SS symmetry

Article
Design Procedure of a Topologically Optimized
Scooter Frame Part
Lukas Jancar 1 , Marek Pagac 2 , Jakub Mesicek 2 and Petr Stefek 2, *
1 Department of Machine Parts and Mechanisms, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 33 Ostrava, Czech Republic; [email protected]
2 Department of Machining, Assembly and Engineering Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, 708 33 Ostrava, Czech Republic; [email protected] (M.P.);
[email protected] (J.M.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 31 January 2020; Accepted: 8 April 2020; Published: 6 May 2020


Abstract: This article describes the design procedure of a topologically optimized scooter frame part.
It is the rear heel of the frame, one of the four main parts of a scooter made with stainless steel 3D
printing. The first part of the article deals with the design area definition and the determination of load
cases for topology calculation. The second part describes the process of the topology optimization
itself and the creation of the volume body based on the calculation results. Finally, the final control
using an FEM (Finite Element Method) analysis and optimization of created Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) data is shown. Part of the article is also a review of partial iterations and resulting versions of
the designed part. Symmetry was used to define boundary conditions, which led to computing time
savings, as well as during the CAD model creation, where non-parametric surfaces were mirrored to
shorten the design time.

Keywords: topology optimization; 3D printing; scooter; SLM; NURBs; FEM

1. Introduction
The development of additive technologies (3D printing) has grown considerably in the area of
creative design and the modern technical approach to component design. Three-dimensional printing
has changed the mindset of designers and engineers who can apply new technological design principles
with regard to the technological production process and take advantage of the possibility of lightening
parts designed especially for the automotive and aerospace industries.
A modern design approach allows designers to design components that have a so-called bionic
shape [1]. This is created by free-form modelling in specialized CAD software. Compared to
conventional technologies, it makes it possible to design parts that very often have surfaces which are
mathematically difficult to define. In practice, such parts cannot be produced without simultaneous
five-axis milling and in many cases, such as the production of hollow metal frames [2], 3D printing
is necessary as they cannot be produced by another technology. Another typical example is lattice
structures. They are designed to absorb impact energy [3,4], reduce vibration and noise, or serve as a
thermal conductor. These parts cannot be manufactured in any other way than by 3D printing.
When we talk about bionic design, we mean shapes inspired by nature. The constructions may
have a non-technical shape resembling biological structures, such as tree branch structures, the root
system, skeletal shapes, or animal bodies [5,6]. Material is involved only where it is strictly necessary
due to boundary conditions. Every designed model with bionic construction is thoroughly checked
by an FEM analysis and specialized software is used for the calculation. The designer defines the
material based on the design area and only where it fulfills its exclusive purpose in terms of mechanical

Symmetry 2020, 12, 755; doi:10.3390/sym12050755 www.mdpi.com/journal/symmetry

 In Figure 1, the whole design process workflow is shown.
During the part’s design, two times symmetry was used. First, when boundary conditions were
defined, the symmetry constraint was used. This boundary condition is used to create optimized
shapes with nearly symmetric results. It also saves computing time, as only half of the optimization
Symmetry 2020, 12, 755 2 of 14
task is solved. Secondly, symmetry was used during CAD model creation, where non-parametric
surfaces were mirrored to save the design time and to ensure the symmetry of the part.
The result
properties. is a functional
This process is calledprototype of optimization,
topological the scooter shown
whoseindetailed
Figure procedure
2, which has a bionic frame
is presented later
printed with stainless steel. A 25% weight saving
in this paper and is represented on a scooter foot model. was achieved compared to conventional scooter
frames while
Within themaintaining sufficient rigidity.
additive manufacturing The ProtoLab,
laboratory frame consists
whichofdeals
4 stainless
with 3Dsteel elements
printing and 4
and CAD
carbon composite profiles joined together by gluing. Printed metal elements were post-processed
design, the topologically optimized scooter was designed and 3D printed. The aim was to design and by
tumblinga scooter
develop in ceramic elements
frame that is to get a smooth
topologically appearance.
optimized withThe large shape
a bionic front frame part was
and made divided
by additive
into 4 sub-parts before printing, with regards to the size of the building chamber.
manufacturing. Furthermore, the goal was to achieve weight reduction over conventional scooters.These parts were
welded together afterwards using the TIG (tungsten
In Figure 1, the whole design process workflow is shown. inert gas) welding method.

Figure 1. Block diagram of the optimization workflow.

Figure 1. Block diagram of the optimization workflow.

