in metal iii)Cosmic rays
3a) Define the following terms as used in wave
propagation
i) Attenuation Factor (1mk) iv)radio Waves
The amplitude of the signal reduces. 1..Used in radio, TV and cellular mobile
Is the decrease in the amplitude of an electric communications.
wave
2.Satellite imagery

71 | P a g e
4a)State three properties of electromagnetic ii)Distinguish between the following types of
waves (3mks) KNEC O/V 2018 media as used in wave propagation
Sln di)Lossless and Lossy media (2mks)
i) They do not require material medium for Sln
transmission A loss-less media is a medium in which
ii) They travel at the speed of light i.e. 3 × 108 ms-1 electromagnetic propagate without the loss of
iii)They are transverse in Nature power. A loss-less media is also known as perfect
iv) They carry no charge, hence not affected by dielectrics
electric or magnetic fields Condition for loss –less media
v) They undergo reflection, refraction and 𝜎=0
diffraction. ∈ = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜
vi)Posses energy in different portion according to ∝ = 0 (no losses)
the relation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 A lossy media -
vii) They obey the wave equation (v = λ f). Is a medium in which electromagnetic wave losses
power as it propagate due to poor condition
b)For each of the following types of
electromagnetic (EM) waves, List one area of 𝛾 = propagation constant
applications (5mks) 𝛾 = ∝ + 𝛽𝑗
TYPE APPLICATION ii)free space and conducting media (2mks)
X-ray 1.In medicine –To locate A free space is a perfect dielectric containing no
bone fracture or foreign
objects (swallowed pins) charges and no conduction current
2.Cancer therapy In free space, 𝛔 = 0, and therefore no conduction
3.Controlling pests and current i.e Ic = Jc = 0
germs by radiation
A conducting media is one in which 𝜎 ≠ 0 and
4.Crystallogy-to detect flaws
in metals hence, conduction current exist as well as charge.
Infrared .Tv remote control Consider the following equations
1.In cooking, heating
and drying.

2.In green houses to 5) A plane wave is in anon-magnetic media has

grow crops E = 50Sin(𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐭 + 2Z)𝐚𝐲 . Find (8mks)
3.Ware fare and KNEC O/N 2018
burglar alarm system a)Direction
Gamma rays 1.Medicine-for direction = -z
sterilising medical
equipment, killing
cancerous growth b)Wavelength λ
2.Industries –to detect 𝟐𝝅
flaws in metal λ=
𝜷
Radio waves 1.Used in radio, TV but 𝛽 = 2
and cellular mobile 𝟐𝝅
hence Wavelength λ = =𝝅
communications. 𝟐
2.Satellite imagery
c)frequency f
Ultra Violet In medicine- to kill Sln
bacteria, skin 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 but 𝜔 = 108
treatment 𝜔 108
f= = = 15 x 106 Hz
2𝜋 2𝜋
Source of Vitamin D
6i)State two properties of an electromagnetic
ci)Define the term ‘ Skin-depth’ as used in an waves (2mks) KNEC J/J 2019
electromagnetic waves (1mks) KNECO/N 2018 Sln
– Refers to the distance through which the 1a)State two properties of a uniform plane waves
amplitude the travelling wave decreases to 37% of (2mks)
the original amplitude i) They do not require material medium for
transmission
ii) They travel at the speed of light i.e. 3 × 108 ms-1
iii)They are transverse in Nature

72 | P a g e
iv) They carry no charge, hence not affected by Determine (8mks)
electric or magnetic fields i)Velocity of propagation
v) They undergo reflection, refraction and Sln
1 1 1
diffraction. 𝑉𝑝 = = ×
√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟𝜀𝑟 √𝜇0 𝜀0
vi)Posses energy in different portion according to 1
the relation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 But 𝑐 = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
√𝜇0 𝜀0
vii) They obey the wave equation (v = λ f).
1 𝑐 3.0 𝑥 108
𝑉𝑝 = = = = 1.225 x 108 𝑚/𝑠
√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟𝜀𝑟 √2 𝑥 3

ii)Explain the reason for using three

dimensional coordinates system in the analysis ii)Phase constant
of electromagnetic fields (4mks) Sln
𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐

𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 = 2𝝅𝒇√𝜇0 𝝁𝒓 𝜀0 𝜺𝒓
= 2 x 𝝅 x 9.4 x 𝟏𝟎𝟗 √𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑥√𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
= 2 x 𝜋 x 9.4 x
109 √ 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥√3𝑥2
= 6.564 x 10−7
bi)Define ‘Uniform plane wave’ as used in
electromagnetic fields (1mks) KNEC 2019 iii)Intrinsic impedance
Sln Sln
Uniform plane waves are those, which the Electric 𝜇 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
η =√ = √ 𝑥√
field E and Magnetic field H lie on the same plane 𝜖 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟

4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 2
=√ x√
8.854 𝑥 10−12 3
ii)The equation of a wave a lossless medium is = 377 x 0.8165 = 307.8Ω
described by:
𝑬𝒚 (𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒙)+ 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜷𝒙)
7a)Distinguish between linearly and Circularly
I)Obtain the expression for the wave in Positive
Polarized waves with reference to wave
direction
propagation (2mks) KNEC2022

Sln
Linearly polarized wave – A wave is said to be
linearly Polarized when at given point in the
medium, the electric field oscillates along a
straight line as a function of time
Occurs when electric fields moves in in line i.e
I)Determine the velocity either in x,y and z directions
Circularly polarized waves – A wave is said to be
Circularly Polarized if the tip of the electric field
have a circle as a function of time
Occurs when electric fields vector move in circle

b) A 60 MHz uniform plane wave propagates in

a medium with 𝝐𝒓𝟏 = 20, 𝝁𝒓𝟏 = 1 and 𝝈𝟏 = 0.05
S/m. The amplitude of electric field intensity is
20 V/m. Determine: (9mks)
i) Angular frequency 𝝎
III)Describe the wave at the instant when : Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 x 6 x 106
𝑪𝟏 = 𝑪𝟐 = 3.77 x 108 Rad/s

c) A 9.4 x 𝟏𝟎𝟗 Hz uniform plane wave is ii)Complex Permittivity 𝜺̅

propagating in space where 𝝁𝒓 = 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜺𝒓 =3.