During the part’s design, two times symmetry was used. First, when boundary conditions were
defined, the symmetry constraint was used. This boundary condition is used to create optimized
shapes with nearly symmetric results. It also saves computing time, as only half of the optimization
task is solved. Secondly, symmetry was used during CAD model creation, where non-parametric
surfaces were mirrored to save the design time and to ensure the symmetry of the part.
The result is a functional prototype of the scooter shown in Figure 2, which has a bionic frame
printed with stainless steel. A 25% weight saving was achieved compared to conventional scooter
frames while maintaining sufficient rigidity. The frame consists of 4 stainless steel elements and
4 carbon composite profiles joined together by gluing. Printed metal elements were post-processed by
tumbling in ceramic elements to get a smooth appearance. The large front frame part was divided into
4 sub-parts before printing, with regards to the size of the building chamber. These parts were welded
together afterwards using the TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding method.
Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

The aim of this article was to show the optimization process on one of the frame parts. The rear
heel of the frame was selected, which joins the profiles under the step and rear wheel fork profile.
The paper deals with the design of load parameters, analysis settings and CAD model creation. Next,
Symmetry 2020, 12, 755 3 of 14
Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
the subsequent manufacturing method of the part is described.

The aim of this article was to show the optimization process on one of the frame parts. The rear
heel of the frame was selected, which joins the profiles under the step and rear wheel fork profile.
The paper deals with the design of load parameters, analysis settings and CAD model creation. Next,
the subsequent manufacturing method of the part is described.

Figure2.
Figure Three-dimensionalprinted
2. Three-dimensional printedscooter
scooterwith
withbionic
bionic frame.
frame.

The aim of this article was to show the optimization process on one of the frame parts. The rear
2. Materials and Methods
heel of the frame was selected, which joins the profiles under the step and rear wheel fork profile.
TheDesign
2.1. paper deals with the design of load parameters, analysis settings and CAD model creation. Next,
Variants
the subsequent manufacturing method of the part
Figure 2. Three-dimensional is described.
printed scooter with bionic frame.
The design of the heel shape and appearance was based on the first design sketches of the whole
2. Materials
scooter, and
so that
2. Materials and Methods
itsMethods
design matched the rest of the construction while meeting the necessary strength
parameters. Two developmental variants of the heel were developed. The first is a hollow shell with
2.1.internal
an Design Variants
space filled with lattice structure. Internal lattice infill strengthens the structure with a
2.1. Design Variants
minimal
The weight
design of increase.
the heel As such,
shape anda appearance
tetrahedralwaslattice
basedpattern
on thewas
firstchosen [7]. Thereofwere
design sketches also
the whole
The design of the heel shape and appearance was based on the first design sketches of the whole
aesthetic viewports designed, through which the lattice structure inside can be seen (see
scooter, so that its design matched the rest of the construction while meeting the necessary strength Figure 3).
scooter, so that its design matched the rest of the construction while meeting the necessary strength
parameters. Two developmental variants of the heel were developed. The first is a hollow shell with
parameters. Two developmental variants of the heel were developed. The first is a hollow shell with
an internal space filled with lattice structure. Internal lattice infill strengthens the structure with
an internal space filled with lattice structure. Internal lattice infill strengthens the structure with a
a minimal weight increase. As such, a tetrahedral lattice pattern was chosen [7]. There were also
minimal weight increase. As such, a tetrahedral lattice pattern was chosen [7]. There were also
aesthetic viewports designed, through which the lattice structure inside can be seen (see Figure 3).
aesthetic viewports designed, through which the lattice structure inside can be seen (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. First heel version with lattice structure inside.

A second variant, an organic and partially shell-shaped model, was considered [8]. Finally, a
bionic shape was chosen for production due to the optically slimmer design underlining the lightness
of the scooter frame. Bionic shape means an organic, biologically inspired design, which resembles
Figure 3.
3. First
systems found in nature (see Figure
Figure 4).heel
First heel version
version with
with lattice structure inside.
lattice structure inside.

A second
A second variant,
variant, an
an organic
organic and
and partially
partiallyshell-shaped
shell-shapedmodel,
model,was
wasconsidered
considered[8].
[8].Finally, a
Finally,
bionic shape was chosen for production due to the optically slimmer design underlining the lightness
a bionic shape was chosen for production due to the optically slimmer design underlining the lightness
of the
of the scooter
scooter frame.
frame. Bionic
Bionic shape
shape means
means anan organic,
organic, biologically
biologically inspired
inspired design,
design, which
which resembles
resembles
systems found in nature (see Figure 4).
systems found in nature (see Figure 4).
 Symmetry 2020, 12, 755 4 of 14
Symmetry2020,
Symmetry 2020,12,
12,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 44ofof14
14

Secondheel
Figure4.4.Second
Figure heelversion
versionwith
withbionic
bionicdesign.
design.

2.2. Design Area

2.2.Design
Design Area
2.2. Area
The first
Thefirst boundary
firstboundary condition
conditionof
boundarycondition ofthe
thetopological
topologicaloptimization
optimizationisisistoto todetermine
determine the design
the design area.
area.It is
The of the topological optimization determine the design area. ItIt
aisgeometrically
a geometrically determined
determined space in
spacewhich
in optimization
which can
optimization take place,
can takewith respect
place, with to the maximum
respect to the
is a geometrically determined space in which optimization can take place, with respect to the
volume
maximum in which
volume theinfuture
whichanalysis
thefuture
futuresolution
analysismust be located.
solution mustbe The limitingThe
belocated.
located. factors in thefactors
limiting designinareathe
maximum volume in which the analysis solution must The limiting factors in the
creation
designareaare, in particular,
areacreation
creationare, are,inthe maximum
inparticular,
particular,the possible
themaximum installation
maximumpossible dimensions,
possibleinstallation in which
installationdimensions, the
dimensions,inpart will
inwhich still
whichthe be
the
design
able to
partwill be mounted
willstill
stillbe
beable
abletowith
tobe no collisions
bemounted
mountedwith with
withno the surroundings.
nocollisions
collisionswith
withthe In essence,
thesurroundings.
surroundings.In the resulting
Inessence,
essence,the design area
theresulting
resulting
part
itself
designshould
area be a mountable
itself should be and
a usable part
mountable andthat will part
usable perform
that its
will function
perform andits will not interfere
function and willwithnot
design area itself should be a mountable and usable part that will perform its function and will not
the rest of
interferewiththe
withthemechanism
therest
restofofthe [9].
themechanism
mechanism[9]. [9].
interfere
The
The goal
goal is
is to
to make
make this
this area
area as
as voluminous
voluminous as possible
aspossible
possibleforfor analysis,
foranalysis, allowing
analysis,allowing software
allowingsoftware
softwareto to
tobebe
beasas
as
The goal is to make this area as voluminous as
spacious
spacious asas possible.
as possible. First,
possible. First, the
First, the design
the design area
design area of the
area of entire
of the scooter
the entire frame,
entire scooter shown
scooter frame, in
frame, shownFigure
shown in 5, was
in Figuredeveloped.
Figure 5,5, was
was
spacious
This respects
developed. therespects
This necessary geometric
thenecessary parametersparameters
necessarygeometric
geometric such as fork such tilt, footbar
asfork tilt,height,
forktilt, footbarchassis ground
height,chassis
chassis
developed. This respects the parameters such as footbar height,
clearance, and wheelbase.
groundclearance,
clearance, andwheelbase.
wheelbase.
ground and

Figure5.5.
Figure
Figure 5.Frame
Frame design
Framedesign area
designarea with
areawith heellocation
withheel
heel locationshown.
location shown.
shown.

This design
This
This designarea
design areawaswasthen
was thendivided
then divided
divided into
into
into parts
parts
parts corresponding
corresponding
corresponding toindividual
to individual
to individual frame frame
frame parts.
parts.
parts. Incase
In
In the the
the
case
case
of theofrear
of theheel,
the rearthe
rear heel,
heel, thelimiting
the
limitinglimiting geometrical
geometrical
geometrical condition condition
condition
was thewaswasthethewidth.
overall overall
overall As width.
width. aAs
such, As such,
such,
100 a100
100mm
mmamaximum mm
maximum
maximum was
was determined.
determined. When
When exceeded,
exceeded, it
it would
would be
be no
no longer
longer comfortable
comfortable to
was determined. When exceeded, it would be no longer comfortable to kick with the foot while riding. to kick
kick with
with the
the foot
foot
while
while
In riding.the
riding.
addition, Inaddition,
In addition,
rear the
wheelthe rearwheel
rear
cut-out wheelcut-out
mountingcut-out
holes mounting
mounting holesfor
holes
for later bonding foroflater
later bondingof
the bonding
connecting ofthe
theconnecting
connecting
profiles and the
profilesand
profiles
protective and
bar the
the protective
toprotective
protect thebarbar tofrom
to
foot protect
protect thefoot
the
entering foot from
thefrom
wheel entering
entering
when the thefoot
the wheel
wheel when
when
slips werethethe footslips
foot
designed.slipswere
were
designed.
designed.
After defining these requirements, the design area of the heel was finally adjusted to the shape
After
seenAfter defining
defining
in Figure theserequirements,
6. these requirements,the thedesign
designareaareaofofthe
theheel
heelwas
wasfinally
finallyadjusted
adjustedto tothe
theshape
shape
seenin
seen inFigure
Figure6.6.
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Figure
Figure 6.
6. Modified
Modified heel
heel design
design area.
area.

Load Cases
2.3. Load Cases

For topological
topological analysis,
analysis,ititisisnecessary
necessarytotodefine thethe
define load cases,
load for for
cases, which the calculation
which and then
the calculation and
the FEM
then the analysis will bewill
FEM analysis calculated [10]. These
be calculated [10].load
Thesecases were
load created
cases werefor the entire
created scooter
for the frame
entire and
scooter
then referenced
frame to the heel to
and then referenced part
theitself.
heel Four critical
part itself. states
Four werestates
critical defined in total.
were defined in total.

2.3.1. Vertical
2.3.1. Vertical Impact
Impact
This load
This load case
caseisisconsidered
consideredasasa avertical impact
vertical impact caused by by
caused freefree
fall fall
of the
of scooter withwith
the scooter a rider from
a rider
a height of 1 m. It simulates a jump with a scooter, and subsequently, a steep crossing
from a height of 1 m. It simulates a jump with a scooter, and subsequently, a steep crossing of an of an obstacle
like a kerb
obstacle likeorahump.
kerb orAhump.
75 kg rider imposes
A 75 kg a static load
rider imposes of 736
a static N of
load on736
the Nframe,
on thea value
frame,which
a valuehas been
which
multiplied by a dynamic load factor of 3 g, resulting in a loadcase value of 2210
has been multiplied by a dynamic load factor of 3 g, resulting in a loadcase value of 2210 N. N.