73 | P a g e
 𝜎1 𝜎1 0.05 𝑥 ×36𝜋 ii)Flux density B(r,t) due to a circular path
= = = 0.75
𝜔𝜖 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0 3.77 𝑥 108 𝑥 20𝑥 10−9
𝜖𝑟1 𝜎1 r > 𝟎. 𝟐
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜀̅ = (1 − 𝑗 )
𝜇𝑟1 𝜔𝜖𝑟1 𝜖0 Sln
20 𝑥 10−9 Flux Density B(r,t)
= (1 − 𝑗0.75)
36𝜋 Using Strokes Theorem 𝛻 𝑥 𝐴 = B
= (17.68 – j1.33 ) x 10−11
∫𝑐 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑠 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠
̅
iii)Propagation Constant 𝒀 = B.𝜋𝑅2
= 0.04 Sin 300t
Sln
𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺̅ 9a)Distinguish between skin effects and Skin
depth with reference to electromagnetic waves.
= j3.77 𝑥 108 √4𝜋𝑥10−7 (17.68 − 𝑗1.33)10−11 Skin effect – Is the tendency of current being
= j 5.62 + 1.54 concentrated on the surface of the cylindrical
= 1.54 + j5.62 conductor

iv)Intrinsic Impedance Ω Skin depth – refers to the distance a wave must

travel before its amplitude has to decay by a factor
1
Sln . It’s the reciprocal of the decay constant 𝛽
𝑒
𝜇
Intrinsic Impedance Ω = √ ̅0
𝜺

4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏
=√ b) A 5GHz wave propagates in a medium
𝟏𝟕.𝟔𝟖 – 𝒋𝟏.𝟑𝟑
characterized by :
= 84 + j23.1
Permeability, 𝝁𝒓 = 2,
8a)Describe the significances of Boundary permittivity, 𝜺𝒓 = 20
Conditions in Electromagnetic analysis Conductivity 𝝈 = 4.0 S/m.
(3mks) KNEC 2022 The electric field intensity E in the region is
i. Boundary conditions helps in describing given by the expression
interfacial boundaries separating dis-similar E = 0.2𝒆−𝒂𝒛 Cos (2𝝅𝒇𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒛
conducting materials. Determine the: (7mks)
ii. They give restrictions on linearly and locality i)Complex permittivity 𝜺 ⃖
of materials to aid in Analysing basic wave ω = 2πx 5x 109 = 31.41 x 109 rad/s
plane parameters (eg reflections) and 31.41 x 109 x 31.41 x 30−9
ω∈= = 8.33
Matching such to a planar boundary isotopic 36π
𝑗𝜔𝜀
medium. The complex permittivity 𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ]
𝜎
iii. For systematically be able to uniquely describe 𝑗8.33
𝜀⃖ = ∈ [1 − ] = ∈ (1 − 𝑗2.1)
both electric and magnetic fields in dynamics 4
of electromagnetic fields. = ∈ (2.32 < −64.50

ii)Propagation constant 𝜸
b)A laminated cylindrical Core of diameter Sln
0.1m is uniformly wound and generates flux Y = j𝜔 √𝜇𝜀
𝟏 = j𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑥 𝜇𝑟 𝑥𝜀𝑟 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
density of magnitude B(t) = 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒕).
𝝅 𝑗31.41 x 109
Determine The: (7mks) = x √2 𝑥 30 x √1 − 𝑗2.1
3 x 108
= j811√1 − 𝑗2.1
i)Voltage per turn V =(811<90)(1.76<55)
sln = 1427 < 145
𝑑∅ = -1169 + j818
Voltage V = - E =
𝑑𝑡
But ∅ = BA , iii)Attenuation constant ∝
𝑑𝐵𝐴
V= Sln
𝑑𝑡
For Acylinder A = 𝜋𝑅2 1169 lagging
𝑑∅
V= 𝜋𝑅2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 1
= 𝜋𝑅2 ( 𝑆𝑖𝑛(300𝑡) c)The table 1 shows the characteristic of
𝑑𝑡 𝜋
= 300 𝑅2 Cos 300t difference media. Complete the table (6mks)
= 300 x(0.05)2 Cos 300t V Media Lossy Lossless conductor

74 | P a g e
 Conductivity 𝝈 The frequency of the wave polarized in the x-
≠𝟎 direction is 200kHz. Determine the:
Permittivity 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝟏 i)Angular frequency, 𝝎 (2mks)
Permeability 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 Sln
Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 x 200 x 103
= 1.257 x 106 Rad/s
Sln

Media Lossy Lossless conductor ii)Propagating constant , Y (2mks)

Conductivity 𝝈≠𝟎 𝝈=𝟎 𝝈 ≈∝ Sln
Permittivity 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝝈 ≪ 𝝎𝜺 𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺̅
Permeability 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝑌̅ = j𝜔 √𝜇0 𝜺𝟎
𝜔 1.257 𝑥 106
=j = j = j4.19 x 10−3
𝑐 3 𝑥 108

iii)Intrinsic impedence 𝜼 (2mks)

Sln
di)Outline three types of radiations detected by
𝜇 4𝜋𝑥10−7
electromagnetic detectors KNEC O/N 2022 Intrinsic Impedance Ω = √̅̅̅̅0 = √
𝜺𝟎 8.85𝑥10−12
(3mks)
=120𝜋Ω
-Alpha radiations ∝
iv)Phase velocity 𝑽𝒑 (2mks)
-beta radiations 𝛽 𝜔 𝜔 1 1 𝑐
-Gamma radiations 𝛾 𝑉𝑝 = = = × =
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 √𝜇0 𝜀0 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
𝛽 = is the real part of propagation constant 4.19 x
10−3
𝜔 1.257 𝑥 106
𝑉𝑝 = = = 3.0 x 108 m/s
𝛽 4.19 𝑥 10−3
ii)With aid of adiagram, explain the Or
𝜔 𝜔 1
construction of Geiger-muller counter detector 𝑉𝑝 = = =
𝛽 𝜔√𝜇𝜖 √𝜇0 𝜀0
in electromagneticics (5mks) 1 1
Sln 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑐 = =
√𝜇0 𝜀0 √4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 8.85𝑥10−12
8
= 3.0 x 10 m/s

c)Outline three sources of electromagnetic fields

(3mks)
Sln
 Solar radiations – this is natural radiations
which originates from the sun
It consists of a hollow metal case enclosed in a thin
 Terrestial radiations – natural radiations
glass tube, which acts as cathode. The Tungsten
emmited from the earth surface
wire is stretched along the axis which acts as an
 Artificial radiations –Originating from remote
anode insulated by ebonite plugs
sensing devices
-The tube is filled 90% argon and 10% pressure
-A fine tungsten is connected to battery positive via
a resistor and other terminal to metallic tube.

7a)Describe electromagnetic shielding (2mks)

KNEC O/N 2022
-Electromagnetic shielding is a conductive barrier
that completely envelopes a device to protect it
from environmental interference.
-It blocks electromagnetic and electrostatics fields
from interfering with other electronics devices and
systems

2:ELECTRODYNAMICS
b)A uniform wave propagating in free space
1i)Find the expression for the force F between
strikes a lossy medium with a dielectric
two point charges
constants of 20 and conductivity of 0.8mS/m.

75 | P a g e
Sln B = 𝛁 × 𝑨, determine the expression for B
(6mks)
Let the two charges be 𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 and are at R
distance apart

Force is directly proportial to the products of the 2ii)Verify Gauss divergence Theorem for a
charges and inversely proportional to the square of vector field
the distance between them D = 𝝆𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 ∅𝒂𝒆 + 𝒁𝑺𝒊𝒏∅𝒂∅ over any closed
𝑄1 𝑄2 surface bounded by 𝝆 = 𝟒, 0 ≤ 𝒁 ≤ 𝟏 (8mks)
F∝ Sln
𝑅2
1 𝑑 1 𝑑 𝑑
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌(𝐴𝜌) + (𝐴Ф) + 𝜌(𝐴𝑧)
F=k N 𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑑Ф 𝑑Ф
𝑅2 1 𝑑 1 𝑑
𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌3 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅𝑎𝑝 + 𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑎∅ + 0
𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑑Ф
𝑄1 𝑄2 1 2 2
𝛻. 𝐷 = ( 3𝜌 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅)𝑎𝑝 + (𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅)𝑎∅
1
So F = 𝑝 𝑝
4𝜋𝜀𝑅 2 𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
= [3𝜌𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + ]
𝜌
1
Where : k = Volume dv = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
4𝜋𝜀
1 ∅=2𝜋 4 𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
𝜀 = Relative permitivity = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 [3𝜌𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 𝜌
] 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 1 ∅=2𝜋 4
𝜀0 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
= ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 [3𝜌2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ ] 𝑑𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
1 ∅=2𝜋 3 4
8.854 𝑥 10−12 or = ∫0 ∫0 [ 𝜌3 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 𝜌𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
3 0
𝜀𝑟 = relative permittivity 1 ∅=2𝜋 3 2
= ∫0 ∫0 [4 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ + 4𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ − (0)] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
Where 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are the positive or negative 2 1
But 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ = (1 + 𝐶𝑜2∅)
2
charge and R is the distance between them. 1 ∅=2𝜋 1
= ∫0 ∫0 [64 { (1 + 𝐶𝑜2∅)} + 4𝑍𝐶𝑜𝑠∅] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
2
b)a negative point charge of magnitude 2𝝁C is 1 1 2𝜋
situated in air at origin and two positive point = ∫0 [32 {∅ + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2∅)} + 4𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛∅] 𝑑𝑧
2 0
1
charges of magnitude 1 𝝁C each are at point = ∫0 32 {2𝜋)} + 4𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛360 − (0) 𝑑𝑧
y = ± 2m 1
= ∫0 32 {2𝜋)} 𝑑𝑧
i)Sketch the arrangements of the charges
= [64𝜋𝑧]10
= 64𝜋(1) − 64𝜋(0) = 𝟔𝟒𝝅

Again
̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅ = (𝛁. 𝑨)𝒅𝒗
∮𝑫
(𝛁. 𝑫)𝒅𝒗 = ∮ 𝑫 ̅ . 𝒅𝒔̅
2 2
= 𝜌 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅𝑎𝑝 +𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑎∅
1 ∅=2𝜋
= ∫0 ∫0 [𝜌2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅𝑎𝑝 + 𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑎∅ ] 𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
1 ∅=2𝜋
= ∫0 ∫0 [𝜌3 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅𝑎𝑝 + 𝜌𝑍𝑆𝑖𝑛∅𝑎∅ ] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
ds = 𝜌𝑑∅𝑑𝑧 For cylindrical
1
But 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ = (1 + 𝐶𝑜2∅)
ii)determine the value of E and V at appoint 4m 2
1 ∅=2𝜋 1
from the origin on the x –axis (11mks) = ∫0 ∫0 [𝜌3 { (1 + 𝐶𝑜2∅)} + 𝜌𝑍𝑖𝑛∅] 𝑑∅𝑑𝑧
2
1 1 1 2𝜋
= ∫0 [ 𝜌3 𝑥 {∅ + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2∅)} + 𝜌𝑍(−𝐶𝑜𝑠∅] 𝑑𝑧
2 2 0
1 1 1
= ∫0 (𝜌3 𝑥 {2𝜋 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛2(2𝜋)} + 𝜌𝑍(−𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝜋) 𝑑𝑧
2 2
But 𝝆 = 4
1 1
= ∫0 (43 𝑥 {2𝜋 + (0)} + 𝜌𝑍(−1) − (−1)) 𝑑𝑧
2
1
== ∫0 {64𝜋)} 𝑑𝑧
= [64𝜋𝑧]10
= 64𝜋(1) − 64𝜋(0) = 𝟔𝟒𝝅
bi)Given that surface charge density in a region
2.The vector magnetic potential A, in the x- y is 𝝆𝒔 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝒚, Determine the surface charge
plane is given by integral ∫𝒔 𝝆𝒔 𝒅𝒔 over a region y ≤ 𝒙𝟐 , 0 ≤ 𝒙 < 𝟏
A = (𝒆𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒙)𝒂𝒙 + ( 1 + 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙)𝒂𝒛 . (3mks)
Given that the magnetic flux density

76 | P a g e
 𝝍 = ∫ 𝑫. 𝜹𝒔

∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑰𝒆𝒏𝒄
B = 𝝁𝑯
𝑽
E=
𝑰
Sln
LECTRIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD
E = - 𝛻𝑉 H= −𝛻𝑉