2.3.2. Braking
2.3.2. Braking
The load case was simulated as braking with a slowdown of 5 m·s−2
The load case was simulated as braking with a slowdown of 5 m·s−2,, when
when the mass is transferred
the mass is transferred
to the front wheel and mainly the front frame part and the fork neck is stressed.
to the front wheel and mainly the front frame part and the fork neck is stressed.
2.3.3. Driving on a Flat with Allowed Deflection
2.3.3. Driving on a Flat with Allowed Deflection
This case should take into account the maximum possible deflection of the frame under the load
This case should take into account the maximum possible deflection of the frame under the load
of the rider in order to avoid excessive frame distortion while riding and collision of the chassis with
of the rider in order to avoid excessive frame distortion while riding and collision of the chassis with
the road during kicking. The case was determined experimentally by measuring the properties of a
the road during kicking. The case was determined experimentally by measuring the properties of a
conventional scooter, where the maximum deflection of the lower chassis under the load of a rider
conventional scooter, where the maximum deflection of the lower chassis under the load of a rider
weighing 80 kg was set at 11 mm while maintaining a minimum chassis clearance of 60 mm.
weighing 80 kg was set at 11 mm while maintaining a minimum chassis clearance of 60 mm.
2.3.4. Torsion
2.3.4. Torsion
This case takes into account the torsional stiffness of the scooter so that the frame is not twisted and
This case
deformed whentakes into account
cornering. It was the
alsotorsional stiffness
determined of the scooter
experimentally on aso that the frame
conventional is not
frame. The twisted
frame
and deformed when cornering. It was also determined experimentally on a conventional
was firmly fixed and the front fork was gradually loaded to the maximum 100 N force perpendicular frame. The
frame was firmly fixed and the front fork was gradually loaded to the maximum
to the transverse symmetry plane of the frame. The frame deflection was then measured at the neck. 100 N force
perpendicular to the allowable
At 100 N, a maximum transverseneck symmetry plane
deflection of 30ofmm
thewas
frame. The frame
determined. The deflection
experimentwas then
is shown
measured
in Figure 7.at the neck. At 100 N, a maximum allowable neck deflection of 30 mm was determined.
The experiment is shown in Figure 7.
Symmetry 2020, 12, 755 6 of 14
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Figure
Figure 7.
7. Torsion
Torsion measurement
measurement experiment.
experiment.
Figure 7. Torsion measurement experiment.

2.3.5. Final Load CaseCase

2.3.5. Final
Final Load
Load Case
The resulting representative load case was determined after several analyses to reflect the critical
The resulting representative load case was determined after several analyses to reflect the critical
stress the heel part. It consists
consists a combination of vertical impact and torsion, with maximum
stress for
for the heel part. It It consists of of a combination of vertical impact and torsion, with maximum
deflection checked after analyses. Basically, braking was eliminated because it mainly strains the front
deflection checked after analyses. Basically,
checked after analyses. Basically, braking
braking was was eliminated
eliminated because
because itit mainly
mainly strains
strains thethe
of the frame
front and relieves the rear. rear.
front of
of the
the frame
frame and
and relieves
relieves the
the rear.
The is in 8. clamped
The support
support pattern
pattern in in the
the computing
computing model
model is shown
shown in Figure
Figure 8. The
The heel
heel is
is clamped
clamped from
from one one
rear sleeve,
sleeve, which
which is fixed.
is fixed.TheThesecond
secondrear sleeve
rear has
sleeve the
hasability
the to move
ability to and
move rotate
and in its
rotateaxis
in(sliding),
its axis
rear sleeve, which is fixed. The second rear sleeve has the ability to move and rotate in its axis
but not perpendicular
(sliding), to the axis (it represents the support in the rear wheel). One frontOne sleeve is
(sliding), but
but not
not perpendicular
perpendicular to to the
the axis
axis (it
(it represents
represents thethe support
support inin the
the rear
rear wheel).
wheel). One frontfront
left loose
sleeve andloose
the other is loaded with a force on the length equal toequal
the distance of the step centre.
sleeve is left loose and the other is loaded with a force on the length equal to the distance of the step
is left and the other is loaded with a force on the length to the distance of the step
This force simulates
centre. the load of vertical impact, explained in Section 2.3.1, with the rider standing
centre. This
This force
force simulates
simulates the the load
load ofof vertical
vertical impact,
impact, explained
explained inin Section
Section 2.3.1,
2.3.1, with
with the
the rider
rider
unevenly on the scooter
standing axis, representing the torsion. The static force in one arm is increased with a
standing unevenly
unevenly on on thethe scooter
scooter axis,
axis, representing
representing the the torsion.
torsion. The
The static
static force
force inin one
one armarm is is
dynamic load
increased with factor
a of 3 g load
dynamic to 2210 N. of 3 g to 2210 N.
factor
increased with a dynamic load factor of 3 g to 2210 N.

Figure 8. Heel load case with force and supports.

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Heel
Heel load
load case
case with
with force
force and
and supports.
supports.
2.3.6.
2.3.6. Material
Material
Material
For the
For the correct
thecorrect analysis
correctanalysis
analysis setting,
setting, it is also
also necessary to know the
the material from which the
setting, it isitalso
is necessary
necessary to the
to know know
material material
from which fromthewhich the
optimized
optimized
optimized component will be manufactured. The heel is made of 316 L stainless steel. The part will
componentcomponent will be manufactured.
will be manufactured. The heel isThe made heel
of is
316made of 316 L
L stainless stainless
steel. steel.will
The part Thebepart will
printed
be
be printed
printed from
from atomised
atomised powder
powder supplied
supplied by the
the machine
bymanufacturer, manufacturer,
machineRENISHAW.
manufacturer, RENISHAW. An
from atomised powder supplied by the machine An RENISHAW.
advantage of An the
advantage
advantage of the powder-printed
of the part
powder-printed part
part isis the improved
the improved mechanical
mechanical properties in
properties with comparison
in comparison with the
with the
powder-printed is the improved mechanical properties in comparison the same material
same
same material in the
the form
form of metallurgical preform products, especially Yield Strength and
and Tensile
in thematerial
form of inmetallurgical of preform
metallurgical preform
products, products,
especially especially
Yield StrengthYield
and Strength
Tensile StrengthTensile
[11].
Strength
Strength [11].
[11]. Table
Table 11 lists
lists the
the important
important mechanical
mechanical properties
properties of 316
316 L-printed
of material
L-printed material [12].
Table 1 lists the important mechanical properties of 316 L-printed [12]. material [12].

Table 1. Mechanical properties of 316 L additively manufactured components.

Table 1. Mechanical properties of 316 L additively manufactured components.
Steel
Steel 316
316 L—3D
L—3D Printed
Printed Upper
Upper Tensile
Tensile Strength
Strength (UTS)
(UTS) As
As Built
Built
Horizontal
Horizontal direction
direction (XY)
(XY) 676
676 MPa
MPa ±
± 22 MPa
MPa
Symmetry 2020, 12, 755 7 of 14

Table 1. Mechanical properties of 316 L additively manufactured components.

Steel 316 L—3D Printed Upper Tensile Strength (UTS) As Built

Horizontal direction (XY) 676 MPa ± 2 MPa
Vertical direction (Z) 624 MPa ± 17 MPa
Yield strength
Horizontal direction (XY) 547 MPa ± 3 MPa
Vertical direction (Z) 494 MPa ± 14 MPa
Elongation at break
Horizontal direction (XY) 43% ± 2%
Vertical direction (Z) 35% ± 8%
Modulus of elasticity
Horizontal direction (XY) 197 GPa ± 4 GPa
Vertical direction (Z) 190 GPa ± 10 GPa
Hardness (Vickers)
Horizontal direction (XY) 198 HV0.5 ± 8 HV0.5
Vertical direction (Z) 208 HV0.5 ± 6 HV0.5
Horizontal direction (XY) 4 µm to 6 µm
Vertical direction (Z) 4 µm to 6 µm

2.4. Topological Calculation

The topological calculation itself was performed using the SolidThinking Inspire (Altair, Troy,
MI, USA) software [13]. The software uses OptiStruct solver core for optimization. OptiStruct uses
the density method, called also the SIMP method (Solid Isotropic Material with Penalisation) to solve
topological optimization tasks [14].
The process of topological optimization is related to the distribution of material and the way of
joining members within the structure. For each element, the so-called “equivalent density” is defined
and treated as a design variable. The value of this variable is then calculated for each element. A value
of 1 is equivalent to 100% of the material and a value of 0 is equivalent to no material. The solver first
attempts to assign low stress and equivalent density value elements before analyzing the impact on
the remaining structure. In this manner, the density of the extraneous elements is close to 0, with the
ideal design approaching a value of 1. The assumption is that the stiffness of the material is linearly
dependent on its density. It is a designer’s judgment which dictates where the limit is, which elements
should be left, and which ones omitted. To display the “remaining” structure, an iso-plot of element
densities is used, hiding elements with a density below a certain value, so that an optimal design can
be seen.
Therefore, to enforce the final design to be expressed by densities of 1 or 0 for each element,
we need to use the techniques to penalize intermediate densities. The “power law representation of
elasticity properties” penalization technique is exploited in OptiStruct. For any 3D or 2D element it
can be expressed as shown in Equation (1):

K(r) = ρp K (1)