𝜑 = ∮ 𝐵ds
𝜓 = ∫ 𝐷. 𝛿𝑠

ii)Derive expression for the total force

experienced by charged particle moving in a ∮ 𝐷ds = Qencl ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
region of both electric and magnetic fields.
(4mks) D = 𝜀𝐸 B = 𝜂𝐻
𝑉
E=
𝐼

bi)State the Bio Savart’s law of magneto statics

(2mks)

Sln
The Biot-Savart Law states that:
The magnetic field intensity d𝑯 ̅ produced at
appoint p due to differential current IdL is
1)Directly Proportional to the product of the
c) A scalar quantity is given as V = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛. current I and differential length dL.
Determine its gradient (4mks)
2)The sine of the Angle between the element and
the line joining point P to the element
3)And inversely proportional to the square of the
distance R between point P and the element

2ai)State two areas of application of magnetic

fields (2mks)

𝟐.𝟑𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔
ii)A radial field H = Cos∅𝒂∅
𝝆
Amperes/metre exists in free space. Determine
the magnetic flux (∅) crossing the surface
𝝅 𝝅
defined by − ≤ ∅ ≤ , 𝟎 ≤ 𝒁 ≤ 𝟏 metre.
𝟒 𝟒
(6mks)
ii)Table 1 Shows analogy between electric and
3ai)State Gauss’ law of electrostatics
magnetic fields. Complete the table
KNEC O/N 2018
LECTRIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD
It state that the total Electric flux passing through
E = - 𝛁𝑽 an enclosed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.

77 | P a g e
 𝑞1 𝑞2 4 𝑥 10 −5 𝑥 6 𝑥 10 −5
𝐹𝑞1𝑞2 = = 10−9
= ?N
ii)Using the law in a(i), derive Maxswell’s 4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 (0.1)2
36𝜋
equation in point form (8mks)
Sln bi)State Stoke’s theorem (2mks)
Ψ=∫ 𝐷 ̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅ = Q enclosed it states the circulation of avector field A around a
𝑠
closed path L is equal to the surface integral of the
Q = ∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣̅ = ∫𝑣 (𝛻. 𝐷) 𝑑𝑣 curl of A over the open surface (S) bounded by by L
provided that A and curl of A are continuous
And therefore ∮ 𝐴̅. 𝑑𝑙 ̅ = (𝛻. 𝐴)𝑑𝑠
∫𝑣 𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑣̅ = ∫𝑣 (𝛻. 𝐷) 𝑑𝑣
From which it can be observed that:
𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝑝𝑣 (this is known as Maxswell’s 1st
equation in point or differential form)
Q=∫ 𝐷 ̅ . 𝑑𝑠̅, (this is known as Maxswell’s
𝑠
equation in integral form).

b)The electric flux density in an electric field is

given by
D = (2𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛)𝒂𝒛 + 4xy𝒂𝒚 + x𝒂𝒛 C/𝒎𝟐 . Determine
ii)Figure 2 Shows a diagram of an elemental
the volume charge density at a point (-1,0,3) electric charge located in space, Using
(4mks) cylindrical co-ordinate system, write the
Sln expressions for the surface area for the element
Volume charge density 𝑝𝑣 = ( . D)
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝟐𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛
𝑑 𝑑
𝑎
= 𝑑𝑦 . ( 𝑦 ) = 𝑑𝑦 . ( 4𝑥𝑦 )
𝑑
𝑎𝑧 𝑑 𝑥
[(𝑑𝑧 ) ] [( 𝑑𝑧 ) ]
= 0 + 4x + 0
And at point (-1,0,3)
𝑝𝑣 = 0 (-1) + 4(0) + 3(0) = 0

ci)State coulomb’s law of force

Sln
The law states that: The force between two point
charges is directly proportional to the product of
Charges𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.
𝑞1 𝑞2
So F∝
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
F=k N
𝑟2

ii)Two point charges 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 C and

𝑸𝟐 = 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 are spaced 10cm apart in
vacuum. Determine the:
I)Force of attraction between the charges (4mks)
Sln
𝑞1 𝑞2 4 𝑥 10 −5 𝑥 6 𝑥 10 −5
𝐹𝑞1𝑞2 = = 10−9
= ?N
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋 𝑥 𝑥 (0.1)2
36𝜋

iii)Figure 3 shows a line charge distribution in

which a cylindrical charge tube oriented along
II)Force, if the charges are placed in kerosene of
the Z axis has a line charge density 𝝆𝟏 = 2Z, Z is
relative permittivity 𝜺𝒓 = 2 (4mks)
the distance from bottom end of the tube.
Sln
Determine the total charge contained (10mks)

78 | P a g e
 Determine the total elecytric field strength at
appoint (12,15,18) due to both charges (8mks)
Sln

12 3
|𝑟 − 𝑟1 | = |(15) − ( 7 )|= √92 + 82 + 222
18 −4
=√629
12 2
|𝑟 − 𝑟2 | = |(15) − ( 4 )|= √102 + 112 + 192 =
18 −1
√582
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞2
E= 𝑎
2 1
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
+ 2 𝑎2 + ………+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑎𝑚 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 𝑞1 𝑞
E= [ 𝑎 + 22 𝑎2 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 1 𝑟
1 2 𝑥 10−6 (9)𝑎𝑥 +(8)𝑎𝑦 +22𝑎𝑧
E= [ 2 𝑥 +
4𝜋𝜀0 (√629) √629
c) A vector field is defined by:
𝟐𝒙 −5𝑥 10−6 (10)𝑎𝑥 +(11)𝑎𝑦 +19𝑎𝑧
𝑮= 𝟐 𝑥 ]
𝟐 𝒂𝒙 + (𝒚 + 𝒁 + 𝟏𝟏)𝒂𝒚 + (5x - 𝒁 )𝒂𝒛
2
(𝟏+ 𝒚 ) (√582) √582
Determine the unit vector in the direction of Factorizing 10−6 outside the bracket
Vector G at a point (1, 2,-3) (6mks) 2 (9)𝑎𝑥 +(8)𝑎𝑦 +22𝑎𝑧
𝐸 = 9 𝑥 10 9 𝑥 10−6 [ 2 𝑥 +
(√629) √629
−5 (10)𝑎𝑥 +(11)𝑎𝑦 +19𝑎𝑧
2 𝑥 ]
(√582) √582
(9)𝑎𝑥 +(8)𝑎𝑦 +22𝑎𝑧
E = 9 𝑥 10 3 [2 𝑥 3 +
(629)2
(10)𝑎𝑥 +(11)𝑎𝑦 +−19𝑎𝑧
−5𝑥 3 ]
(582)2
(18)𝑎𝑥 +(16)𝑎𝑦 +44𝑎𝑧 (−50)𝑎𝑥 +(−55)𝑎𝑦 +95𝑎𝑧
E = 9 𝑥 10 3 [ + ]
15775.2 14040.5
3
E = 9 𝑥 10 [(0.00114)𝑎𝑥 + (0.0010)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0028𝑎𝑧 +
(−0.0036)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.00392)𝑎𝑦 + 0.00677𝑎𝑧 ]
E = 9 𝑥 10 3 [(−0.0025)𝑎𝑥 + (−0.0029)𝑎𝑦 + 0.0096𝑎𝑧 ]
E = [(−0.0225𝑎𝑥 − 0.0261𝑎𝑦 + 0.0864𝑎𝑧 ] kV/m
7a)State two equipment which use electrostatic
field in their operation (2mks) KNEC 2019
8a)State Biot Savart Law (2mks) KNEC 2019