K and K represent the penalised and the real stiffness matrix of an element. ρ is the density and p
the factor of the penalisation which is always greater than 1.
The DISCRETE parameter correlates with (p − 1) in OptiStruct, DISCRETE can be defined on
the DOPTPRM bulk data entry. A value between 2.0 and 4.0 is usual for factor p. For example,
if we compare the non-penalised formulation (which is equivalent to p = 1) at ρ = 0.3, with p = 2
Symmetry 2020, 12, 755 8 of 14

the stiffness of the element is reduced from 0.3 to 0.09 times the stiffness of the fully dense element.
For shell-dominant structures, the default DISCRETE is 1.0 and for solid-dominant structures is 2.0.
The dominance is defined by the number of elements ratio. DISCRT1D is an additional parameter
which can also be defined on the DOPTPRM bulk data entry. DISCRT1D enables 1D elements to use a
different penalisation to 2D or 3D elements [15].
The penalty starts at 2 for the first iteration, when the minimum member size control is used.
For the second and third iterations, it increases to 3. This approach provides a more discrete solution.
It is clear that when entering the next iteration phase with a different penalisation factor, the analysis
results may vary significantly due to the existence of semi-dense element.
The method of topological calculation was set to maximize the rigidity of the structure but to
utilize just a defined portion of the inceptive volume/mass and “shape” to make the shape as stiff as
possible [16]. The progressive analysis settings were performed with a final element size of 1 mm and
a contact setting as a sliding only. This setting shown in Table 2 has proven to be the most suitable over
several iterations [17].

Table 2. Topology analysis settings.

Parameter Set Value

Analysis type Topology optimization
Objective Maximise stiffness
Initial mass target 30%
Element size 1 mm
Geometry constraint Plane symmetry (longitudinal plane)

Before the calculation, the planar symmetry was set. This symmetry constraint is used to generate
symmetric shapes by specifying symmetry planes in the design space. In this case, the longitudinal
plane of the scooter was used. This constraint can be used even under asymmetric conditions.
It is also necessary to define “partitions” in the analysis. These are places that are not subject to
analysis and should remain in their original shape. Typically, these are different mounting holes and
functional surfaces. In the case of the heel, the partitions were defined at the point of attachment of the
composite tubes, shown in Figure 6 in yellow.
The result of the analysis is the structure of the elements, shown in Figure 9. The calculation
leaves the elements only where the load is transmitted [18]. After the analysis, the percentage of the
material represented as the density of the elements can be additionally tuned. This element network
serves as a support for subsequent modelling afterwards [19]. The output from the optimization
process provide the draft design of the part. The concept shape needs to be smoothed and remodeled.
The correct interpretation (smoothing) of the draft design actually has a huge impact on the end result,
especially on the weight.

2.5. Solid Model Creation

The CAD model itself is created using non-parametric volume modelling based on the analysis
results. In the case of the heel, the initial organic model was created in SolidThinking Inspire software,
which allows PolyNURBS based modelling. It is a freeform modelling method where a non-parametric
model is formed by connecting organic blocks and surfaces to each other. It is a manual way of
modelling performed by the designer, where these geometric elements are being extracted from the
topological optimization result. The organic shape should trace over the optimization result precisely.
The elements are further shaped, interconnected, and formed into a final appearance, as shown
in Figure 10.
leaves the elements only where the load is transmitted [18]. After the analysis, the percentage of the
material represented as the density of the elements can be additionally tuned. This element network
serves as a support for subsequent modelling afterwards [19]. The output from the optimization
process provide the draft design of the part. The concept shape needs to be smoothed and remodeled.
The correct
Symmetry 2020, interpretation
12, 755 (smoothing) of the draft design actually has a huge impact on the9 end
of 14
result, especially on the weight.

Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

parametric model is formed by connecting organic blocks and surfaces to each other. It is a manual
way of modelling performed by the designer, where these geometric elements are being extracted
from the topological optimization result. The organic shape should trace over the optimization result
precisely. The elements are further shaped, interconnected, and formed into a final appearance, as
shown in Figure 10. Figure
Figure 9.
9. Topology
Topology analysis
analysis result.
result.

2.5. Solid Model Creation

The CAD model itself is created using non-parametric volume modelling based on the analysis
results. In the case of the heel, the initial organic model was created in SolidThinking Inspire software,
which allows PolyNURBS based modelling. It is a freeform modelling method where a non-

Figure 10.
Figure 10. PolyNURBS
PolyNURBS CAD
CAD model.
model.

iterationofofthe
One iteration therear
rearheel
heel considered
considered waswasthe the
shellshell
part,part,
wherewhere further
further lightening
lightening wouldwould
occur.
occur. Moreover,
Moreover, the
the solid solidcreated
model model above
createdwould
abovebewould be partially
partially hollowedhollowed in thick
in thick areas. areas.
It was It was a
a repetitive
repetitive
process of process of finding
finding the the thickness,
ideal wall ideal wall which
thickness,
was which
alwayswas always
verified by verified
an FEM by an FEM
analysis. analysis.
Ultimately,
Ultimately,
the sufficientthe sufficient
thickness thickness
of the wall was of found
the wall was
to be 1.3found
mm. Shellto bemodelling
1.3 mm. was Shellperformed
modellingusing
was
performedInventor
Autodesk using Autodesk
softwareInventor
by surfacesoftware by surface modelling.
modelling.
However, this shell heel part shown shown in in Figure
Figure 11 11 was
was notnot used
used on on the
the frame.
frame. It would be
technologically difficult
technologically difficulttotoremove
removeunbaked
unbaked powder
powder from
fromthethe
cavities (requiring
cavities drilling
(requiring holes).
drilling The
holes).
weight
The reduction
weight was was
reduction minimal, but the
minimal, but maximum
the maximum von von
Mises stress
Mises increased.
stress increased.

2.6. FEM Analysis

The FEM analysis served both to validate the individual steps during the design and to final
check the stiffness and strength of the frame part. The analysis was also performed in SolidThinking
Inspire software.
Inspire creates and uses mesh during optimization as well during analysis. Meshing setup and
creation happens in an automated meshing step in the background using a powerful algorithm to
calculate mesh size. Inspire uses a combination of HyperMesh and Simlab for meshing—both could
be considered the best meshing tools. If needed, a user can take control of mesh sizes for different
components, but usually, the default mesh size gives the best results. The final analysis was performed

Figure 11. Shell variant.

 One iteration of the rear heel considered was the shell part, where further lightening would
occur. Moreover, the solid model created above would be partially hollowed in thick areas. It was a
repetitive process of finding the ideal wall thickness, which was always verified by an FEM analysis.
Ultimately, the sufficient thickness of the wall was found to be 1.3 mm. Shell modelling
Symmetry 2020, 12, 755
was
10 of 14
performed using Autodesk Inventor software by surface modelling.
However, this shell heel part shown in Figure 11 was not used on the frame. It would be
as a structural analysis
technologically difficultwith a meshunbaked
to remove elementpowder
size of 1from
mm.the
Supports
cavitiesand load forces
(requiring were
drilling used The
holes). the
same as in the optimization calculation.
weight reduction was minimal, but the maximum von Mises stress increased.

Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

be considered the best meshing tools. If needed, a user can take control of mesh sizes for different
components, but usually, the default mesh size gives the best results. The final analysis was
performed as a structural analysis with a mesh element size of 1 mm. Supports and load forces were
used the same as in the optimization calculation. Figure 11. Shell variant.
Figure 11. Shell variant.
In particular, two values were investigated during the analysis: the maximum stress and the
In particular, two values were investigated during the analysis: the maximum stress and the flow
flow of stress
2.6.stress
FEM in the structure, then the maximum displacement/rotation of the heel under the load
of inAnalysis
the structure, then the maximum displacement/rotation of the heel under the load [20].
[20].
Thanks
The FEM to the bionicserved
design,both
whichto already contains the minimum of stressthe
concentrators
design andfrom the
Thanks to analysis
the bionic design, which validate
already the individual
contains steps during
the minimum to from
of stress concentrators final
design
check principle,
the stiffnessthe
andstress is evenly
strength of distributed
the frame throughout
part. The the was
analysis part also
and performed
the stress peaks,
in common in
SolidThinking
the design principle, the stress is evenly distributed throughout the part and the stress peaks,
machined parts, are eliminated by optimization itself. The stress flow and stress peak at the connection
Inspire software.
common in machined parts, are eliminated by optimization itself. The stress flow and stress peak at
pointInspire
of the sleeve
creates is shown inmesh
Figure 12.
the connection pointand uses
of the sleeve isduring
shown optimization
in Figure 12. as well during analysis. Meshing setup and
creation happens in an automated meshing step in the background using a powerful algorithm to
calculate mesh size. Inspire uses a combination of HyperMesh and Simlab for meshing—both could

Figure 12. Von

Von Mises stress.

The maximum stress value in the material is 336 MPa, with the maximum displacement at the
point of connection of the chassis tube being 5.5 mm (see Figure 13). After checking the geometry in the
CAD software, this displacement value was shown to satisfy the maximum allowable tread deflection
condition. The heel twisting under the load and displacement distribution is shown in Figure 14.
Symmetry 2020, 12, 755 11 of 14

Figure 12. Von Mises stress.

Figure
Figure 13.
Symmetry 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13. Von
Von Mises
Mises stress and displacement
stress and displacement results.
results. 11 of 14

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Displacement.
Displacement.

The maximum
Compared to thestress
initialvalue in area,
design the material
the volumeis 336 MPa, with
of material wasthe maximum
reduced displacement
to 22%, at the
from the original
point 3
of connection3 of the chassis tube being 5.5 mm (see Figure 13). After checking
385 cm to 83 cm . The weight of the part decreased from 3075 g for the design area to 600 g for the the geometry in
the CAD software,
optimized part. Thisthis displacement
calculated weightvalue
differswas shown
slightly to the
from satisfy
realthe maximum
weight due to allowable tread
the subsequent
deflection condition.
machining and grinding.The heel twisting under the load and displacement distribution is shown in
Figure 14. was no FEM analysis performed for the design area since the area is only a volume boundary
There
Compared
condition. to thethe
Moreover, initial design
foot was area,as
created the volume of new
a completely material
part,wasso it reduced to 22%,
is not possible to from
comparethe
original
it 385original
with the cm3 to 83 cm3. TheHowever,
variant. weight ofwethecan
partsay
decreased fromto
that thanks 3075
theguse
for of
theadditive
design area to 600 g
production,
for the optimized
material savings were part. Thissince
made calculated weight
3D printing is andiffers
almostslightly from
waste-free the real weight
technology. duethere
Moreover, to theis
subsequent
no need for machining and grinding.
complex machining with several clamping operations, which reduces production time
There was no FEM analysis performed for the design area since the area is only a volume
and cost.
boundary condition. Moreover, the foot was created as a completely new part, so it is not possible to
compare it with the original variant. However, we can say that thanks to the use of additive
production, material savings were made since 3D printing is an almost waste-free technology.
Moreover, there is no need for complex machining with several clamping operations, which reduces
production time and cost.
Symmetry 2020, 12, 755 12 of 14