Sln
The Biot-Savart Law states that:
The magnetic field intensity d𝑯 ̅ produced at
appoint p due to differential current IdL is
1)Directly Proportional to the product of the
bi)State Coulomb’s law of electrostatics (2mks) current I and differential length dL.
Sln 2)The sine of the Angle between the element and
The force between two point charges is directly the line joining point P to the element
proportional to the product of Charges𝑞1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2 3)And inversely proportional to the square of the
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between point P and the element
distance between them.
𝑞1 𝑞2
So F∝
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
F=k N
𝑟2

ii)A point charge 𝑸𝟏 = 2𝝁C is located at

𝑷𝟏 (𝟑, 𝟕, −𝟒) in free space and a second point ii)Figure 5 Shows a cylindrical Gaussian surface
charge 𝑸𝟐 = -5𝝁C is at appoint 𝒑𝟐 (𝟐, 𝟒, −𝟏) . for magnetoststic field at the interface between
two different dielectrics of permittivity’s 𝝁𝟏

79 | P a g e
and 𝝁𝟐 respectively. Using Gauss Law, show A = 30𝒍−𝟏 𝒂𝒙 - 2z𝒂𝒛 exist over the surface of the
that the normal component of the magnetic flux cylinder bounded l = 2, z = 0 and z = 5, Evaluate
density B is continuous across the boundary both sides of the equation using divergence
(6mks) theorem (10mks)

10ai)Define the following terms as used in

9i)Define ‘dot-product’ as used in magnetic fields (2mks) KNEC 2020
electromagnetic field theory KNEC 2020 i)Magnetic flux density
It is the magnetic flux per unit area
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 Ф (𝑊𝑏)
B= = 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚 )
ii)Three electromagnetic field quantities are
represented by:
M = 2𝒂𝒙 - 𝒂𝒛
ii)Magnetic field intensity
N = 𝟐𝒂𝒙 -𝒂𝒚 + 2𝒂𝒛
It is the measure of how strong or weak any
T = 𝟐𝒂𝒙 - 3𝒂𝒛 + 𝒂𝒛
magnetic field is.
Determine N(T × 𝑴)
Or
b)Explain three conditions that must be satisfied The ability of magnetic field to magnetise a
in the application of Coulomb in electrostatics material medium
(3mks)

i)List three current distribution configuration in

a magnetic field.

ci)State the divergence theorem (2mks)

ii)Write the expression for the boundary
condition for normal components of magnetic
flux density B between two different media of
relative permeability 𝝁𝒓𝟏 and 𝝁𝒓𝟐 respectively in
a magnetic field.

iii)Show that the constant of discontinuity of

normal component of magnetic field strength H
across boundary in b(ii) is given by:
𝑯𝒙𝟐 𝝁𝒓𝟏
ii)A vector field in cylindrical co-ordinate =
𝑯𝒙𝟏 𝝁𝒓𝟐
system

80 | P a g e
 𝐴
B=
0.2
800
Replacing B = = 210.53
19 𝑥 0.2
Replacing equation into
𝐴
V=− +B
𝑟
800 800
V=− +
19𝑟 3.8
E = −∇𝑉
10)With reference to electrodynamic, define 𝑑𝑣 800
= 𝑎𝑟 V/m
each of the following terms and write their 𝑑𝑟 19𝑟 2
mathematical expressions: (4mks)
KNEC 2022 ii)Electric flux density D
i)Electric field Intensity E D = 𝜀𝐸
800
D= 𝜀 𝑎𝑟 V/𝑚2
Electric intensity E at a point is the force per unit 19𝑟 2

charge
𝐹 11)A charge q = 5𝝁C is placed a distance a =
E=
𝑄 20cm from an infinite grounded conducting
ii) Electric Flux Density D plate. Determine the: (5mks) KNEC 2022
Is total flux per unit surface area. i)Force acting on the charge
𝑸
Hence, D = C/𝒎𝟐 Sln
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑞2
𝐹𝑞 =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟)2
d) For a free space concentric spherical shells (5 𝑥 10−6 )2
𝐹𝑞 = = 5.625𝑁
with voltage 𝑽𝟏 = 0, at a radius 4𝜋 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 (0.2)2
𝒓𝟏 = 0.2m and Voltages 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑽 at aradius
𝒓𝟐 = 4m . Determine the:
1)Electric field intensity E ii)Work required to remove the charge to infinity
Sln Sln
∞ 𝑞2
2 1 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑 Work W = ∫𝑎 𝑑𝑟
𝛻 𝑉= ( )=0 4𝜋𝜀0 (2𝑟)2
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
−𝑞 2 1 ∞
Multiplying by 𝑟 2 all through =
16𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑎
[ ]
1 𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
2
𝑟 𝑥 ( )=0x𝑟 2 −𝑞 2
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 =
16𝜋𝜀0 𝑎
𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
( )=0
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
Integrating both side q = 5𝝁C and a = 0.2
(5 𝑥 10−6 )2
𝑑 𝑟 2𝑑
∫ 𝑑𝑟 ( 𝑑𝑟 ) = ∫ 0 16𝜋 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 0.2