2.7. Manufacturing
The heel, as well as the rest of the scooter frame, was made using an SLM (selective laser melting)
3D printer. The printing was carried out on the RENISHAW AM400 machine. Print data preparation
was done with a combination of QuantAM and Autodesk NetFabb software. The frame is printed
from 316 L stainless steel and a 50 µm layer thickness was used [21].
All parts of the frame were divided into two builds. The orientation of the heel in the building
chamber was chosen with respect to minimising supports and placing them in well removable locations
as is shown
Symmetry 2020,in
12,Figure 15. The
x FOR PEER critical support angle was set to 40◦ [22].
REVIEW 12 of 14

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Orientation
Orientation in
in building
building chamber,
chamber, supports.
supports.

The heel print time after setting the part orientation in the chamber was 16 h, with the resulting
weight after removing the supports being 580
580 g.
g.

Conclusions
3. Conclusions
This article describes
describes aamethod
methodofofdesigning
designinga atopologically
topologicallyoptimized
optimized part using
part usingthethe
example
exampleof
a scooter
of a scooterframe
frame part.
part.ItItshows
showsthethewhole
wholedesign
designprocess
processfrom
fromthe
the creation
creation of geometric boundaries,
boundaries,
through thethepossibilities
possibilities and method
and methodof setting the analysis,
of setting creationcreation
the analysis, of CAD of data and data
CAD FEM validation.
and FEM
This approach
validation. Thiswas successfully
approach implemented
was successfully and the resulting
implemented and the part was actually
resulting created.
part was actuallyThe whole
created.
scooter
The wholewasscooter
manufactured and is successfully
was manufactured operational,
and is successfully and the produced
operational, and finished
and the produced andheel part
finished
can be seen in Figure 16.
heel part can be seen in Figure 16.
The strongest property of such a designed part is the attractive and unique design and weight
compared to
reduction compared to conventional
conventionalscooter
scooterframe
frameparts.
parts.Due
Due toto CAD
CAD data,
data, there
there is the
is the possibility
possibility of
of quick
quick design
design changes
changes andandparameterisation
parameterisationimplementation.
implementation.This Thisalso
alsobrings
bringsthe
the possibility
possibility of
customisation and adaptation of the frame geometry to the rider’s needs. needs. Moreover,
Moreover, material changes
quickly.
can be made quickly.
This approach is appropriate mainly for fast small-lot production, without the need for fixtures
and single-purpose equipment or automation. On On the
the other
other hand,
hand, asas the
the number
number ofof pieces
pieces increases,
increases,
its efficiency decreases. In In this
this case,
case, the
the approach
approach using
using free-form
free-form modelling
modelling becomes
becomes inappropriate,
inappropriate,
because organic shapes are very complicated for conventional methods (for example, casting) and
have to be redesigned.
can be made quickly.
This approach is appropriate mainly for fast small-lot production, without the need for fixtures
and single-purpose equipment or automation. On the other hand, as the number of pieces increases,
its efficiency decreases. In this case, the approach using free-form modelling becomes inappropriate,
because organic
Symmetry 2020, shapes are very complicated for conventional methods (for example, casting)
12, 755 13 and
of 14
have to be redesigned.

Figure 16. Printed and mounted heel.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: L.J., M.P., J.M. and P.S.; methodology: L.J. and J.M.; software:
L.J. and J.M.; validation: L.J.; formal analysis, L.J.; investigation: L.J.; resources: L.J.; data curation: L.J.;
writing—original draft preparation: L.J.; writing—review and editing: L.J., M.P. and J.M.; visualization: L.J.;
supervision: M.P. and P.S.; project administration: M.P. and P.S.; funding acquisition: M.P. and P.S. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The research was funded in association with project Innovative and additive manufacturing
technology—new technological solutions for 3D printing of metals and composite materials,
reg. no. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/17_049/0008407 financed by Structural Funds of the European Union and project.
Acknowledgments: This article has been completed in association with project Innovative and additive
manufacturing technology – new technological solutions for 3D printing of metals and composite materials,
reg. no. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/17_049/0008407 financed by Structural Funds of the European Union and project.
This article has been elaborated in the research project Research Centre of Advanced Mechatronic Systems,
reg. no. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/ 16_019/0000867 in the frame of the Operational Programme Research, Development
and Education.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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