𝑟 2 𝑑𝑣
= 0.281J
=A
𝑑𝑟
Dividing all through by 𝑟 2 12a)Distinguish between electric and magnetic
𝑑𝑣 𝐴 dipoles with reference to electromagnetic field
=
𝑑𝑟 𝑟2 KNEC O/N 2022 (2mks)
𝐴
So that : v=∫ 𝑑𝑟 Sln
𝑟2
V=− +B
𝐴
……… (i) Electric dipoles-Deals with the separation of
𝑟 positive and negative charges found in any
V = 0 when r = 0.2
electromagnetic system eg a pair of electric
From the condition given:
𝐴
charges
0=− +B …… eqtn (ii) Magnetic dipoles –deals with a closed circulation
0.2
A = 0.2B of electric current system eg aclosed single loop of
And a wire of constant through it.
𝐴
B= …… eqtn (iii)
0.2
And replacing eqtn (iv) into (ii)
𝐴 𝐴
200 = − +
4 0.2
𝐴 𝐴
200 = -
0.2 4
20𝐴 −𝐴 19𝐴 b)Figure 3 shows a point charge of 60𝝁𝑪 at point
200 = = (0.0.10)m. Determine the
4 4
800 = 19A

81 | P a g e
 Sln

iii)determine the angle between vertical axis and

point P (2mks)
𝟏
i)Charge density (3mks) 𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝟎.𝟏
Sln iii)Magnetic field at point P using Biot –Savart
𝑄 60 𝑥10−6 law. (3mks)
Charge density 𝜌𝑠 = =
𝐴 𝜋(𝑟 2 ) Sln
60 𝑥10−6 𝐵
= H=
𝜋(102 ) 𝜇
= 1.9 𝑥10−7 C/𝑚2 B=
𝜇0 𝐼∆𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝑥10−7 𝑥 2(0.1)𝑆𝑖𝑛84,29
ii)Force on the charge due to a circle plate of B= = 1.99 x 𝑥10−8
4𝜋(1)2
charge 600𝝅𝝁𝑪 at aradius 𝒓 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝒎, z = 0m H = 0.0155834 A/m
(5mks)
Sln 9)Write the mathematical expressions of energy
In cylindrical form R = -𝑟𝑎𝑦 +10𝑟𝑎𝑧 density of KNEC O/N 2022
𝑄1 𝑄2
F= I)Electric field
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
In differential form
2𝜋 10 (60𝑥 10−6 )𝜌𝑠 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
F = ∫0 ∫0 10−6
3
4𝜋( )(𝑟 2 +100)2
36𝜋
2𝜋 10 (60𝑥 10−6 )(6𝑥 10−6 )(10𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
F = ∫0 ∫0 10−6
3 𝑎𝑧
4𝜋( )(𝑟 2 +100)2
36𝜋
2𝜋 10 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑∅
F = 32.4 ∫0 ∫0 3 𝑎𝑧
(𝑟+100)2 II)Magnetic fields
2𝜋
F = 10.28 ∫0 𝑑∅ 𝑎𝑧
= 10.28 Nm I opposite direction

c)State the Amperes Circuital law (2mks)

It states that the line integral of magnetic field
intensity around a closed path is equal to the
product of the magnetic permeability of that space
and the total current through the area bounded by
the path.
c)Distinguish between velocity of wave
propagation and wave length with reference to
electromagnetic waves. (2mks)
KNEC O/N 2022

d)The electric field intensity of a uniform plan

8)A conductor of length 10cm carries current of wave in free space is given by the expression
2A in a vertical direction.A point P is placed 1m E = 98Cos (𝝎𝒕 𝟖𝒛)
away from the conductor in the x-direction. Determine:
i)Sketch the arrangement (2mks) a)Wave frequency (2mks)
KNEC O/N 2022

82 | P a g e
b)Wavelength (2mks)

c)Electric field intensity (2mks)

iv)Average power density (2mks)

3:MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
1.a)Write the word statements for each of the
Maxwell’s equations in time varying fields
(8mks)
𝒅𝑩
5. 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − (Faradays law)
𝒅𝒕
The electromotive force around a closed path is
equal to the time divergence of magnetic

83 | P a g e
displacement through any surface bounded by the 𝑑
= (0) – (0) + 20 Sin(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑥
path.
𝒅𝑫 = -1000 Sin(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑧
6. 𝛁 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + (Amperes circuital 𝑑𝐵
𝒅𝒕 − =𝛻 ×E
law in point form) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
The magneto motive force around a closed path is − = -1000 Sin(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑡
equal to the conduction current plus the time 𝑑𝐵
= 1000 Sin(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑧
derivative of electric displacement through any 𝑑𝑡
closed surface bounded by the path B = ∫ 1000 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑧
1000
B=− 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥)
𝜔
𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Maxwel’s First
7.
Equation)
Therefor H
The total electric displacement through any surface
From B = 𝜇H
enclosing a value is equal to the total charge within 𝐵 1000
the volume. H= =− 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥)
𝜇 𝜇𝜔
8. 𝛁 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law )
The net magnetic flux in a closed loop is zero 3a) State the two Maxwell’s equations in
Magneto-statics (4mks) KNEC O/N 2018
2a)Write Maxwell’s for electrostatics fields in Sln
integral form (2mks) In point form or differential form
𝒅𝑩 𝑑𝐷
5) ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 (Faraday’s law) a)𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽 + (Amperes circuital law
𝒅𝒕 𝑑𝑡
6) ∮ 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝝆𝒗 𝐝𝐯 = Q (Gauss law for b)𝛻 . 𝐵 = 0 (Gauss law )
electric) In integral form
𝑑𝐷
1. ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝐿 = ∫ 𝐽𝑑𝑠 + . 𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝑡
b)In free space, E = 20cos(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙)𝒂𝒚
2. ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
Volts/Metr. Determine:
i)Displacement current density Jd (6mks)
Sln
b)In free space, electric flux density
Again from Ampere circuital law,
𝑑𝐷 𝑫= 𝑫𝒙 sin(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚 . Use Maxwell’s
We first find 𝐽𝑑 =
𝑑𝑡 equations to show that the magnetic flux density
𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝑑(𝟐𝟎 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕−𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚
= = is given by:
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= −𝟐𝟎𝛚 𝛆𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙) 𝒂𝒚 𝑫𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕+ 𝜷𝒛)
𝑩= (9mks)
𝜺𝒐 𝝎
ii)Magnetic field strength H (5mks) Sln
Sln ∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝐵
Alternative 1 𝑑𝑡
𝐷 𝑫𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
E = 𝜂H E= =
𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒐
𝐸 20 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡−50𝑥) 𝑎𝑥
H= = i)B
𝜂 𝜂
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝐸 20 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡−50𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
Hence H = = ∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
𝜂 120𝜋
Or 𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛
120
H= cos (𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥)𝑎𝑥
120𝜋
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
Alternative 2
𝛁 × E = || 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 ||
Use the point form of Faraday’s law and 𝑫𝒎𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)
integration with respect to time to Find B and H 𝟎 𝟎
𝜺𝒐
𝑑𝐵 𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)
𝛻 ×E= − 𝑑0 𝑑0 𝑑0 𝑑 𝒎 𝑑0
𝑑𝑡 =( - )𝑎𝑥 - ( - 𝜀
)𝑎𝑦 +( -
i)B 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 𝑑 𝒎
𝜀
𝜕𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝜕𝐸 )𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑦
𝛻 × E = | 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑧 | 𝑫 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)
𝑑 𝒎 𝜺
𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧 = ( 0) + 𝒐
)𝑎𝑦 – 0 + 0
𝑑𝑧
𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
=
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 𝜺𝒐
𝜕𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝜕𝐸 𝑑𝐵
𝛻 × E = | 𝜕𝑥 Since : ∇ × E = −
𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑧 | 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵 𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙
0 20 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 50𝑥) 𝑎𝑦 0 − =∇ ×E=
𝑑𝑡 𝜀

84 | P a g e
 𝒅𝑩 𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒙 b)Figure 4 Shows a parallel plate capacitor
− =
𝒅𝒕 𝜺𝒐
connected to an alternating generator of Voltage
V volts. Redraw the circuit and indicate
Therefore displacement current 𝑰𝒅 and the capacitor
𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚
B = −∫ 𝑑𝑡 current 𝑰𝒄 (2mks)
𝜺𝒐
−𝜷𝑫𝒎 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝜷𝒛)𝒂𝒚
B=
𝜺𝒐 𝜔

c)From the Maxwells’s equations:

𝒅𝑩
𝛁 ×𝑬= −
𝒅𝒕
.
𝒅𝑫
𝛁 ×𝑯=𝑱+ , Derive the expressions for
𝒅𝒕
wave equation in E, in free space Using the
Vector Identity: 𝛁 𝐱 (𝛁 × 𝑨) = 𝛁 . (𝛁𝑨) − 𝛁 𝟐 𝑨
(8mks)
Sln
𝑑𝜇𝐻
𝛻 ×𝐸 = − eqtn (i)
𝑑𝑡

Sln
And curling both sides
𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻) NOTE: After re-drawing the same circuit above,
𝛻 𝑥 (𝛻 × 𝐸) = ….. (ii) then for:
𝑑𝑡
Similarly, Conduction current indicate 𝐼𝑐 along the
𝛻 𝑥 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝛻 2 𝐸 wire/conductor
𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻) Displacement current , indicate 𝐼𝑑 between the two
−𝛻 2 𝐸 =
𝑑𝑡 capacitor plates
𝜇𝑑(𝛻 𝑥 𝐻)
𝛻2𝐸=− ….eqtn (iii)
𝑑𝑡
And 5.)Write Maxwell’s equations for the time
𝜖𝜇𝑑 2 𝐸 varying fields in free space KNEC 2020
𝛻2𝐸=- (this the wave equation for E Sln
𝑑𝑡 2
𝒅𝑩
field in free space) 5) 𝜵 × 𝑬 = − (Faradays law)
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑫
4i)Distinguish between convection and 6) 𝜵 × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + (Amperes circuital law
𝒅𝒕
conduction currents in electromagnetic fields in point form)
theory (2mks)KNEC J/J 2019 7) 𝜵 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Maxwel’s First Equation)
8) 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law )
𝑱𝒄 = Conduction current density which refers to
the amount of current (charge) flowing on the
surface of the conductor. ii)An electromagnetic field in free space has a
- It can also be referred to us the current in magnetic flux density
the conductors due to the flow of electrons 𝑩 = 𝑩𝒎 𝒆𝒋(𝝎+𝜷𝒛)
𝑱𝒅 = Displacement current or convectional Using Maxwell’s equations, show that
current i.e the current between two plates of a −𝝎𝑩𝒎 𝒆𝒋(𝝎+𝜷𝒛)
𝑬=
capacitor due to electric field 𝜷

Sln
𝑑𝐵
ii)State the Maxwell’s equation for time varying ∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝑡
fields in integral form (6mks)
𝒅𝑩 Starting with R.H.S
1) ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ . 𝒅𝑺 (Faraday’s law) 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝑎𝑦
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑫 − =− = -j𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒚
2) ∮ 𝑯. 𝒅𝑳 = ∫ 𝑱𝒅𝒔 + . 𝒅𝑺 (Ampere’s law) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
𝒅𝒕 ∇ × E = -j𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝒂𝒚
3) ∮ 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔 = ∫ 𝝆𝒗 𝐝𝐯 = Q (Gauss law for 𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
electric) 𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
4) ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 0 (Gauss law for Magnetic) ∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 |
𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛

𝒅𝑬𝒛 𝒅𝑬𝒚 𝒅𝑬𝒛 𝒅𝑬𝒙 𝒅𝑬𝒚 𝒅𝑬𝒙

[𝒂𝒙 ( − ) − 𝒂𝒚 ( − ) + 𝒂𝒛 ( − )]
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚

85 | P a g e
Required = [𝒂𝒚 (−
𝒅𝑬𝒛
𝒅𝒙
+
𝒅𝑬𝒙
𝒅𝒛
)] 𝒅𝟐 𝑬𝒙 𝒅𝟐 𝑬𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝑬𝒛
𝒅𝑬𝒛 + + =𝟎
But −
𝒅𝒙
=0 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒛𝟐
𝑑𝐵
𝒅𝑬𝒙
=− = −𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒚
𝒅𝒛 𝑑𝑡
𝑬𝒙 = ∫ −𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) 𝒂𝒙 dz
𝐣𝝎𝐵𝑚 c)A plane electromagnetic wave having a
B=− 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧)
𝑗𝛽
𝝎𝐵𝑚
frequency of 10MHz travels through a lossless
B=− 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+ 𝛽𝑧) medium of relative permittivity 𝜺𝒓 and
𝛽
permeability 𝝁𝒓 of 3 and 2 respectively.
6ai)Write an expression for a pure progressive Determine the:
wave (1mks) i)Velocity of propagation
Sln
𝝎 𝝎 𝟏 𝟏 𝒄
𝑽𝒑 = = = × =
𝜷 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎 √ 𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓
𝟏 𝟖
But 𝒄 = = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎 m/s
√𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎

𝒄 𝟑.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝑽𝒑 = = = 1.225 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠
√𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 √𝟐 𝒙𝟑

ii)Wavelength
Sln
𝛜𝛍𝐝𝟐 𝐄 From phase velocity,
ii)Express the wave equation 𝛁 𝟐 𝐄 = - in
𝐝𝐭 𝟐 λ = cT
three dimension 2𝜋𝑓
λ = 𝑉𝑝 T = 𝑇
𝛽
1
but T =
𝑓
𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝟏 𝟐𝝅
Wavelength λ = 𝒙 =
𝜷 𝒇 𝜷
But 𝜷 = 𝝎√𝝁𝝐 =
= 2𝜋𝑓√ 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12
bi)Draw a labelled diagram of a transverse = 2 x 𝝅 x 10 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 √𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑥 √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
electromagnetic waves = 2𝜋 x 107 √ 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝑥√3𝑥2
=

iii)Intrinsic impedance of the medium

Sln
𝜇 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
η =√ = √ 𝑥√
𝜖 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟

4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 2
=√ x√
8.854 𝑥 10−12 3
= 377 x 0.8165 = 307.8Ω
7a)State the Maxwells equations in the
differential equations (4mks)KNEC2022
Sln
𝒅𝑩
i. 𝜵 ×𝑬= − (Faradays law)
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑫
ii. 𝜵 ×𝑯=𝑱+ (Amperes circuital law
𝒅𝒕
in point form)
iii. 𝜵 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒗 (Maxwel’s First Equation)
iv. 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 𝟎 (Gauss law )

b)A perfectly dielectric medium has an electric

ii)Show that in a region where volume charge field intensity given by E = E cos (𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛)𝒂𝒙
density 𝒍𝒗 = 0, then V/m

86 | P a g e
Determine: (6mks) 1 𝑇 𝐸 2 𝑥0
𝑃𝑧𝑎𝑣 = ∫0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)𝑑𝑡
i)The magnetic field intensity 𝑯𝒚 𝑇 𝜂
1 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑇 [1+𝐶𝑜𝑠2(𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧]
Use the point form of Faraday’s law and integration = ∫0 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝜂 2
with respect to time to Find B and H 1 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑇
𝑑𝐵 =
2𝑇 𝜂
∫0 [1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠2(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)] 𝑑𝑡
∇ ×E= −
𝑑𝑡
i)B 1 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑇
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 = [𝑡 + ]
2𝑇 𝜂 2𝜔 0
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬
∇ × E = | 𝝏𝒙 | 𝐸2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑡−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑇
𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛 = [𝑡 + ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 0
𝑬𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑬𝒛 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔𝑇−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔(0)−2𝛽𝑧)
= [𝑇 + − ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2(2𝜋𝑓)𝑇−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜔(0)−2𝛽𝑧)
= [𝑇 + − ]
𝝏𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝏𝑬 2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
𝛁×E=| 𝝏𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝝏𝒛
| 1
But f = , so the equation becomes,
𝑇
𝐄𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝟎 𝟎 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(4𝜋−2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(−2𝛽𝑧)
𝒅 = [𝑇 + − ]
2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
= (0) – (0) – (0- 𝑬𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 + (0-
𝒅𝒛 𝐸 2 𝑥0 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝛽𝑧) 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝛽𝑧)
𝒅 = [𝑇 − + ]
𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 2𝑇𝜂 2𝜔 2𝜔
𝒅𝒚 𝐸 2 𝑥0
= k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 = [𝑇]
2𝑇𝜂
𝑑𝐵
− =∇ ×E
𝑑𝑡 And Hence average power is given by:
𝒅𝑩
− = k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = W/𝑚2
𝟐 𝜼

𝒅𝑩
= - k Sin(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 If we were using root –mean-square value instead
𝒅𝒕
1
of peak amplitudes, Then the factor would not be
2
B = ∫ − 𝐤 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒕 present.
𝑘
B= 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛)
𝜔 The average power flowing through any area S
normal to the Z-axis gives the Total power as :
Therefor H
From B = 𝜇H 𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
𝐵 𝑘 𝑷𝒛𝒂𝒗 = SW
H = = 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝟐𝜼
𝜇 𝜇𝜔

ci) State pointing theorem (2mks)

ii)An expression for current density J
It states that: The net power flowing out of a given
Sln volume V is equal to the time rate of decrease in
Again from Ampere circuital law, the energy stored within volume V minus the Ohmic
𝑑𝐷 power dissipated.
We find 𝐽𝑑 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐷 𝑑(𝜖𝐸) 𝑑( 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕−𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚
= = ii)Determine the power flow for a plane wave
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝟏
= −𝒌𝛚 𝛆𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝒌𝒛) 𝒂𝒚 given that Total energy density equals (𝝐𝑬𝟐 +
𝟐
𝝁𝑯𝟐 ). (6mks)

4:ENERGY AND MOMENTUM IN THE

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

c)Derive Poynting’s equation for the total power

dissipated per unit volume in a wave (9mks)

Sln
From power density P = E x H
𝑬𝟐 𝒙𝟎
𝑷𝒛 = 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)
𝜼

To find the time-average power density, we

integrate over one circle and divide by the periodic
1
time T =
𝑓

87 | P a g e
 iii)Angle of reflection 𝜽𝟐 (3mks

8ai)Describe the energy conservation in

electromagnetic fields (2mks)
KNEC O/N 2022

b)Figure 4 shows an electromagnetic wave

propagating across two media, The magnetic
field density of the wave is given by the
expression 𝑩𝟏 = (1.5𝒂𝒙 + 0.9𝒂𝒚 + 0.6𝒂𝒛 )

Determine the:
i)Expression for magnetic field intensity in plane
1, 𝑯𝟏 in medium 1

ii)Angle of incident 𝜽𝟏 (3mks)

88 | P a g e
89 | P a g e